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Cncpclopaetita 33rttanmta
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OP
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
Jllufltratet) toitj) nearly tftjc DunOreO Cngtratiinga.
VOL. VI.
INDOCTI discant; ament meminisse periti.
EDINBURGH:
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH:
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK,
1815.
♦ ♦
Encyclopaedia Britannica,
China.
Boundaries,
extent, &c
Divifion in.
to provin¬
ces.
. . 3
Chinefe
pretenftons
to antiqui¬
ty.
4
Why their
hiftory is
£b uncer¬
tain.
CHI
CHINA, a country of Afia, fituated on the moft
eafterly part of that continent. It is bounded
on the north by Tartary j from which it is divided,
partly by a prodigious wall of 1500 miles in length,
and partly by high, craggy, and inacceffible mountains.
On the eaft, it is bounded by the ocean j on the weft,
by part of the Mogul’s empire, and India beyond the
Ganges, from which it is parted by other ridges of high
mountains and fandy deferts 5 on the fouth, it is bound¬
ed partly by the kingdoms of Lao, Tonquin, Ava, and
Cochin-China, and partly by the fouthern or Indian
fea, which flows between it and the Philippine iflands.
There are feveral ways of computing its length and
breadth. According to fome of thefe, it is reckoned
1269, 1600, or 1800 miles in length, and as much in
breadth : however, by the beft and lateft accounts,
this vaft country is fomewhat of an oval form, the
breadth being lefs than the length by little more
than a fourth part. It contains 15 provinces, exclu-
live of that of Lyau-tong, which is fituated without the
great wall, though under the fame dominion. Their
names are, 1. Shenfi, 2. Shanfi, 3. Pecheli, which
are fituated on the north fide, along the wall ; 4. Shan-
tong, 5. Kyan-nang, 6. Che-kyang, 7. Fo-kyen,
which are fituated along the eaftern ocean *, 8. Quang-
tong, 9. Quang-fi, 10. Yu-nan, 11. Se-chuen, which
ftretch themfelves towards the fouth and fouth-we ft $
and, 12. Honan, 13. Hu-quand, 14. Quey-chew,
15. Kyang-fi; which take up the middle part. For
a particular defeription of all thefe, fee their proper
articles.
The origin of all nations is involved in obfeurity
and fable, but that of the Chinefe much more fo than
any other. Every nation is inclined to affume too
high an antiquity to itfelf; but the Chinefe carry theirs
beyond all bounds. Indeed, though no people on
earth are more exaft in keeping records of every me¬
morable tranfa&ion, yet fuch is the genius of the Chi¬
nefe for fuperftition and fable, that the firft part of
their hiftory is defervedly contemned by every rational
perfon. What contributes more to the uncertainty of
the Chinefe hiftory is, that neither we, nor they them¬
felves, have any thing but fragments of their ancient
hiftorical books; for, about 213 years before Chrift,
the reigning emperor Si-whang-ti caufed all the books
in the empire to be burned, except thofe written by
lawyers and phyficians. Nay, the more effeflually to
deftroy the memory of every thing contained in them,
Vol. VI. Part I.
CHI
he commanded a great number of learned men to be China,
buried alive, left, from their memories, they Ihould —‘“y""*"
commit to writing fomething of the true memoirs of
the empire. The inaccuracy of the Chinefe annals is
complained of even by their moft refpe&ed author Con¬
fucius himfelf; who alfo affirms, that before his time
many of the oldeft materials for writing fuch annals had
been deftroyed. 5
According to the Chinefe hiftories, the firft mo- Fabulous
narch of the whole univerfe (that is, of China), wasloftory °f
called or Pucn-cu. This, according to fome, ima'
was the firft man ; but according to Bayer and Men-
zelius, two of the greateft critics in Chinefe litera¬
ture that have hitherto appeared, the word fignifies
the highejl antiquity. Puon-ku was fucceeded by Tiene-
hoang, which fignifies the emperor of heaven. They call
him alfo the intelligent heaven, the fupreme king of
the middle heaven, &c. According to fome of their
hiftorians, he was the inventor of letters, and of the cy¬
clic chara&ers by which they determine the place of the
year, &c. Tiene-hoang was fucceeded by Ti-hoang
(the emperor of the earth), who divided the day and
night, appointing 30 days to make one moon, and fix¬
ed the winter folftice to the nth moon. Ti-hoang
was fucceeded by Gine-hoang (fovereign of men),
who with his nine brothers Ihared the government
among them. They built cities, and furrounded them
with Avails ; made a diftindtion between the fovereign
and fubjedls ; inftituted marriage, &c.
The reigns of thefe four emperors make up one of
what the Chinefe called hi, “ ages,” or “ periods,” of
which there were nine before Fo hi, whom their moft
fenfible people acknowledge as the founder of their
empire.
The hiftory of the fecond hi contradicts almoft every
thing faid of the firft ; for though we have but juft
now been told that Gine-hoang and his brethren built
cities furrounded with walls ; yet, in the fucceeding
age, the people dwelt in caves, or perched upon trees
as it were in nefts. Of the third hi we hear nothing ;
and in the fourth, it feems matters had been ftill worfe,
as we are told that men were then only taught to re¬
tire into the hollows of rocks. Of the fifth and fixth
we have no accounts. Thefe fix peiflods, according to
fome Avriters, contained 90,000 years ; according to
others, 1,100,750.
In the feventh and eighth f/, they tell us over again
Avhat they had faid of the firft ; namely, that men be-
A gan
CHI [
China, gan to leave their caves and dwell in houfes, and were
'“■""Y-—^ taught to prepare clothes, &c. Tchine-fang, the firft
monarch of the eighth ki, taught his fubjefts to take
off the hair from fkins with rollers of wood, and co¬
ver themfelves with the fkins fo prepared. He taught
them alfo to make a kind of web of their hair, to ferve
as a covering to their heads againft rain. They obey¬
ed his orders with joy, and he called his fubjefts people
clothed with Jkins. His reign lafted 350 years ; that
of one of his fucceffors, alfo, named Yeou-tfao-chi,
lafted more than 300 ; and his family continued for
12 or 18,000 years. But what is very furprifing, all
thefe thoufands and millions of years had elapfed with¬
out mankind’s having any knowledge of fire. This
was not difcovered till towards the clofe of this period,
by one Souigine. After fo ufeful a difcovery, he
taught the people to drefs their vifluals ; whereas be¬
fore they had devoured the flefh of animals quite raw,
drunk their blood, and fwallowed even their hair and
feathers. He is alfo faid to have been the inventor of
fifliing, letters, &c.
In the ninth period, we find the invention, or at
Leaft the origin of letters, attributed to one Tfang-hie,
who received them from a divine tortoife that carried
them on his (hell, and delivered them into the hands
of Tfang-hie. During this period alfo, mufic, mo¬
ney, carriages, merchandife, commerce, &c. were in¬
vented. There are various calculations of the length
of thefe it or periods. Some make the time from
Puan-ku to Confucius, who flourilhed about 479 years
before Chrift, to contain 279,000 years j others,
2,276,000; fome, 2,759,860 years; others, 3,276,000;
6 and fome no lefs than 96,961,740 years.
Fabulous Thefe extravagant accounts are by fome thought
hiftory ex- to conta;n obfcure and imperfeft hints concerning the
P 1 £ ' cofmogony and creation of the world, &c. Puon-ku,
the firft emperor, they think, reprefents eternity pre¬
ceding the duration of the world. The fucceeding
ones, Tiene-hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-hoang, they
imagine, fignify the creation of the heavens and earth,
and the formation of man. The ten it or ages, nine
of which preceded Fo-hi, mean the ten generations
preceding Noah. This may very poflibly be the cafe;
for about 300 years before Chrift, fome jews travelled
into China, who might have made the Mofaic writings
known there.
What we have now related, contains the fubftance
of that part of the Chinefe hiftory which is entirely
fabulous. After the nine ki or “ ages” already taken
notice of, the tenth commenced with Fo-hi; and the
hiftory, though ftill very dark, obfcure and fabulous,
7 begins to grow fomewhat more confiftent and intel-
Reign of ligible. Fo-hi was born in the province of Shenfi.
Fo-hi. pjjs mother walking upon the bank of a lake in that
province, faw a very large print of a man’s foot in
the fand there ; and, being furrounded with an iris or
rainbow, became impregnated. The child was named
Fo-hi; and, when he grew up, was by his country¬
men elefted king, on account of his fuperior merit,,
and ftyled Tyent-tfe, that is, “ the fon of heaven.” He
invented the eight qua, or fymbols, confifting of three
lines each, which, differently combined, formed 64 cha-
rafters that were made ufe of to exprefs every thing.
To give thefe the greater credit, he pretended that
2
2 ] CHI
he had feen them infcribed on the back of a dragon- China,
horfe (an animal fhaped like a horfe, with the wings —\r-—*
and fcales of a dragon), which arofe from the bottom
of a lake. Having gained great reputation among his
countrymen by this prodigy, he is faid to have created
mandarins or officers, under the name of dragons.
Hence we may affign a reafon why the emperors of
China always carry a dragon in their banners. He al¬
fo inftituted marriage, invented mufic, &c. Having
eftablifhed a prime minifter, he divided the government
of his dominions among four mandarins, and died after
a reign of 115 years. 3
After Fo-hi followed a fucceffion of emperors, of Miraculous
whom nothing remarkable is recorded, except that in
the reign of You, the feventh after Fohi, the fun did
not fet for ten days, fo that the Chinefe were afraid of
a general conflagration. This event the compilers of 9
the Univerfal Hiftory take to be the fame with that Hypothefis
mentioned in the book of Joftiua, when the fun and concerning
moon flood ftill for about the fpace of a day. Fo-hitlu^
they will have to be the fame with Noah. They ima-an
gine, that after the deluge this patriarch remained fome
time with his defcendants ; but on their wicked com¬
bination to build the tower of Babel, he feparated him-
felf from them with as many as he could perfuade to
go along with him ; and that, ftill travelling eaftward,
he at laft entered the fertile country of China, and laid
the foundation of that vaft empire.—But, leaving thefe
fabulous and conjectural times, we (hall proceed to give
fome account of that part of the Chinefe hiftory which
may be more certainly depended on.
As the Chinefe, contrary to the pradtice of almoft
all nations, have never fought to conquer other coun¬
tries, but rather to improve and content themfelves
with their own, their hiftory for many ages furnifties
nothing remarkable. The whole of their emperors,
abftrafting from thofe who are faid to have reigned in
the fabulous times, are comprehended in 22 dynafties,
mentioned in the following table.
1. Hya, containing
2. Shang, or Ing,
3. Chew,
4. Tlin,
5* Han,
6. Hew-han,
7. Tftn,
8. Sontr.
9. t/
10. Lyang,
11. Chin,
12. Swi,
13. Twang,
14. Hew-lyang,
15. Hew-tang,
16. Hew-tjin,
17. Hew-han,
18. Hew-chew,
19. Song,
20. Iwen,
21. Ming,
22. Tfing,.
Emperors
I?
28
35
4
25
2
*5
8
5
4
4
3
20
2
4
2
2
3
18
9
16
Before Chrift.
2207
1766
1122
248
206
After Chrift.
220
465
220
479
502
557
618
907
923
936
947
95i
960
1280
1368
1645
This
C H I
[
Incurfions
This table is formed according to the accounts of
the Jefuit Du Halde, and is commonly reckoned to be
the moft authentic ; but according to the above-men¬
tioned hypothefis of the compilers of the Univerfal
Hiftory, who make Yuu cotemporary with Jolhua, the
dynafty of Hya did not commence till the year before
Chrift 1357 ; and to accommodate the hiftory to their
hypothefis, great alterations muft be made in the dura¬
tion of the dynafties.
The moft interefting particulars of the Chinefe hi-
of the Tar- ftory relate only to the incurfions of the Tartars, who
tars* at laft conquered the whole empire, and who (till con¬
tinue to hold the fovereignty ; though by transferring
the feat of the empire to Peking, and adopting the
Chinefe language, manners, &c. Tartary would feem
rather to have been conquered by China, than China
by Tartary. Thefe incurfions are faid to have begun
very early ; even in the time of the emperor Shun,
fuecefibr to Yau above mentioned, in whofe reign the
miraculous folftice happened. At this time, the Tar¬
tars were repulfed, and obliged to retire into their own
territories. From time to time, however, they conti¬
nued to threaten the empire with invafions, and the
northern provinces were often a£hially ravaged by the
Tartars in the neighbourhood. About the year before
Chrift 213, Shi-whang-ti, having fully fubdued all the
princes, or kings as they were called, of the different
provinces, became emperor of China with unlimited
power. He divided the whole empire into 36 pro¬
vinces ; and finding the northern part of his domi¬
nions much incommoded by the invafions of the neigh¬
bouring barbarians, he fent a formidable army againft
11 them, which drove them far beyond the boundaries of
Great wall China. To prevent their return, he built the famous
U1 ' wall already mentioned, which feparates China from
Tartary. After this, being elated with his own ex¬
ploits, he formed a defign of making pofterity believe
that he himfelf had been the firft Chinefe emperor
that ever fat on the throne. For this purpofe, he or¬
dered all the hiftorical writings to be burnt, and caufed
many of the learned to be put to death, as already men¬
tioned.
Kitan Tar- What eflfeft the great wall for fome time had in
preventing the invafions of the Tartars, we are not
told 5 but in the tenth century of the Chriftian era,
thofe of Kitan or Lyau got a footing in China. The
Kitan were a people of eaftern Tartary, who dwelt to
the north and north-eaft of the province of Pecheli in
China, particularly in that of Lyau-tong, lying with¬
out the great wall. Thefe people having fubdued the
country between Korea and Kaftigar, became much
more troublefome to the Chinefe than all the other
Tartars. Their empire commenced about the year
916, in the fourth year of Mo-ti-kyan-ti, fecond em¬
peror of the 14th Chinefe dynafty called Hew-Lyang.
In 946, Mingt-fong, fecond emperor of the 15th dy¬
nafty, being dead, Sheking-tang his fon-io-law rebelled
againft Mingt-fong, his fon and fueceflbr, whom he
deprived of his crown and life. This he accompliftif'd
by means of an army of 50,000 men furniftied by the
Kitan. Fi-ti, the fon of Mingt fong, being unable to
refill the ufurper, fled to the city Ghey-chew ; where
(hutting himfelf up with his family and all his valuable
effefts, he fet fire to the palace, and was burnt to
allies. On his death, Sheking-tang afliimed the title
tars fettle
in China.
3 1 CHI
of emperor j founded the 16th dynafty; and changed
his name to that of Kuut-fu. But the Kitan general —
refufing to acknowledge him, he was obliged to pur-
chafe a peace by yielding up to the Tartars 16 cities
in the province of Pecheli, befides a yearly prefent of
300,000 pieces of filk.
This fubmiffion ferved only to inflame'the avarice
and ambition of the Kitan. In 959, they broke the
treaty when leaft expedted, and invaded the empire
afrefti. Tfi-vang, the emperor at that time, oppofed
them with a formidable army; but through the treach¬
ery of his general Lyew-ehi-ywen, the Tartars were-
allowed to take him prifoner. On this, Tfi-vang was
glad to recover his liberty, by accepting of a fmali
principality ; while the traitor became emperor of all
China, and, changing his name to Kaut-fu, founded
the 17th dynafty. The Tartars, in the mean time,
ravaged all the northern provinces without oppofition,
and then marched into the fouthern. But being here
flopped by fome bodies of Chinefe troops, the gene¬
ral thought proper to retire with his booty into Tar¬
tary. In 962, Kaut-fu dying, was fucceeded by his
fon In-ti. The youth of this prince gave an opportu¬
nity to the eunuchs to raife commotions ; efpecially
as the army was employed at a diftance in repelling
the invafions of the Tartars. This army was com¬
manded by Ko-ghey, who defeated the enemy in feve-
ral battles, and thus reftored peace to the northern
provinces. In the mean time, In-ti was (lain by his
eunuchs, and the emprefs placed his brother on the
throne : but Ko-gbey returning in triumph, was fa-
luted emperor by his viftorious army ; and the em-
prefs being unable to fupport the rights of her fon,
was obliged to fubmit, while Ko-ghey, affuming the
name of Tay-tfu, founded the 18th dynafty. Nine
years after this, however, the grandees of the empire,
letting afide Kong-ti, the third in fucceffion from Tay-
tfu, on account of his non-age, proclaimed his guar¬
dian, named Chau-quang-yu, emperor ; who, affuming
the name of Kau-tfu, founded the 19th dynafty, called
Song or Tfong.
Under this monarch the empire began to recover
itfelf; but the Kitan ftill continued their incurfions.
The fucceflbrs of Kau-tfu oppofed them with various
fuccefs; but at laft, in 978, the barbarians became fo
ftrong as to lay fiege to a confiderable city. Tay-
tfong, fucceflbr to Kau-tfu, detached 300 foldiers, each
carrying a light in his hand, againft them in the night¬
time, with orders to approach as near as poffible to the
Tartar camp. The barbarians imagining, by the num¬
ber of lights, that the whole Chinefe army was at hand,
immediately fled, and, falling into the ambufcades laid
Fr them by the Chinefe general, were almoft all cut
to pieces.
This check, however, did not long put a flop to
the ravages of the Kitan. In the year 999, they laid
fiege to a citv in the province of Pecheli ; but Ching-
tfong, fuceeflbr to Tay-tfong, came upon them with
his army fo fuddenly, that they betook themfelves to
flight. The emperor was advifed to take advantage
of their confternation, and recover the country which
had been yielded to them ; butinftead of purfuing his
viflory, he bought a peace by confenting to pay an¬
nually 100,000 tael (about 34,000!.), and 200,000
pieces of filk. The youth and pacific difpofition of
A 2 Jin-tfong,
C H I
ven out by
the eaftern
Tartars;
14
who af-
fume the
.Dame of
Kin, and
invade Chi
na.
'S
They take
the empe¬
ror prifon-
i<S
Imperial
city 4nd
another
Jin-tfong, fucceffor to the Ching-tfong, revived the cou-
^ rage of the Kitan ; and, in 1035, war would have
been renewed, had not the emperor condefcended to
as fhameful a treaty as that concluded by his father.
Two years after, the Tartars demanded reftitution of
ten cities in the province of Pecheli, which had been
taken by Ko ghey founder of the 18th dynafty : upon
which Jin-tfong engaged to pay them an annual tri¬
bute of 200,000 taels of filver, and 300,000 pieces of
filk, in lieu of thefe cities.
From this time the Kitan remained in peaceable pof-
feffion of their Chinefe dominions till the year 1117.
Whey-tfong, at that time emperor, being able nei¬
ther to bear their ravages, nor by hiifcfelf to put a
flop to them, refolved upon a remedy which at laft
proved worfe than the difeafe. This was to call in
the Nu-che, Nyu-che, or Eaftern Tartars, to deftroy
the kingdom of the Kitan. From this he was diffua-
ded by the king of Korea, and moft of his own mini-
flers 5 but, difregarding their falutary advice, he join¬
ed his forces to thofe of the Nu-che. The Kitan were
then everywhere defeated j and at laft reduced to
fuch extremity, that thofe who remained were forced
to leave their country, and fly to the mountains of the
weft.
Thus the empire of the Kitan was totally deftroyed,
but nothing to the advantage of the Chinefe j for the
Tartar general, elated with his conqueft, gave the
name of Kin to his new dominion, affumed the title of
emperor, and began to think of aggrandizing him-
felf, and enlarging his empire. For this purpofe, he
immediately broke the treaties concluded with the
Chinefe emperor j and, invading the provinces of Pe¬
cheli and Shenfi, made himfelf mafter of the greater
part of them. Whey-tfong, finding himfelf in danger
of lofing his dominions, made feveral advantageous
propofals to the Tartar $ who, feeming to comply
with them, invited him to come and fettle matters by
a perfonal conference. The Chinefe monarch com¬
plied : but, on his return, the terms agreed on feemed
intolerable to his minifters ; fo that they told him the
treaty could not fubfift, and that the moft cruel war
was preferable to fuch an ignominious peace. The
Kin monarch, being informed of all that pafled, had
recourfe to arms, and took feveral cities. Whey-
tfong was weak enough to go in perfon to hold a fe-
cond conference 5 but, on his arrival, was immediate¬
ly feized by the Tartar. He was kept prifoner un¬
der a ftrong guard during the remaining part of his
life j and ended his days in 1126, in the defert of
Shamo, having nominated his eldeft fon Kin-tfong to
fucceed him.
Kin-tfong began his reign with putting to death fix
minifters of ftate, who had betrayed his father into
the hands of the Kin Tartars. The barbarians in
the meantime purfued their conquefts without oppo-
fition. They croffed the Whang-ho, or Yellow river,
which a handful of troops might have prevented ; and
marching dire&ly towards the imperial city, took and
plundered it. Then feizing the emperor and his con-
fort, they carried them away captives: but many of
the principal lords, and feveral of the minifters, prefer¬
ring death to fuch an ignominious bondage, killed them-
felves.. The Kin being informed by the emprefs
3
[ 4 J CHI
Meng that fhe had been divorced, they left her be- China
hind. This proved the means of faving the empire j —y—
for by her wifdom and prudence fhe got the crown
placed on the head of Kau-tfong, nipth ion of the em¬
peror Whey-tfong by his divorced emprefs.
Kau-tfong fixed his court at Nanking the capital
of Kyang-nan; but foon after was obliged to remove
it to Kang-chew in Che-kyang. He made feveral ef¬
forts to recover fome of his provinces from the Kin,
but without efFeft. Ili-tfong the Kin monarch, in the
mean time, endeavoured to gain the efteem of his
Chinefe fubjefls by paying a regard to their learning
and learned men, and honouring the memory of Con¬
fucius. Some time after he advanced to Nanking,
from whence Kau-tfong had retired, and took it: but,
receiving advice that Yo-fi, general of the Song, or
fouthern Chinefe, was advancing by long marches to
tjie relief of that city, they fet fire to the palace, and
retired northward. However, Yo-fi arrived t™6 pr0grefs of
enough to fall upon their rear-guard, which fuflfered the Km
very much j and from this time the Kin never dared checked,
to crofs the rivar Kyang. In a few years afterwards
the Chinefe emperor fubmitted to become tributary to
the Kin, and concluded a peace with them upon very
dilhonourable terms. This fubmiflion, however, was
of little avail: for, in 1163, the Tartars broke the
peace, and, invading the fouthern province with a for¬
midable army, took the city of Yang-chew. The
king, having approached the river Kyang, near its
mouth, where it is wideft as well as moft rapid, com¬
manded his troops to crofs it, threatening with his
drawn fword to kill thofe who refufed. On recei- ,
ving fuch an unreafonable command, the whole ar¬
my mutinied; and the king being killed in the be¬
ginning of the tumult, the army immediately re¬
tired. j g
Frojn this time to the year 1210, nothing remark-They are
able occurs in the Chinefe hiftory ; but this year, attacked by
Jenghiz-khan, chief of the weftern Tartars, Moguls
or Mungh, quarrelled with Yong-tfi emperor of thej^f^j*”
Kin j and at the fame time the king of Hya, difgufted 0f Hya.
at being refufed afliftance againft Jenghiz-khan, threat¬
ened him with an invafion on the weft fide. Yong-tfi
prepared for his defence j but in 1211, receiving news
that Jenghiz-khan was advancing fouthward with his
whole army, he was feized with fear, and made pro¬
pofals of peace, which were reje&ed. In 1212, the greaIt9wa]j
Mogul generals forced the great wall j or, according forced by
to fome writers, had one of the gates treacheroufly Jenghia-
opened to them, to the north of Shanfi j and made in-^0,
curfions as far as Peking, the capital of the Kin em¬
pire. At the fame time the province of Lyau-tong
was almoft totally reduced by feveral Kitan lords who
had joined Jenghiz-khan; feveral ftrong places were
taken, and an army of 300,000 Kin defeated by the
Moguls. In autumn they laid fiege to the city of
Tay-tong-fu j where, although the governor Hujaku
fled, yet Jenghiz-khan met with confiderable refin¬
ance. Having loft a vaft number of men, and being
himfelf wounded by an arrow, he was obliged to raife
the fiege and retire into Tartary j after which the Kin
retook feveral cities. The next year, however, Jen¬
ghiz-khan re-entered China 5 retook the cities which
the Kin had reduced the year before j and overthrew
their
C H 1 [
n their armies in two bloody battles, in one of which
■ ‘t-—■- the ground was ftrewed with dead bodies for upwards
of four leagues.
The fame year Yong-tfi was {lain by his general
Huiaku ; and Sun, a prince ot the blood, advanced in
his room. After this the Moguls, attacking the. em¬
pire with four armies at once, laid wafte the provinces
of Shanfi, Honan, Pecheli, and Shan-tong. . In 1214
Jenghiz-khan fat down before Peking *, but inftead of
a {faulting the city, offered terms of peace, which were
accepted, and the Moguls retired into iartaiy. A
ter their departure, the emperor, leaving his fon at
20 Peking, removed his court to Pyen-lyang near Kay-
Peking ta- fong-fu, the capital of Honan. At this Jenghiz-khan
ken. being offended, immediately fent troops to befiege
Peking. The city held out to the fifth month of the
year 1215, and then furrendered. At the fame time
the Moguls finifhed the conqueft of Lyau-tong j and
21 the Song refufed to pay the ufual tribute to the Km.
Southern In 1216, Jenghiz-khan returned to purfue his con-
Chinefe de-qUefts jn t]je weft of Alia, where he ftaid feven years 5
dared war vvtr;cj, time his general Muhuli made great
g^nft the progrefs in China againft the Kin emperor. He was
greatly aftifted by the motions of Ning-tfong emperor
of the" Song, or fouthern China ; who, incenfed by the
frequent perfidies of the Kin, had declared war againft
them, and would hearken to no terms of peace, though
very advantageous propofals were made. Notwith-
ftanding this, however, in 1220, the Kin, exerting
themfelves, raifed two great armies, one in Shenfi,
and the other in Shan-tong. The former baffled the
attempts of the Song and king of Hya, who had united
againft them ; but the latter, though no fewer than
200,000, were entirely defeated by Muhuli. In 1221,
that officer paffed the Whang-ho, and died after con¬
quering feveral cities.
In 1224, the Kin emperof died j and was fucceeded
khan de- by his fon Shew, who made peace with the. king of
ftroys the Hya } but next year, that kingdom was entirely de¬
kingdom of ftroyed by Jenghiz-khan. In 1226, Oktay, fon to
*Jenghiz-khan, marched into Honan, and befieged Kay-
fong-fu, capital of the Kin empire, but was obliged
to withdraw into ‘Shenfi, where he took feveral cities,
and cut in pieces an army of 30,000 men. In 122'jr
, d Jenghiz-khan died, after having defired his fons to.de-
an ties. man(] a pa{Tage for their army through the dominions
of the Song, without which he faid they could not ea-
fily vanquilb the Kin.
After the death of that great conqueror, the war
was carried on with various fuccefs; but though the
Moguls took above 60 important polls in the province
of Shenfi, they found it impoffible to force Ton-quan,
which it behoved them to do in order to penetrate ef¬
fectually into Honan. In April 1231 they took the
capital of Shenfi, and defeated the Kin army which
came to its relief. Here one of the officers defired
Prince Toley to demand a paffage from the Song
through the country of Han-chong-fu. This propofal
Toley communicated to his brother Oktay, who ap¬
proved of it as being conformable to the dying advice
of Jenghiz-khan. Plereupon Toley, having affembled
„ 24 an his forces, fent a meffenger to the Song generals to
quarrel demand a paffage through their territories. This, how-
with the ever, they not only refufed, but put the meffenger to
Song. death j which fo enraged Toley that he fwore to
; ] CHI
make them repent of it, and was foon as good as his china,
word. He decamped in Auguft 1231 j and having —v
forced the paffes, put to the fword the inhabitants of 25
Wha-yang and Fong-chew, two cities in the diftriil Exports *f
of PXang-chong-fu. Then having cut down rocks to io cy‘
fill up deep abyffes, and made roads through places
almoft inacceffible, he came and befieged the city of
Hang-chong-fu itfelf. The miferable inhabitants fled
to the mountains on his approach, and more than
100,000 of them perilhed. After this, Toley divided
his forces, confifting of 30,000 horfe, into two bodies.
One of thefe went weft ward to Myen-chew : from
thence, after opening the paffages of the mountains,
they arrived at the river Kyaling, which runs into
the great Kyang. This they croffed on rafts made
of the wood of demolilhed houfes -7 and then, march¬
ing along its banks, feized many important polls.
At laft, having deftroyed more than 140 cities, towns,
or fortreffes, they returned to the army. The fecond
detachment feized an important poll; in the mountains,
called Toutong, fix or feven leagues to the eaftward
of Hang-chong-fu. On the other fide Oktay advan¬
ced, in October, towards Pu-chew a city of Shanfi $
which being taken after a vigorous defence, he pre¬
pared to pafs the Whang-ho. Toley, after fur mount¬
ing incredible difficulties, arrived in December on the
borders of Honan, and made a ftiow as if he defigned
to attack the capital of the Kin empire. On his firft
appearance in Honan through a paffage fo little fuf-
pefled, every body was filled with terror and aftonilh-
ment, fo that he proceeded for fome time without
oppofition. At laft the emperor ordered his generals,
Hota, Ilapua, and others, to march againft the enemy.
Toley boldly attacked them j but was obliged to re¬
tire, which he did in good order. Hota was for pur-
fuing him, faying that the Mogul army did not exceed
30,000 men, and that they feemed not to have eaten
any thing for twTo or three days. Ilapua, however,
was of opinion that there was no occafion for being
fo hafty, as the Moguls were enclofed between the
rivers Han and Whang-ho, fo that they could not
efcape. This negligence they foon had occafion to re¬
pent of: for Toley, by a ftratagem, made himfelf ma¬
iler of their heavy baggage j which accident obliged
them to retire to Tang-chew. From thence they fent
a meffenger to acquaint the emperor that they had
gained the battle, but concealed the lofs, of their bag¬
gage. This good news filled the court with joy j and
the people who had retired into the capital for its de¬
fence, left it again, and went into the country : but,
in a few days after, the vanguard of the Moguls, who
had been fent by the emperor Oktay, appeared in the
field, and carried off a great number of thofe that had
quitted the city. 2(j
In January 1232, Oktay palling the Whang-ho, Capital of
encamped in the diftrift of Kay-fong-fu, capital of the the Kin
Kin empire, and fent his general Suputay to befiege ®mP^e
the city. At that time the place was near 30 miles eSe •
in circumference •, but having only 40,000 foldiers to
defend it, as many more from the neighbouring cities,
and 20,000 peafants, were ordered into it j while the
emperor publilhed an affecting declaration, animating
the people to defend it to the laft extremity. Oktay,
having heard with joy of Toley’s entrance into Ho¬
nan, ordered him to fend fuccours to Suputay. On
CHI [ (
China, the other hand, the Kin generals advanced with
u—'Y——150,000 men to relieve the city ; but being obliged
to divide their forces, in order to avoid in part the
great road, which Toley had obftrufled with trees*
they were attacked by the prince at a difadvantage,
and, after a faint refiftance, defeated with great daugh¬
ter, and the lofs of both their generals, one killed and
the other taken. The emperor now ordered the army
at Tong-quan and other fortified places to march to
*he relief of Kay-fong-fu. They affembled accord¬
ingly, to the number of uo,cOO foot and 15,000
horfe j and were followed by vaft numbers of people,
who expedled by their means to be protedled from the
enemy. But many of thefe troops having deferted,
and the reft being enfeebled by the fatigues of their
march, they difperfed on the approach of their pur-
fuers, who killed all they found in the highways. Af¬
ter this the Moguls took Tong-quan and fome other
confiderable polls j but were obliged to raife the lieges
of Quey-te-fu and Loyang by the bravery of the go¬
vernors. Kyang-lhin, governor of Loyang, had only
3 or 4000 foldiers under him, while his enemies were
30,000 ftrong. He placed his worft foldiers on the
walls, putting himfelf at the head of 400 brave men $
whom he ordered to go naked, and whom he led to
all dangerous attacks. He invented engines to call
large Hones, which required but few hands to play
them, and aimed fo true as to hit at too paces dif-
tance. When their arrows failed, he cut thofe Ihot
by the enemy into four pieces} pointed them with
pieces of brafs coin ; and difcharged them from wooden
tubes with as much force as bullets are from a mulket.
Thus he haraffed the Moguls for three months fo griev-
oully, that they were obliged, notwitbftanding their
27 numbers, to abandon the enterprife.
Bravery of Oktay, at laft, notwithftanding his fucceffes, refol-
the be- ve(j to return to Tartary 5 and offered the Kin empe-
e^e * ror peace, provided he became tributary, and deli¬
vered up to him 27 families which he named. Thefe
offers were very agreeable to the emperor ; but Supu-
tay, taking no notice of the treaty, pulhed on the
liege of the capital with more vigour than ever. By
the help of the Chinefe flaves in his army, the Mogul
general foon filled the ditch *, but all his efforts feem-
ed only to infpire the befieged with new vigour. The
Moguls at that time made, ufe of artillery, but were
unable to make the leaft impreflion upon the city walls.
They raifed walls round thofe they befieged, which
they fortified with ditches, towers, and battlements.
They proceeded alfo to fap the walls of the city •, but
were very much annoyed by the artillery of the befie¬
ged, efpecially by their bombs, which finking into the
galleries, and burfting under ground, made great ha-
vock among the miners. For 16 days and nights the
attacks continued without intermiflion j during which
time an incredible number of men perifhed on both
*8 fides 5 at length, Suputay, finding that he could not
Peace con- take the city, withdrew his troops, under pretence of
eluded; conferences being on foot. Soon after the plague be¬
gan in Kav-fong-fu ; and raged with fuch violence,
that, in 50 days, 900,000 biers were carried out, be-
fides a vaft multitude of the poorer fort who could not
39 afford any.
and bro- In a fhort time two unlucky accidents occafioned
ken. a renewal of the war j which now put an end to the
] CHI
empire of the Kin. Gan-yong, a young Mogul lord, china,
having affumed the government of fome cities in —v—
Kyang-nan, and killed the officer fent to take poffef-
fion of them, declared for the Kin. The emperor
unwarily took Gan-yong into his fervice, and gave
him the title of prince. Upon this Oktay fent an en¬
voy, attended by 30 other perfons, to inquire into the
affair j but the Kin officers killed them all, without
being puniffied by the emperor. Suputay, having in¬
formed his matter of all thefe proceedings, wTas or¬
dered to continue the war in Honan. Shew-fu now
commanded his officers to unite their troops for the
defence of the capital 5 but before his orders could be
obeyed, they w'ere attacked and defeated, one after
another, by the Moguls. This obliged him to raife
foldiers from among the peafants, for whofe fubfiftence
the people were taxed x^ths of the rice they poffeffed.
The city began now to be diftreffed for want of provi-
fions ; and as it was but in a bad pofture of defence,
the emperor marched with an army againft the Moguls.
His expedition proved unfortunate; for, fending part
of his army to befiege a city called Why-chew, it was again be-
totally cut in pieces, and Suputay a fecond time fatfieged,
down before the capital. 3I
On hearing this bad news, the emperor repaffed the and taken.
Whang-ho, and retired to Quey-te-fu. Here he had
not been long before the capital was delivered up by
treachery, and Suputay put all the males of the impe¬
rial race to death ; but, by the exprefs command of
Oktay, fpared the inhabitants, who are faid to have
amounted to 1,400,000 families. After this difafter,
the unhappy monarch left his troops at Quey-le-fu,
and retired to Juning-fu, a city in the fouthern part 33
of Honan, attended only by 400 perfons. Here the Siege of
diftance of the Moguls made him think of living at^un*ng‘f°*
eafe; but while he flattered himfelf with thefe vain
hopes, the enemy’s army arrived before the city and
invefted it. The garrifon were terrified at their ap¬
proach ; but were encouraged by the emperor, and his
brave general Hu-fye-hu, to hold out to the laft. As
there was not in the city a fufficient number of men,
the women, dreffed in men’s clothes, were employed
to carry wood, ftones, and other neceffary materials to
the w'alls. All their efforts, however, were ineffec¬
tual. They were reduced to fuch extremities, that
for three months they fed on human flefh; killing the
old and feeble, as well as many prifoners, for food.
This being known to the Moguls, they made a gene¬
ral affault in January 1234. The attack continued
from morning till night; but at laft the affailants were
repulfed. In this aftion, however, the Kin loft all
their belt officers ; upon which the emperor refigned
the crown to Cheng-lin a prince of the blood. Next
morning, while the ceremony of inverting the new em¬
peror was performing, the enemy mounted the fouth
walls, which were defended only by 200 men ; and
the foulh gate being at the fame time abandoned, the
whole army broke in. They were oppofed, however,
by Hu-fye-hu; who, with 1000 foldiers, continued to
fight with amazing intrepidity. In the mean time Unhfppy.
Shew-fu, feeing every thing irreparably loft, lodged * f the
the feal of the empire in a houfe ; and then caufingemperor,
{heaves of ftraw to be fet round it, ordered it to be fet
on fire as foon as he was dead. After giving this or¬
der he hanged himfelf, and his commands were exe¬
cuted
China.
34 .
Diflblution
of the Kin
empire.
35
War be¬
tween the
Song and
the Mo¬
guls.
3<S
Dreadful
engage¬
ment.
c k 1 r '
cuted by bis domeftics. Hu-fye-hu, who ftill con¬
tinued fighting with great bravery, no fooner heard
of the tragical death of the emperor, than he drown¬
ed himfelf in the river Ju; as did alfo 500 of his moll
refolute foldiers. The fame day the new emperor,
Cheng-lin, was {lain in a tumult j and thus an end
was put to the dominion of the Kin Tartars in
China.
The empire of China was''now to be (hared between
the Song, or fouthern Chinefe, and the Moguls. It
had been agreed upon, that the province ®f Honan
fhould be delivered up to the Song as foon as the war
was finifiied. But they, without waiting for the ex¬
piration of the term, or giving Oktay notice of their
proceedings, introduced their troops into Kay-fong-fu,
Lo-yang, and other confiderable cities. On this the
Mogul general refolved to attack them ; and repaying
the Whang-bo, cut in pieces part of the garrifon of
Lo-yang, while they were out in fearch of provifions.
The garrifon of Kay-fong-fu likewife abandoned that
place; and the Song emperor degraded the officers
who had been guilty of thofe irregularities, fending
ambaffadors to Oktay, at the fame time, to defire a
continuance of the peace. What Oktay’s anfwer was
we are not told, but the event {bowed that he was not
well pleafed; for, in 1235, he ordered his fecond fon
Prince Kotovan, and his general Chahay, to attack
the Song in Se-chwen, while others marched towards
the borders of Kyang-nan.
In 1236, the Moguls made great progrefs in the
province of Huquang, where they took feveral cities,
and put vaft numbers to the fword. This year they
introduced paper or fiik money, which had formerly
been ufed by Chang-tfong, fixth emperor of the Kin.
Prince Kotovan forced the paffages into the diftrid of
Hang-chong-fu in the province of Shenfi, which he
entered with an army of 500,000 men. Here a ter¬
rible battle was fought between the vaft army of the
Moguls and the Chinefe troops, who had been driven
from the paffages they defended. The latter confifted
only of 10,000 horfe and foot, who were almoft en¬
tirely cut off; and the Moguls loft fuch a number of
men, that the blood is faid to have run for two leagues
together. After this vidlory the Moguls entered Se-
chwen, which they almoft entirely reduced, commit¬
ting fuch barbarities, that, in one city, 40,000 people
cbofe rather to put an end to their own lives than fub-
mit to fuch cruel conquerors.
In 1 237, the Moguls received a confiderable check
before the city of Gantong in Kvang-nan, the fiege of
which they were obliged to raife with lofs. In 1238,
they befieged Lu-chuw, another city in the fame pro¬
vince. They furrounded it with a rampart of earth
and a double ditch ; but the Chinefe general ordered
their intrenchments to be filled with immenfe quanti¬
ties of herbs fteeped in oil, and then fet on fire, while
he (hot ftones upon them from a tower feven ftories
high. At the fame time a vigorous fally was made
and the Mogul army being thrown into the utmoft
diforder, were obliged finally to abandon the fiege,
and retire northwards.
In 1239, thefe barbarians were oppofed by a gene¬
ral called Meng kong, with great fuccef-; who, this
and the following year, gained great honour by his
exploits. While he lived, the Moguls were never
] CHI
able to make any confiderable progrefs; but his death, china,
in 1246, proved of the greateft detriment to the Chi- s——v ■■ 1
nefe affairs : and foon after, the Tartars renewed the
war with more vigour and fuccefs than ever. In
1255, they re-entered the province of Se-chwen ; but
ftill met with vigorous oppofition in this quarter, be-
caufe the Chinefe took care to have Se-chwen furnilh-
ed with good troops and generals. Though they were
always beaten, being greatly inferior in number to
their enemies, yet they generally retook the cities the
Moguls had reduced, as the latter were commonly
obliged to withdraw for want of provifions and fo- ^
rage. In 1259 they undertook the fiege of Ho-chew, siege of
a ftrong city to the weft of Peking, defended by Vang-Ho chew.
kyen, a very able officer, who commanded a numerous
garrifon. The fiege continued from the month of Fe¬
bruary till Auguft; during which time the Moguls
loft an immenfe number of men. On the 10th of Au¬
guft they made a general affault in the night. They,
mounted the walls before the governor had intelli¬
gence; but were foon attacked by him with the ut¬
moft fury. The Mogul emperor, Meng-ko, himfelf
came to the fcalade ; but his prefence was not fuffi- 38
cient to overcome the valour of Vang-kyen. At the Moguls de¬
fame time the fcaling-ladders of the Moguls were^atec^man^
blown down by a ftorm ; upon which a terrible (laugh- ^^UecL
ter enfued, and amongft the reft fell the emperor him¬
felf. Upon this difafter the Mogul generals agreed to
raife the fiege, and retired towards Shen-fi.
On the death of Meng-ko, Hupilay, or Kublay.
Khan, who (ucceeded him, laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu,
a city not far diftant from the capital of the Song em¬
pire.
At this the emperor being greatly alarmed, diftri-
buted immenfe fums among his troops; and, having
raifed a formidable army, marched to the relief of Vu-
chang fu. Unfortunately the command of this army
was committed to the care of Kya-tfe-tau, a man with¬
out either courage or experience in war. He was be-
fides very vain and vindiflive in his temper; often
ufing the bed officers ill, and entirely overlooking
their merit, which caufed many of them to go over to
the Moguls. The fiege of Vu-chang-fu was commen¬
ced, and had continued a confiderable time, when
Kya-tfe tau, afraid of its being loft, and at the fame
time not daring to take any tfftdlual ftep for its relief,
made propofais of peace^ A treaty was accordingly
concluded, by which Kya-tfe-tau engaged to pay an
annual tribute of about 50,000!. in filver and as much
in filk ; acknowledging likewife the (overeignty of the
Moguls over the Song empire. In conffquence of this
treaty, the Moguls retreated after the boundaries of
the two empires had been fixed, and repaffed the Ky-
ang ; but 170 of them having (laid on the other fide of
the river, were put to death by Kya-tfe-tau.
This wicked minifter totally concealed from the Treachery-
emperor bis having made fuch a ftiameful treaty with0^3^1'-
the Moguls; and the 170 foldiers maffacred by. his "ele m‘n^’
order, gave oecafion to a report that the enemy had
been defeated ; fo that the Song court believed that
they had been compelled to retreat by the fuperior
valour and wTifdom of Kya-tfe-tau. This proved the
ruin of the empire ; fi r, in 1260, the Mogul emperor
fent Hauking to the Chinefe court to execute the trea¬
ty according to the terms agreed on with Kya-tfe-tau.
The
CHI [ S
China. The minifter, dreading the arrival of this envoy, im-
prifoned him near Nanking ; and took all poflible care
that neither Hnpilay, nor Li-tfong the Chinefe empe¬
ror, fliould ever hear any thing of him.
It was impoffible fuqh unparalleled condufl could
fail to produce a new war. Hupilay’s courtiers in-
ceffantly preffed him to revenge himfelf on the Song
for their treacherous behaviour ; and he foon publilh-
ed a manifefto againft them, which was followed by
a renewal of hostilities in 1268. The Mogul army
amounted to 300,000 men $ but notwithftanding their
numbers, little progrefs was made till the year 1271.
Syan-yang and Fan thing, cities in the province of
Se-chew, had been befieged for a long time ineffec¬
tually 5 but this year an Igur lord adviled Hupilay to
fend for feveral of thofe engineers out of the weft, who
knew how to caft ftones of 150 pounds weight out of
their engines, which made holes of feven or eight feet
wide in the ftrongeft walls. Two of thefe engineers
were accordingly fent for j and after giving a fpeci-
men of their art before Hupilay, were fent to the ar¬
my in 1272. In the beginning of 1273 they planted
their engines againft the city of Fan-ching, and pre-
fently made a breach in the walls. After a bloody
conflift the fuburbs were taken ; and foon after the
40 Moguls made themfelves mafters of the walls and gates
Befperate 0f the city. Neverthelefs, a Chinefe officer, with on-
con x<ft. jy IOO ref0lved to fight from ftreet to ftfeet.
This he did for a long time with the greateft obftina-
cy, killing vaft numbers of the Moguls j and both
parties are faid to have been fo much overcome with
thirft, that they drank human blood to quench it.
The Chinefe fet fire to the houfes, that the great
beams, falling down, might embarrafs the way of their
purfuers j but at laft, being quite w'earied out, and fill¬
ed with defpair, they put an end to their own lives.
After the taking of Fan-ching, all the materials which
had ferved at the fiege were tranfported to Seyen-
yang. The two engineers polled themfelves againft a
wooden retrenchment railed on the ramparts. This
they quickly demoliihed 5 and the befieged were fo in¬
timidated by the noife and havock made by the ftones
caft from thefe terrible engines, that they immediately
furrendered.
In 1274, Pe-yen, an officer of great valour, and en¬
dowed with many other good qualities, was promoted
to the command of the Mogul army. His firft ex¬
ploits were the taking of two ftrong cities $ after
which he paffed the great river Ky-ang, defeated the
Song army, and laid liege to Vu-chang-fu. This city
was foon intimidated into a furrender 5 and Pe-yen,
by reftraining the barbarity of his foldiers, whom he
would not allow to hurt any body, foon gained the
hearts of the Chinefe fo much, that feveral cities fur-
rendered to him on the firft fummons. In the mean
time the treacherous Kya-tfe-tau, who was fent to op-
pofe Pe-yen, was not afhamed to propofe peace on the
terms he had formerly concluded with Hupilay ; but
thefe being rejected, he was obliged at length to come
to an engagement. In this he was defeated, and Pe-
yen continued his conquefts with great rapidity. Ha¬
ving taken the city of Nanking, and fome others, he
marched towards Hang-chew-fu, the capital of the
eiunefe . 1 r j 1 .
eraprefs Song empire. Peace was now again propoled, but
Submits. rejected by the Mogul general j and at laft the em-
] C H I
prefs was conftrained to put herfelf, with her fon, then china,
an infant, into the hands of Pe-yen, who immediately w—y——j
fent them to Hupilay.
The fubmiflion of the emprefs did not yet put an
end to the war. Many of the chief officers fwore to
do their utmoft to refcue her from the hands of her
enemies. In confequence of this refolution they dif-
tributed their money among the foldiers, and foon
got together an army of 40,000 men. This army at¬
tacked the city rvhere the young emperor Kong-
tfong was lodged, but without fuccefs $ after which,
and feveral other vain attempts, they raifed one of
his brothers to the throne, who then took upon him
the name of Twon-tfong. He was but nine years of
age when he was raifed to the imperial dignity, and
enjoyed it but a very fhort time. In 1277 he was in
great danger of perifhing, by reafon of the fhip on
board which he then was being caft away. The poor
prince fell into the water, and was taken up half dead
with the fright. A great part of his troops perifhed
at that time, and he foon after made offers of fubmif-
fion to Hupilay. Thefe, however, were not accept¬
ed j for, in 1278, the unhappy Twon-tfong was obli¬
ged to retire into a little defert ifland on the coaft of
Quang-tong, where he died in the nth year of his
age.
Notwithftanding the progrefs of the Moguls, vaft
territories ftill remained to be fubdued before they 0f the Song
could become mafters of all the Chinefe empire. On empire,
the death of Twon-tfong, therefore, the mandarins
raifed to the throne his brother, named Te-ping, at
that time but eight years of age. His army confifted
of no fewer than 200,000 men *, but being utterly void
of difcipline, and entirely ignorant of the art of war,
they were defeated by 20,00c Mogul troops. Nor
was the fleet more fuceefsful j for being put in confu-
fion by that of the Moguls, and the emperor in dan¬
ger of falling into their hands, one of the officers ta¬
king him on his (boulders, jumped with him into the
fea, where they were both drowned. Mod of the
mandarins followed this example, as did alfo the em¬
prefs and minifter, all the ladies and maids of honour,
and multitudes of others, infomuch that 100,000 peo¬
ple are thought to have periftied on that day, Thus
ended the Chinefe race of emperors j and the Mogul
dynafty, known by the name of Ywen, commenced.
Though no race of men that ever exifted were Re)-^n30f
more remarkable for cruelty and barbarity than the Hupilay.
Moguls $ yet it doth not appear that the emperors of
the Ywen dynafty were in any refpedl worfe than
their predeceflbrs. On the contrary, Hupilay, by the
Chinefe called Shi-tfu, found the way of reconciling
the people to his government, and even of endearing
himfelf to them fo much, that the reign of his family
is to this day ftyled by the Chinefe the wife govern¬
ment. This he aceompliftied by keeping as clofe as
poffible to their ancient laws and cuftoms, by his mild
and juft government, and by his regard for their
learned men. He was indeed aftiamed of the igno¬
rance and barbarity of his Mogul fubje&s, when com¬
pared with the Chinefe. The whole knowledge of the
former was fummed up in their (kill in managing their
arms and horfes, being perfedly deftitute of every art
or fcience, or even of the knowledge of letters. In
1269, he had caufed the Mogul charafters to be con¬
trived
C H 1 [
China, trxved. In 1280, hecaufedfome mathematicians fearch
for the fource of the river Whang-ho, which at that
time was unknown to the Chinefe themfelves. In four
months time they arrived in the country where it riles,
and made a map of it, which they prefented to his ma-
^efty. The fame year a treatife on aftronomy was pu-
blilhed by his order; and, in 1282, he ordered the
learned men to repair from all parts of the empire, to
examine the ftate of literature, and take meafures for
its advancement.
At his firft acceffion to the crown he fixed his refi-
dence at Tay-ywen-fu, the capital of Shen-fi ; but
thought proper afterwards to remove it to Peking.
Here, being informed that the barks which brought
to court the tribute of the fouthern provinces, or car¬
ried on the trade of the empire, were obliged to come
by fea, and often fuffered fhipwreck, lie caufed that
celebrated canal to be made, which is at prefect one
of the wonders of the .Chinefe empire, being 300
leagues in length. By this canal above 9000 imperial
barks tranfport with eafe, and at fmall expence, the
tribute of grain, rice, fi!k, &c. which is annually paid
to the court. In the third year of his reign Shi-tfu
formed a defign of reducing the ii'lands of Japan, and
the kingdoms of Tonquin and Cochin-china. Both
thefe enterprifes ended unfortunately, but the firft re¬
markably fo; for of 100,000 perfons employed in it,
only four or five efcaped with the melancholy news of
the dellruftion of the reft, who all perifhed by fhip¬
wreck. Shi tfu reigned 15 year-., died in the 80th year
of his age, and was fucceeded by his grandfon. The
throne continued in the Ywen family to the year 1367,
when Shun-ti, the laft of that dynafty, was driven out
Moguls dri-bv a Chinefe named Chu. During this period the
v«u out. Tartars had become enervated by long profperity ;
and the Chinefe had been roufed into valour by their
fubjeftion. Shun-ti, the reigning prince, was quite
funk in doth and debauchery; and the empire, befides,
45 ivas oppreffed by a wicked minifter named /Jma. In
Exploits of June 135 C, Chu, a Chinefe of mean extraflion, and
^2U" head of a fmall party, fet out from How-chew, pafted
the Kyang, and took Tayping. He then affociated
hirafelf with fome other malcontents, at the head of
whom he reduced the town of Tu-ehevv, in Kyang-
nan. Soon after he made himfelf mafter of Nanking,
having defeated the Moguls who came to its relief. In
December 1^56, he was able to raife 100,000 men,
at the head of whom he took the city of U-chew, in
the eaft borders of Quang-fi ; and here, aftembling his
generals, it was refolved neither to commit daughter
nor to plunder. The moft formidable enemy he had
to d-^al with was Chen-yew-lyang, ftyled, emperor of
the Han.” This man being grieved at the progrefs
made by Chu, equipped a fleet, and raifed a formi¬
dable army, in order to reduce Nan-chang-fu, a city
of Kyang-fi, which his antagonift had made himfelf
mafter of. The governor, however, found means to
inform Chu of bis da- ger ; upon which that chief
caufed a fleet to be fitted out at Nanking, in which
he embarked 200,000 fildiers. As foon as Chen-yew-
lyang was informed of his enemy’s approach, he raifed
the fiege of Nan-chang-fu, and gave orders for at¬
tacking Chu’s naval force. An engagement enfued
between a part of the fleets, in which Chu proved
viiflorious; and next day, all the fquadrons having
Vol. VI. Part I.
China.
44
46
9 ] CHI
joined in order to come to a general engagement,
Chu gained a fecond vi&ory, and burnt 100,of the
enemy’s veffels. A third and fourth engagement hap¬
pened, in both which Chu gained the vi&ory ; and in
the laft, Chen-yew-lyang himfelf was killed, his fon
taken prifoner, and his generals obliged to furrender
themfelves, with all their forces and vtffels.
In January 1364, Chu’s generals propofed to pro,Heis pro¬
claim him emperor; but this he declined, and at firft ^
contented himfelf with the title of king of U. In
February he made himfelf mafter of Vu chang-fu,
capital of Hu-quang : where, with his ufual huma¬
nity, he relieved thofe in diftrefs, encouraged the
literati, and would alloxv his troops neither to plunder
nor deftroy. This wife condufl procured him an
eafy conqueft both of Kyan-fi and Hu quang. The
Chinefe fubmitted to him in crowds, and proiefled the
greateft veneration and refpedl for his perfon and go¬
vernment.
All this time Shun-ti, with an unaccountable negli¬
gence, never thought of exerting himfelf againfl Chu,
but continued to employ his forces againft the rebels
who had taken up arms in various parts of the empire ;
fo that Chu found himfelf in a condition to affume the ^
title of emperor. This he chofe to do at Nanking on Becomes
the firft day (ft the year 1368. After this his troops emperor of
entered the province of Honan, which they preiently china*
reduced. In the third month, Chu, who had now
taken the title of Hong-vu or Tay-tfu, reduced the
fortrefs of Tong quan ; after which his troops entered
Pecheli from Honan on the one fide, and Shang-tong
on the other. H^re his generals defeated and killed
one of Shun ti’s officers; after which they took the
city of Tong chew, and then prepared to attack the
capital, from which they were now but 12 miles diftant.
On their approach the emperor fled with all his family
beyond the great wall, and thus put an end to the dy- . 4*
nafty of Ywen. In 1370 he died, and was fucceeded
by his fon, whom the fucceftbr of Hong-vu drove be-^
yond the Kobi or Great Defert, which fe pa rates Chi-desert,
na from Tartary. They continued their incurfions,
however, for many years; nor did they ceafe their at¬
tempts till 1583, when vaft numbers of them were cut
in pieces by the Chinefe troops. 49
The 21 ft dynafty of Chinefe emperors, founded in China a-
1368 by Chu, continued till the year 1644, when ®a‘n c?1?"
were again expelled by the Tartars. The laft Chinefe ^
emperor was named Whay-tfong, and afeended thetars>
throne in 1628. He was a great lover of the Scien¬
ces, and a favourer of the Chriftians ; though much
addi61ed to the fuperftitions of the Bonzes. He
found himfelf engaged in a war with the Tartars, and
a number of rebels in different provinces. That he
might more effe&ually fupprefs the latter, he refolved
to make peace with the former ; and for that end fent
one of his generals, named Tweri, into Tartary, at
the head of an army, with full power to negotiate a
peace ; but that traitor made one upon fuch lhameful
terms, that the emperor refufed to ratify it. Ywen,
in order to oblige his mafter to comply with the terms
made by himfelf, poifoned his beft and moft faithful
general, named Mau-ven-long: and then defired the
Tartars to march dire&ly to Peking, by a road dif¬
ferent from that which he took with his army. This
they accordingly did, and laid fiege to the capital.
B Y wen
CHI [i
•Mna. ^vyen was ordered to come to its relief*, but, on his
  v arrival, was put to the torture and ftrangled; of which
the Tartars were no fooner informed, than they raifed
the fiege, and returned to their own country. In 1636,
the rebels above mentioned compofed four great ar¬
mies, commanded by as many generals ; which, how¬
ever, were foon reduced to two, commanded by Li
and Chang. Thefe agreed to divide the empire be¬
tween them j Chang taking the weftern provinces,
and Li the eaftejn ones. The latter feized on part of
■Shen-fi, and then on Honan, whofe capital, named
Kay-fang-fu, he laid fiege to, but was repulfed with
lols. He renewed it fix months after, but without
fuccefs 5 the befieged choofing rather to feed on human
flelh than furrender. The imperial forces coming foon
after to its affiftance, the general made no doubt of be¬
ing able to deftroy the rebels at once, by breaking
down the banks of the Yellow river ; but unfortunate¬
ly the rebels efcaptd to the mountains, while the city
was quite overflowtd, and 300,000 of the inhabitants
penfhed.
After this difafter, Li marched into the provinces
of Shen-fi and Honan $ where he put to death all the
mandarins, exaffed great fums from the officers in
place, and ffiowed no favour to any but the populace,
whom he freed from all taxes : by this means he drew
fo many to his intereft, that he thought himfelf ftrong
enough to affume the title of emperor. He next ad¬
vanced towards the capital, which, though well gar-
rifoned, was divided into fadlions. Li had taken care
to introduce beforehand a number of his men in dif-
50 guife : and by thefe the gates were opened to him the
fJnhappy third day after his arrival. He entered the city in
emperor*16 ^“P11 at tbe head of 30^°00 men, whilft the em-
and his fa- Pe.ror ^P1 hirafel.f in his palace, bufied only
nfily, with his fuperftitions. It was not long, however, be¬
fore he found himfelf betrayed j and, under the great-
eft confternation, made an effort to efcape out of the pa¬
lace, attended by about 600 of his guards. He was
ft ill more furprifed to fee himfelf treacheroufly aban¬
doned by them, and deprived of all hopes of efcaping
the infults of his fubjefis. Upon this, preferring death
to the difgrace of falling alive into their hands, he im¬
mediately retired with his emprefs, whom he tenderly
loved, and the princefs her daughter, into a private
part of the garden. His grief was fo great that he was
not able to utter a word ; but ffie foon underftood his
meaning, and, after a few filent embraces, hanged her-
felf on a tree in a filken firing. Her huffiand ftaid
only to write thefe words on the border of his veft :
“ 1 have bfen bafely deferted by my fubjeas j do
■what you will with me, but fpare my people.” He
then cut off the young princefs’s head with one ftroke
of his fcymitar, and hanged himfelf on another tree,
in.the.17th year of his reign, and 36th of his age!
His prime minifter, queens, and eunuchs, followed his
example j and thus ended the Chinefe monarchy, to
give place to that of the Tartars, which hath continued
ever fince.
It was fome time before the body of the unfortu¬
nate monarch was found. At laft it was brought be¬
fore the rebel Li, and by him ufed with the utmoft
indignity ; after which he caufed two of Whay-tfong’s
fons, and all his minifters, to be beheaded ; but his
«kieft fon happily efcaped by flight. The whole em-
Clifna.
o ] CHI
pire fubmitted peaceably to the ufurper, except Prince
U-fan-ghey, who commanded the imperial forces in the y—.
province of Lyau-tong. This brave prince, finding
himfelf unable to cope with the ufurper, invited the
Tartars to his affiftance ; and Tfong-te their king im¬
mediately joined him with an army of 80,coo men.
Upon this tbe ufurper marched direflly to Peking; but
not thinking himfelf fafe there, plundered and burnt
the palace, and then fled with the immenfe treafure
he had got. What became of him afterwards we are
not told ; but the young Tartar monarch was imme¬
diately declared emperor of China, his father Tfong-
te having died almoft as foon as he fet his foot on that
empire.
The new emperor, named Shun-chi, or Xun-chi, be¬
gan his reign with rewarding U-fan-ghty, by con¬
ferring upon him the title of king ; and affigned him
the city of Si-gnan-fu, capital of Shen-fi, for his reli-
dence. This, however, did not hinder U-fan-ghey
from repenting of his error in calling in the Tartars,
or, as he himfelf ufed to phrafe it, “ in fending for lions
to drive away dogs.” In 1674, be formed a very
ftrong alliance againft them, and had probably prevail¬
ed if his allies had been faithful ; but they treacherouf¬
ly deferted him one after another: which fo affe&ed
him, that he died foon after. In 1681 Hong-wha,
fon to U-fan-ghey, who continued his efforts againft
tbe Tartars, was reduced to fuch ftraits that he put an
end to his own life.
During this time, fome refiftance had been made
to the Tartars in many of tbe provinces. Two
princes of Chinefe extra&ion had at different times
been proclaimed emperors; but both of them were
overcome and put to death. In 1682, the whole I5£rn ^ t#-
provinces were fo effeaually fubdued, that the em-ta% rediU
peror Kang-hi, fucceffor to Shun-chi, determined toced.
vifit his native dominions of Tartary. He was ac¬
companied by an army of 70,000 men, and continued
for fome months taking the diverfion of hunting.
For feveral years he repeated his vifits annually; and
in his journeys took Father Verbieft along with him ;
by which means we have a better defcription of thefe
countries than could have been otherwife obtained.
This prince was a great encourager of learning and Chriftiani-
of the Chriftian religion ; and in favour of the latter ty firft en-
he publiffied a decree, dated in 1692. But in 1716, couraSed
he revived fome obfolete laws againft the Chriftians ;andftben ,
nor could the Jefuits with all their art preferve thePereCUte ‘
footing they had got in China. The caufes of this al¬
teration in his refolution are, by the miffionaries, faid to
have been the Handers of the mandarins ; but, from the
known charafter of the .lefuits, it will be readily be¬
lieved, that there was fomething more at bottom.
TbL emperor died in 1722, and was fucceeded by his
fon Yon-ching ; who not only gave no encouragement
to the miffionaries, but perfecuted all Chriftians of
whatever denomination, not excepting even thofe of
the imperial race. At the. beginning of his reign he
baniffied all the Jefuits into the city of Canton, and in
1732 they were baniflied from thence into Ma-kau, a
little illand inhabited by the Portuguefe, but fubjeft
to China. He died in 1736: but though the jefuits
entertained great hopes from his fucceffor, we have not
heard that they have yet met with any fuccefs.
T hus rve have given an account of the moft memo¬
rable
China.
. S3
Climate,
foil, and
produce.
54
Lakes and
CHI [i
table tranfa&ions recorded in the Chinefe hiftory. We
a now proceed to defcribe the prefent date of the em¬
pire and its inhabitants, according to the bell: and lateft
accounts.
The climate as well as the foil of this extenfive em¬
pire is very different in different parts j fevere cold
being often felt in the northern provinces, while the in¬
habitants of the fouthern ones are fcarcely able to bear
the heat. In general, however, the air is accounted
wholefome, and the inhabitants live to a great age.—
The northern and weftern provinces have many moun¬
tains, which in the latter are cultivated, but in the
north are barren, rocky, and incapable of improve¬
ment. On the mountains of Chenfi, Honan, Canton,
and Fukien, are many forefts, abounding with tall
ftraight trees, of different kinds, fit for building, and
particularly adapted for mafts and fhip timber. Thefe
are ufed by the emperor in his private buildings ; and
from thefe forefts enormous trunks are fometimes
tranfported to the diftance of more than 300 leagues.
Other mountains contain quickfilver, iron, tin, copper,
gold, and filver. Formerly thefe laft were not allow¬
ed to be opened, left the people ftiould thereby be in¬
duced to negleft the natural richnefs of the foil : and
it is certain, that, in the 15th century, the emperor
caufed a mine of precious ftones to be fhut, which had
been opened by a private perfon. Of late, however,
the Chinefe are lefs fcrupulous, and a great trade in
gold is carried on by them. Many extravagant fables
are told by the Chinefe of their mountains, particularly
of one in Chenfi which throws out flames, and produces
violent tempefts, whenever any one beats a drum or
plays on a mufical inftrument near it. In the province
of Fokien is a mountain the whole of which is an
idol, or ftatue of the god Fo. This natural eoloffus,
for it appears not to have been the work of art, is
of fuch an enormous fize, that each of its eyes is feve-
ral miles in circumference, and its nofe extends fome
leagues.
China has feveral large lakes j the principal one is
that named Poyang-hou, in the provi de of Kiang-fi.
It is formed by the confluence of four large rivers j ex¬
tends near 100 leagues in length j and, like the fea,
its waters are raifed into tempeftuous waves. The em¬
pire is watered by an immenfe number of rivers of dif¬
ferent fizes, of which two are particularly celebrated,
viz. the Yang-tfe-kiang, or Jon of the fea, and Hoang-
ho, or the yellow river* The former rifes in the pro¬
vince of Yunan, and pafling through Houquang and
Kiang-nan, falls into the eaftern ocean, after a courfe
of 1200 miles, oppofite to the ifland of Tfon-ming,
which is formed by the fand accumulated at its mouth.
This river is of immenfe fize, being half a league broad
at Nanking, which is near 100 miles from its mouth.
The navigation is dangerous, fo that great numbers
of veffels are loft on it. It runs with a rapid cur¬
rent, forming feveral iflands in its courfe, which are
again carried off, and new ones formed in different
places, when the river is fwelled by the torrents from
the mountains. Thefe iflands, while they remain,,
are very ufeful ; producing great quantities of reeds
ten or twelve feet high, which are ufed in all the
neighbouring countries for fuel. The Hoang-ho, or
Yellow-river, has its name from the yellow colour gi¬
ven it by the clay and fand waflied down in the time
1 ] CHI
of rain. It rifes in the mountains which border the China,
province of Te-tchuen on the weft, and after a courfe v
of near 600 leagues, difeharges itfelf into the eaftern
fea, not far from the mouth of the Kiang. It is very
broad and rapid, but fo (hallow that it is fcarcely navi¬
gable. It is very liable to inundations, often overflow¬
ing its banks, and deftroying whole villages. For this,
reafon it has been found neceffary to confine it in fe¬
veral places by long and ftrong dikes, which yet do
not entirely anfwer the purpofe. The people of Ho¬
nan, therefore, whofe land is exceedingly low, have
furrounded moft of their cities with ftrong ramparts of
earth, faced with turf, at the diftance of three fur-
longs.
The Chinefe have been at great pains to turn their Cauai*.
lakes and rivers to the advantage of commerce, by pro¬
moting an inland navigation. One of their principal
works for this purpofe is the celebrated canal reach¬
ing from Canton to Peking, and forming a communi¬
cation between the fouthern and northern provinces.
This canal extends through no lefs a fpace than 600
leagues ; but its navigation is interrupted in one place
by a mountain, where paffengers are obliged to travel
10 or 12 leagues over land. A number of other ca¬
nals are met with in this and other provinces; moft of
which have been executed by the induftry of the inha¬
bitants of different cities and towns, in order to pro¬
mote their communication with the various parts of
the empire. M. Grofier remarks, that, in thefe works,
the Chinefe have “ furmounted obftacles that perhaps
would have difeouraged any other people : fuch, for
example, is part of a canal which condudts from Chao-
hing to Nwg-po.'>'> Near thefe cities there are two ca¬
nals, the waters of which do not communicate, and
which differ ten or twelve feet in their level. To
render this place paffable for boats, the Chinefe have
conftru&ed a double glacis, of large ftones, or rather
two inclined planes, which unite as an acute angle at
their upper extremity, and extend on each fide to the
furface of the water. If the bark is in the lower ca¬
nal, they pufti it up the plane of the firft glacis by
means of feveral capftans until it is raifed to the
angle, when by its own weight it glides down the fe-
cond glacis, and precipitates itfelf into the water of
the higher canal with the velocity of an arrow. It i»
aftonifhing that thefe barks, which are generally very
long and heavily loaden, never burft afunder when
they are balanced on this acute angle ; however,
we never hear of any accident of this kind happening
in the paffage. It is true they take the precaution of
ufing for their keels a kind of wood which is exceed¬
ingly hard, and proper for refilling the violence of fuch
an effort.
The following remarkable phenomenon in a Chinefe
river is related by Father le Couteux, a French mif- able river
fionary. “ Some leagues above the village Che-pai, which part
(fays he), the river becomes confiderably fmaller, al_ jy iir*ks un-
though none of its waters flow into any other channel j er 8louri *
and eight or nine leagues below, it refumes its former
breadth, without receiving any additional fupply, ex¬
cepting what it gets from a few fmall rivulets, which
are almoft dry during the greater part of the year.
Oppofite to Che-pai it is fo much diminilhed, that,
excepting one channel, which is not very broad, I have
paHed and repaffed it feveral times by the jielp of a conj-
B 2 mui,
CHI [
China, nion pole. I was always furprifed to find this river fo
' narrow and (hallow in that place : but I never thought
of inquiring into the caufe of it, until the lofs of a bark
belonging to a Chriftian family afforded me an op¬
portunity. In that place where the river diminifhes
almoft of a fudden, it flows with great impetuofity 5
and where it refumes its former breadth it is equally
rapid. At the fixth moon, when the water was high
and the wind Itrong, the bark I have mentioned ar¬
riving above Che-pai, was driven on a fand-bank 5 for
between thefe two places the river is full of moveable
fands, which are continually fhifting their fituation.
The mafter of the boat dropped his anchor until the
wind fhould abate, and permit him to continue his
voyage \ but a violent vortex of moveable fand, which
was caft up from the bottom of the river, laid the
bark on its fide j a fecond vortex fucceeded ; then a
third-, and afterwards a fourth, which fhattered the
bark to pieces. When I arrived at the place where this
bark had been loft, the weather was mild and ferene j I
perceived eddies in the current everywhere around,
which abforbed, and carried to the bottom of the ri¬
ver, whatever floated on the furface j and I obferved,
at the fame time, that the fand was thrown violently
up with a vortical motion. Above thefe eddies the
water was rapid, but without any fall; and in the
place below, where the river refumes its ufual courfe,
no eddies are to be feen, but the fand is thrown up in
the fame violent manner j and in- fome places there
are water-falls and a kind of fmall iflands fcattered
at fome diftance from one another. Thefe iflands
which appear above the furface of the water, are not
{olid earth, but confift of branches of trees, roots, and
herbs colle&ed together. I was told that thefe boughs
rofe up from the water, and that no one knew the
place from whence they came. I was informed that
thefe mafles, which were 40 or 50 feet in extent on
that fide on which we pafled, were immoveable and
fixed in the bottom of the river 5 that it was dangerous
to approach them, becaufe the water formed whirl¬
pools everywhere around them 5 that, however, when
the river was very low, the filhermen fometimes ven¬
tured to colled the bullies that floated on its fur¬
face, and which they ufed for fuel. I am of opinion,
that, at the place, of the river which is above Che-pai,
the water falls into deep pits, from whence it forces
up the fand with that vortical motion j and that it
flows under-ground to the other place, eight or nine
leagues below, where it carries with it all the boughs,
weeds, and roots, which it waflies down in its courfe,
and thus forms thofe iflands which appear above its
furface. We know there are fome rivers that lofe
themfelves entirely, or in part, in the bowels of the
earth, and which afterwards arife in fome other place :
but I believe there neves was one known to lofe part
of its water below its own channel, and again to re-
^ cover it at the diftance of fome leagues.”
Why China It has already been faid, that China is, in general,
islubjedl toa fertile country j and indeed all travellers agree in this
notwrh- refye&» and make encomiums on the extent and beauty
ftandin;] its°^ *ts plains. So careful are the hufhandmen of this
fertility! empire to lofe none of their ground, that neither in-
clofure, hedge, nor ditch, nay, fcarce a Angle tree,
are ever to be met with. In feveral places the land
yields two crops a-year 5 and even in the interval be-
4
2 ] CHI
tween the harvefts the people fow feveral kinds of
pulfe and fmall grain. The plains of the northern
provinces yield wheat j thofe of the fouthern, rice,
becaufe the country is low and covered with water.
Notwithftanding all this fertility, however, the inha¬
bitants are much more frequently afflidted with famine
than thofe of the European nations, though the coun¬
tries of Europe produce much lefs than China. For
this two caufes are afligned. 1. The deftrudlion of
the rifing crops by drought, hail, inundations, lo-
cufts, &c. in which cafe China cannot like the Eu¬
ropean countries be fupplied by importation. This i»
evident by confidering how it is fituated with regard
to other nations. On the north are the Mogul Tar¬
tars, a lazy and indolent race, who fubfift principally
on the flelh of their flocks j lowing only a little mil¬
let for their own ufe. The province of Leatong,
which lies to the north-eaft, is indeed extremely fer¬
tile, but too far diftant from the capital and centre
of the empire to fupply it with provifions ; and be-
fides, all carriage is impradlicable but in the winter,
when great quantities of game and fifti, preferved in
ice, are lent thither. No corn is brought from Corea
to China j and though the Japan iflands are only
three or four days failing from the Chinefe provinces
of Kiang-nan and Che-kyang, yet no attempt was
ever made to obtain provifions from thence j whether
it be that the Japanefe have nothing to fpare, or on
account of the infults offered by thefe iflanders to
foreign merchants. Formofa lies oppofite to the pro¬
vince ol Fo-kien ; but fo far is that ifland from being
able to fupply any thing, that in a time of icarcity it
requires a fupply from China itfelf. The province of
Canton is alfo bounded by the fea, and has nothing
on the ibuth but iflands and remote countries. One
year, when rice was exceedingly fearce there, the em¬
peror fent for F. Parranin, a Jefuit miffionary, and
alked him if the city of Macao could not furnifli
Canton with rice until the fupply he had ordered
from other provinces Ihould arrive : but was informed
that Macao had neither rice, corn, fruit, herbs, nor
flocks, and that it generally got from China what
was neceffary for its fubfiflence.—The only method,
therefore, the Chinefe can take to guard againfl; fa¬
mines arifing from thefe caufes, is to ertef granaries
and public magazines in every province and moft of
the principal cities of the empire. This has at all
times been a principal objetfl of care to the public mi-
nifters ; but though this mode of relief ftill takes
place in theory, fo many ceremonies are to be gone
through before any fupply can be drawn from thofe
public repofitories, that it feldom arrives feafonably at
the places where it is wanted : and thus numbers
of unhappy wretches perifti for want. 2. Another
caufe of the fcarcity of grain in this empire, is the
prodigious confumption of it in the compofition of wines,
and a fpirituous liquor called rack. But though go¬
vernment is well apprized that this is one of the prin¬
cipal fources of famine throughout the empire, it ne¬
ver employed means fufficient to prevent it. Procla¬
mations indeed have frequently been iffutd, prohibit¬
ing the diftillation of rack ; and the appointed offi¬
cers will vifit the ftill-houfes and deftroy the furnaces
if nothing is given them ; but on flipping fome money
into their hands? they fliut their eyes, and go fome-
tvherc
CHI [ 13 1 CHI
China. where elfe to receive another bribe. When the man-
1——^  darin bimfelf goes about, however, thefe diftillers do
not efcape quite fo ealily, the workmen being whip¬
ped and imprifoned, after which they are obliged to
carry a kind of collar called the Cangue ; the mailers
are likewife obliged to change their habitations and
conceal themfelves for a.fhort time, after which they
generally refume their operations. It is impoflible,
however, that any method of this kind can prove ef¬
fectual in fupprefling thefe manufactories while the li¬
quors themfelves are allowed to be fold publicly } and
againft this there is no law throughout the empire.
Our author, however, jultly obferves, that in cafe ot a
prohibition of this kind, the grandees would be obli¬
ged to deny themfelves the ufe of thefe luxuries, which
would be too great a facrifice for the good of the em-
58 pire. # ...
Xmmenfe 1'he population of China, is fo great, in compari-
gopulation. fun with that of the European countries, that the ac¬
counts of it have generally been treated as fabulous by
the weftern nations j but by an accurate inveiligation
of fome Chinefe records concerning the number of
perfons liable to taxation throughout the empire, M.
Grofier has (bowed that it cannot be lefs than 200
millions. Fur this extraordinary population he afligns
the following caufes. I. The ftriCt obfervance of fi¬
lial duty throughout the empire, and the prerogatives
of fraternity, which make a fun the mod valuable pro¬
perty of a father. 2. The infamy attached to the me¬
mory of thofe who die without children. 3. The uni-
rerfal cuilom by which the marriage of children be¬
comes the principal concern of the parents. 4. The
honours beftowed by the date on thofe widows who
do .not marry a fecond time. 5. Frequent adoptions,
which prevent families from becoming extinCF 6 The
return of wealth to its original flock by the difin-
heriting of daughters. 7. The retirement of wives,
which renders them more complaifant to their hut-
bands, faves them from a number of accidents when
big with child, and conftrains them to employ them¬
felves in the care of their children. 8. The mar¬
riage of foldiers. 9. The fixed ftate of taxes •, w'bich
being always laid upon lands, never fall but indireftly
on the trader and mechanic. 10. The fmall number
of failors and travellers. 11. To thefe maybe added
the great number of people who refide in China only
by intervals $ the profound peace which the empire
enjoys •, the frugal and laborious manner in which the
great live 5 th^little attention that is paid to the vain
and ridiculous prejudice of marrying below one’s rank ;
the ancient policy of giving diftimffion to men and not
to families, by attaching nobility only to employ¬
ments and talents, without fuffering it to become he¬
reditary. And, 12. kftly, A decency of public man¬
ners, and a total ignorance of fcandalous intrigues and
gallan’ry.
Extravagant, however, and almoft incredible as this
account of the population of China may appear to fume,
we have very high and refpe&able authority for be¬
lieving that it is much below the truth. Whether the
caufes of this phenomenon, as above enumerated by
M. Grofier, be the only ones aflignable, it is certain
that the immenfe population of this country amounted
*In 1703. to 333>000>000 at the time when Sir George Staunton*
vxfited it in the capacity of fecretary to the Eritifli pie- Chma.
nipotentiary, as appears from the following eftimate of " v—
the population of each province, made by Chuw-ta-zhin,
and taken from his official documents.
Provinces.
Pe-che-lee,
Kiang-nan, two provinces,
Kiang-fee,
Fche-kiang,
Fo-chen,
Hou-nan, j Houquang,
Ho-nan,
Shan-tung,
Shan-fee,
Shen-fee,
Kan-fou,
Se-chuen,
Canton,
Quang-fee,
Yu-nan,
Koei-cheou,
{
Population.
38,000,000
32,000,000
19,000,000
21,000,000
15,000,000
14,000,000
13,000,000
25,000,000
24,000,000
27,000,000
18,000,000
12,000,000
27,000,000
21,000,000
10,000,000
8,000,000
9,000,000
333,GOO,000
59
Pi pulation
of the dif¬
ferent pro¬
vinces.
This prodigious fum total may exceed the belief of
thofe who are only accuftomed to calculate from ana-
logy, not recollecting that China cannot have its popu¬
lation reduced by thofe fertile caufes, war and debau¬
chery, the former deflroying mankind by thoufands, and
the latter rendering them unproductive. 60
The government of China, according to the Abbe Unlimited
Grofier, is purely patriarchal. The emperor is more
unlimited in his authority than any other potentate on pCror.
earth ; no fentence of death, pronounced by any of
the tribunals, can be executed without his confent,
and every verdiCl in civil affairs is fubjeCt to be revifed
by him ; nor can any determination be of force until
it has been confirmed by the emperor: and, on the
contrary, whatever fentenee he paffes is executed with¬
out delay •, his ediCts are refpeCled throughout the em¬
pire as if they came from a divinity ; he alone has the
difpofal of all offices, nor is there any fuch thing as
the purchafe of places in China; merit, real or fup-
pofed, raifes to an office, and rank is attached to it on¬
ly. Even the fucceflion to the throne is not altoge¬
ther hereditary. The emperor of China has a power
of choofing his own fucceffor without confulting any
of his nobility} and can feleCt one not only from
among his own children, but even from the body of
his people 3 and there have been feveral inftances of
his making ufe of this right : and he has even a power
of altering the fucceffion after it has once been fixed,
in cafe the perfon pitched upon does not behave to¬
wards him with proper refpeCl. The emperor can alfo
prevent the princes of the blood from exercifing the
title, with which, according to the conftitution of the
empire, they are invefled. They may, indeed, not-
withffanding this, poffefs their hereditary dignity ; in
which cafe they are allowed a revenue proportioned,
to their high birth, as well as a palace, officers, and
a
CHI [ i
China, a court ; but they have neither influence nor power,
'——v——' an(j their authority is lower than that of the meaneft
mandarin.
Mandarins mandarins are 0f two daffes, viz. thofe of let-
of different ters, and the inferior fort ftyled mandarins of arms,
claffes. The latter by no means enjoy the fame confideration
with the former fort; indeed in China the literati are
highly honoured, and to their influence M. Grofier
fuppoies that we may in a great meafure afcribe the
xnildnefs and equity of the government; though he
thinks that the balance may incline rather too much
in their favour. Several degrees, anfwering to thofe
of bachelor, licentiate, and dodtor, mull be paffed
through before one can attain to the dignity of a man¬
darin of letters ; though fometimes, by the favour of
the emperor, it is conferred on thofe who have attain¬
ed only the .two firft degrees : but even the perfons
who have .gone through all the three, enjoy at firft
.only:the government --of a city of the fecond or third
clafs. When feveral vacancies happen in the govern¬
ment of cities, the emperor invites to court a corre-
fponding number of the literati, w-hofe names are
written down in a lift. The names of the vacant go¬
vernments are then put into a box, raifed fo high that
the candidates are able only to reach it with their
hands ; after which they draw in their turns, and each
is appointed governor of the city whofe name he has
drawn.
There are eight orders of thefe mandarins in China.
X. The ca/ao, from whom are chofen the minifters of
ftate, the prefidents of the fupreme courts, and all the
fuperior officers among the militia. The chief of this
order prefides alfo in the emperor’s council, and en¬
joys a great (hare of his confidence. 2. The le-hiofe,
or man of acknowledged ability, is a title beftowed
upon every mandarin of the fecond rank ; and from
thefe are feledled the viceroys and prefidents of the
fupreme council in the different provinces. 3. The
tchong-tchueo, or fchool of mandarins, a£! as fecretaries
to the emperor. 4. T-tchuen-tao. Thefe keep in re¬
pair the harbours, royal lodging houfes, and barks
which belong to the emperor, unlefs particularly en¬
gaged in fome other office by his order. 5. The ting-
pi-tao have the infpe£tion of the troops. 6. The tun-
tien-hao have the care of the highways 7. The ho-
tao fuperintend the rivers. 8. The hai-tao infpeft the
fea coafts.
Thus the whole adminiftration of the Chinefe empire
'is intrufted to the mandarins of letters; and the ho¬
mage paid by the. common people to every mandarin in
office almoft equals that paid to the emperor himfelf.
This indeed flows from the nature of their government.
In China it is a received opinion that the emperor is
the father of the whole empire; that the governor of a
province.is the father of that province; and that the
mandarin who is governor of« city is alfo the father of
that city. This idea is produ6live of the higheft re-
fpe£l and fubmiffion, which is not at all leffened by
their great number; for though the mandarins of letters
amount to more than 14,000, the-fame refpeft is paid
to every one of them.
The mandarins of arms are never indulged with any
{hare in the government of the ftate; however, to at¬
tain to this dignity, it is alfo neceffary to pafs through
ths degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doSor of arms.
f,] CHI
The accomplilhments neceffary for a mandarin of arms China,
are, ftrength of body, with agility and readinefs in per- ^ ^
forming the various military exercifes, and compre¬
hending the orders requifite for the profeffion of arms;
an examination on thefe fubjedls mull be undergone
before the candidate can attain the wilhed-for dig-
nit7; . , to
Ihe mandarins of arms have tribunals, the members Tribunal of
of which are felefted from among their chiefs; andt|ie
among thefe they reckon princes, counts, and dukes ; r‘ns arm9*
for all thefe dignities, or fomething equivalent to them,
are met with in China. The principal of thefe tribu¬
nals is held at Peking, and confifts of five claffes :
1. The mandarins of the rear-guard, called heou fou.
2. Of the left wing, or tfa-fou. 3. Of the right wing,
ox yeou-feou. 4. Of the advanced main-guard, or te-
hong fou. 5. Of the advanced guard, or ijien-fou. Thefe
five tribunals are fubordinale to one named iong-tching-
fou; the prefident of which is one of the great lords of
the empire, whofe authority extends over all the mili¬
tary men of the empire. By his high dignity he could
render himfelf formidable even to the emperor ; but to
prevent this inconvenience, he has for his affeffor a
mandarin of letters, who enjoys the title and exercifes
the function of fuperintendant of arms. He muft al¬
fo take the advice of two infpe&ors who are named by
the emperor ; and when thefe four have agreed upon
any meafure, their refolution muft ftill be fubmit-
ted to the revifal of a higher court named f>ing-pout
which is entirely of a civil nature. The chief of thefe
mandarins is a general of courfe, whofe powers are
equivalent to thofe of our commanders in chief; and
below him are other mandarins who a£l as fubordinate
officers.
Thefe two claffes of mandarins compofe what is called
the nobility of China : but as we have already hinted,
their office is not hereditary ; the emperor alone con¬
tinues or confers it. They have the privilege of fe-
monftrating to the emperor, either as individuals or in
a body, upon any part of his condufl which appears
contrary to the intereft of the empire. Thefe remon-
ftrances are feldom ill received, though the fovereign
complies with them only when he bimfelf thinks proper.
The number of literary mandarins in China is comput¬
ed at upwards of 14,000 ; and thofe of arms at 18,000 ;
the former, however, are confidered as the principal
body in the empire; and this preference is thought to
damp the military ardour of the nation in general,
and to be one caufe of that weaknefs in war for which
the Chinefe are remarkable. ^
The armies of this empire are proportioned to its Military
vaft extent and population ; being computed in time force,
of peace at more than 700,000. Their pay amounts
to about two-pence halfpenny and a meafure of rice
per day, though fome of them have double pay, and
the pay of a horfeman is double that of a foot foldier ;
the emperor furnilhes a horfe, and the horfeman re¬
ceives two meafures of fmall beans for his daily fub-
fiftence; the arrears of the army being pundlually paid
cap every three months.
The arms of a horfeman are, a helmet, cuirafs, lance,
and fabre ; thofe of a foot foldier are a pike and fabre ;
fome have fufees, and others bows and arrows. All
thefe are carefully infpefled at every review; and if
any of them are found in the leaft rufted, or othcrwife
CHI [
China, in bad condition, the poffeffor is inftantly punifhed^ if
a Chinefe, with 30 or 40 blows of a flick j or if a
6 Tartar, with as many ladies.
UfecAre- Though the ufe of gun-powder is certainly very
arms loft ancient in China, it appears to have been afterwards
and revi- totally loft, at leaft fire-arms feem to have been al-
Ved‘ moft entirely unknown fome centuries ago. Three or
four cannon were to be feen at that time about the
gates of Nanking ; but not a Angle perfon in China
knew how to make ufe of them j fo that, in 1621,
when the city of Macao made a prefent of three pieces
of artillery to the emperor, it was found neceffary alfo
to fend three men to load them. The utility of thefe
weapons was quickly perceived by the execution which
the three cannon did againft the Tartars, at that
time advanced as far as the great wall. When the
invaders threatened to return, the mandarins of arms
gave it as their opinion, that cannons were the beft
arms they could make ufe of againft them. They
were then taught the art of catting cannon by F.
Adam Schaal and Verbieft, two Jefuit miflionaries, and
their artillery was increafed to the number of 320
pieces at the fame time that they were inftru&ed
in the method of fortifying towns, and conlkuiting
fortreffes and other buildings according to the rules of
modern architecture.
The beft foldiers in China are procured from the
three northern provinces, the others being feldom call¬
ed forth, but allowed to remain at peace with their
families ; indeed there is not often occafion for exert¬
ing their military talents, unlefs it be in the quelling
of an infurreCtion, when a mandarin or governor ufual-
ly accompanies them. They march in a very tumul¬
tuous manner, but want neither Ikill nor agility in
performing their different evolutions. They, in ge¬
neral, handle a fabre well, and (hoot very dexteroufly
with bows and arrows. There are in China more
than 2000 places of arms 5 and through the different
provinces there are difperfed about 3000 towers or
caftles, all of them defended by garrifons. Soldiers
continually mount guard there j and on the firft ap¬
pearance of tumult, the neareft fentinel makes a fig-
nal from the top of the tower, by hoifting a ftag in the
day-time, or lighting a torch in the night ; when the
neighbouring garrifons immediately repair to the place
<>5 where their prefence is neceffary.
Account of The principal defence of the empire againft a fo-
wall^621 re’£n enemy is the great wall which feparates China
from Tartary, extending more than 1500 miles in
length, and of fuch a thicknefs that fix horfemen may
eafily ride abreaft upon it. It is flanked with towers
two bow-ftiots diftant from one another j and it is faid
that a third of the able-bodied men in the empire
were employed in conftrufting it. The workmen
were ordered, under pain of death, to place the ma¬
terials fo clofely, that not the leaft entrance might be
afforded for any inftrument of iron •, and thus the
work was conftru&ed with fuch folidity, that it is ftill
almoft entire, though 2000 years have elapfed fince it
was conftrufled. This extraordinary work is carried
on not only through the low lands and valleys, but
over hills and mountains ; the height of one of which
was computed by F. Verbieft at 1 236 feet above the
level of the fpot where he flood. According to F.
Martini it begins at the gulf of Lea-tong, and reaches
I
5 ] CHI
to the mountains near the city of Kin on the Yellow China,
river j between which places it meets with no inter- 1 “ v™"""
ruption except to the north of the city of Suen in
the province of Pecheli, where it is interrupted by a
ridge of hideous and inacceflible mountains, to which
it is clofely united. It is likewife interrupted by the
river Hoang-ho j but for others of an inferior fize,
arches have been conftrufled, through which the wa¬
ter paffes freely. Mr Bell informs us, that it is car¬
ried acrofs rivers, and over the tops of the higheft hills,
without the leaft interruption, keeping nearly along
that circular range of barren rocks which inclofes the
country j and, after running about 1200 miles, ends
in impaffable mountains and Tandy deferts. The foun¬
dation confifts of large blocks of ftone laid in mortar ;
but all the reft is of brick. The whole is fo ftrong
and well built, that it fcarcely needs any repairs ; and,
in the dry climate in which it Hands, may remain in
the fame condition for many ages. When carried
over fteep rocks, where no horfe can pafs, it is about
15 or 20 feet high, but when running through a val¬
ley, or crofting a river, it is about 30 feet high, with
fquare towers and embrafures at equal diftances. The
top is flat and paved with cut ftone j and where it
rifes over a rock or eminence, there is an afcent made
by an eafy ftone (lair. “ This wall (our author adds)
was begun and completely finilhed in the Ihort fpace
of five years; and it is reported, that the labourers
flood fo clofe for many miles, that they could hand
the materials from one to another. This feems the
more probable, as the rugged rocks among which it
is built muft have prevented all ufe of carriages ; and
neither clay for making bricks, nor any kind of ce¬
ment are to be found among them.”
To this account of the moft aftoniftiing produflion
of human labour and induftry to be met with on the
face of the earth, we may add, that if to its prodigious
length of 1500 miles, we affume as true, the probable,
conjeflure that its dimenfions throughout are nearly the
fame as where it was croffed by the Britifti embaffy, it
contains materials more than fufficient to ert£t all the
dwelling houfes in England and Scotland, even admit¬
ting their number to be 1,800,000, and each to con¬
tain 2000 cubic feet of mafonry. In this calculation
the huge projedling maffes of ftone called towers, are
not included, which of themfelves would ere£t a city
as large as London. To aflift the conceptions of our
readers ftill farther refpefting this Angular and ftupen-
dous fabric, we fhall only obferve, that were its mate¬
rials converted into a wall 12 feet high and four feet
thick, it would poffefs fufticient length to furround the
globe, at its equatorial circumference.
The whole civil government of China is managed Courts by
by the following courts. I. The emperor’s grand the
council, compofed of all the minifters of ftate, prefi-diVl1 §0'
dents and affeffors of the fix fovereign courts, and of*L™^I]t
three others, to be afterwards mentioned. This isged.
never affembled but on affairs of the greateft impor¬
tance ; the emperor’s private council being fubflituted
to it in all cafes of fmaller moment. 2. The chief of
the other courts furnilhes mandarins for the differ¬
ent provinces, watches over their conduft, keeps a
journal of their tranfaflions, and informs the emperor
of them, who rewards or punilhes according to the re¬
port he gets.
This
y
CHI [ H5 ]
C H I
China. I his fecond tribunal, which may be called a kind
*1    of civil inquifition, is fubdivided into four others j the
firlf entrulted with the care of leleiting thole who, on
account of their learning or other good properties, are
capable of filling the otfiees of government ; the fecond
appointed to take care of the condufl of the mandarins j
the third affixing the feals to the different public a£ts,
giving the feals to mandarins, and examining thofe of
the different difpatchesj while the fourth inquires in¬
to the merit of the grandees of the empire, not except¬
ing the princes of the imperial blood themfelves. The
principal fovereign court to which thefe four laft are
fubordinate is called Lii-pou.
2. Hou-pou, or the grand treafurer, fuperintends all
the finances of the ftate ; is the guardian and protec¬
tor of the treafures and dominions of the emperor,
keeping an account of his revenues, &c. fuperintend-
ing the management and coining of money, the pub¬
lic magazines, cuftomhoufes ; and, laftly, keeping an
exaff regifter of all the families in the empire. To
affiil this court, 14 others are appointed throughout
the different provinces of the empire.
3. Li-pou, or the court ef ceremonies. “ It is an
undoubted fa£t (lays 1VI. Grofier), that ceremonies
form, in part, the bafe of the Chinefe government.
This tribunal therefore takes care to fupport them,
and enforce their obfervance j it infpeffs alfo the arts
and fciences. It is confulted by the emperor when he
defigns to confer particular honours; takes care of
the annual facrifices offered up by him, and even re¬
gulates the entertainments which he gives either to
ffrangers or to his own fubjedfs. It alfo receives and
entertains foreign ambaffadors, and preferves tranquil¬
lity among the different religious fedfs in the empire.
It is affifted by four inferior tribunals.
4. Ping-fiou? or the tribunal of arms, comprehends
in its jurifdidlion the whole militia of the empire j in-
fpedfing alfo the fortreffes, magazines, arfenals, and
ftore-houfes of every kind, as well as the manUtfadlo-
ries of arms both offenfive and defenfive ; examinino-
and appointing officers of every rank. It is com^
pofed entirely of mandarins of letters ; and the
four tribunals depending upon it confift alfo of li¬
terati.”
5. The haig-pon, is a criminal bench for the whole
empire, and is affifted by 14 fubordinate tribunals.
6. The cong pou, or tribunal of public works, fur-
veys and keeps in repair the emperor’s palaces, as well
as thofe of the princes and viceroys, and the buildings
where the tribunals are held, with the temples, tombs
of the fovereigns, and all public monuments. It has
befides the fuperintendance of the ftreets, public high¬
ways, bridges, lakes, rivers, and every thing relating
either to internal or foreign navigation. Four inferior
tribunals affift in the difeharge of thefe duties; the
firft drawing the plans of public works; the fecond
ffirefting the work-fhops in the different cities of the
empire ; the third furveying the caufeways, roads,
bridges, canals, &c. ; and the fourth taking care of
the emperor’s palaces, gardens, and orchards, and re-
ceiving their produce.
Partiality All the tribunals are compofed, one half of Chi¬
ef govern- nefe, and the other of Tartars; and one of the pre-
wani^the ^ents °‘ eac^ fuPeri°r tribunal is always a Tartar
Chinefe. ^orn‘ None of the courts above deferibed, however,
has abfolute authority even in its own jurifdi&ion ;
nor can its decifions be carried into execution without -
the concurrence of another tribunal, and fometimes of
feveral others. The fourth tribunal, for inftance, has
indeed under its jurildictiun the whole troops of the
empire; but the payment of them is entrufted with
the fecond ; while the fixth has the care of the arms
tents, chariots, barks, and ftores neceffary for military
operations ; fo that nothing relative to thefe can be
put in execution without the concurrence of all the
three tribunals.
Lo prevent any unlawful combination among theCenfors.
tribunals, each has its cenfor appointed. This is an
officer vvhofe duty is merely to watch over the pro¬
ceedings of the court, without deciding upon any
thing hi ml elf. He affifts tnerefore at all affemblies,
reviles all their a£fs, and vvitnout acquainting the court
in the leaft with either his ientinients or intentions,
immediately informs the emperor of what he judges
to be amifs. He likewife gives information of the
behaviour of the mandarins, either in the public ad-
miniftration of affairs, or in their private conduct ;
nay, fometimes he will not fcruple to reprimand the
emperor for what he fuppofes to be erroneous in his
conduct.
Thefe cenfors are never removed from their places
but in order to be promoted ; and thus, holding their
offices lor life, they have the greater courage to fpeak
out when they .obferve any impropriety or abufe.
Their accufation is fufficient to fet on foot an inquiry,
which generally leads to a proof; in which cafe the
accufed is difeharged from his office, and never held in
any eftimation afterwards. The complaints of the cen¬
fors, however, are referred to the very tribunal againft
whole members they complain ; though, being afraid of
an accidatson themfelves, they very feldom pafs fen-
tence againft the accufers.
Etfides all this, the cenfors alfo form a tribunal of
their own, named tou-tche-yvcn. Its members have a
right of remonftrating with the emperor, whenever his
own intereft or that of the public renders it nec«ffary.
They infpeft all lawyers and military men in public
employments. “ In ffiort (fays M. Grofier), they
are, morally fpeaking, placed between the prince and
tiie mandarins , between tne mandarins and the peo¬
ple ; between the people and families ; between fami¬
lies and individuals ; and they generally unite to the
importance of their office incorruptible probity and in¬
vincible courage. The fovereign may, if he proceeds
to rigour, take away their lives ; but many of them,
have patiently fuffered death, rather than betray the
caufe of truth or wink at abufes. It is not fufficient
therefore to have got rid of one, they muft all be treat¬
ed in the fame manner ; the laft that might be fpared
would tread in the fame fteps with no lefs refolution
than thofe who went before him. In the annals of no
nation do we find an example of fuch a tribunal, yet
it appears to be neceffary in all without exception.
We muft not, however, imagine, that the privileges of
a cenfor give him a right to forget his duty to his
fovereign, or to communicate to the public thofe re¬
marks which he takes the liberty of making to him :
were he only to give the leaft hint of them^to his col¬
leagues, he would be puniffied with death ; and he
would ftiare the fame fate did he, in any of his repre-
fentations,
CHI [ 17 ] CHI
China, fentations, fuffer a Angle word, inconfiftent with mode-
ration or refpeft, to efcape him.”
69 There are ftill two other courts in China, both of
peculiar11^5 Pecldiar to the empire, which deferve to be men-
China. tioned. The firft is that of princes $ and which, in
conformity with its title, is compofed of princes only.
In the regifters of this tribunal are infcribed the names
of all the children of the imperial family as foon as
they are born : and to thefe are alfo configned the
dignities and titles which the emperor confers upon
them. This is the only tribunal where the princes can
be tried ; and here they are abfolved or punilhed ac¬
cording to the pleafure of the judges.
The other tribunal is that of hiftory, called by the
Chinefe han-lin-yvan. It is compofed of the greateft
geniufes of the empire, and of men of the moft pro¬
found erudition. Thefe are entrufted with the edu¬
cation of the heir apparent to the throne, and the
compilation and arrangement of the general hiltory of
the empire; which lad part of their office renders
them formidable even to the emperor himfelf. From
this body the mandarins of the firft clafs, and the pre-
fidents of the fupreme clafs, are generally chofen.
Filial piety The bafis of all the civil laws of the Chinefe is ,fi-
the bafis Hal piety. Every mandarin, who is a governor either
laws^ t^6ir a Province or city, mull inftruft the people aflem-
bled round him twice a-month, and recommend to
them the obfervance of certain falutary rules, which
are fummed up in a few ffiort fentences, and fuch as
no perfon can ever be fuppofed capable of forget-
71 tin£-
Of their The Chinefe are allowed only to have one wife,
marriages, whofe rank and age muft be nearly equal to that of
their hufbands ; but they are allowed to have feveral
concubines, whom they may admit into their houfes
without any formality, after paying the parents a fum
of money, and entering into a written engagement to
ufe their daughters well. Thefe concubines, however,
are all in fubjeftion to the lawful wife ; their child¬
ren are coniidered as hers 5 they addrefs her as mother,
and can give this title to her only. A perfon that has
once been married, whether man or woman, may law¬
fully marry again, but it is then no longer necelfary to
ftudy equality of age or condition. A man may choofe
his fecond wife from among his concubines j and, in
all cafes, this new marriage requires very few forma¬
lities. A widow is abfolute miftrefs of herfelf, and can
neither be compelled by her parents to marry again,
nor continue in a ftate of widowhood, contrary
to her own inclination. Thofe of moderate rank, how¬
ever, who have no children, do not enjoy the fame
privilege; as the parents of the former huffiand can
difpofe of her in marriage, not only without her con-
fent, but without her knowledge. The law authorizes
the difpofal of them in this manner, in order to indem¬
nify the relations of the deceafed hufband for the mo¬
ney they may have coft him. If the wife is left big
with child, this cannot take place, until Ihe is deli¬
vered ; nor can it be done at all if (he brings forth a
fon. There are likewife two exceptions 5 1. when the
parents of the widow affign her a proper maintenance }
72 and, 2. if the widow embraces a religious life, and be-
Bl,vor<f,’ comes a bonzeffe.
unlawful
marriages, -Divorces are allowed in China in cafes of adultery,
&c. mutual diflike, incompatibility of tempers, jealoufy,
Vol. VI. Part I.
&c. No hulhand, however, can put away or fell his
wife until a divorce is legally obtained j and if this re¬
gulation be not Ilriftly obferved, the buyer and feller
become equally culpable. If a wife, lawfully married,
privately withdraws herfelf from her hufband, he may
immediately commence an a£Hon at law ; by the fen-
tence of which (he becomes his Have, .and be is at li¬
berty to fell her to whom he pleales. On the other
hand, if a hufband leaves his wife for three years, the
is at liberty, after laying her cafe before the mandarins,
to take another hufband; but if ffie were to anticipate
their confent, ffie would be liable to a fevere puniffi-
ment.
Marriage is deemed illegal in China in the follow¬
ing cafes. I. If the young woman has been betrothed
to a young man, and prefents have been given and re¬
ceived by the parents of the intended hufband and
wife. 2. If in the room of a beautiful young wo¬
man another be fuflituted of a difagreeable figure $
or if the daughter of a free man marry his Have ; or
if any one give his Have to a free woman, pretending
to her parents that he is his fon or relation. In all
thefe cafes the marriage is null and void j and all thofe
who have had any ffiare in making up the match are
feverely puniffied.
3. Any mandarin of letters is forbidden to form an
alliance with any family refiding in the province or city
of which he is governor.
4. No Chinefe youth can enter into a ftate of mar¬
riage during the time of mourning for his father or
mother; and if promifes have been made before, they
ceafe immediately on that event taking place. After
the ufual time of mourning is expired, however, the
parents of the intended bride are obliged to write to
thofe of the young man, putting him in mind of his
engagement.
5. Marriage is glfo fufpended when a family expe¬
riences any fevere misfortune, and even if a near rela¬
tion were thrown into prifon j though this may be fet
afide, provided the unfortunate perfon gives his con¬
fent.
6. Two brothers cannot marry two lifters; nor is
a widower at liberty to marry his fon to the daughter
of a widow whom he choofes for his own wife. A
man is alfo forbidden to marry any of his own rela¬
tions, however diftant the degree of confanguinity be¬
tween them.
In China, every father of a family is refponfible for
the conduct of his children, and even of his domef-
tics; all thofe faults being imputed to him which it
was his duty to have prevented. Every father has the
power of felling his fon, “ provided (fays the law)
the fon has a right of felling himfelf.” This cuftom,
however, is barely tolerated among the middling and
inferior ranks ; and all are forbidden to fell them to
comedians, or people of infamous charafter or very
mean ftations.
In China a fon remains a minor during the whole
lifetime, and is even liable for the debts contrafled by
his father, thofe from gaming only excepted. Adop¬
tion is authorized by law, and the adopted child imme¬
diately enters into all the rights of a lawful fon ; only
the law gives a right to the father of making a few
difpofitions in favour of his real children. The chil¬
dren, however, whether adopted or not, cannot fuc-
C ceed
CHI [ iS ] CHI
China, ceed to the dignity or titles of their father, though they
' v ' may to his eltace. The emperor alone can confer ho¬
nours ; and even then they muft oe refigned when the
perfon attains the age of 70 j though this refignation
is confidered as an advice rather than a law. The
will of a father cannot be fet afide in China on account
of any informality j nor can any mother in this empire
make a will.
Though the Chinefe laws authorise flavery, yet the
power of the mafter extends only to thofe matters which
concern his own fervice $ and he would be punilhed
with death for taking advantage of his power to debauch
the wife of his Have.
By the laws of China hufhandmen are exempt from
the payment of taxes after they have begun to till the
earth to the beginning of harveft.
Criminal It appears, from recent information refpefting many
code. interefting particulars relating to China, that the ut-
moft attention feems to have been paid to the different
degrees of enormity attached to thole actions of men
which are denominated criminal. The code of laws
is pronounced the reverfe of fanguinary, and it is affirm¬
ed by competent judges, that if the practice in all re-
fpedls coincided with the theory, few nations could boaft
of a milder or more effectual adminiftration of juftice.
But while they do not confider the crime of pilfering a
few fmall pieces of money as of equal enormity with the
Ihedding of human blood, yet they pay too little at¬
tention to the three different circumftances under which
that action may exift; either as accidental, uninten¬
tional as to the extent of taking away life, or malici-
oufly premeditated. Even foreigners who have the
misfortune to kill a Chinefe, however cafually it may
be done, have been puniffied in the very fame manner
as a traitor or deliberate affaffin. As foreigners in¬
tending to relide in China may be at a lofs to deter¬
mine howr, when, and by what various means their
lives may be endangered, the following abftraft of the
criminal code of that country may perhaps be beneficial
to fome of our readers.
1. A man who kills another on the fuppofition of
theft, fhall be ftrangled, according to the law of homi¬
cide committed in an affray.
2. A man who fires at another with a mufket, and
kills him, ffiall be beheaded, as in cafes of wilful mur¬
der. If the fufferer be wounded, but not mortally, the
offender ffiall be fent into exile.
3. A man who puts to death a criminal who had
been apprehended, and made no refiftance, ffiall be
ftrangled, according to the law againft homicide com¬
mitted in an affray.
4. A man who falfely accufes an innocent perfon of
theft (in cafes of greateft criminality) is guilty of a
capital offence ; in all other cafes the offenders, whe¬
ther principals or acceffarres, ffiall be fent into ex¬
ile.
5. A man who wounds another unintentionally,
ftiall be tried according to the law refpedling blows
given in an affray, and the puniffiment rendered more
or lefs fevere, according to the degree of injury fuf-
tained.
6. A man who, intoxicated with liquor, commits
outrages againft the laws, ffiall be exiled to a defert
country, there to remain in a ftate of fervitude.
For this abftraft we are indebted to the humane in-
2
terference of the fupercargoes of the Eaft India Com- china,
pany, on account of the difagreeable dilputes which 1 -n v —
frequently took place with the Chinefe government,
owing to accidents of the molt trivial nature, which
the people fometimes met with from the Bntiffi in the
port of Canton.
The blood of a traitor is fuppofed to be contamina¬
ted in this country to the 10th generation, although
the law in general is conceived to be fatisfied with im¬
plicating the neareft male relatives in the guilt of the
actual perpetrator of the crime, but with commutation
of puniffiment from death to exile. It appears to us,
that nothing can be conceived more tyrannical than a
law which pretends to inflift puniffiment on an inno¬
cent perfon, fince no man can be a traitor, merely
from the circumftance of his being the relation of one,
and the abfurdity of fuppofing that a non-exiftence b
capable of committing a crime, muft be obvious to
every man. The fifth law in the forementioned ex¬
tract is peculiarly cruel and unjuft, finee it fubjefls a
man to different degrees of puniffiment, according to
the different effe£ts which thofe aftions may produce.
It is with a degree of national pride that we turn from
this cruel, abfurd fpecimen of Chinefe legiflation, this
ftrange judicial thermometer, if we may be allowed the
expreffion, to the nice diferiminations which are made
by the laws of our own country refpe£ting the (bedding
of blood, the gradations of guilt attending which we
have already mentioned, and which are diftinguiffied by
the appropriate names of manjlaughter, culpable homi~
cide, and ivilful murder.
The denunciations of Mofes, it may be faid, have
fome refemblance to this gothic code of the Chinefe,
efpecially when he declares that the deity would vifit
the iniquities of the fathers upon the children to the
third and fourth generation. It is not our province in
this account of China, to write an apology for Mofes in
this particular inftance, although it muft be granted that
he had a moft obftinate and refraftory race of beings to
govern, and to preferve a becoming degree of order and
fubordination among them. He might therefore have no¬
thing more in view than political expedience, an opi¬
nion which we are the more encouraged to entertain,
when we find the prophet Ezekiel reprobating the
idea of making the innocent fuffer for the guilty, in
the following beautiful paffage. “ What mean ye that
ye ufe this proverb concerning the land of Ifrael, lay¬
ing, the fathers have eaten four grapes, and the chil¬
dren’s teeth are fet on edge ? As I live, faith the Lord,
ye {hall not have occafion any more to ufe this proverb
in Ifrael. Behold all fouls are mine ; as the foul of
the father, fo alfo the foul of the fon, is mine. The
foul that finneth, it (hall die. The fon (hall not bear
the iniquity of the father, neither (hall the father bear
the iniquity of the (on : the righteoufnefs of the right¬
eous fhali be upon him, and the wickednefs of the wick¬
ed ffiall be upon liiml'1
In criminal matters every perfon accufed muft be
examined before five or fix tribunals ; and whole in¬
quiries are dire&ed not only againft him, but againft
his accufer, and the witneffes that appear in the caufe.
He is, however, obliged to remain in prifon during
the procefs : “ but (fays M. Grofier) the Chinele
prifons are not horrible dungeons like thofe of fo ma¬
ny other nations j they are fpacious, and have even a
degree
C H I
China.
74, ,
Method of
inflicting
degree of convenience. One of the mandarins is ob¬
liged to infpefl them frequently •, and this he does
with the greater pundluality, as he muft anfwer for
thofe who are fick. He is obliged to fee them pro¬
perly treated, to fend for phyficians, and to fupply
them with medicines at the emperor’s expence. If
any of them dies, he muft inform the emperor, who
perhaps will order fome of the higher mandarins to ex¬
amine whether the former has difcharged his duty faith¬
fully or not.
The ftighteft punifhment in China is the baftinado ;
and the number of blows is to be determined by the
the bafti- degree of the offender’s guilt. Twenty is the loweft
na^0' number : and in this cafe the puniftiment is confider-
ed as having nothing infamous in it, but being only a
Ample paternal correftion. In this way the emperor
fometimes orders it to be infli&ed on his courtiers j
which does not prevent them from being afterwards
received into favour, and as much refpedled as before.
Every mandarin may inflift the baftinado when any
one forgets to falute him, or when he fits in judgment
in public. The inftrument of corre&ion is called pan-
tfee, and is a piece of bamboo a little flatted, broad
at the bottom, and polifhed at the upper extremity^
in order to manage it more eafily with the hand.
When the puniftiment is to be inflitted, the magif-
trate fits gravely behind a table, having on it a bag
filled with fmall flicks, while a number of petty offi¬
cers ftand around him, each furniftied with thefe pan-
tfees, and waiting only for his fignal to make ufe of
them. The mandarin then takes out one of the little
flicks contained in the bag, and throws it into the hall
of audience. On this the culprit is feized and ftretch-
ed out with his belly towards the ground $ his breeches
are pulled down to his heels, and an athletic domef-
tic applies five fmart blows with his pan-tfee. If the
judge draws another fmall flick from the bag, ano¬
ther officer fucceeds, and beftows five more blows;
and fo on until the judge makes no more fignals. When
the puniftiment is over, the criminal muft throw him-
felf on his knees, incline his body three times to the
earth, and thank the judge for the care he takes of his
education.
F°r faults of a higher nature, the carrying of a
or wooden wooden collar, called by the Portuguefe the cangue, is
collar. inflidled. This machine is compnfed of two pieces of
wood hollowed out in the middle, which, when put
together, leave fufficient room for the neck. Thefe
are laid upon the ffioulders of the criminal, and join¬
ed together in fuch a manner, that he can neither fee
his feet nor put his hands to his mouth j fo that he is
incapable of eating without the affiftance of another.
This difagreeable burden he is obliged to carry day
and night j its weight is from 50 to 200 pounds, ac¬
cording to the enormity of the crime, to which the
time of carrying it is alfo proportioned. For rob¬
bery, breaking the peace, or difturbing a family, or
being a notorious gambler, it is generally carried three
months. During all this time the criminal is not al¬
lowed to take ftielter in his own houfe, but is ftationed
for a certain fpace of time, either in fome public
fquare, the gate of a city or temple, or perhaps even
of the tribunal where he was condemned. On the
expiration of his term of punUhment, he is again
brought before the judge, who exhorts him in a friend-
[ 19 ] CHI
ly manner to amend •, and after giving him 20 found
blows difeharges him.
Cliiaa.
Baniftunent is inflifted for crimes of a nature infe-^.7^
rior to homicide, and the duration is often for life, ifmer.t, See.
the criminals be fent into Tartary. Some culprits
are condemned to drag the royal bark for three years,
or to be branded in the cheeks with a hot iron, indi¬
cating the nature of their tranfgreffions. Robbery be¬
tween relations is more feverely punifhed than any o-
ther •, and that is accounted the moft atrocious where
younger brothers or nephexvs appropriate to them-
felves beforehand any part of the fucceffion in which
they have a right to (hare with their elder brothers or
nephexvs.
Information againft a father or mother, grandfather Punifli-
or grandmother, uncle or eldeft brother, even though p1601 ot
the accufation be juft, is puniffied with 100 bloxvs of
the pan-tfee and three years baniftrment. If the accufa-‘r^nts ^
tion be falfe, it is puniffied xvith death. Deficiency in
proper filial refpedd to a father, mother, grandfather, or
grandmother,is puniftied with 100 bloxvs of the pan-tfee j
abufive language to thefe relations is death byftrangling;
to ftrike them is puniffied by beheading ; and if any one
prefumes to hurt or maim them, his fleffi is torn from
his bones with red-hot pincers, and he is cut into a
thoufand pieces. Abufing an elder brother is puniffied
xvith 100 bloxvs of the pan-tfee j ftriking him, xvith
the puniffiment of exile. yg
Homicide, even though accidental, is puniffied xvith Capital pu-
death in China. A rope about fix or feven feet in
length, with a running noofe, is thrown over the cri-
minal’s head ; and a couple of domeftics belonging to
the tribunal pull it ftrongly in different dire£lions.
They then fuddenly quit it, and in a few moments
give a fecond pull; a third is feldom neceffary to fi-
niffi the bufinefs. Beheading is accounted in China
the mod diffionourable of all puniffiments, and is re-
ferved only for defperate affaffins, or thofe xvho commit
fome crime equally atrocious xvith murder. To be cut
in a thoufand pieces is a puniffiment inflifled only up¬
on ftate criminals or rebellious fubje£Is. It is perform¬
ed by tying the criminal to a poft, fealping the (kin
from the head and pulling it over the eyes. The exe¬
cutioner then tears the flefti from different parts of the
unhappy wretch’s body ; and never quits this horrible
employment till mere fatigue obliges him to give over:
the remains of the body are then left to the barbarous
fpe&ators, xvho finiffi xvhat he has begun. Though
this puniftiment, hoxvever, has been infli&ed by fome
emperors with all the dreadful circumftances juft men¬
tioned, the laxv orders only the criminal’s belly to be
opened, his body to be cut into feveral pieces, and
then throxvn into a ditch or river.
The torture, both ordinary and extraordinary, is
ufed in China. The former is applied to the hands
or feet: for the hands, fmall pieces of xvood are ap¬
plied diagonally between the fingers of the criminal j
his fingers are then tied clofe xvith cords, and he is
left for fome time in that painful fituation. The tor¬
ture for the feet is dill worfe. An inftrument, con¬
fiding of three crofs pieces of wood, is provided, that
in the middle being fixed, the others moveable. The
feet of the criminal are then put into this machine,
which fqueezes them fo clofe that the ankle bones
become flat. The extraordinary torture confifts in
C 2 making
C H I
t
- 79
M. Gro-
fier’s gene
ral view of
China- making fmall gafhes in the body, and then tearing off
“"—v"-— the fkin like thongs. It is never applied but for
fome great crime, fuch as treafon, or where the crimi¬
nal’s guilt has been clearly proved, and it is neceffary
to make him difcover his accomplices.
Notwithllanding thefe dreadful punifhments, M.
Grofier is at great pains to prove that the laws of the
the Chinefe Chinefe, with regard to criminal matters, are extreme-
taws. ly mild. “ One law (fays he) will no doubt appear
exceedingly fevere and rigorous ; it inflifts the punilh-
ment of death on thofe who ufe pearls. Thole who
read the hiftory of China will be apt to fall into cer¬
tain miftakes refpefting the penal laws of that na¬
tion. Some of its fovereigns have indulged them-
felves in gratifying fanguinary caprices which were
not authorized by the laws, and which have often been
confounded with them 5 but thefe princes are even yet
ranked among the number of tyrants, and their names
are Hill abhorred and detefted throughout the whole
empire. 1 he Chinefe, in their criminal procedure,
have a great advantage over all other nations: it is
almoft impoflible that an innocent man fliould ever be¬
come a viflim to a falfe accufation : in fuch cafes the
accufer and witneffes are expofed to too much danger.
The llownefs of the procefs, and the nuraberlefs re-
vifions it undergoes, are another fafeguard for the ac-
cufed. In Ihort, no fentence of death is ever carried
into execution until it has been approved and con¬
firmed by the emperor. A fair copy of the whole
procefs is laid before him ; a number of other copies
are alfo made out, both in the Chinefe and Tartar
languages, which the emperor fubmits to the exami¬
nation of a like number of doctors, either Tartars or
Chinefe. When the crime is of great enormity, and
clearly proved, the emperor writes with his own hand
at the bottom of the fenience, “ When you receive
this order, let it be executed without delay.” In
cafes where the crime, though punilhable by death
according to law, is ranked only in the ordinary
elafs, the emperor writes at the bottom of the fen¬
tence, “ Let the criminal be detained in prifon, and
executed in autumn $” that being the feafon in
which they are generally executed, and all on the fame
day.
The emperor of China never figns an order for the
. ^ execution of a criminal till he has prepared himfelf by
be pardon-7 Like other monarchs he has the power of
«d. giving pardons; but in this refpedl is much more li¬
mited than any other. The only cafes in which the
Chinefe monarch can remit the punithment inflicted
by law are, 1. To the fon of a widow who has not
married again j 2. To the heir of an ancient family ;
3. The defendants of great men or citizens who have
deferved well of their country j and, 4. laftly, The fons
or grandfons of a mandarin, who has become illuftri-
ous, and diftinguifhed himfelf by faithfully difchar-
ging the duties of his office. Neither a child, nor a
man of very advanced age, can be cited before a tri¬
bunal. The fon of a very aged father and mother is
pardoned, if private property or the public peace be
not hurt by giving him a pardon *, and if the fons of
fuch a father and mother be all guilty, or accomplices
in the fame crime, the youngeft is pardoned in order
to comfort his parents.
In China the accufed are always treated with ten-
C H I
being accounted innocent
China.
80
Cafes in
which
20 ]
dernefs and lenity, being accounted innocent until
their guilt be clearly proved ; and even then, liberty
excepted, they are fcarce allowed to want for anything.
A jailor is puniffied who behaves rigoroully towards
his prifoners; and the judges muft likewife anfwer at
their peril for any additions to the feverity of the law;
depolition being the flighted punifliment inflifted up¬
on them.
Subftitution is fometimes allowed by the laws of
China j fo that the near relation of a guilty per-
fon may put himfelf in the criminal’s place, pro¬
vided however, that the chaftifement be flight, and
the accufed his ancient friend. The fons, grand¬
fons, wife, and brothers of a baniflied Chinefe, are al¬
lowed to follow him into exile ; and the relations of all
perfons are permitted to vifit them in prifons, and to
give them every affiftance in their power ; to do which
good offices they are even encouraged, inftead of being
prevented.
Every city in China is divided into different quar-of the ci-
ters, each of which is fubje&ed to the infpedtion of ties and
a certain officer, who is anfwerable for whatever paffesgo-
in. the places under his jurifdi&ion. Fathers of fa.vernment*
milies, as we have already obferved, are anfwerable for
the condudt of their children and domeftics. Neigh¬
bours are even obliged to anfvver for one another,
and are bound to give every help and affiftance in cafes
of robbery, fire, or any accident, efpecially in the
night-time. All the cities are furniffied with gates,
which are barricaded on the commencement of night.
Centinels are alfo polled at certain diftances through¬
out the ftreets, who ftop all who walk in the night,
and a number of horfemen go round the ramparts for
the fame purpofe j fo that it is almoft impoffible to e-
lude their vigilance by favour of the darknefs. A ftri6t
watch is alfo kept during the day-time j and all
thofe who give any fufpicion by their looks, accent, or
behaviour, are immediately carried before a mandarin,
and fometimes even detained until the pleafure of the
governor be known.
Private quarrels do not often happen in China, and
it is rare that they are attended with a fatal iffue.
The champions fometimes decide the quarrel with
their fills, but moll frequently refer the cafe to a man¬
darin, who very often orders them both a found drub¬
bing. None but military people are permitted to
wear arms in public; and this privilege is extended
even to them only during the time of war, or when
they accompany a mandarin, mount guard, or attend
a review. Proftitutes are not allowed to remain within
the walls of a city, or to keep a houfe of their own
even in the fuburbs. They may, however, lodge in
the houfe of another ; but that other is accountable
for every difturbance which may happen on their ac-
count. ... „ 82
In all the Chinele cities, and even in fome of their Borrowing
ordinary towns, there is an office where money may be°fmoney*
borrowed upon pledges at the common rate of the
country ; which, however, is no lefs than 30 per cent.
Every pledge is marked with a number when left at
the office, and mull be produced when demanded j
but it becomes the property of the office if left there
a Angle day longer than the term agreed upon for the
payment of the money. The whole tranfa6lion
remains an inviolable fecretj not even the name
of
21
A
CHI [
ch;na. of the perfon who leaves the pledge being inquired
This mode of procuring a fupply of money for the
exigencies of the moment, has been long known in
Britain, and the people who thus lend money on pledges
under the fan&ion of government, have a moil exor¬
bitant intereft, as well as in China, but we are forry
to add, that it is by no means conduced with fuch
profound fecrecy. The perfon’s name and furname
who offers a pledge muft be inferted in the pawn-bro¬
ker’s books, who is thus enabled to make the tranf-
a&ion as public as he pleafes. Inftitutions of this na¬
ture are no doubt of confiderable utility to the modeft
poor during a period of embarralfment j but the mon-
ftrous evils to which they have given rife are more
than fufficient to counterbalance their advantages. We
fhould deem an open avowal of poverty and want to
be infinitely preferable to an application to fuch a fink
of corruption and extortion, affured that genuine dil-
trefs will never want a friend among the fons of bene-
g3 volence or philanthropy.
Of the Chi- Great attention is paid by the adminiftration of
aefe roads. China to the conveniency of travellers. The roads
are generally very broad, all of them paved in the
fouthern provinces, and fome in the northern ; but
neither horfes nor carriages are allowed to pafs along
thefe. In many places valleys have been filled up, and
rocks and mountains cut through, for the purpofe of
making commodious highways, and to preferve them
as nearly as poffible on a level. They are generally
bordered with very lofty trees, and in fome places
with walls eight or ten feet high, to prevent travellers
from going into the fields ; but openings are left in
proper places, which give a palfage into crofs roads
that lead to different villages. Covered feats are
erefted on all the great roads, where travellers may
{belter themfelves from the inclemency of the weather 5
temples and pagods are alfo frequent, into which tra¬
vellers are admitted without fcruple in the day-time,
but often meet with a refufal in the night. In thefe
the mandarins only have a right to reft themfelves as
long as they think proper. There is, however, no
want of inns on the great roads, or even the crofs ones
in China ; but they are ill fupplied with provifions ;
and thofe who frequent them are even obliged to car¬
ry beds along with them to deep on, or elfe take up
with a plain mat.
Towers are eredled on all the roads of this great
empire, with watch-boxes on the top, with flag-ftaffs,
for the convenience of fignals in cafe of any alarm.
Thefe towers are fquare, and generally conftrufled of
brick, but feldom exceed twelve feet in height. They
are built, however, in fight of one another, and are
guarded by foldiers, who run with great fpeed from
one to another, carrying letters which concern the
emperor. Intelligence of any remarkable event is alfo
conveyed by fignals j and thus the court is informed
with furprifing quicknefs of any important matter.
Thofe which are built on any of the roads conducing
to court, are furniftied with battlements, and have alfo
] C H t
very large bells of caft iron* According to law thefe Ghina.
towers ftiould be only five lys, about half a Frenchv——'
league, diftant from one another. g4
There is no public poft-office in China, though fe-Method of
veral private ones have been eftabliftied ; but the cou-convey*
riers and officers charged with difpatches for the em-ance*
pire have only a right to make ufe of them. This in¬
convenience, however, excepted, travellers find con¬
veyance very eafy from one part of China to ano¬
ther. Great numbers of porters are employed in every
city, all of whom are affociated under the conduct of
a chief, who regulates all their engagements, fixes the
price of their labour, receives their hire, and is refpon-
iible for every thing they carry. When porters are
wanted, he furnifhes as many as may be neceffary, and
gives the fame number of tickets to the traveller; who
returns one to each porter w'hen they have conveyed
their loads to an appointed place. Thefe tickets are
carried back to the chief, who immediately pays them
from the money he received in advance. On all the
great roads in China there are feveral offices of this
kind, which have a fettled correfpondence with others;
the travellers therefore have only to carry to one of
thefe offices a lift of fuch things as they wifh to have
tranfported : this is immediately written down in a
book ; and though there fhould be occafion for two,
three, or four hundred porters, they are inftantly fur-
nithed. Every thing is weighed before the eyes of
their chief, and the hire is fivepence per hundred
weight for one day’s carriage. An exaft regifter of
every thing is kept in the office ; the traveller pays
the money in advance, after which he has no occafion
to give himfelf any farther trouble ; on his arrival at
the city he defigns, his baggage is found at the cor-
refponding office, and every thing is delivered to him
with the moft fcrupulous exa&nefs.
The cuftomhoufes are here regulated by the gene-cu^0l^_
ral police of the country ; and according to M. Gro-houfes.
fier’s account, thefe cuftomhoufe officers are the moft
civil in the world. They have no concern with any
clafs of people but the merchants, whom they take
care not to diftrefs by any rigorous exadlions ; nei¬
ther, though they have authority to do fo, do they
flop travellers till their baggage is examined, nor do
they ever require the ftnalleft fee from them. Duties
are paid either by the piece or by the load ; and in the
former cafe credit is given to the merchant’s book
without afking any queftions. A mandarin is appoint¬
ed by the viceroy of each province to infpeft the cuf-
tomhoufes of the whole diftritft; and the mandarins
have alfo the care of the poft-offices.
In former times the only money uled in China wasMoney0f
made of fmall fhells, but now both filver and copper the empire,
coin are met with. The latter confifts of round
pieces about nine-tenths of an inch (a) in diameter,
with a fmall fquare hole in the middle, infcribed with
two Chinefe words on one fide, and two Tartar ones
on the other. The filver pieces are valued only by
their weight. For the convenience of commerce the
metal is therefore caft into plates of different fizes :
and
(a) The Chinefe foot is longer by one hundredth part than the French, and the inch is divided into ten
parts.
CHI [2
China, and for want of fmall coin, a Chinefe always carries
u-—v—about him his fcales, weights, and a pair of fciflars to
cut the metal. This operation is performed by put¬
ting the filver between the fciflars, and then knocking
them againft a (tone till the pieces drop off. In gi¬
ving of change, however, people have no right to va¬
lue filver by the numerical value of copper, this be¬
ing entirely regulated by the intrinfic value of the me¬
tals. Thus, an ounce of filver will fometimes be
worth iqoo copper pieces, and fometimes only 800 ;
and thus the copper money of China may frequently
be fold for more than it would pafs for in commerce.
The emperor would lofe much by this recoinage, were
he not the foie proprietor of all the copper mines in
China. It is, however, exprefsly forbidden to employ
copper coin in any manufaflure where it might be
employed as plain copper, and it is alfo forbidden to
be fold for the purpofe of melting : but, if the price of
the metal has not fallen, the infraction of this law is
not very feverely punilhed. On the other hand, if
the value of unwrought copper exceeds that of the
coin, a quantity of the latter is ilfued out to reftore the
equilibrium.
To keep up a conftant circulation of all the coin in
the empire, the Chinefe government are attentive to
preferve an equilibrium between the proportional value
of the gold and filver j that is, to regulate the intrinfie
value of each in fuch a manner that the poffeflfor of
filver may not be afraid to exchange it for copper,
nor the poffeffor of copper for filver. The method
ufed for this purpofe is, when filver becomes fcarce, to
make all the payments for fome time in filver j but if
copper, to make them all for fome time in that metal
87 only*
Of the Chi- The commerce of China is under the infpeClion of
nefe com- the tribunal of finances $ but on this fubjeCt the Chi-
merce. nepe entertain an opinion quite different from that of
the Europeans. Commerce, according to them, is
only ufeful as far as it eafes the people of their fuper-
fluities, and procures them neceffaries. For this rea-
fon they confider even that which is carried on at
Canton as prejudicial to the intereft of the empire.
“ They take from us (fay the Chinefe) our filks, teas,
and porcelain : the price of thefe articles is raifed
throughout the provinces : fuch a trade therefore can¬
not be beneficial. The money brought us by Euro¬
peans, and the high-priced baubles that accompany it,
are mere fuperfluities to fuch a ftate as ours. We
have no occafion for more bullion than what may be
neceffary to anfwer the exigencies of government, and
to fupply the relative wants of individuals. It was
faid by Kouan-tfe, two thoufand years ago, That the
money introduced does not enrich a kingdom in any
other way than as it is introduced by commerce. No
commerce can be advantageous long, but that which
confifts in a mutual exchange of things neceffary or
ufeful. That trade, whether carried on by barter or
money, which has for its objefl the importing of ar¬
ticles that tend to the gratification of pride, luxury,
or curiofity, always fuppofes the exiftence of luxury :
but luxury, which is an abundance of fuperfluities
among certain claffes of people, fuppofes the want of
neceffaries among a great many others. The more
horfes the rich put to their carriages, the greater will
be the number of thofe who are obliged to walk on
2 ] CHI
foot $ the larger and more magnificent their houfes china
are, fo much the more confined and wretched muff ■
thofe of the poor be j and the more their tables are
covered with a variety of difhes, the more muff the
number of thofe increafe who are reduced to the ne-
ceflity of feeding upon plain rice. Men, united by
fociety in a large and populous kingdom, can employ
their induftry, talents, and economy, to no better
purpofe than to provide neceflfaries for all, and pro¬
cure convenience for fome.” gg
The only commerce confidered by the Chinefe asHiftoryof
advantageous to their empire, is that with Ruflia and th.e trade
Tartary; by which they are fupplied with thofe furs Ruf*
fo neceffary in the northern provinces. The difputes ia’
concerning the limits of the refpedtive empires of
Ruflia and China feem to have paved the way to this
commerce. Thefe difputes were fettled by treaty on
the 27th of Auguft 1689, under the reign of Ivan
and Peter Alexiowitz. The chief of the embaffy on
the part of Ruflia was Golovin governor of Siberia ;
and two Jefuits were deputed on the part of the em¬
peror of China ; and the conferences were held in La¬
tin, with a German in the Ruffian ambaffador’s train,
who was acquainted with that language. By this trea¬
ty the Ruffians obtained a regular and permanent trade
with China, which they had long defired ; but in re¬
turn they yielded up a large territory, befides the na¬
vigation of the river Amour. The firfi intercourfe
had taken place in the beginning of the 17th centu¬
ry ; at which time a fmall quantity of Chinefe mer-
chandife was procured by fome Ruffian merchants
from the Kalmuck Tartars. The rapid and profitable
fale of thefe commodities encouraged certain Siberian
wayvodes to attempt a direft and open communication
with China. For this purpofe feveral deputations were
fent to the emperor ; and though they failed of obtain¬
ing the grant of a regular commerce, their attempts
were attended with fome confequences of importance.
Thus the Ruffian merchants were tempted to fend
traders occafionally to Peking ; by which means a
faint connexion was j u with that metropolis.
This commerce, however, was at laft interrupted by
the commencement of hoftilities on the river Amour ;
but after the conclufion of the treaty in 1689, was re¬
fumed with uncommon alacrity on the part of the Ruf¬
fians : and the advantages thence arifing were found
to be fo confiderable, that a defign of enlarging it was
formed by Peter the Great. Ifbrand Ides, a native of
the duchy of Holflein, then in the Ruffian fervice,
was therefore defpatched to Peking in 1692 ; by whofe
means the liberty of trade, before confined to indivi¬
duals, was now extended to caravans. In the mean
time, private merchants continued to trade as before,
not only with the Chinefe, but alfo at the head quar¬
ters of the Mogul Tartars. The camp of thefe ro¬
ving Tartars, which w'as generally Rationed near the
confluence of the Orhon and Toula rivers, between the
fouthern frontiers of Siberia and the Mogul defert,
thus became the feat of an annual fair. Complaints,
however, were foon made of the diforderly behaviour
of the Ruffians ; on which the Chinefe monarch
threatened to expel them from his dominions entirely,
and to allow them neither to trade with the Chinefe
nor Moguls. This produced another embaffy to Pe¬
king in 1719, when matters were again adjufted to
the
CHI [ 23 ] CHI
China, the fatisfa£Uon of both parties. The reconciliation
v ■—» 1 was of no long duration ; for the Ruffians having foon
renewed their diforderly behaviour, an order for their
expulfion was iffued in 1722, and all intercourfe be¬
tween the two nations forbidden. The differences
were once more made up in 1727, and a caravan al¬
lowed to go to Peking once in three years, provided
it confifted of no more than a hundred perfons 5 and
that during their flay their expences fhould not, as for¬
merly, Ije defrayed by the emperor of China. The
Ruffians at the fame time obtained permiffion to build
a church within the precin&s of the caravanfary ; and
four priefts were allowed to refide at Peking for
the celebration of divine fervice j the fame indulgence
being granted to fome Ruffian fcholars, for the pur-
pofe of learning the Chinefe language, and qualifying
themfelves for being interpreters between the two na¬
tions. This intercourfe continued till the year 1755 j
fince which time no more caravans have been fent to
China. It was firft interrupted by a mifunderftanding
betwixt the two courts j and though that difference
was afterwards made up, no caravans have been fent
ever fince. The enaprefs of Ruffia, fenfible that the
monopoly of the fur trade (which was entirely confin¬
ed to the caravans belonging to the crown, and pro¬
hibited to individuals) was prejudicial to commerce,
gave it up in favour of her fubjedts in 1762 j and the
centre of commerce betwixt the two nations is now at
Kiatka. Here the trade is entirely carried on by bar¬
ter. The Ruffians are prohibited from exporting their
own coin ; finding it more advantageous to take goods
in exchange than to receive bullion at the Chinefe
ftandard. The principal exports from Ruffia are furs
of different kinds ; the moft valuable of which are
thofe of fea otters, beavers, wolves, foxes, martins,
fables, and ermines; the greater part of which are
brought from Siberia and the newly difcovered iflands j
but as they cannot fupply the demand, there is a ne-
ceffity for importing foreign furs to Peterfburg, which
are afterwards fent to Kiatka. Various kinds of cloth
are likewife fent to China, as well as hardware, and
live cattle, fuch as horfes, camels, &c. The exports
from China are raw and manufadtured filk, cotton,
porcelain, rhubarb, mufk, &c. The government of
Ruffia likewife referves to itfelf the exclufive privilege
of purchafing rhubarb. It is brought to Kiatka by
fome Bukharian merchants, who have entered into a
contradl to fupply the crown with it in exchange for
furs : the exportation of the belt rhubarb is forbidden
under fevere penalties, but yet is procured in fufficient
quantities, fometimes by clandeftinely mixing it with
inferior roots, and fometimes by fmuggling it diredtly.
Great part of Europe is fupplied with rhubarb from
s Ruffia.
Empew’s revenue °f emperor of China amounts to
revenue. wore than 41 millions fterling j and might eafily be
increafed, did the fovereign incline to burden his fub»-
jedls with new impofitions. When Lord Macartney
vifited this vaft empire in the capacity of his Britan¬
nic majefty’s ambaffador, the revenue of the Chinefe
emperor was not lefs than 66 millions fterling ; but it
cannot be fuppofed that a very large ffiare of this enor¬
mous fum is adtually expended by the emperor, after
dedudting the almoft incalculable number of falaries
which it is deftined to pay, together with a {landing
army of 1,800,000 men. Yet upon the fuppofition Chin*,
that each individual is taxed equally, this enormous : 1
fum will amount to no more than 4s. a head annually,
while the fame analogy applied to Britain will make
an individual ftiare amount to 3I. There is reafon,
however, to conclude, that the Chinefe, in the above
eftimate of their {landing army, have been rather hy¬
perbolical, for Lord Macartney, from the information
communicated by Vang-ta-zin, makes the whole of the
expences of government to leave a furplus for the ufe
of the emperor of 14,043,743!. fterling, which we
prefume would be impoffible, were their Handing ar¬
my as enormous as fome of the Chinefe pretend.
Sum total of the revenue, L. 66,000,00a
Civil eftablilhment, L. 1,973,333
Military ditto, 49,982,933
 51,956,266
Surplus for the emperor, L. 14,043,734* * Barrow**
Travels,
The annual expences of government are indeed im-P’4°7*
menfe, but they are regulated in fuch a manner as
never to be augmented but in cafes of the utmoft ne-
ceffity. It even happens very often that adminiftration
makes greater favings every year. When this happens
to be the cafe, the furplus ferves to inereafe the gene¬
ral treafure of the empire, and prevents the neceffity
of new impofitions in time of war, or other public ca¬
lamities. The greater part of the taxes are paid in
kind ; thofe, for inftance, who breed filk worms, pay
their taxes in filk,. the hufbandmen in grain, the gar¬
deners in fruits, &c. This method, at the fame time
that it is exceedingly convenient for the fubjeft, is na
way detrimental to the public intereft. There are
numbers of people everywhere in the fervice of govern¬
ment, who are thus furniffied with food and clothing ;
fo that the commodities collefled as taxes are almoft
confumed in the provinces where they are levied j
what remains is fold for the behoof of the emperor,
and the money depofited in the imperial treafury*
The taxes paid in money arife principally from the ca-
ftoms and fale of fait (which belongs entirely to the
emperor), from the duties paid by veffels entering any
port, and from other impofts on various branches of
manufaftures. Excepting thefe, the trader fcarcely
contributes any thing to the exigencies of the ftate,
and the mechanic nothing at all; the whole burden of
taxation thus falling upon the hufbandman. This bur¬
den is regulated in proportion to the extent and fertir
lity of his lands ; and the greateft care has been taken
to manage matters fo, that he may neither be over¬
charged in the impofition nor haraffed in the levying
of the duties. “ The regiftering of lands (fays M.
Grofier), fo often and to no purpofe projected in
France, has been long praftifed in this empire, nofe-
withftanding its prodigious extent.”
The levying of taxes in China is as fimple as the na- Of the
ture of the thing will admit of. The duties levied taxes in
from towns and villages are carried to cities of the^”13*
third clafs ; then they are conduced to thofe of the
fecond j then to thofe of the firft; and at laft to the
capital. The levying and impofition of taxes is fub-
mitted to the tribunal of finances; and matters are fo
managed, that befides the confumption in each diftrift
for.
CHI
China.
9l.
Of lending
money,
and defi¬
ciencies in
paying in-
tereft.
Agricul¬
ture great¬
ly encou¬
raged.
for difcharging the ordinary expences of government,
fomething is left by way of referve for anfwering ac¬
cidental demands, and to be ready in cafes of neceffity.
This fum becomes gradually lefs from the capital to
cities of the firlf, fecond, and third clafs. A proper
ftatement of what is paid in the provinces, of what is
referved in the different cities, or contained in the dif¬
ferent treafuries of the empire, is fubjefted to the exa¬
mination of the grand tribunal of finances. This
revifes the whole, and keeps an exa£l account of
what is confumed, and of whatever furplus may be
left.
Lending money upon intereft has been in ufe in
China for about 2000 years. It has often been abo-
lilhed, and as often eftablilhed. The interefl, as has
been already hinted, is no lefs than 30 per cent, and
the year is only lunar. A tenth part of this interert is
paid monthly : and concerning neglefts of payment,
the following laws have been enafted. “ However
much the debt may have accumulated by months 01-
years, the principal and intereft (hall remain always
the fame. Whoever infringes this law (hall receive 40
blows of a pan-tfee ; or an hundred, if he ufes any ar¬
tifice to add the principal and intereft together.” This
law is explained by the following. “ Whoever (hall
be convicted before a mandarin of not having paid a
month’s intereft, ftiall receive ten blows; twenty for
two months, and thirty for three ; and in this manner
as far as fixty ; that is to fay, to the fixth month. The
debtor is then obliged to pay principal and intereft 5 but
thofe who obtain payment by ufing violence and force
are condemned to receive 24 blows.
Many Chinefe writers have endeavoured unfuccefs-
fully to fliow why government Ihould allow fuch ex¬
orbitant intereft to be taken for money j but the moft
fatisfadlory and rational account feems to be, that the
great intereft of money prevents the rich from pur-
chafing much land ; as landed eftates would only em-
barrafs and impoverilh them, their produce being fo
much inferior to that of money. The patrimony of a
family in China is feldom divided j and it never hap¬
pens there, as in almoft every other country, that
wealth and riches are engroffed by one part of the na¬
tion, while the other poffeffes nothing.
Agriculture is by the Chinefe confidered as the firft
and moft honourable of all profeflions $ fo that in this
empire the huftbandman enjoys many and great privi¬
leges, while the merchant and mechanic are much lefs
efteemed. He is confidered as next in dignity to offi¬
cers of ftate, from whom indeed they very frequently
originate. The foldier in China cultivates the ground,
and even the priefts are employed in agriculture, when
their convents happen to be endowed with land. From
the principle that the emperor is ablblute proprietor of
the foil, one would imagine that the tenant muft hold
his lhare of it by a very precarious tenure, yet it is
certain that when any man is difpoffeffed, his own cul¬
pable condudf is the caufe. The Chinefe are fo habi¬
tuated to confider a piece of land as their own, while
they continue to be punctual in the payment of their
rent, that a Portuguefe refident in Macao who at¬
tempted to raife the rent of his tenants, ran the hazard
of lofing his life. T here are no prodigioufly over¬
grown farms in China, no monopolizers of farms, no
wholefale dealers in grain, but every man has it in his
[ 24 3
CHI
China.
power to carry his produce to a free and open market.
Part of the crop is allowed to be ufed in diftillation 5  v~—>
but if the harveft happens to be bad, this operation is 93
prohibited. In China, the tillage of the earth is not Ceremony
only encouraged by law, but alfo by the example ofot tIieem“
the emperor, who annually tills the earth with his own
hands. The beginning of fpring in China is always^fth
reckoned to be in the month of February j but it be-his own
longs to the tribunal of mathematics to determine the hands,
precife day. The tribunal of ceremonies announces it
to the emperor by a memorial j in which every thing
requifite to be done by him is mentioned with the molt
fcrupulous exaflnefs. The fovereign then names 12
of the moft illutlrious perfons in his court to accompa¬
ny him, and to hold the plough after he has perform¬
ed his part of the ceremony. Among thefe there are
always three princes of the blood, and nine prefidents
of fupreme courts ; and if any of them are too old and
infirm to undergo the fatigue, the fubflitutes muft be
authorized by the emperor. The feftival is preceded
by a facrifice, which the emperor offers up to Chang-ti
(the ffipreme God) 5 after which he and his attend¬
ants prepare themfelves by three days falling and con¬
tinence. Others are appointed by the emperor, on the
evening before the ceremony, to go and proftrate
themfelves at the fepulchre of his anceftors, and to ac¬
quaint them, that, on the day following, he intends
to celebrate a grand facrifice. This is offered upon a
fmall mount a few furlongs diftant from the city,
which, by the indifpenfable rules of the ceremony,
muft be 50 feet in height. The Chang-ti is invoked
by the emperor, who facrifices under the title of fove-
reign pontiff, and prays for an abundant harveft in fa¬
vour of his people. He then defcends, accompanied
by the three princes and nine prefidents who are to
put their hands to the plough along with him 5 the
field fet apart for this purpofe being at a fmall diftance
from the mount. Fortj- labourers are fcledled to yoke
the oxen, and to prepare the feed which the emperor
is to fow ; and which are of five different kinds, viz.
wheat, rice, two kinds of millet, and beans. They
are brought to the fpot in magnificent boxes, carried
by perfons of the moll diftinguiftied rank. The empe¬
ror then lay* hold of the plough, and turns up feveral
furrows; the princes of the blood do the fame, and
then the prefidents ; after which the emperor throws
into the furrows the five kinds of feeds already men¬
tioned : laftly, four pieces of cotton cloth, proper for
making dreffes, are diftributed to each of the labour¬
ers, who affift in yoking the oxen and preparing the
feeds; and the fame prefents are made to forty other
perfons who have only been fpe&ators of the cere¬
mony.
“ We muft not (fays M. Grofier) judge of the Chi- Of the pea-
nefe peafants from thofe of Europe, efpecially in what fants.
relates to the lights acquired by education. Free
fchools are very numerous in every province of China,
and even fume of the villages are not deftitute of this
advantage. The fons of the poor are there received
as readily as thofe of the rich ; their duties and their
ftudies are the fame; the attention of the matters is
equally divided between them ; and from this obfcure
fource talents often fpring, which afterwards make a
confpicuous figure on the grand ftage of life. No¬
thing is more common in China than to fee the fon
of
CHI r 25 ] ' CHI
€hina °f a peafant governor of that province in which his
y, —y father had long toiled in cultivating only a few acres.
The father hirafelf, if taken from his plough, and ele¬
vated to a fuperiur fphere, might, by reviving the in-
ftru£lion he received in his youth, and efpecially it he
be endowed with genius, find himfeif fully competent
for his new employment.
Grower’s The Chinefe have been greatly reproached with the
defence of inhuman pradice of murdering their children j but
the G‘llnefethough our author cannot deny that they are guilty
ehTgeot of this pradiee, he excufes them by faying, that “ the
murdering crime when committed in China is commonly owing
and expo- to the fanaticifm of idolatry •, a fanaticifm which pre-
^klren^ va^s on^y atnung the loweft of the people. It is. ei-
c wren. ^er jn 0ht>dience to the oracle of a bonze, to deliver
themfelves from the power of magic fpells, or to dif-
charge a vow, that thefe infatuated wretches precipi¬
tate their children into the river: they imagine that,
bv fo doing, they make an expiatory facrifice to the
f;>irit of the river. All nations of antiquity almoft
have difgraced themfelves by the like horrid pradices ;
but the Chinefe are far from countenancing this barba¬
rity on that account. Befides, thefe criminal facrifices
are. never pradifed but in certain cantons of China,
where the people, blinded bv idolatry, are the dupes
of prejudice, fanaticifm, and fuperllition.—It often
happens alfo, that the bodies of thofe children which
are feen floating on the water have not been thrown
into it till after their death ; and this is likewife the
cafe with thofe which are found in the ftreets, or lying
near the public roads. The poverty of the. parents fug-
gelts this difmal refource, becaufe their children are
then buried at the expence of the public. Expofing
of children in public places is a cuftom tolerated in
China •, and government employs as much vigilance
to have them carried away in the morning, as it be-
ftows care on their education. This is certainly giving
people intimation toexpofe their children in the. night¬
time, and no doubt encourages the pradice j but the
didates of humanity are here united to thofe of found
policy. No law in China authorizes mutilation : there
are indeed eunuchs in the empire, but their number is
much lei’s than what it is generally fuppoftd to be by
Europeans. The greater part of the eunuchs belong¬
ing to the emperor and empreffes have no higher em-
^ ployment than that of fweeping the courts of juft ice.”
Gazette of Like the capital cities of European kingdoms, Pe-
f'sking. king, the metropolis of the Chinefe empire, is furniih-
ed with a gazette, which circulates into the remoteft
provinces, and which is even confidered by admini-
ftration as an effential part of the political conftitu-
tion. It is printed daily at Peking, and contains an
account of all thefe objeds to which the attention of
adminiftration is direded. In this gazette may be
feen the names of all thofe mandarins who are ftripped
of their employments, and the caufes of their difgrace j
it mentions alio the names of all thofe delinquents who
are punilhed with death ; of the officers appointed to
fill the places of the difgraced mandarins 5 the cala¬
mities which have afflided any of the provinces ; the
relief given by government 5 and the expences incur¬
red by adminiftrktion for the fubfiftence of the troops,
fupplying the wants of the people, repairing or erod¬
ing public works •, and, laftly, the remonftrances made
to the fovereign bv the fuperior tribunals, either with
Vol. VI. Part I.
regard to his public decifioms or private condivd, and China.
fometimes even with regard to both. Nothing, how-  v
ever, is contained in this gazette that has not immedi¬
ately come from the emperor, or been lubmitted to bis
infpedion •, and immediate death would be the confe-
quence of inferting a falfehood in this minifttrial paper. 97
No law or fentence, as has already been faid, i5 0f SeaK of the
any force, until the emperor’s feal has been affixed to ^naarms,
it. This is about eight inches fquare, and is made ofg£C>
fine jafper, a kind of precious ftone much efteemed
in China ; of which only the emperor is allowed to
have a feal. Thofe given to princes as marks of ho¬
nour are compofed of gold ; the feals of the viceroys
and great mandarins, of filver j while thofe of inferior
mandarins and magiftrates are made only of lead or
copper. The fize of thefe feals is greater or fmaller
according to the rank their poflefiors hold in the tri¬
bunals or as mandarins j and when any of them hap¬
pens to be worn out, intimation muft be fent to the
next fuperior tribunal on winch a new one is fent,
and the old one muft then be delivered up. The com-
miffion of every infpedtor fent into the provinces muft
alfo be confirmed by the emperor’s feal. The duty
of thefe officers is to examine into the conduft of go¬
vernors, magiftrates, and private individuals ; and in-
ftances are recorded of emperors themfelves affuming
the office of infpedlors in fome of the provinces. Thefe
officers are not only fuperior to all the magiftrates,
but even to the viceroys of the provinces themfelves.
When a fuperior magiftrate behaves ill to an inferior
one, the former inftantly becomes the prifoner of the
infpeiftor, and is fufpended from his office until he has
cleared himfeif from every imputation laid to his
charge. The viceroy, however, is allowed to enjoy his
office until the report of the infpeftor has been tranf-
mitted to the emperor.
Thefe viceroys are diftinguilhed by the title olTfong- Pi wer of
ton, and are always mandarins of the firft clafs, poflcfl- thevice-
ing an almoft unlimited power within their diftri&s.
They march abroad with all the pomp of royal mag¬
nificence, never quitting their palaces, on the molt
trifling occafion, without a guard of 100 men. A
viceroy is the receiver-general of all the taxes collect¬
ed in the province, tranfmitting them to the capital,
after having referved what he judges neceffary for the
demands of his diftriCl. All law-fuits muft be brought
before his tribunal j and he has the power of palling
fentence of death, but it cannot be put in execution with¬
out being firft carried to the emperor. Every three
years he fends to court a report of the conduCI of the
mandarins fubordinate to him *, and according to the
contents, they are either continued or difgraced. Thofe
of whom he makes an unfavourable report are puniftied
in proportion to their delinquency j while, on the other
hand, thofe who have the good fortune to be well re¬
ported are rewarded in a fimilar proportion. ^
The principal mandarins are fometimes broken and Degrada-
difmilTed from all their employments, while others are ti n of
only removed fotne degrees lower. Thofe who have inant'ar*ns*
been degraded ten fteps run a great rilk of never be¬
ing employed again. Thefe degraded mandarins are
kept in perpetual remembrance of their misfortune, by
being obliged to mention it in every public order they
iffue fort h in their inferior ftation •, thus : “ I fuch a
mandarin, degraded one, two, three, &c. fteps, com-
D mand
CHI [ 26 ] CHI
China, mand and older,” &c. Over tliefe inferior tnanda-
rins the infpe&or of the province has a very unlimited
authority, and can, by his own power, deprive them of
their employments for a great offence 5 nor does he
confult the court excepting where the immediate pu-
nifhment of the criminal is not neceffary. Every one
of the mandarins, of whatever rank or denomination,
is obliged, once in three years, to give in writing an
exadd account of the faults he has committed in the
execution of his office. If he is a mandarin belonging
to any of the four firft claffes, this confeffion is exami¬
ned at court -r but if it is made by any of the infe¬
rior ones, it muff be laid before the provincial tribunal
of the governor. Government, however, is not fa-
tisfied even with this confeffion j inquiry is made into
the truth of it, and the conduit of the mandarin is fcru-
tinized with the utmoft feverity, the informations be¬
ing fubjefted to the tribunal of mandarins ; where they
. are carefully examined, the merits and demerits of
thdfe fubjeited to this political inquifition carefully
balanced, and their names afterwards divided into three
claffes. The firft confifts of thofe for whom rewards
and preferment are intended: the fecond, for whom
gentle reproof and admonition are thought neceffary j
and the third, of thofe who are to be fufpended for
fome time, or removed altogether, from their offices.
Of thefe laft fome are allowed to continue $ but they
receive no falary, and are not only deprived of all
their emoluments, but even of their honours. If they
have been guilty of any a&ion tending to opprefs the
people, or to occafion a famine or fcareity among the
lower ranks, their punifhment is not confined to dif-
miffion from their offices, but they are alfo criminally
impeached. The family burying-place of every Chi-
nefe is accounted facred ; none dares cut down the
trees with which it is overthadowed until they become
decayed with age j and even then, not until their con¬
dition has been attefted by a mandarin : but for cer¬
tain crimes againft government or the people, the bu¬
rying-place of a mandarin is rafed to the foundation.
No kind of puniffiment, however, inflidled on a fa¬
ther, is fuppofed in the leaf! to affeft the chara£l:er of
his fon j and therefore, when the latter is aflced by
the emperor concerning his family, he will perhaps
coolly anfwer, “ My father was difgraced for fuch a
Crime, my grandfather was beheaded for fuch ano¬
ther,” without the acknowledgement being in the lead
detrimental. On the contrary, by great and import¬
ant fervices, it is poffible for him to wipe out thefe
ftains from the memory of his anceftors.
Though the empire of China is governed by Tartar
princes, the latter feem to bellow much more care
and attention on the Chinefe than their own natural
fubjefts. Should any difpute arife between a Chinefe
and Tartar, the former muff have greatly deviated
from the rules of juflice, if he is not acquitted even
by thofe tribunals which are compofed of half Chinefe
and half 7'artars. The flighteft fault committed by a
Tartar mandarin is always feverely puniffied j but the
punilhment of the Chinefe is often mitigated if the de¬
linquent be a Chinefe ; and the fame feverity is exer-
cifed towards thofe of the military department. Thofe
faults, however, are punilhed with the greatell feveri¬
ty which hurt the interells of the people j for which
reafon they feldoai fall a facrifice to that clafs of petty
tyrants who in other countries prey upon an devour cfnna'.
them. Every fuperior mandarin is obliged to inform ' v—
himfelf of the faults of his inferiors and expofe them ;
nay, he would be punilhtd for them himfelf if he did not.
Very little regard, as we have already had occafion
to obferve, is paid to hereditary rights in China. Even ()f ,;nn“e,
the princes ot the blood enjoy no other privilege by &c. in Chi-
birth but that of wearing a yellow girdle 5 and thena-
names of their children, with the exact time of their
birth, are infcribtd in a yellow book appropriated to
that purpofe. Collateral princes are diltinguifhed by
an orange girdle, and their children are marked in a
book of a red colour. The furnames of the princes
of the reigning iamily are determined by the empe¬
ror alone j the reft not being allowed to affume any
name that too much refembles thofe of the Moguls or
Chinefe. T he rank even of the emperor’s Ions dimi-
niffies one degree every generation ; fo that, at the
feventh, only the eldt-ft branch has a title to wear the
yellow girdle, the reft being funk into the rank of
plain citizens. An hereditary fovereignty, however,
paffes from one eldeft fon to another; and this title
cannot be forfeited, unlefs the poffeffor be guilty of
fome crime. In this cafe the emperor appoints to the
fucceffion either one of his younger brothers or a cou-
fin j but thefe muft be always chofen from the fame
branch, as the lawful branch cannot be deprived of its
right without the condemnation of all who compofe it.
The only hereditary authority of the other princes ex-
ifts among thefe troops called the I'artar bands. There
they enjoy, without oppofition, that rank which they
derive from their birth, but in every thing elfe are on
a level with others. They are fubjedted to a military
examination at ftated periods, and are always promo¬
ted or degraded according to the degree of fkill they
exhibit. The fame trial is undergone by the heir ap¬
parent and his fons 5 the only indulgence ftiewn them
being, that fchools are appointed for their particular
ufe. The princes are likewife indulged with a tribu¬
nal appropriated on purpofe for them, and before
which alone they can be tried. An infult offered to a
prince decorated with the yellow girdle is puniftied
with death ; but if he has omitted to put it on, the
aggreffor efcapes with a baftinading. A prince may
be put to death with the emperor’s confent 5 but he e-
fcapes every ffighter corporal puniftiment by paying a
fine. Untitled princes have very few privileges fuperior
to thofe of common citizens ; and are generally very
poor, unlefs poffeffed of fome lucrative office. Thus
they are fometimes reduced to the neceffity of accept¬
ing the higheft pay of a common foldier in the Tartar
bands. When they, or any of their children, how¬
ever, enter into the marriage-ftate, the emperor ufu-
ally makes them a prefent of too ounces of filver. He
will alfo relieve them on other occafions, affift their
widows and orphans, &c. but in all this never departs
from the moft exaft rules of economy ; fo that the
mandarins in this refpedi are much better than the re¬
lations of the fovereign himfelf. I0I
With, regard to the ancient religion of China, F. p. Amiot’s
Amiot informs us, that, after making every poffible account of
refearch, comparing and reafoning upon his obferva-the ancient
tions, he at laft concluded, that “ The Chinefe are areligi°nof
diftinft people, who have ftill preferved the chara6lerif-^mU*
tic marks of their frrft origin j a people whtfe primi¬
tive.
[ 27 1 CHI
is the union of the three tfni (powers, principles, or
intelligences j for, united, they direft, create, and
C H I
live doflrine will be found, by thofe who take the trou¬
ble of inveftigating it thoroughly, to agree in its ef-
fential parts with the do&rine of the chofen people,
before Mofes, by the command of God himfelf, had
configned the explanation of it to the facred records •,
8 people, in a word, whofe traditional knowledge,
■when freed from whatever the ignorance or fuperlti-
tion of later ages has added to it, may be traced back
from age to age, and from epoch a to epocha, with¬
out interruption, for the fpace of 4000 years, even to
the renewal of the human race by the grandfon of
Noah.” The king, or canonical books of the Chinefe,
everywhere inculcate the belief of a Supreme Being,
the author and preferver of all things. Under him
they mention the names of Tien, or heaven ; Chnng-
tien, or Supreme heaven Chang ti, or Supreme Lord 5
and of Hoang-chan-ti, Sovereign and Supreme Lord :
“ Names (fays M. Grofier) correfponding to thofe
which we ufe when we fpeak of God, the Lord, the
Almighty, the Moft High.”
According to the Chinefe books, the Supreme Be¬
ing is the principle of every thing that exifts, and the
father of all living •, he is eternal, immoveable, and
independent j his power knows no bounds 5 his fight
equally comprehends the paft, prefent, and the future,
penetrating even into the inmoft receffes of the heart.
Heaven and earth are under his government *, all
events, all revolutions, are the confequences of his will ;
he is pure, holy, and impartial ; wickednefs offends
his fight ; but he beholds with an eye of complacency
the virtuous adlions of men. Severe, yet juft, he pu-
nifties vice in a ftriking manner even on the throne,
and often precipitates from thence the guilty, to place
upon it the man who walks after his own heart, whom
he hath raifed from obfcurity. Good, merciful, and
full of pity, he relents on the repentance of the wic¬
ked : public calamities, and the irregularities of the fea-
fons, are onlyfalutary warnings, which his fatherly good-
nefs gives to men to induce them to reform and amend.
The performance of religious worlhip at the pro¬
per and appointed times, has given occafion to the great
exaflnefs with refpeifl to the kalendar, which is re¬
markable throughout the empire of China; and all
the celebrated emperors have begun their reigns with
a reformation of it. Our hiftorians, however, not
contented with difeovering in the Chinefe religion the
fundamental principles of the ancient patriarchal reli¬
gion, have alfo found in it evident fymptoms of a
knowledge of the Trinity as believed among Chrifti-
anc. “ Among the ancient Chinefe characters (fays
M. Grofier), which have efcaped the ravages of time,
we find the following A. According to the dictionary
of Kang-hi, this fignifies union 5 according to the
Choue-ouen (that book fo highly efteemed in China) A
is three united in one j it derives it from the charac-
texsjou (to enter or penetrate), and ye, one; W’hence
it concludes, that A means three united, penetrated,
or incorporated into one. According to another book,
accounted a learned and accurate explanation of the
ancient charaflers, ‘ a fignifies ftridf union, harmony,
the chief good of man, of heaven, and of earth ; it
nourilh together. The image^r; (three united in one
figure) is not fo obfeure in itfelf; however, it is diffi¬
cult to reafon upon it without being deceived : on this
fubjeft it is difficult to fpeak.”
“ Father Amiot, fpite of all the obje&ions which
the critics of Europe may make, feems to conjecture,
that the chara&er A might have been, among the an¬
cient Chinefe, the fymbol of the moft holy Irinity ;
‘ and the more fo (he adds), as the ancient books
furnifti a number of texts, which give us reafon to
fuppofe them to have been poffefled of fome know¬
ledge of this fublime myftery.’ The book See-ki fays,
‘ The emperor formerly offered up a folemn lacrifice
every three years to the Spirit, Irinity and Unity,
Chin-fan-ye? The following celebrated text of Lao-
tfe has long been known in Europe. ‘ Tao is one by
nature : the firft begot the fecond ; two produced the
third *, the three created all things.’
“ F. Amiot quotes another paftage, which appears
to be no lefs Angular. He who is, as it were, vi-
fible, and cannot be feen, is named Khi; he who may
be heard yet fpeaketh not to the ears, is called Hi ;
he whom, in a manner, we feel, yet cannot touch, is
named Ouei. In vain do we interrogate our fenfes re-
fpeCling thefe three ; our reafon, which alone can give
us any fatisfaClion, will tell us that they make only
one. Above there is no light ; below there is no dark-
nefs. He is eternal; there is no name which can be
given him. He refembles nothing that exifts; he is
an image without figure; a figure without matter :
his light is furrounded by darknefs. If we look up. to
him above, we behold no beginning; if we follow him,
we difeover no end. From what the Tao hath been
at all times, conclude what he is, viz. that he is eter¬
nal : he is the beginning of wifdom.’ The commen¬
taries which explain this paffage fpeak in fuch ftrong
and precife terms, that F. Amiot forbears to quote
them, left he might incur the cenfure of too many in¬
credulous readers (a).”
The facrifices of the Chinefe were firft offered up in
the open fields, or on fome mountain, upon what they
call the Tan, which fignifies a quantity of ftones
thrown together in a round form, or fimply a round
heap of earth. A double fence called Kino, compo-
fed of turf and branches of trees, was raifed around
this; and, in the fpace left between the two fences,
two leffer altars were erefted on the right and left;
upon which, immediately after the facrifice offered up
to the Tien, they facrificed alfo to the Cheng, or good
fpirits of every rank, and to their virtuous anceftors.
The fovereign alone had a right of facrificing upon
this Tan; and the cuftom of facrificing to inferior
fpirits, according to the Chinefe commentators, may
be traced even to the days of Fo-hi himfelf. I he fame
writers add, that, in addrefling themfelves to the
Chang-ti, they confidered him as the fovereign lord of
the univerfe, clothed with all that power which was
neceffary to fatisfy them with regard to the different
D 2 objefls
(a) It is a Angular eircumftance that F. Amiot ftrould have paffed over in filence fuch unintelligible mum¬
mery, without a fingle animadverfion. Reafon humbly confeffes every word of it to be abfolutely incompiehen-
fible*; and faith itfelf has almoft as hard a ftruggle in believing it as the never-to-be-fathomed creed of Athanafius*
CHI [2
China, obje&s of their requefts j but that, in offering up their
—v-—— prayers to the inferior objects of worfhip, they only im¬
plored their proteftion and mediation with the Chang-ti.
While the empire was confined within narrow
bounds, one mountain was fufficient for the facrifices *,
but in procefs of time it became neceflary to confeerate
four others. Thefe were fituated at the extremities of
the empire, and were fuppofed to correfpond with the
four quarters of the world ; and the prince went fuc-
ceffively every year to one of thefe mountains to offer
up facrifices ; taking occafion at the fame time to
fliow himfelf to his people, and to inform himfelf of
their wants. This cuftmn fubfifted for a long time j
but at length it was found convenient to add a fifth
mountain in the centre of the empire; and ever fince
thefe have been called the five 2o, or the five moun¬
tains of facrifice. This method of fubjecting the em¬
peror to regular annual journeys could not but be at¬
tended with many inconveniencies. It was found necef-
fary on this account to confecrate fome fpot in the
neighbourhood of his palace, which might be fubfti-
tuted for the To upon all occafions when the emperor
could not repair to them. An edifice was therefore
erefted, which at once reprefented the Kiao, Tan, and
the Hall of ancejlors. This lafl was a neceffary part
of the edifice ; becaufe it was incumbent on thofe who
offered up facrifices, firft to repair to this hall, and ac¬
quaint their anceflors with what they were about to
perform ; and thither alfo they returned after facrifi-
cing, to thank the fame anceflors for the protection
they had received from the Chang-ti ; after which they
offered up a facrifice of thankfgiving in honour of them,
and performed certain other ceremonies to (how their
refpect. The building contained five feparate halls,
appropriated to different purpofes ; originally it had
neither paintings nor ornaments of any kind, and a
ftaircsfe of nine fteps conducted to the principal en¬
trance. Afterwards, however it was much more rich¬
ly ornamented, each of the five halls being decorated
with columns, over which others were placed that fup-
ported a fecond roof. In fucceeding times it was drip¬
ped of all its ornaments, with a view to bring back re¬
ligion to its primitive fimplicity. Its four gates w’ere
covered with fine mofs, reprefenting the branches of
which the double fence of the ancient Kiao were form¬
ed. The ridge of the roof was covered with the fame,
and the whole was eneompaffed by a canal filled with
water at the time of offering up the facrifices. To
this a fecond building was added, which they called
the temple of neatnefs, and which was ufed only for pu¬
rifications and ceremonies, the former being entirely
confecrated to the worfhip of the Chang-ti.
At prefent there are only two temples in Peking,
named the Tian tan and the Titan; in the conftruc-
tion of which all the elegance of Chinefe architedlure is
difplaved. Thefe are both dedicated to the Chang-ti,
but under different titles ; in the one he is adored as
the eternal fpirit; in the other, as the creator and pre-
ferver of the world. The ceremonies of the modern
facrifices are greatly multiplied ; and nothing can ex¬
ceed the fplendour and magnificence with which thefe
folemnities are performed. Sometimes before the day
appointed for the grand ceremony, the monarch, the
grandees of the court, and all thofe whom ►heir em¬
ployments qualify to affift at the folemnity, prepare
8 ] CHI
themfelves by retirement, faffing, and continence ; no China,
audience is given by the emperor, and the tribunals y—
are entirely fhut ; marriages, funerals, rejoicings, and
i ntertainments of every kind, are then forbidden. At
laft, on the day appointed, the emperor appears, at¬
tended by an innumerable multitude, and his perfon
furrounded by a vaft number of princes, lords, and of¬
ficers, while every part of the temple feems to corre¬
fpond with the magnificence of the fovereign ; all the
vafes and utenfils employed in the facrifices are of
gold, and cannot, be applied to any other purpofe ;
even the inftruments of mufic are of enormous mag¬
nitude, and never ufed anywhere elfe. All this gran¬
deur, however, ferves only to difplay in a more emi¬
nent manner the humility and abalement of the mo¬
narch during his devotion ; at which time he rolls in
the duff, and fpeaks of himfelf before the Chang-ti in
terms of the moli afcjeff fubmiffion and humiliation.
The purity of the ancient Chinefe religion has, Sea^
ho wever, been long contaminated by many idolatrous Tao-ffe.
and fanatical feds. Among thefe, one named Tao-Jfe
was founded by a philofopher called Lao hiun or Lao-
tfe, who was born 603 B. C. He died in an advanced
age, leaving-to his diftiples a book entitled Tao te, be¬
ing a col led ion of 5000 fentences. His morality has
a great refemblance to that of Epicurus. It confifts
principally in banilhing all vehement defires and paf-
fions capable of diflurbing the peace and tranquillity
of the foul. According to him, the care of every wife
man ought to be only to endeavour to live free from
grief and pain, and to glide gently down the ftream
of life devoid of anxiety and care. To arrive at this
happy Hate he advifes his followers to banifli all thoughts
of the paft, and to abltain from every vain and ufelefs
inquiry concerning futurity, as well as all tormenting
thoughts of ambition, avarice, &c. It was found by
the difciples of this philofopher, however, that all their
endeavours to obtain a perfed tranquillity of mind
were vain, as long as the thoughts of death intervened ;
they therefore declared it poffible to difcover a compo-
fition from which drink might be made that would ren¬
der mankind immortal. Hence they were led to the
ftudy of chemiftry ; and, like the weftern alchemills,
wearied themfelves in fearch of the philofopher’s ftone,
until at laft they gave themfelves up to all the extrava¬
gancies of magic.
The defire of avoiding death, together with the
credulity natural to unenlightened minds, quickly
produced a number of converts to the fed of Tao /fe.
Magical pradices, the invocation of fpirits, and the
art of foretelling events by divination, quicklv difFufed
themfelves over the empire, and the imbecility of the
emperors contributed to propagate the deception.
Temples confecrated to fpirits quickly reared their
heads in every corner of the empire ; and two of the
moft celebrated of the fed were authorized to maintain
public worfhip there after the form which had been
prefcribed by their mafter. At the fame time they
diftributed and fold at a dear rate, images of the ima¬
ginary fpirits with which they had peopled the heavens
and the earth. Thefe were, by their command, wor-
fhipped as fo many deities independent of the Supreme
Being : and in like manner, feveral of the ancient em¬
perors were invoked as gods.
Being patronized by the emperors of feveral dy-
naftieSj
CHI [ 29 ] CHI
China, nafties, this (eft became more and more powerful.
—-y-—-' At laft they had the impudence to affix, during the
night-time, to one of the gates of the imperial city,
a book filled with myflic characters and magical fi¬
gures. At break of day they informed the emperor
of the fudden appearance of this book, and publicly
declared that it was fallen from heaven. This trick
eafily impofed upon the weak prince. He immediate¬
ly repaired, with a numerous train, to the fpot where
the facred volume appeared j and having taken it into
his hands in a refpedtful manner, carried it in triumph
to his palace, where he ffiut it up in a, golden box.
Another emperor carried his reverence for the fe£t to
fuch a height of impiety and extravagance, as to or¬
der a celebrated Tao JJe to be publicly worffiipped un¬
der the name of Chang-ti. The feCt thus patronized
by the princes, and accommodated to the credulity of
the vulgar, continued to gain ground in fpite of every
oppofition from the wifer part of the people, and is
fliJI very powerful in China. At prefent they offer
up three different viClims, a hog, a fowl, and a fiffi, to
a fpirit whom they invoke. Various ceremonies, fuch
as howling, drawing fantaftical figures upon paper, ma¬
king a hideous noife with kettles and drums, are ufed
in their incantations ; and though it may readily be
believed that they are for the moft part unfuccefsful,
yet their credit is ftill kept up by thofe cafes in which
they fucceed by accident.
The chief of the Tao-Jfe is inverted by government
with the dignity of grand mandarin, which is enjoyed
by his fucceffors : he refides in a fumptuous palace in
a town of Kiang-fi; and the fuperftitious confidence
of the people attracts an immenfe number thither from
all parts of the empire. Some arrive in order to be
cured of difeafes, others to get an inlight into futurity.
The importer dillributes to them fmall bits of paper fill¬
ed with magical charadters $ and the ignorant wretches
depart well fatisfied, without grudging the expence of
104 their journey, though ever fo long.
Of the wor- A ftill more pernicious and mure widely diffufed fedl
flnppers of js that of the idol Fo, which came originally from In¬
dia. The Tao-Jfe had promifed to the brother of one
of the emperors of China to introduce him to a com¬
munication with fpirits. The credulous prince having
heard of a great fpirit named Fo, who refided in India,
prevailed on his b.other to fend an embafiy thither.
On the arrival of the ambaffadors, however, they could
find only two worffiippers of this deity, both of whom
they brought to China. Several images of F» were
alfo colledled at the fame time : and thefe, together
with fome canonical books of the Indian^, were placed
on a white horfe, and carried in proceffion to the im¬
perial city.
This fuperftition was introduced into China about
the 65th year of the Chriftian aera, and foon made
vaft progrefs. One of its principal doflrines is that
of the metempfvehofis, or tranfmigration of fouls, of
which M. Grofier thinks he was the inventor, and that
Pythagoras, who travelled into feveral parts of India,
had borrowed the doftrine from him. The account
given of him by the bonzes is, that finding himfelf,
at the age of 70, oppreffed with infirmities, he called
his difeipies together, and told them he was unwilling
to leave the world without communicating the fecret
and hidden myfteries of his do&rine j which were, in
4
ffiort, that all things had proceeded from a vacuum China,
and nothing, and to that they muft return. This doc- ~y—
trine produced a correfponding mode of a£lion, or ra¬
ther of ina&ion, in thofe who believed it: for thus the
great happinefs of man was made to confift in abfolute
annihilation : and therefore the nearer he could bring
himfelf to this ftate during life, the happier he Avas
fuppofed to be.
The common do£lrine, however, which admits of a
diftindlion between good and evil, finds more profe-
lytes among the vulgar, whofe fituation in life will not
allow them to fpend their time in perpetual idlenefs.
According to this, the righteous will be rewarded and
the wicked puniffied after death. They fay alfo, that
the god Fo came to fave mankind, and to expiate their
fins j and that he alone can procure them a happy re¬
generation in the life to come. Five precepts are
likewife inculcated on thofe who adopt this do£lrine:
I. Not to kill any living creature $ 2. Not to take
away the goods of another^ 3. Not to pollute them-
felves by uncleannefs $ 4. Not to lie ; and, 5. Not to
drink wine. Above all, they recommend to them to
perform afts of mercy, to treat their bonzes Avell, build
temples, &c.
The doftrine of metempfyehofis has introduced into
China an infinite number of idols, who are all worffiip¬
ped on the fuppofition that the fpirit of Fo has tranf-
migrated into the animals they reprefent. Thefe idols,
however, feem not to be worffiipped Avith great fin-
cerity j but, like the images of faints in the more fu¬
perftitious countries of Europe, are beaten and thrown
in the dirt Avhen their votaries happen not to obtain
their defires, Avhich they impute to the obitinacy or
weaknefs of the idol. Nay, M. Grofier gives an ac¬
count of one man, Avho having ineffcftually paid a fum
of money to the bonzes of a certain idol for the cure of
his daughter, brought a formal accufation againft the
idol himfelf; and in fpite of all that the bonzes could
fay in its behalf, got its Worffiip fuppreffed throughout
the province. ,0j
The bonzes of China are reprefented as a moft ava* Bad .ha-
ricious and hypocritical race of men, ready to pradlifera<^e* of
every kind of villany, and even to fubjedt themlelves he i5ou2es‘
to the moft intolerable tortures, in order to obtain mo¬
ney from the compaffion of the public when they can¬
not get it in any other Avay •, and an edift of one of
the emperors is cited by M. Grofier, by which great
numbers of their religious houfes were fuppreffed. In
order to perpetuate their fed!, they purchafe young
children, whom they take care to inftrudl in all the
myfteries and tricks of their proftffion ; but except¬
ing this, they are in general very ignorant, and fetv
of them Avould be able to give any tolerable account
of the tenets of their own fedt. They are not fubjedt
to a regular hierarchy, but acknowledge fupeiiors
among them Avhom they call grand boozes, who have
the firft place in all religious affemblies at which they
happen to be prefent: and great profit is derived from
certain religious clubs, both of men and women, at
which the bonzes are ahvays called to affift. Their
wealth is likewife augmented by pilgrimages to certain
places where there are temples more or lefs reverenced,
and where a multitude of abfurd ceremonies is per¬
formed. Thefe bonzes, as may be eafily imagined, are
inveterate enemies to the progrefs of Chriftianity, tell-
CHI • [ ■
t ing the moil abfurd flories concerning the miflionaries j
as that they pluck out the eyes of their converts to
conftrufl telefcopes with, &c. 1 he literati, however,
and the more fenlible part of the nation, hold them in
106 ^ie greateft contempt.
Ridiculous _ We flrall conclude this detail of the Chinefe reli-
iuperfthicn gion with giving an account of one other fuperftition
'thoui*' 'Vhich Peculiar to the nation. It is named/o^-
thorn, which fignifies wind and water. By this they
mean the lucky ©r unlucky fituation of a houfe, bury-
ing-place, &c. If any imprudent perfon has built a
houle clofe to that of a Chinefe, in fuch a manner
that the angle formed by its roof flanks the wall or
roof of the former houfe, the proprietor ever after
lives in terror of utter ruin and deflrudlion from the
malignant influence of that angle. An implacable
hatred inftantly commences betwixt the two families,
and often gives rife to a law-fuit, which furnifhes mat¬
ter of difcuflion for fome of the fuperior tribunals.
If no redrefs can be had at law, however, the Chinefe
is then reduced to the neceflity of erefting, on the top
of his houfe, an enormous image of a dragon, or fome
other monfter, with its mouth gaping towards the angle,
and, as it were, threatening to fwallow it up 5 after
which the apprehenfions of the proprietor begin to
fubfide, and tranquillity is reftored to the family. In
this manner the governor of Kien-tchang fecured him-
felf from the influence of the church of the Jefuits,
which, being built on an eminence, overlooked his pa¬
lace. Not depending, however, entirely on the good
offices of his tutelary dragon, he alfo took the wife
precaution of altering his principal apartments, and
raifing, at the diftance of 200 paces from the church,
a kind of large facade three flories high. But un¬
luckily the death of his fucceflor was attributed to
this fagade j for the mandarin being attacked with a
diforder in the breaft, which made him fpit up a white
phlegm, this fymptom was thought to be owing to the
walls of the fagade, which were very white, and which
were forthwith painted black. The falutary precau¬
tion, however, happened to be taken too late ; for the
governor died notwithflanding the black colour of the
.walls.
“ We fhould never have done (fays M. Grofier),
were we to relate all the fuperflitious ideas of the Chi-
nefe, refpe&ing the lucky and unlucky fituation of
houfes, the -quarter which doors ought to front, and
the plan and day proper for conflrudfing the ftoves in
which they cook their rice.” But. the objedt on which
they employ their greateft care is the choice of the
ground and fituation for a burying-place. Some quacks
follow no other profeflion than that of pointing out
hills and mountains which have an afpedt favourable
Tor works of that kind. When a Chinefe is perfuaded
of the truth of fuch information, there is no fum which
he would not give to be in pofleflion of the fortunate
fpot. The greater part of the Chinefe are of opinion
that all the happinefs and misfortunes of life depend
I6.7 upon the fong-chota.
Jews and A colony of Jews was eflablifhed in China about
J^sh(?rae- ^e year 206 B. C. j but they are now reduced to a
China!* number of- families at Cai-fong, the capital of
the province of Honan. The Mahometans have mul¬
tiplied much more than the Jews. It is about 600
years fince they firft entered the empire, where they
X
;o ] CHI
have formed different eflablifhments. At firfl their China,
number was augmented only by marriages ; but for v——'
fome time .pall they have been more particularly at¬
tentive to the extending of their fed! and propagating
their dodlrine. The principal means employed for
this purpofe are, to purchafe a great number of chil¬
dren brought up in idolatry, whom their poor parents
are glad to part with ; and thefe they circumcife, and
afterwards inftrudl in the principles of their religion.
During the time of a famine which defolated the pro¬
vince of Chang-tong, they purchafed more than 10,000
of thefe children ; for whom, when grown up, they
procured wives, built houfes, and even formed rvhole
villages of them. I hey are now become fo numerous,
that in the places where they refide they entirely ex¬
clude every inhabitant who does not believe in their
prophet, and frequent a mofque.
With regard to the manners of the Chinefe, they Ceremonies
bear no refemblance to thofe of any other nation •, and, of marriage,
if we may believe their hiftorians, they are the fame
at this day that they were 4000 years ago. The wo¬
men are condemned almoft to perpetual imprifonment
within the precindls of their own houfes, and are ne¬
ver feen even by their intended hufbands before mar¬
riage. He knows nothing of her looks or perfon, but
from the account of fome female relation or confidant,
who in fuch cafes a£ts the part of match-maker ; though
if impofed upon either with regard to her age or fi¬
gure, he can have recourfe to a divorce. The fame
matrons who negociate the marriage, alfo determine the
fum which the intended huiband muft pay to the pa¬
rents of the bride : for in China a father does not give
a dowry to his daughter ; it is the hufband who gives
a dowry to the wife. When the day appointed for
the marriage is arrived, the bride is placed in a chair
or clofe palanquin, the key of which is committed t©
the care of a trufty domeltic, who muft deliver it to
none but the hufband. The latter, richly dreffed, waits
at his gate for the arrival of the proceffion. As foon
as it approaches, the key is put into his hands; he
eagerly opens the chair, and for the firft time perceives
his good or bad fortune. If he is contented with his
new fpoufe, the bride defcends and enters the houfe,
where the marriage is concluded by feafting and mer¬
riment as in other countries; but if the bridegroom is
very much difappointed, he fuddenly fhuts the chair,
and fends the bride home to her relations. To get rid
of her in this manner, however, cofts a fum equal to
what he originally gave in dowry to obtain her.
The Chinefe women, even of the firft rank, feldom
quit their apartment, which is fituated in the moft re¬
tired part of the houfe, and in which they are feclu-
ded from all fociety but that of their domeftics. The
book of ceremonies requires that there fhould be two
apartments in every houfe ; the exterior one for the
huiband, the interior for the wife. They muft even
be feparated by a wall or wooden partition, the door
of which is carefully guarded ; nor is the hufband at
liberty to enter the wife’s apartment, or fhe to quit it,
without fufficient reafon. According to the fame book,
the prattling and loquacity of a woman are reckoned
fufficient gnunds for a divorce. If this be founded
in fa£t, the women of China are either unexampled for
taciturnity, or elfe multitudes of divorces muft be daily
occurrences. A woman, however, cannot be divorced
on
CHI [3
China* on an7 account, if fhe lofes her parents a'ter marriage,
u—-y—J or if (lie has worn three years mourning for the lofs of
her hufband, father, or mother.
A widow of any rank above the common, who has
children, feldotn enters a fecond time into the mar¬
riage date, though thofe of the ordinary rank ge¬
nerally do. The poorer fort are not at liberty to fol¬
low their own inclination, hut are fold for the behoof
of the parents of the deceafed. As foon as the bar¬
gain is concluded, a couple of porters bring a chair,
which is guarded by a number of trufty people. In
this the widow is Unit up, and thus conducted to her
new hufband.
“ Mafters (fays M. Grofier), for the mod part, are
very defirous of promoting marriage among their Haves,
whatever Mr Paw may fay 5 who, without any founda¬
tion, has ventured boldly to affert the contrary. They
have even very ftrong motives to induce them to en¬
courage thefe marriages; the children produced by them
are dill their flaves ; and befides their becoming new
property to them, the fathers and mothers are thus more
drongly attached to their fervice.”
Concubi- Concubinage is tolerated in China, though not au-
nage tole- thorized by any law. This privilege is granted only to
rated. tlie emperor, the princes of the blood, and mandarins j
and none but the emperor is permitted to have more
than one. The common people generally avail them-
felves of the toleration granted them in this refpeft,
and will have two or three concubines if they can af¬
ford it. They are, however, careful to excufe them-
felves as well as they can to their wives in this refpe61,
pretending only a defire to have many children, and
a number of women to attend their wives. Others,
defirous of having a male child, while perhaps their
lawful wife cannot have any, take a concubine for this
reafon only, and difmifs her as foon as their wifhes
are accomplidied ; they then permit her to marry whom
die pleafes, and frequently even provide a hufband for
her themfelves. Thefe concubines are almoft all pro¬
cured from two cities named Yang-tcheou and Sou tcheou,
where they are educated, and taught finging, dancing,
mufic, and every accomplifhment fuitable to women of
quality, or which can render them agreeable and plea-
fing. The greateft part of them are purchafed in other
places, to be again difpofed of; and this is the principal
branch of trade carried on by thefe two cities. Unlaw¬
ful intrigues are feldom heard of in China. Whoever
feduces the wife of another is punifhed with death j and
the fame punifiiment is generally infli&ed on the per¬
ils ^on vv^° debauches a young woman.
Education From the accounts we have of the education of chil-
of children, dren in China, one might be apt to conclude, that, in-
llead of being the ignorant fuperflitious race already
defcribed, they ought to be the moft intelligent people
in the world. The book of ceremonies diredis the edu¬
cation of a child to commence as foon as it is born,
and defcribes exadlly the qualities which its nurfe
ought to have. She. muft fpeak little, adhere ftridlly
to truth, have a mild temper, behave with affability
to her equals, and with refpedl; to her fuperiors. The
child is taught to ufe the right hand as foon as it can
put its hand to its mouth, and then it is weaned. At
fix years of age, if a male, he is taught the numbers
molt in ufe, and made acquainted with the names of
the principal parts of the. world) at feven? he is fepa-
. ] CHI
rated from his filters, and no longer allowed to eat china,
with them, nor to fit down in their prefence •, at eight, —y—
he is inltrudted in the rules of good breeding and po-
litentT ; at nine, he ftudies the kalendar; at ten, he is
fent to a public fchool, where he learns to read, write,
and calt accounts; from 13 to 15 he is taught mulic,
and every thing that he lings confifts of moral precept1-'.
It was formerly the cuftom, that all the leffons delign-
ed for the Chinefe youth were in verfe ; and it is to
this day lamented, that the fame cuftom is not follow¬
ed, as their education has fince been rendered much
more difficult and laborious.
At the age of 15, the Chinefe boys are taught to
handle the bow and arrow, and to mount on horfeback )
at 20 they receive the firft cap, if they are thought to
deferve it, and are permitted to wear lilk dreffes orna¬
mented with furs; but before that period they are not
allowed to wear any other thing than cotton.
Another method of initiating children into the
principles of knowledge in this empire is, by feledling
a number of characters expreflive of the moft common
objects, engraving or painting them feparately on fome
kind of fubftance, and, under the thing reprefented,
putting the name, which points out to them the mean¬
ing of the word.
As the Chinefe have no proper alphabet, they re-
prefent almoft every thing by different characters.
The labour of their youth, therefore, is intolerable ;
being obliged to ftudy many thoufand characters, each
of which has a diftinct and appropriate fignificatior.
Some idea of their difficulties may be obtained from
what we are told by F. Martini, who affures us, that
he was under the neceffity of learning 60,000 different
characters before he could read the Chinefe authors
with tolerable eafe.
The book firft put into the hands of the Chinefe
children is an abridgement, which points out what a
child ought to learn, and the manner in which he
ftiould be taught. This volume is a collection of ftiort
fentences, confifting of three or four verfes each, all
of which rhyme ; and they are obliged to give an ac¬
count in the evening of what they have learned in the
day. After this elementary treatife, they put into their
hands the four books which contain the doctrines of
Confucius and Mencius. The fenle and meaning of
the work is never explained, to them until they have
got by heart all the characters, that is to fay, the words
in the book ; a method no doubt inconceivably difguft-
ing, and calculated utterly to deftroy the genius of a
boy, if he has any. While they are getting thefe cha¬
racters by heart, indeed, they are likewife employed in
learning to form them with a pencil. For this pur>* -
pofe they are furnifhed with large leaves of paper, on
which are written or printed with red ink very big
characters ; and all they are required to do is to cover
thofe red characters with black ink, and to follow ex¬
actly their ftvape and figure ; which infenfibly accuf-
toms them to form the different ftrokes. After this
they are made to trace other characters, placed under
the paper on which they write. Thefe are black, and
much fmaller than the other. It is a great advantage
to the Chinefe literati to be able to paint charafters
well ; and on this account they beftow great pains in
forming the hands of young people. This is of the
utmoft confequence to literary fludepts ip the. exami¬
nations
CHI [3
iMiina. naiions which tiiey are obliged to undergo before they
V’"’—1 can be admitted to the fiift degree. Du Halde gives
a remarkable in dance, viz. that “ a candidate for de¬
grees having, contrary to order, made ufe of an ab¬
breviation in writing the charader wrt, which fignifies
.. a horfe, had the mortification of feeing his compofi-
tion, though in other refpecls excellent, rejected merely
on that account ; befides being feverely rallied by the
mandarin, who told him a horle could not walk unlefs
he had all his legs.”
After the fcholar has made himfelf mailer of the
characters, he is then allowed to compofe j but the
fubjeCt of his compofition is pointed out to him only
by one word. Competitions are likewife eltablilhed
in China, but molt of them are of a private nature.
Twenty or thirty families, who are all of the fame
name, and who confequently have only one hall for
the names of their anceftors, agree among themfeives
to fend their children twice a month to this hall in or¬
der to compofe. Each head of a family in turn gives
the fubjeCl of this literary conteft, and adjudges the
prize •, but this cods him a dinner, which he mud caufe
to be carried to the hall of competition. A fine of about
tenpence is impofed on the parent of each fcholar who
abfents himfelf from this exercife.
Befides thefe private competitions, every dudent is
obliged to compete at lead twice a-year under the in-
fpeCtion of an inferior mandarin of letters dyled Hio-
kouctn. It frequently happens alfo, that the mandarins
of letters order thefe dudents to be brought before
them, to examine the progrefs they have made in their
ftudies, to excite a fpirit of emulation among them, and
make them give fuch application as may quality them
for any employment in the date. Even the governors
of cities do not think it below their dignity to take
this care upon themfeives j ordering all thofe dudents
who refide near them to appear before their tribunal
once a month : the author of the bed competition is
honoured with a prize, and the governor treats all the
candidates on the day of compofition at his own ex¬
pence. In every city, town, and village in China,
there are fehoolmaders who teach fuch fpiences as are
known in that country. Parents poffeffed of a certain
fortune provide maders for their children, to attend
and indraft them, to form their minds to virtue, and
to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the
accudomed ceremonies, as well as to make them ac¬
quainted with the laws and hidory, if their age will
admit. Thefe maders have, for the mod part, at¬
tained to one or two degrees among the literati, and not
unfrequently arrive at the find employments of the date.
The education of the Chinefe women is confined to
giving them a tade for folitude, and accudoming
them to modedy and filence j and if their parents are
rich, they are likewife indrufted in fuch accomplith-
1X1 ments as may render them agreeable to the other fex.
irefs. There is little didinftion in China between the or¬
dinary drefs of men and women. Rank and dignity
are didinguilhed by certain acceffary ornaments; and
the perfon would be feverely ehadifed who diould pre-
- fume to affume them without being properly authori¬
zed. The drefs in general confids of a long ved which
reaches to the ground. One part of this ved, viz.
that on the left fide, folds over the other, and is faden-
ed to the right by four or five fmall gold or filver hut-
2 ] CHI
tons, placed at a little didance from one another. The china,
deeves are wide towards the dioulder, growing narrow- * ■■■ v ■■■■■*<
er as they approach the wrid, where they terminate in
the form of a horfe dine, covering the hands entirely,
and leaving nothing but the ends of the fingers to be
feen. Round their middle they wear a large girdle
of filk, the ends of which hang down to their knees.
From this giidle is fufpended a dieath containing a
knife and two of thofe fmall dicks which they ufe as
forks. Below this robe they wear a pair of drawers,
in fummer made of linen, and in winter ot latin lined
with fur, fometimes of cotton, and in dime of the
northern provinces of fkins. Thefe are fometimes co¬
vered with another pair of white taffety. Their darts
are always very Ibort and wide, of different kinds of
cloth, according to the feafon. Under thefe they wear
a filk net to prevent it from adhering to the Ikin. In
warm weather they have their necks always bare j
when it is cold, they wear a collar made of liik and
fable, or fox’s Ikin, joined to their robe, which in win¬
ter is trimmed with th »pfkin, or quilted with iilk and
cotton. That of people oi quality is entirely lined
with beautiful fable fkins brought from Tartary, or
with the fined fox’s fkin, trimmed with fable j and in
the fpring it is lined with ermine. Above their robe
they wear alfo a kind of furtout with wide fleeves, but
very Ihort, which is lined in the fame manner. The
emperor and princes of the blood only have a right to
wear yellow ; certain mandarins have liberty to wdar
fatin of a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony :
in general they are clothed in blw k, blue, or violet.
The common people are allowed i > wear no other co¬
lours but blue or black ; and their drefs is always com-
pofed of plain cotton cloth.
Formerly the Chinefe were at great pains to pre-Chinefe
fcrve their hair ; but the Tartars, who fubdued tbem,ohhged
compelled them to cut off the greater part of it, and
alter the form of their clothes after the Tartar fadrion. tjieu. hair<
This revolution in drefs was not effefted without blood-
died, though the conquerors at the lame time adopted
in other refpefts the laws, manners, and cuftoms of the
conquered people. Thus the Chinefe are painted as
if bald, but they are not fo naturally : that frnall por¬
tion of hair which they preferve behind, or on the
tops of their heads, is all that is now allowed them.
This they wear very long, and plait like a tail. In
fummer they wear a kind of cap diaped like an invert¬
ed cone, lined with fatin, and covered with ratan or
cane very prettily wrought. The. top terminates in a
point, to which they fix a tuft of red hair, which
fpreads over it, and covers it to the brim. This hair
grows between the legs of a kind of cow, and is ca¬
pable of taking any colour, efpecially a deep red. This
ornament is much ufed, and any perfon who choofes
may wear it.
The mandarins and literati wear a cap of the fame
form as the foregoing, only it is lined with red fatin,
and covered on the outfide with white. A large uift
of the fineft red filk is fixed over it, which is fuffered
to hang down or wave with the wind. Peopie of di-
ftinftion generally ufe the common cap when they
mount on horfebaek or during bad weather j being
better calculated to keep off rain, and Ihelter thofe
who wear it from the rays of the fun. F >r winter
they have another cap bordered with fable, ermine, or
fox’s
CHI [
Ghina. fox’s ikin, and ornamented with a tuft of filk like the
former. In thefe fur-trimmings they are very curious,
fometimes expending 40 or 50 ounces of filver upon
them.
The Chinefe people of rank never go abroad with¬
out boots made of fatin or fome other filk, and fome¬
times of cotton, but always dyed. They have neither
heel nor top, and are made to fit the foot with the
greateft exa£lnefs. When they travel on horfeback,
however, they have others made of the (kin of a cow
or horfe made very pliable. Their boot-ftockings are
of filk fluff, quilted and lined with cotton, reaching
above the top of their boot, and ornamented with a
border of velvet or cloth. In fummer they wear a
cooler kind, and in their houfes a fort of flippers made
of filk fluff. The common people are contented with
black flippers made of cotton cloth. The fan is alfo a
neceffary appendage of the Chinefe drefs, and is rec¬
koned equally neceffary with the boots.
The drefs of the women confifts of a long robe quite
clofe at top, and long enough to cover even their toes,
with fleeves fo long that they could hang down upon
the ground, did they not take care to tuck them up 5
but their hands are feldom feen. The colour of their
dreffes is entirely arbitrary, but black and violet are
generally chofen by thofe advanced in life. The young
ladies, like thofe of Europe, make ufe of paint to give
a bloom to their complexions j but this, though not
the fame with the kind ufed in Europe, agrees with it
in the effeft of foon wrinkling the fkin. Their gene¬
ral head-drefs confifts in arranging their hair in feveral
curls, among which are interfperfed fmall tufts of gold
or filver flowers. According to Du Halde, fome of
them ornament their heads with the image of a fabulous
bird, concerning which many ftories are told. This
is made of copper or filver gilt, its wings extended and
lying pretty clofe to the head-drefs, embracing the up¬
per part of their temples, while the long fpreading
tail forms a kind of plume on the top of the head. Its
body is dire&ly over the head, and the neck and bill
hang down, the former being joined to the body by a
concealed hinge, in order that it may play freely, and
move about on the leaft motion of the head. The
whole bird adheres to the head by means of the claws,
which are fixed in the hair.
Ladies of quality fometimes wear feveral of thefe
birds made up into a fingle ornament, the workmanftiip
of which is very expenfive. Young ladies wear alfo a
.. crown made of pafteboard, the fore part of which rifes
in a point above the forehead, and is covered with
jewels. The reft of the head is decorated with natural
or artificial flowers, among which fmall diamond pins
are interfperfed. The head-drefs of the ordinary clafs
of women, efpecially when they are advanced in years,
confifts only of a piece of very fine filk wrapped round
I13 their heads.
Abfurdcuf. All authors agree, that an abfurd cuftom prevails
ventlrf prj®‘ t^rouS^out China, of confining the feet of female in-
offe-6^311*8 *n a manner that they are never allowed to
male in- grow to near their full fize. The fmallnefs of their
fants from feet is accounted fuch a valuable beauty, that the Chi¬
growing. nefe women never think they can pay too dear for it.
As foon therefore as a female infant is born, the nurfe
wraps up its feet in very tight bandages ; and this
torture muft be endured until their feet have ceafed to
V-OL. VI. Part I.
S3 1 CHI
grow. So prevalent is the force of cuftom, however, china.
that as the child grows up flie voluntarily fubmits to l—-~v 
new tortures, in order to accomplilh the purpofe more
effe&ually. Thus the Chinefe women are deprived al-
moft entirely of the ufe of their feet; and are fcarce
able to walk, in the moft awkward hobbling manner, for
the fhortcft fpace. The ftioe of a full grown Chinefe
woman will frequently not exceed fix inches.
The Chinefe ufe white as the Colour proper for
mourning j and though a fon cannot wear this while
his father and mother are alive, he can ufe no other
for three years after their death j and ever afterwards
his clothes muft be of one colour. The law has for¬
bidden the ufe of filk and furs to children $ and has
even prefcribed the time when they are firft to wear a
cap. This is put upon their heads by the mafter of
ceremonies himfelf, who addreffes them in the follow¬
ing manner : “ Confider that you now receive the
drefs of thofe who have attained to maturity, and that
you ceafe to be children j renounce, therefore, all child-
ilh thoughts and inclinations, affume a grave and fe-
rious deportment, apply with refolution to the ftudy
of virtue and wifdom, and endeavour to merit a long
and happy life.” “ This ceremony (fays M. Grofier),
which may appear trifling, is attended with the hap-
pieft effefta. The Chinefe give a kind of importance
to every thing which can infpire youth with a tafte for
morality and a love of good order. It might be ufe-
ful to mankind at every fixed epocha of their lives, to
remind them of thofe new duties impofed by each fuc-
ceflive change j but, by uniting the folemnity of a pu¬
blic ceremony to this inftruftion, it will make a deeper
impreflion, and remain much longer imprinted on their
memories.”
Nothing can appear more irkfome to an European Exceffive
than the multitude of ceremonies ufed on all occafions ceremoni-
by the Chinefe. An invitation to an entertainment is0?fn®^.of
not fuppofed to be given with fincerity until it haSpefe< l’
been renewed three or four times in writing. A card
is fent on the evening before the entertainment, ano¬
ther on the morning of the appointed day, and a third
when every thing is prepared and the guefts ready to
fit down to the table. The mafter of the houfe al¬
ways introduces his guefts into the hall, where he fa-
lutes them one after another. He then orders wine to
be brought him in a fmall cup made of filver, porce¬
lain, or precious wood, and placed upon a fmali var-
nifhed falver. He lays hold of it with both his hands,
makes a bow to all the furrounding guefts, and advan¬
ces towards the fore part of the hall, which generally
looks into a large court. He there raifes his eyes and
the cup towards heaven; after which he pours the
wine on the ground, He afterwards pours fome wine
into a filver or porcelain cup, makes a bow to the moft
confiderable perfon in company, and then goes to place
the cup on the table before him ; for in China every
gueft has a table for himfelf. The perfon for whom
he intends this honour, however, generally faves him
the trouble of placing the cup $ calls for wine in his
turn, and offers to place the cup on the mafter’s table,
who endeavours to prevent him, with a thoufand apo¬
logies and compliments according to the rules of Chi¬
nefe politenefs. A fuperior domeftic condudls the
principal gueft to an elbow-chair covered with rich
flowered filk, where the ftranger again begins his com-
E • pliments,
CHI [ 34 ] CHI
China, pliments, and begs to be excufed from fitting in fuch
an honourable feat, which neverthelefs he acct pts of;
and all the reft of the guefts do the fame, otherwife the
cermonial would be gone through with each of them.
The entertainment is concluded by fome theatrical re¬
prefen tations, accompanied with the mufic of the coun¬
try 5 which, however, would give but little pleafure
to an European. Befides the guefts, a certain num¬
ber of people are admitted into the court in order to
behold thefe theatrical reprefentations $ and even the
women are allowed to view them through a wicket,
contrived fo that they may behold them without being
feen themfelves.
The entertainments of the Chinefe are begun, not
by eating, but by drinking ; and the liquor they drink
muft always be pure wine. The intendant, or maitre
d'hotel, falling down on one knee, firft invites the
guefts to take a glafs ; on which each of therri lays
hold with both hands of that which is placed before
him, raifing it as high as the forehead, then bringing
it lower down than the table, and at laft putting it to
his mouth : they all drink together, and very {lowly,
taking three or four draughts. While they are drink¬
ing, the difties on each of the tables are removed, and
others brought in. Each of the guefts has twenty-
four fet before him in fucceflion ; all of them fat, and
in the form of ragouts. They never ufe knives in their
repafts j and two fmall pointed fticks, ornamented
with ivory or filver, ferve them inftead of forks. They
never begin to eat, however, until they are invited by
the maitre d'hotel; and the fame ceremony muft be
gone through every time they are going to take a cup
of wine, or begin a new difti. Towards the middle
of the entertainment the foup is brought in, accom¬
panied with fmall loaves or meat pies. Thefe they
take up with their fmall fticks, fteep them in the
{bup, and eat them without waiting for any fignal, or
being obliged to keep time with the reft of the guefts.
The entertainment, however, continues in other re-
fpe&s with the utmoft formality until tea is brought
in; after which they retire from table and amufe
themfelves in another hall, or in the garden, for a ftiort
time, until the deffert be brought in. This, like the
entertainment itfelf, confifts of 24 diflies, which are
made up of fweetmeats, fruits differently prepared,
hams and falted ducks which have been baked or dried
in the fun, with fliell and other kinds of fifti. The
fame ceremonies which preceded the repaft are now
renewed, and every one fits down at the fame place
he occupied before. Larger cups are then brought
in, and the matter invites the guefts to drink more
freely.
Thefe entertainments begin towards evening, and
never end till midnight. A fmall fum of money is
given to the domeftics; when every one of the guefis
goes home in a chair preceded by feveral fervants,
who carry large lanthorns of oiled paper, on which
are infcribed the quality, and fometimes the name,
of the mafter. Without fuch an attendance they
would be taken up by the guard ; and the day follow¬
ing they never fail to return a card of thanks to the
officer.
Their method of drinking tea is not like that of
other nations. A fmall quantity of bohea, fufficient
to tinge the water and render it palatable (for they
drink no green), is taken in the morning, and thrown China,
into a veffel adapted to the number in family. This""Y"**
ftands till milk-warm j in which ftate it is kept the
whole day, and a cup drank now and then without
fugar or milk, in order to exhilarate the fpirits when
exhaufted by fatigue: and if a ftranger call by accident,
or a vifitor by appointment, the firft thing prefented,
after the ufual ceremonies of meeting, is a very fmall
pipe filled with tobacco of their owm growth, and a cup
of the tea already mentioned, or of fome freftt made
of better quality, together with fweetmeats, &c. Tea
is the daily beverage in China, and is drank by all
ranks of people.
Some change has been made in the ceremonial of
the Chinefe by the Tartar conqueft, and fome new
dithes alfo introduced by the fame means; and here
M. Grofier obferves, that the Tartars are much better
cooks than the Chinefe. All their difties are highly
feafoned ; and by a variation in the proportions of
their fpiceries, they are able to form a variety of difties
out of the fame materials. None of their viands,
however, are more efteemed than flags finews, and the
nefts of a particular fpecies of birds, which have the
property of giving a moft agreeable relifh to what¬
ever is mixed w'ith them. Other difties are introdu¬
ced at thefe repafts, which would be accounted very
difagreeable with us j fuch as the flefh of wild horfes,
the paws of a bear, and the feet of feveral wild
animals. The greater part of thefe provifions are
brought preferved in fait from Siam, Camboya, and
Tartary. . _ ,IS
The wines of China have no refemblance to ours Chinefe
either in tafte or quality, being procured from rice,wines*
and not from the vine. A particular kind of rice is
employed for making them, and the grain is fteep-
ed for 20 or 30 days in water, into which ingredients
of a different nature are fucceffively thrown : they af¬
terwards boil it; and as foon as it becomes diffolved
by the heat, it immediately ferments, and throws
up a vaporous fcum not unlike new wine. A very
pure liquor is found under this fcum, which is drawn
off and put into veffels well glazed : From the re¬
maining leys an inflammable fpirit is made, little in¬
ferior, and fometimes even fuperior to the Euro¬
pean. Another kind of wine is ufed by the Chinefe,
or rather Tartars, called lamb wine. It is very ftrong,
and has a difagreeable fmell j and the fame may be
believed of a kind of fpirit diftilled from the flefh
of (beep ; though this laft is fometimes ufed by the
emperors.
Thefe entertainments exceed the bounds of ordinary
repafts ; the Chinefe being naturally fober, and thofe
in eafy circumftances living chiefly on pork ; for which
reafon a great number of hogs are. bred in the country.
’I heir flefh is much eafier of digeftion, and more agree¬
able to the tafte than thofe of Europe. The Chinefe
hams are in high eftimation. The common people
live very poorly ; being fatisfied, in time of fcarcity,
with the fleftr of dogs, horfes, cats, and rats, which
laft are fold publicly in the ftreets.
1 here are feveral public feftivals annually celebrated Public fefr
in China. One is that already mentioned, in whichtlvals’
the emperor tills the ground with his own hands. This
is alfo celebrated on the fame day throughout the em¬
pire. In the morning the governor of every city comes
forth
CHI C 35 3 CHI
China, forth from his palace crowned with flowers, and en-
-‘-“v—"”' ters his chair amidft the noife of different inftruments
which precede it; a great number of people attend¬
ing, as is ufual on all fuch occafions. The chair is
furrounded by litters covered with filk carpets, on
which are reprefented either fome illuftrious perfons
who have fupported and encouraged agriculture, or
fome hiftorical painting on the fame fubje£h The
ftreets are hung with carpets, triumphal arches are
ere&ed at certain diftances, lanthorns everywhere dif-
played, and all the houfes illuminated. During the
ceremony a figure refembling a cow, made of baked
earth, with gilt horns, is carried in proceflion, and of
fuch enormous magnitude that 40 men are fcarcely fuf-
ficient to fupport it. A child follows with one foot
naked and the other (hod, who is called the fpirit of
labour and diligence, and keeps continually beating the
image with a rod to make it advance. Labourers,
with their implements of hufbandry, march behind ;
and the proceflion is clofed by a number of comedians
and people in malks. The governor advances towards
the eaftern gate, and returns in the fame manner. The
cow is then dripped of its ornaments, a prodigious
number of earthen calves taken from its belly and
diftributed among the people j after which the large
figure is broken in pieces and diftributed in the
fame manner. The ceremony is ended by an oration
in praife of agriculture, in which the governor en¬
deavours to excite his hearers to the practice of that
ufeful art.
Other two feftivals are celebrated in China with ftill
more magnificence than that above defcribed. One
of them is at the commencement of the year ; the
other is called the feaft of lanthorns. During the
celebration of the former, all bufinefs, whether pri¬
vate or public, is fufpended, the tribunals are (hut, the
polls flopped, prefents are given and received, and vi-
lits paid. All the family affemble in the evening, and
partake of a feaft to which no ftranger is admitted ;
though they become a little more fociable on the fol¬
lowing day.
The feaft of lanthorns ought to take place on the
15th day of the firft month, but ufually commences on
the evening of the 1:5th, and does not end till that of
the 16th. At that time every city and village, the
ffiores of the fea, and the banks of all the rivers, are
hung with lanthorns of various (hapes and fizes j fome
of them being feen in the courts and windows of the
pooreft houfes. No expence is fpared on this occafion j
and fome of. the rich people will lay out eight or nine
pounds fterling on one lanthorn. Some of thefe are
very large, compofed of fix wooden frames either
neatly painted or gilt, and filled up with pieces of fine
tranfparent filk, upon which are painted flowers, ani¬
mals, and human figures ; others are blue, and made
of a tranfparent kind of horn. Several lamps, and a
great number of wax candles, are placed in the infide :
to the corners of each are fixed dreamers of filk and
fatin of different colours, with a curious piece of car¬
ved work on the top. They are likewife acquainted
with our magic lanthorn, which they fometimes in¬
troduce into this feftival. Befides this, they have the
art of forming a fnake 60 or 80 feet in length, filled
with lights, from, one end to the other j which they
«aufe twift itfelf into different forms, and move about
as if it were a real ferpent. During the fame feftival chin*,
all the varieties of the Chinefe fire-works, fo juftly ad- —v—.
mired, and which, fome time ago at leaft, furpaffed
every thing of the kind that could be done in Europe,
are exhibited.
Every publifc ceremony in China is carefully ren-Magnifi-
dered as linking as poflible. A viceroy never quitsc<,nce.ol:
his palace but with a roy&l train, dreffed in his robes^ v‘ce"‘
of ceremony, and carried in a chair elegantly gilt/0'5*
which is borne upon the {boulders of eight domeftics $
two drummers marching before the guards, and beat-
ing upon copper bafons to give notice of his approach.
Eight other attendants carry ftandards of wood var-
nilhed, upon which are infcribed in large characters all
his titles of honour. After thefe come 14 flags with
the fymbols of his office 5 fuch as the dragon, tyger,
phoenix, flying tortoife, &c. Six officers follow, each
bearing a piece of board in lhape like a large Ihovel,
on which are written in large golden characters the
qualities of the mandarin himfelf j two others car¬
ry, the one a large umbrella of yellow filk, and the
other the cover in which the umbrella is kept. The
firft guards are preceded by two archers on horfeback ;
the latter are followed by others armed with a kind of
weapons compofed of hooked blades, fixed perpendicu¬
larly to long poles ornamented with four tufts of filk,
placed at a fmall diftance above one another. Behind
thefe are two other files of foldiers, fome of whom
carry large maces with long handles $ others iron
maces in the lhape of a fnake $ others are armed with
huge hammers j while thofe behind them carry long
battle-axes in the form of a crefcent: others follow,
who have battle-axes of another kind j and behind
thefe are fome with the hooked weapons already de¬
fcribed.
Behind thefe come foldiers armed with triple-point¬
ed fpears, arrows, or battle-axes ; having in front two
men who carry a kind of box containing the viceroy’s
feal. Then come two other drummers to give notice
of his approach. Two officers follow, having on their
heads felt hats, adorned with plumes of feathers, and
each armed with a cane to recommend regularity and
good order to the furrounding multitude. Two others
bear maces in the form of gilt dragons. Thefe again
are followed by a number of magiftrates and officers
of juftice : fome of whom carry whips or flat flicks,
while others have chains, hangers, and filk fcarfs.
Two ftandard-bearers and a captain command this
company, which immediately precede the governor.
His chair is furrounded by pages and footmen, and an
officer attends him who carries a large fan in form of
a fcreen ; he is followed by feveral guards differently
armed, together with enfigns and other officers, who
are alfo followed by a great number of domeftics all
on horfeback, carrying various neceffaries for the ufe
of the mandarin. If he marches in the night-time,
inftead of flambeaux, as is cuftomary in Europe, large
lanthorns, exceedingly pretty, are carried before him ;
on the tranfparent part of which are written, in very
confpicuous characters, his quality, titles, and rank,
as mandarin. Thefe are alfo intended to give notice
to the paffrngers to flop, and to thofe who are fitting
to rife up with refpeCt; for whoever negleCts either
the one or the other is fure to receive a fevere bafti-
nading.
E 2
The
CHI [36] CHI
China. '' The emperor marches with ftill more magnificence,
'•'-"-V'—in proportion to his fuperior quality. The trumpets
ufed in this proceflion are about three feet long, eight
inches in diameter at the lower extremity, and pretty
much refembling a bell in (hape : their found is pecu¬
liarly adapted to that of the drums. His cavalcade is
clofed by 2000 mandarins of letters, and as many of
arms. Sometimes the great mandarins, as well as the
emperor, travel in barks : their attendance is then
fomewhat different, but the magnificence almoft the
fame. The honours paid to a viceroy who has governed
a province with equity are exceedingly great on his
departure from it. He has fcarcely left the capital of
the province when he finds on the highway, for the
fpace of two or three leagues, tables ranged at certain
diftances, each of which is furrounded with a long
piece of filk that hangs down to the earth. On thefe
wax candles are placed even in the open day: perfumes
are burnt upon them $ and they are loaded with a pro-
fufion of victuals, and various kinds of fruit, while tea
and wine are prepared for him on others. The peo¬
ple throw themfelves on their knees as he paffes, and
bow their heads even to the earth 5 fome fhed tears, or
pretend to do fo ; fome prefent him with wine and fweet-
meats $ others frequently pull off his boots and give
him new ones. Thefe boots, which he has perhaps
ufed only for a moment, are confidered as a valuable
monument $ thofe firft taken off are preferved in a
cage over the gate of the city $ the reft are carefully
118 kept by his friends.
Knavifli Hitherto our author, M. Grofier, has feemed in-
©fthe ChU clined to g*ve a favourable idea of the Chinefe, and to
aefe. caufe us look upon them as many degrees fuperior to
ourfelves in the practice of virtue and morality ; but
when he comes to give an account of their dealings in
trade, he is then obliged to confefs that they are as dif-
honeft and knavifli a race as any that exift. “ The moft
frequented fairs of Europe (fays he) afford but a faint
idea of that immenfe number of buyers and fellers with
which the large cities of China are continually crowd¬
ed. We may almoft fay, that the one half are em¬
ployed in over-reaching the other. It is, above all,
againft ftrangers that the Chinefe merchants exercife,
without any fenfe of fliame, their infatiable rapacity.
Of this F. du Halde gives a ftriking example, which
might be fupported by many others: ‘ The captain of
an Englifh veffel bargained with a Chinefe merchant
at Canton for feveral bales of filk, which the latter
was to provide againft a certain time. When they
were ready, the captain wTent with his interpreter to the
houfe of the Chinefe merchant to examine whether
they were found and in good condition. On opening
the firft bale, he found it according to his wifh, but all
the reft were damaged and good for nothing. The cap¬
tain on this fell into a great paflion, and reproached
the merchant in the fevereft terms for his difhonefty.
The Chinefe, after having heard him for fome time, with
great coolnefs, replied, ‘ Blame, Sir, your knave of an,
interpreter : he affured me that you would not infpe£t
the bales.1
“ The lower clafs of people are, above all, very dex¬
terous in counterfeiting and adulterating every thing
they fell. Sometimes you think you have bought a
capon, and you receive nothing but Ikin; all the reft has
been fcooped out, and the place fo ingenioufly filled,
3
that the deception cannot be difeovered till the moment China,
you begin to eat it. The counterfeit hams of China 'w--y—j
have been often mentioned. They are made of a piece
of wood cut in the form of a ham, and coated over
with a certain kind of earth which is covered with hog’s
fldn. The whole is fo curioufly painted and prepared,
that a knife is neceffary to deleft the fraud. Mr Of-
beck relates, that having one day obferved a blind man
carrying about for fale fome of thofe trees called by
the Chinefe, Fokei, he purchafed one, which to appear¬
ance had fine double red and white flowers $ but on
clofer examination, he found that the flowers were taken
from another tree, and that one calyx was fo neatly fit¬
ted into the other, with nails made of bamboo, that he
fhould fcarcely have difeovered the deceit had not the
flowers begun to wither. The tree itfelf had buds, but
not one open flower.
“ The robbers in China fignalize themfelves alfo by
the dexterity and ingenuity which they difplay in
their profeflion. They feldom have recourfe to afts of
violence, but introduce themfelves into a houfe either
privately or by forming fome conneftion with the fa¬
mily. It is as difficult in China to avoid robbery as it
is to apprehend the criminal in the faft. If we are
defirous of finding among the Chinefe opennefs of tem¬
per, benevolence, friendmip, and, laftly, virtue, we muft
not feek for it in cities, but in the bofom of the coun¬
try, among that clafs of men who have devoted them¬
felves to labour and agriculture. A Chinefe ruftic
often difeovers moral qualities which would add a
luftre to the charafter of men of the moft exalted
rank. It appears that rural life naturally infpires fen-
timents of benevolence ; by continually receiving the
gifts of nature, the mind is enlarged, and men are
infenfibly accuftomed to diffufe them to thofe around
them.”
The internal commerce of China is much greater
than that of all Europe; but its foreign trade is by
no means equal to that of any of the grand European
powers. Its internal commerce is greatly facilitated
by the vaft number of canals and rivers with which
the country is interfefted. The Chinefe, however,
are not at all fitted for maritime commerce: Few
of their veffels go beyond the ftraits of Sunda; their
longeft voyages to Malacca extended only as far as
Acheen, towards thei ftraits of Batavia, and north¬
wards to Japan.
Their commerce with the laft mentioned ifland, con-
fidering the article of exchange, which they procure at
Camboya or Siam, produces them cent, per cent. Their
trade with the Manillas brings only about 50 per cent.
Their profit is more confiderable about Batavia; and
the Dutch fpare no pains to invite them to traffic at
their fettlements. The Chinefe traders go alfo, though
not very frequently, to Acheen, Malacca, Thor, Patan,
and Ligor, belonging to Siam and Cochin-china ; from
whence they bring gold and tin, together with fome
objefts of luxury for the table. A great obftacle to
the foreign commerce of the Chinefe is their indiffe¬
rence about maritime affairs, and the bad conftruftion
of their veffels. This they themfelves acknowledge \
but fay, that any attempt to remove it would be dero¬
gating from the laws, and fubverting the conftitution iip
of the empire. Burying-
The burying-places in China are always fituated atPJ^ *“
CHI [ 37 1 CHI
Carina, a fmall diflance from a city or town, and generally
—^   upon fome eminence, having pines or cypreffes ufually
planted around them. The form of the tombs is va¬
rious according to the difterent provinces, and the
fituation of thofe for whom they are intended. The
coffins of the poor are placed under a ffied covered
with thatch, or inclofed in a fmall building of brick
in the form of a tomb. The tombs of the rich are
ffiaped like a horfe-ffioe, well whitened, and finiffied
with great tafte ; but thofe of the mandarins and peo¬
ple of quality are much more fumptuous and elegant.
A vault is firft conftru&ed, in which the coffin is ffiut
up 5 over this vault is raifed a pyramid of earth well
beat together, about 12 feet in height and io in
diameter. A layer of lime and fand laid over this
earth makes a kind of plafter, which renders the whole
very durable and folid j various kinds of trees being
planted around it in regular order. Before it is placed
a large and long table of white marble, on the middle
of which is fet a cenfer, accompanied with two vafes,
and the fame number of candlefticks of exquifite work-
manffiip. Befides this a great number of figures, re-
prefenting officers, eunuchs, foldiers, faddled horfes,
camels, lions, tortoifes, &c. are ranged round the
tombs in different rows ; which F. du Halde affures us,
produces a very ftriking effedl.
When a Chinefe dies in a province in which he was
not born, his children have a right, nay it is their in-
difpenfable duty, to tranfport the body to the burying-
place of their anceftors. Afon, who ffiould be wanting
in this refpe<ff, would be difgraced, and his name never
placed in the hall of his anceftors. This is a vaft build¬
ing, confidered as common to all the branches of the
fame family, and to which they all repair at a certain
feafon of the year. Sometimes they amount to feven
or eight thoufand perfons, whofe fortune, dignity, and
rank in fociety, are all very different; but there no di-
ftindlion of rank is known ; age only gives prece¬
dence, and the oldeft always takes place of all the reft,
though he ftiould be the pooreft in the company.
The diftinguiffiing ornament of this hall is a long
table fet againft the wall, upon which is generally feen
the image of one of their anceftors, who has filled
fome office of diftinflion in the empire with honour
to himfelf, or who has been rendered illuftrious by his
talents and abilities. Sometimes it only contains the
names of men, women, and children belonging to the
family, infcribed upon tablets, together with their age,
the day of their death, and the dignities they enjoyed
at that time. Thefe tablets are ranged in twn rows upon
Heps, and are only about a foot high each. In the
fpring, and fometimes in the autumn, the relations of
the deceafed repair to this hall, where the only privi¬
lege enjoyed by the richeft is that of preparing an en¬
tertainment, and treating the whole family at their
own expence ; but they never allow themfelves to tafte
a bit of any thing until an offering has been firft
made to their anceftors. This does not, however, ex-
cufe them from vifiting the real tomb of their an¬
ceftors once or twice a-year, generally in the month of
April. At this time they pluck the weeds and buffies
from around the tomb, renew their expreffions of grief,
and conclude by placing upon it wine and provifions,
which lerve to dine their affiftants.
Xhe.funeral ceremonies are confifared by the Chi-
nefe as the moft important of any. A few moments china,
after a perfon has expired, he is dreffed out in his rich- u—y—
eft attire, and adorned with every badge of his dignity j 12°
after which he is placed in the coffin. The prepara-^uhera^
tion of a coffin, in which his body may be inclofed af-j,^
ter death, is one of the chief objedts of attention to a
Chinefe during his life, and great expence is often
throwm out upon it $ infomuc^i that the poor will give
all they are worth, and the rich expend a thouland
crowns, nay, a fon will fell himfelf for a flave in order
to purchafe a coffin for his father. Sometimes the cof¬
fin, when purchafed with all this labour and expence,
will remain twenty years ufelefs in the family, and is
confidered as the moft valuable piece of furniture in bis
poffeffion.
The manner of interment is as follows : Firft they
fprinkle fome lime in the bottom of the coffin j then
they lay the body in it, taking care to place the head
on a pillow, and to add a great deal of cotton, that it
may remain more fteady, and be prevented from ffia-
king. In this manner the body remains expofed feven
days ; but the time may be reduced to three, if any
weighty reafon makes it neceffary j and, during this
interval, all the relations and friends, who are purpofe-
ly invited, come and pay their refpedls to the decea¬
fed, the neareft relations even remaining in the houfe.
The coffin is expofed in the hall of ceremony, which
is then hung with white, but fome pieces of black or
violet-coloured filk are here and there interfperfed,
as well as fome other ornaments of mourning. Be¬
fore the coffin is placed a table, on which Hands
the image of the deceafed, or a carved ornament infcri¬
bed with his name $ and thefe are always accom¬
panied with flowers, perfumes, and lighted wax can¬
dles.
In the mean time thofe who enter the hall are ac«
cuftomed to falute the deceafed as if he were ftill in
life. They proftrate themfelves before the table, and
knock their foreheads feveral times againft the earth j
after which they place on the table fome perfumes and
wax candles provided for the purpofe. The faluta-
tion which they have made to the deceafed is return¬
ed by the eldeft fon accompanied by his brothers.
The latter come forth from behind a curtain, which
hangs on one fide of the coffin, creeping along the
ground until they reach the fpot where thofe ftand
whom they are going to falute; after which, W'ithout
rifing up, they return to the place /rom whence they
came. The women are alfo concealed behind the
fame curtain, from whence they every now and then
fend forth difmal cries.
After a number of ceremonies and invitations, the
funeral proceflion at laft commences. A troop of men
march in a file, carrying different figures made of
pa!fteboard, and reprefenting flaves, lions, tigers, hor¬
fes, &c. Others follow, marching in two files j fome
of which carry ftandards, fome flags or cenfers filled
with perfumes j while melancholy and plaintive airs
are played by others on different roufical inftruments.
Thefe muficians immediately precede the coffin, which
is covered with a canopy in form of a dome, of violet-
coloured filk ; its four corners are ornamented with
tufts of white filk very neatly embroidered, and co¬
vered at the top with net-work. The coffin is placed
on the bottom of this machine, and. is carried by 64
men.
CHI r 38 ] CHI
(kftina.
1SI
Mourning.
laa
Diverfions
of hunting
«nd fifiling.
men. The eldeft fon, clothed in a frock of canvas,
having his body bent and leaning on a ftaff, follows
near the coffin ; and behind him his brothers and ne¬
phews, but none of thetii clothed in canvas. Then
come the relations and friends, all clad in mourning,
and followed by a great number of chairs covered with
white fluff, which contain the wives and female flaves
of the deceafed. Thefe make great ffiow of forrow
by their doleful cries j but M. Grofier obferves, that,
in fpite of all they can do, the lamentations of the
Chinefe are fo methodical, that an European would be
apt to conclude that they were the effe&s of art ra¬
ther than the natural effufions of a mind agitated and
oppreffed with grief. When they arrive at the bury¬
ing place, the coffin is depolited in a tomb appropria¬
ted for it, not far from which there are ta les arran¬
ged in different halls, anti on which the affiflants are
entertained with great fplendour. The entertainment
is fometimes followed by frefh marks of homage to the
corpfe ; but thefe are often changed into thanks to the
eldeft fon •, who, however, anfwers only by figns. But
if the deceafed was a grandee of the empire, a certain
number of his relations never leave the tomb for a
month or two. There they refide in apartments pur-
pofely provided for them, and every day renew their
marks of grief in company with the children of the de¬
ceafed. The magnificence of thefe funeral ceremo¬
nies is proportioned to the wealth or dignity of the
deceafed. That of one of the brothers of the emper¬
or was attended by 16,000 people, each of whom
had a particular office affigned him relating to the cere¬
mony.
Mourning continues in China for three years ; and
during all this time they are obliged to abftain from
the uie of flefti and wine $ nor can they affift at any en¬
tertainment of ceremony, or attend any public affembly.
At firft they are not even permitted to go abroad ;
and when they do fo they are carried in a chair co¬
vered with a white cloth. Sometimes the filial piety
of the Chinefe is carried to fuch a length, that they
preferve the bodies of their deceafed fathers in their
houfes for three or four years j and thofe who do fo
impofe alfo upon themfelves a great number of other
duties, ufing no other feat during the day but a ftool
covered with white ferge, and no other bed but a plain
mat made of reeds, which is placed near the coffin.
According to M. Grofier, the only diverfions of the
Chinefe are thofe of hunting and fiffiing, dancing not
being pra&ifed, and gaming forbidden by law. EHh-
ingis confidered by them rather as an objefl of com¬
merce and induftry than amufement. They catch fifh
by various methods *, ufing nets in their great fifiier-
ies, but lines in the private. In certain provinces alfo
they ufe a certain kind of bird whofe plumage greatly
refembles that of a raven, but with a much longer bill,
very (harp and hooked. This method of fiffiing is
pra&ifed in boats, of which great numbers may be
feen on the river about fun-rifing, with the fiffirng-
Birds perched on their prows. Thefe birds are taught
to catch fifti almoft in the fame manner that dogs pur-
fue game. The fiftiermen, after making feveral turns
with their boats, beat the water ftrongly with one of
their oars. This ferves as a fignal to the birds, wholn-
ftantly plunge into the water, and diving, fwallow
-as many fmall fifties as they can, repairing immediately
2
afterwards to the boat, and carrying a large one by the chins,
middle in their bill. The fmall ones are prevented y—w
from paffing into the ftomach by a ring placed on pur-
pofe to confine its gullet : and thus the fiftierman by
ftroaking its neck with the head downwards, makes
the bird difgorge all thofe fmall fifti it has fwallowed.
When they have done fiffiing, the rings are taken off,
and the birds allowed to feed. When the fiffi happens
to be too large for a Angle bird, the others have laga-
city enough to affift it; one taking it by the tail, an¬
other by the head, &c. and thus they tranfport it to
their mafter.
Another method of fiffiing, praflifed only in China,
is as follows : They nail a board about two feet in
breadth, which is covered with a white ffiining kind of
varniffi, upon the edges of a long narrow boat, from
one end to the other. This board is placed in fuch a
manner as to flope almoft imperceptibly to the water.
It is ufed only in the night-time, and is always turned
towards the moon, that the reftedHon of light from the
luminary may increafe the fplendour of the varniffi.
The fith in fporting, often miilake this varniffied board
for water j and endeavouring to throw themfelves into
it, fall into the boat.
The foldiers have a particular method of fiffiing
with a bow and arrow 5 the latter of which is fixed
to the bow by a ftring, both to prevent it from being
loft, and to enable them to draw out the fiftt which
the arrow has pierced ; others make ufe of tridents
to catch large fiffi which are fometimes found in the
mud.
Befides thefe diverfions the Chinefe have fome ftroll-
ing players, but no regular theatres j they have like-
wife muficians and fingers, but no operas, or indeed any
public fpe£tacle worthy of notice. 123
The language of the Chinefe is not only very an-Of the Ghi-
cient, but, in M. Grofier’s opinion, is (HU fpoken as m’‘efe lan“‘
the moft early ages without any variation. His rea-*=ua^e*
fons for this opinion are, 1. We do not perceive in hif-
tory, nor even in the moft fabulous traditions, a Angle
fafi tending to occafion any doubt of the language
fpoken by the ancient Chinefe being different from
that ufed at prefent. 2. China has never changed its
inhabitants } and if revolutions have occafiontd any
mixture of new languages, it appears that the ancient
language has always been predominant, and that the
new fettlers have learned and fpoken it, as the Man-
chew Tartars after their conqueft. 3. The moft in¬
telligent and difcefning of the literati agree, that the
firft chapters of the Chou king were written under the
reign of Yao, 2300 years before Chrift j and in thefe
Several fpeeches of the firft emperors are related word
for word ; and it is not probable that the language of
thefe princes was different from that of the hiftonan.
4. A compliment paid to Yao by one of his fubjebls,
•with the anfwer of that prince, are ft ill preferved, as
well as two fongs compofed under the lame reign.
5. The moft ancient infcriptions in China are all in
the language fpoken throughout the empire at this
day. 6. The Chinefe have borrowed nothing from
other nations $ and their attachment to their own cuf-
toms, and to antiquity, muft undoubtedly be very un¬
favourable to any innovation. The language fpoken
by the vulgar, indeed, muft have undergone fome
''changes j but thefe may be accounted trivial, affefling
CHI [ 39 ] CHI
China, only the pronunciation ; which indeed appears to be
■'■"v i»-1 varied in fome few inftances. It is certain, however,
that the Chinefe players adl theatrical pieces which
were written tooo years ago, and that thefe are ftill
underftood throughout the empire.
The language of China has no alphabet ; all the
words which compofe it confift of one fyllable only,
and are very few in number. Thefe always remain
the fame, and continue monofyllables even when two
are joined together, being united in the fame manner
as the French words ^on and jour are united to form
bonjour. Thefe monofyllables never form but one
found. When written by an European, they begin
with the letters ch, tch,f, g, or j, i, A, /, m, n, g, ng,
p,f ts, vr ou ; the final letters being a, e, f, o, oi, ou,
u, /, n, gn. The middle of Chinefe words confilts of
vowels and confonants producing only one found, and
pronounced always as monofyllables. The whole pri¬
mary words of the language are in number only about
330, though fome di&ionaries make them 484. The
(enfe of thefe words, however, is varied by the accents
and changes of the voice in pronouncing them almoft
ad infinitum. Two principal accents are known in
China ; the ping, that is, even, without elevating or
deprefling the voice. This is divided into tfing, clear,
and tcJio, obfcure ; or rather open and mute. The ac¬
cent tfe is fubdivided into tchang, (harp, kiu, grave,
and jou, re-entering. The tone is chang when one
raifes the voice at the end of a word, as when the ne¬
gative no is pronounced with great emphafis and force $
it is kiu when one deprefles the voice with an air of ti¬
midity. When the accent is jou, the voice is drawn
back as it were into the throat j and the afpiration
which takes place on certain words beginning with the
letters c, k, p, t, ftill adds to thefe varieties.
By thefe differences in pronunciation the fignifica-
tion of the words is totally changed j thus the word
tchu, pronounced by lengthening the u, and with a
clear tone of voice, fignifies mafier or lord: if it is
pronounced in an uniform tone by lengthening the u,
it fignifies hog ; when pronounced lightly and with ra¬
pidity, it fignifies ; and wlien articulated with
a ftrong voice depreffed towards the fcnd, it fignifies a
pillar.
By the conjun&ion and modification of thefe differ¬
ent monofyllables, a Chinefe can exprefs every thing
he has occafion for ; and it may be eafily feen what
variety muft refult from this art of multiplying words.
The Chinefe language therefore has words expreflive
of the fmalleft variation of circumftance, and which
cannot be expreffed in the European languages with¬
out a circumlocution. Thus inftead of the five words,
calf, bull, ox, heifer, cow, every time that a cow has
a calf fhe acquires a new name in the language of
this empire j and ftill another when fhe becomes bar¬
ren. An ox fed for facrifice has a particular name,
which is changed when he goes to the altar. In like
manner, a whole di&ionary might be comnofed of the
words that are employed to exprefs the different parts
of the emperor’s palace, and thofe that are in a man¬
ner confecrated to it; others being employed when the
palaces of princes or mandarins are fpoken of. Thus
the number of their characters are augmented beyond
all bounds, fo that the greater part of their literati
fpend all their lives in ftudying theta.
In the Chinefe there are four different languages : China.
1. The Kou-ouen, or claffical language. This is not' " v—"■
fpoken at prefent, though it is generally believed to
have been the language of the early ages. It is fo la¬
conic, and the ideas are fo crowded, that it is very
difficult to be underftood ; however, the literati, who
can read and underftand it, are much delighted with it.
2. The Ouen-tchang is t^e language ufed in com-
pofitions where a noble and elevated ftyle is requifite.
It is never fpoken, but certain fentences and compli¬
mentary expreffions are fometimes borrowed from it.
It approaches near to the laconic brevity and majeftic
folemnity of the Kou-ouen, and is equally proper for
every kind of fubjeCt, excepting only the ambiguities
of metapbyfics, and the formal rugged diClion ufed in
treating of the abftraCl fciences.
3. The Kouan-ka is the language of the court, of
people in office, and of the literati. It admits of fy-
nonymous expreffions to moderate the brevity of mo¬
nofyllables ; of pronouns and relatives; prepofitions,
adverbs, and particles; to fupply the want of cafes,
moods, tenfes, and numbers, which have place in other
languages.
4. Hing-tan is a kind of corrupted language, or
provincial dialed, fpoken by the lower claffes in Chi¬
na ; and of which every province, city, and almoft eve¬
ry village, has its own. Befides the fenfe of the words
which is changed in a great variety of places, they are
fo altered by diverfity of pronunciation as to be almoft
unintelligible.
This language is fo abfolutely original, that no tra¬
ces of the moft diftant relation can be perceived, ei¬
ther in reference to the form of the chara&er, the fy-
ftem on which it appears to have been conftruded, or
its peculiar idiom to any other known language to be
met with upon the face of the earth. Many attempts
indeed have been made by the learned and ingenious,
to difcover fome affinity between it and different lan¬
guages ; but we apprehend without fuccefs. Etymo¬
logical comparifons are often fanciful and ftrained, and
feldom fail to lead to erroneous conclufions. It may
indeed be admitted that it is poffible to trace a refem-
blance between the founds of the Chinefe language and
thofe of other nations, yet no art or ingenuity, no ety¬
mological trick, as Mr Barrow expreffes himfelf, will
ever be able to trace any analogy between their writ¬
ten chara&ers, farther than that they are made up of
points and lines, which might conftitute an affinity be¬
tween the Chinefe and any other language on the face
of the earth. It has no alphabetical arrangement, but
confifts purely of a prodigious number of arbitrary
figns, fettled by convention, and which have no exter¬
nal affinity to the tilings they are meant to defcribe.
The ridiculous conjeftures often made on this fubjeft
by etvmologifts might be pardoned if they were meant
to be fatirical, like Dean Swift’s antiquity of the En-
gliffi tongue, from which he makes the Hebrew, Greek,
and Latin, to be derivatives.
Such is the. nature, of the Chinefe language, that it
would be abfurd to expe& among that people fuch high
attainments in every branch of literature as are to be
met with in Europe. In the opinion of fome very
eminent men, their acquaintance with erudition of any
kind was as great 2000 years ago as it is at prefent,
while others are perfuaded that they are rather on the
decline.
chi r 40 ]
China, decline. They pretend indeed, but without adducing tain only a certain
“ v" any fatisfadlory proof of its truth, that the monuments
of literature were deftroyed by the tyrant She-whang-
te, 200 years before the Chriftian era, that fucceeding
generations might confider him as the firft civilized
emperor who had fwayed the fceptre over that exten-
five country. The chief works at prefent among them
which are mold valued, ftudied, and lead, underftood,
are the five claffics colle&ed by their favourite Cong-
foo-tfe, 450 years B. C. and which it feems had the good
fortune to efeape the unlettered fury of She-whang-te.
Thefe claflics are enumerated by Mr Barrow in the
following order.
1. Shoo-king. A collection of records and annals of
various princes, commencing more than 2000 years
B. C.
2. S/iee-king. Odes, fonnets, and maxims $ mod of
them fo abundant in metaphor, and fo obfcure, that
much of the fcnfe is to be made out by the tranfla-
tor.
3. lie king. The perfeCd and the broken lines of
Fo-dree 5 the, mod ancient relick in China, and perhaps
the fird attempt at written language : now perfectly
incomprehenfible.
4. Chung choo. Spring and autumn. The hidory
of fome of the kings of Loo : the work principally of
Cong-foo-tfe.
5. Lee kee. Ceremonies and moral duties, a compi¬
lation of Cong-foo-tfe.
Without a complete change of the Chinefe language,
and a more extenfive and friendly intercourfe with fo¬
reign nations, it is not at all probable that that peo¬
ple will ever rank high for their knowledge of litera¬
ture.
There are five kinds of writing mentioned by the
Chinefe literati j the mod modern of which is a me¬
thod of tracing out the chara&ers with a pencil. This
is difficult, and requires much experience j at any rate
it disfigures the characters greatly, and is therefore
only ufed in the prefcriptions of phyficians, prefaces to
books, and infcriptions of fancy. The tracing of cha¬
racters with neatnefs and accuracy, however, as we
have already had occafion to obferve, is greatly admi¬
red in China. They are often preferred to the mod
elegant painting j and fome will give a mod exorbitant
price for a page of an old book, if it happens to be
neatly written. They pay particular attention to well
formed characters even in the mod common books ;
and if any of the leaves happen to fall off, will replace
them with the greated attention. To apply them to
any vile purpofe, tread them under foot, &e. would be
reckoned an unpardonable violation of decency and po-
litenefs; nay, it often happens, that workmen, fuch
as mafons and joiners, dare not tear a printed leaf of
125 paper fixed to the wall.
Of their PunCtuation was not formerly ufed in China, nor are
poetry. points as yet employed in works of an elevated dyle,
or fuch as are to be prefented to the emperor. Poe¬
try is feldom an objeCl of attention, though the tade
for it feems to be pretty general in China. Their ver-
fificatidn has its rules, and is no lefs difficult than that
of other nations. Only the mod harmonious, energe¬
tic, and piCturefque words, are to be employed, and
they mud always be ufed in the fame fenfe in which
they were ufed by the ancients. Each verfe can con-
China,
124
Chinefe
writing.
12(5
C H I
number of words j all of which
mud be ranged according to the rules of quantity, and
terminate in rhyme. The number of verfes in a drophe
is not determined ; but they mud be uniform, and pre¬
fent the fame didribution of rhymes. The fmall num¬
ber of poetical expreffions contained in the Chinefe
language has rendered it neceffary to extend the poeti¬
cal licence to a great length in this refpeCL The Chi¬
nefe poets are allowed to employ a blank verfe in eve¬
ry four. They are acquainted with mod kinds of poe¬
try in ufe among us. They have danzas, odes, ele¬
gies, idyls, eclogues, epigrams, fatrres, and even bouts
rimes. The common people have alfo ballads and
fongs peculiar to themfelves. Some of the mod didin-
guiffied of the literati have even thought it of impor¬
tance enough to turn the mod celebrated maxims of
morality, with the rules of civility, into verfe. Their
poetry is feldom difgraced by any kind of obfcenity ;
and indeed any fuch thing would be feverely punidied
by government. That fevere attention with which
every thing tending to corrupt the morals is watched
in China, prohibits not only poems of this kind, but
likewife romances of all forts. The police, however,
permits fuch novels as have an ufeful tendency, and in
which nothing is introduced prejudicial to found mora¬
lity. Every author who writes againd government is
puniffied with death, as well as all thofe who have
had any hand in the printing or didribution of his
works.
The arts of making paper and printing have been Chinefe
long known among the Chinefe. That kind of paper paper,
now in ufe was fird manufa61ured about 105 years be¬
fore the Chridian era. Before that period they ufed
cloth, and various kinds of filk duff, indead of paper j
and to this day they dill preferve a cudom of writing
the praifes of the dead upon large pieces of filk, which
are fufpended on one fide of the coffin, and carried in
funeral proceffions j and of ornamenting their apart¬
ments with maxims and moral fentences written in the
fame manner. In ages dill more early, they wrote
with a kind of dyle upon pieces of bamboo, or even
upon plates of metal. The fird paper was invented
by a mandarin. He took the bark of trees, hemp, and
old pieces of filk-duff, boiling them together until they
were reduced to a kind of pade, of which he formed
his paper ; which by degrees was brought to perfec¬
tion, and the art of whitening and giving it a ludre
found out. A great number of different fubdances
are now ufed in this empire for making paper ; fuch
as the bamboo reed, the cotton fhrub, the bark of the
plant called kou-chu, and of the mulberry tree j hemp,
the draw of wheat and rice, parchment, the cods of
the filk-worm, and feveral other fubdances unknown
in Europe. In this manufadlure the bark of trees and
flirubs is ufed, and the woody fubdance of the bamboo
and cotton tree, after it has been macerated and redu¬
ced to a thin pade. Mod of the Chinefe paper, how¬
ever, is attended with the difadvantage of being very
fufceptible of moidure, readily attra&s the dud, and
worms infenfibly get into it : to prevent which incon¬
veniences, it is neceffary to beat the books often, and
expofe them to the fun. That made of cotton is the
prettied, and mod ufed of any. All of them, how¬
ever, are much fofter and fmoother than ours ; which
is abfolutely neceffary for their method of writing with
CHI [ 41
Cliina. a pencil, in order that it may run with freedom, which
' it could not do upon ours. It is formed into tlieets of
an enormous fize; fo that it would be no difficult
matter to procure from the manufactories of this em-
fire ffieete of paper 30 or 40 feet long.
fnkt The Chinele ink came originally from Corea; and
it was not until the year 900, that they hit upon the
method of making it to perfection. The belt is made
in Hoei-tcheou in the province of Kiang-nan; but its
compofition is a fecret, which the workmen conceal
not only from ftrangers but from their fellow-citizens.
When a Chinefe has oecafion to write, he places up¬
on his table a piece of polifhed marble, having a ca¬
vity at one of its extremities to contain a little wa¬
ter. In this he dips the end of his cake of ink, and
rubs it upon the fmooth part of the marble 5 and as
he preffes more or lefs ftrongly, the liquor acquires
a deeper* or lighter tinge of black. When he has
done writing, the ftone is carefully waffied; for it
would be diffionoured by allowing the leaft fpot to
remain. Then pencils ufed in writing are commonly
made of the fur of a rabbit, and confequertly very
128 fofJ*
Their me- The Chinefe method of printing is exceedingly dif-
thod of ferent from ours; and indeed it would be in a manner
printing. impoffible to have moveable types for fuch a number
of characters as their language requires. The whole
work which they intend to print is therefore engraved
upon blocks of wood ; and their method of proceed¬
ing is as follows. They firft employ an excellent wri¬
ter, who tranfcribes the whole upon very thin paper.
The engraver glues each of the leaves of the manu-
fcript upon a piece of plank made of any hard wood :
he then traces over with a graver the ftrokes of the
writing, carves out the characters in relief, and cuts
down the intermediate part of the wood. Thus each
page of a book requires a feparate plank j and the ex-
ceffive multiplication of thefe is no doubt a very great
inconvenience, one chamber ‘being fcarce fufficient to
preferve thofe employed for a fingle book. The ad¬
vantages are, that the work is thus free from typogra¬
phical errors, and the author has no occafion to cor-
rea the proofs. Thus alfo the bookfellers in China-
have a decided advantage over thofe of Europe, as
they are able by this method of printing to throw* off
copies according to their fale, without running the rifk
of being ruined by too large an edition. In this
method the beauty of the work depends entirely up¬
on the Ikill of the writer previoufly employed. The
engravers are exceedingly dexterous, and imitate eve¬
ry ilroke fo exaaiy, that it is fometimes difficult to
diflinguiffi a printed work from one that is only writ¬
ten.
The method of printing in China is not by a prefs
as in Europe, as neither their w’ooden planks nor their
foft paper could fuftain fo much preffure. They firft
place the plank level, and then fix it in that pofition.
The printer is provided with two bruffies, and with the
hardeft daubs the plank with ink ; and one daubing is
fufficient for four or five leaves. After a leaf has been
adjufted upon the plank, the workman takes the fecond
bruffi, which is fofter than the former, and of an ob-
long figure, and draws it gently over the paper, pref-
fing it down a little, that it may receive, the ink. The
degree of preffure is to be regulated by the quantity
Vol. VI. Part I.
] CHI
of ink upon the planks : and in this manner one man China,
is able to throw off almoft 10,000 copies a day. The —-
ink ufed for printing is different from that formerly
deferibed, and which is ufed in writing. The leaves,
on account of the thinnefs of the paper, are printed
only upon one fide 5 on which account each leaf of a
book is double, ,fo that the fold ftands uppermoft, and
the opening is towards the back, where it is ftitched.
Hence the Chinefe books are not cuV on the edges, but
on the back. They are generally bound in gray pafte-
board, which is very neat j and thofe who wiffi to have
them more elegantly done, get the pafteboard covered
with fatin, flowered taffety, and fometimes with gold
and fijver brocade. Their books are neither gilt nor
coloured on the edges like ours.
It has been fo juftly and fo frequently obferved,
that the liberty of the prefs muft ever prove fatal to
the exiftence of tyranny and fuperftition, that it is a
circumftance peculiarly Angular to behold the liberty
of the prefs flourifhing under a defpotic government;
yet this is adlually the cafe in China, although its go¬
vernment may be faid to be founded on error and fup-
ported by oppreffion. It was the liberty of the prefs
which accompliffied the overthrow of facerdotal tyran¬
ny in many European countries, by enlightening the
minds of thofe who were enflaved. When the art of
printing firft found its way into England, an intelli¬
gent perfon obferved to the abbot of Weftminfler, “ If
you don’t take care to deftroy that machine, it will
very foon deftroy your trade.” It was fortunate, how¬
ever, for fucceeding generations, that neither the ab¬
bot nor his faniftified contemporaries had the penetration
to difeover the truth of this predi£Uon, otherwife the
ages of darknefs and fuperftition might perhaps have
been protrafted to the prefent day.
The art of manufaduring filk, according to the belt Vaft q^uan-
authorities, was communicated by the Chinefe to the tity of filk
Perfians, and from them to the Greeks. The art hasProduced*
been known in this empire from the remoteft antiqui¬
ty ; and the breeding of filk-worms and making of filk
was one of the employments even of the emprtffes ir*
very early ages.
I he moft beautiful filk in the whole empire is that
of Tche-hieing, which is wrought by the manufadories
of Nanking. From thefe are brought all the fluffs
ufed by the emperor, and fuch as he diftributes in pre-
fents to his nobility. A great number of excellent
workmen are alfo drawn to the manufadories of Can¬
ton by the commerce with Europe and other parts of
Afia. Here are manufadured ribbons, ftockings, and
buttons. A pair of filk ftockings here cofts little more
than 6-. fterling.
The quantity of filk produced in China feems to be
almoft inexhauttible; the internal eonfumption alone
being incredibly great, befides that which is exported
in the commerce with Europe and the reft of Afia.'
In this empire all who poffefs a moderate fortune wear
filk clothes; none but the lower clafs of people wear¬
ing cotton fluff-, which are commonly dyed blue. The
principal fluffs manufadured by them are plain and
flowered gauzes, of which they make fummer dreffes;
damafk ol all colours j ftriped and black fatins j naped*
flowered, ftriped, clouded, and pinked taffeties ; crapes’
brocades, pluffi, different kinds of velvet, and a mul¬
titude of other fluffs unknown in Europe. They make
F particular
China.
*30
Porcelain.
131
Glafs of
little efti-
motion.
132
^Vltdrcine.
CHI F 42 ] CHI
particular ufe of two kinds ; one named touan-tfe, a
kind of fatin much Wronger, but which has lefs luftre,
than that of Europe 3 the other a kind of taffety, of
•which they make drawers and linings. It is woven
exceedingly clofe, and is yet fo pliable that it may be
rumpled and rubbed between the hands without any
ereafe ; and even when walked like cotton-cloth, it
lofes very little of its lulfre. They manufaflure alfo
a kind of gold brocades, but of fuch a flight nature,
that they cannot be worn in clothes : they are fabrica¬
ted by wrapping fine flips of gilt paper round the
threads of filk.
Porcelain is another great branch of Chinefe manu¬
facture, and employs a vaft number of workmen. The
fineft is made in a village called King te-Ching in the
province of Kianq-Ji. Manufactories have alfo been
ereCted in the .provinces of Fo-kien and Canton, but
their produce is not elteemed : and one which the em¬
peror caufed to be ereCted at Peking, in order to be
under his own infpeCtion, mifcarried entirely.
The Chinefe divide their porcelain into feveral claf-
fes, according to its different degrees of finenefs and
beauty. The whole of the firft is referved for the ufe
of the emperor, fo that none of it ever comes into the
hands of other perfons, unlefs it happen to be cracked
or otherwife damaged in fuch a manner as to be un
worthy of being prefented to the fovereign. Among
that fent to the emperor, however, there is fome por¬
celain of an inferior quality, which he difpofes of in
prefents. The re is fome doubt, therefore, whether any
of the fineft Cbinefe porcelain was ever feen in Europe.
Some value, however, is now put upon the European
porcelain by the Cbinefe themfelves.
The ufe of glafs is very ancient in China, though
it does not appear that great value was ever put upon
this kind of ware, the art of manufacturing it having
been frequently loft and revived again in this empire.
They greatly admire the workmanfhip of the Euro¬
pean cryftal, but prefer their own porcelain, which
ftands hot liquors, and is much lefs liable to be broken.
The little eftimation in which this fubftance was held,
is even mentioned by their own writers in fpeaking of
the falfe pearls, mirrors, and other toys which were
made in former ages. The remembrance of a very
large glafs veffel, however, which was made in 627, is
Hill preferved ; and of which it was faid that a mule
could as eafily enter it as a gnat could enter a pitcher.
In order to tranfport this monftrous veffel from the
place where it was manufactured to the emperor’s pa¬
lace, it was neceffary to inclofe it in a net, the four
corners of which were fixed to four carriages. The
fame indifference with regard to glafs is ftill entertain¬
ed bv the prefent emperors ; however, a glafs-houfe is
eftablilhed at Peking, where a number of vafes and
other works are made ; and thefe are fo much the more
difficult in the execution^ as none of them are blown.
This manufactory, as well as many others, is confider-
ed only as an appendage of the court, deftined for the
purpofes of pomp and magnificence.
It feems evident that medicine muft have been one
of the earlieft fludies to which mankind turned their
attention^ at lead when they had attained to fome de¬
gree of civilization. It is the common lot of humanity
to be born to trouble as the fparks fly upward, and there¬
fore an affiduous application to the ftudy of thofe difeafes
to which man is fubjeCl, either with a view to effect a China.
radical cure, or even to mitigate the virulence of their  
fymptoms, muft have fecured to fuch characters the
efteem and admiration of the world. Eveg favages
have difcovered refpeCt for fuch of their own nation as
could remove obftruCtions, heal bruifes, or adminifter
relief to the miferable in any thape whatever. The
Chinefe in this refpeCt are perfectly unique, and feem
to differ from every nation under heaven in their no¬
tions of medicine. They have no public feminaries
where the healing art may be taught, becaufe they
do not confider the knowledge of any branch of
medicine as in the fmalleft degree neceffary. The
very belt performances of this nature to be met with
in China, are little more than mere enumerations
of the names and fuppofed qualities of different plants,
—a fufficient flock of knowledge for conftituting a
Chinefe phyfician. In a country where the people are
fo credulous, and the medical art at fuch a low ebb, it
would be a Angular circumftance to find no quacks.
In every city, therefore, of this vaft empire, multi¬
tudes are to be met with continually vending noftrums,
as pretended fpecifics for fome difeafe or other, and the
eafy credulity of the people affords them a comfortable
fubfiftence.
Were the Chinefe perpetual ftrangers to every fpe-
cies of difeafe, it would enable us to account for their
unnatural apathy or indifference about the ftu'dy of
phyfic $ but it will remain an inexplicable paradox,
when we are allured upon undoubted authority, that
they are fubjeCl to a multiplicity of diftempers. The
fmallpox, ophthalmia, contagious fevers, fometimes
the venereal or Canton ulcer, as it is denominated by
themfelves, are a few of the maladies incident to the
Chinefe, which might conftitute a powerful ftimulus,
one would imagine, to the ftudy of phyfic, with unre¬
mitting afliduity, which it is certain they do not, as
appears from the fubfequent affertion of Dr Gregory.
“ In the greateft, moft ancient, and moft civilized
empire on the face of the earth, an empire that was
great, populous, and highly civilized 2000 years ago,
when this country was as favage as New Zealand is at
prefent, no fuch good medical aid can be obtained a-
mong the people of it, as a fmart boy of 16, who had
been but 12 months apprentice to a good and well em¬
ployed Edinburgh furgeon, might reafonably be expeCt-
ed to afford.” This gives us a melancholy picture of
the ftate of meditine in China, which, however, is
confirmed by the united teftimony of Sir George
Staunton and Mr Barrow.
The people of China are faid to be in the poffeflion
of a method for afcertaining whether a man has been
murdered, or committed an aCt of fuicide, of the pro¬
bability of which our readers will be able to judge
from the following procefs. The body to be examin¬
ed is wafhed with vinegar. A large fire is kindled in
a pit dug for the purpofe', fix feet long, three wide,
and the- fame in depth. The fire receives new accef-
fion of fuel till the pit acquires the temperature of a
heated oven, when the whole of the remaining fuel is
taken out, and a large quantity of wine is poured into
the pit. The body is then placed at full length on
ofier twigs over the mouth of it, and covered with a
cloth for two hours, that the fleam of the wine may
aCt upon the body in all direClions. The Chinefe, it
is
Chi»a.
*33
Of their
mufic.
*34 .
Mufical in-
ilrumeuts.
C H I
[ 43 1
C H I
is faid, affert that if the blows given the body were fo
violent as to occafion death, this procefs makes the
marks of them clearly appear, let the ftate of the bo¬
dy, when fubje&ed to this tell, be ever fo cadave¬
rous.
With regard to the mufic of the Chinefe, we have
the fame ftories related as of the Greeks and Egyp¬
tians, viz. that in former ages the muficians could
make brute animals leap at the found of their inftru-
ments. Our author, M. Grofier, indeed does not
quote any Chinefe author who aflerts that the ancient
mufic could make trees dance, or ftones arrange them-
felves into a city ; but he quotes them, aflerting, “ that
the muficians could call down fuperior fpirits of every
age from the ethereal regions *, raife up the manes of
departed beings } infpire men with a love of virtue *,
and lead them to the pra&ice of their duty.” Effetts
of this fupernatural kind are attributed to the facred
mufic by the infpired writers j as in the cafe of Saul,
out of whom an evil fpirit departed at the found of
David’s harp j and of Elilha, who was infpired with
the fpirit of prophecy at the found of a mufical in-
ftrument. It is probable, therefore, that the relations
both of the Greeks and Chinefe are founded upon
fa£ls of this kind ; and we cannot from thence infer,
that the mufic of early ages was at all fuperior to
that which followed. According to thofe who have
employed much time in thefe refearches, the ancient
Chinefe were acquainted with the divifion of the oc¬
tave into twelve femitones; and that before the time
of Pythagoras, or even Mercury himfelf: that the
lyre of Pythagoras, his invention of the diatonic tetra-
chords, and the formation of his grand fyftem, were
merely borrowed from the ancient Chinefe. In (hurt,
it is maintained, that the Greeks, even Pythagoras
himfelf, did nothing but apply to firings that theory
which the Chinefe had before formed, and applied to
pipes.
At prefect the Chinefe are not acquainted with the
ufe of our mufical notes they have not that diverfity
of figns which diftinguifh the different tones, and the
gradual elevation or deprefiion of the voice, nor any
thing to point out the various modifications of found
to produce harmony. They have only a few charac¬
ters to mark the principal notes ; and all the airs they
learn are repeated merely by rote. The emperor
Kang-hi was therefore greatly aftonilhed at the facili¬
ty with which an European could catch and remember
an air the firff time he heard it. In 1679 ^ie ^ent ^or
Fathers Grimaldi and Pereira, to play fome tunes on
the harpfichord, of which they had before made him a
prefent. He was greatly entertained with their mufic,
but altogether afionifiied when he found that F. Perei¬
ra could take down a Chinefe air while the muficians
were playing it, and then repeat the whole without
omitting a fingle note. Having made feveral trials of
this kind in order to fatisfy himfelf, he beftowed the
higheft encomiums upon the European mufic, and the
means furnifhed by it to facilitate and leffen the la¬
bour of the memory. “ I muft confefs (fays be) that
the European mufic is incomparable, and that the like
of this F. Pereira is not to be found in my whole king¬
dom.”
The Chinefe have always diftinguiftied eight differ¬
ent founds j and they believe that nature, in order to
Chin*.
produce thefe, formed eight different kinds of fono-
rous bodies. The order in which they diftribute thefe  « *
founds, and the inftruments they have contrived to pro¬
duce them, are, 1. Ihe lounds of flcm produced by
drums j 2. That of ffone produced by the king ; 3. The
found of metal by bells \ 4. 1 hat of baked earth by
the huien; 5. Of filk by the kin and che; 6. Of
wood by the yu and tchou ; 7. Of the bamboo by the
koan, and different flutes j 8. I hat of a gourd by the
cheng.
The drums were originally compofed of a box made
of baked earth, and covered at the extremities with
the Ikin of fome animal j but on account of the brit-
tlenefs of baked earth, wood was foon fubfiituted in it#
ftead. Moft of thefe infiruments are (haped like our
barrels, but fome are cylindrical.
The inftruments formed of the fonorous ftones are
called king^ diftinguilhed into tfe king and pien-king.
The tfe-king confifts only of one ftone, and therefore
produces only one note. The pien-king confifts of 16
ftones fufpended together, and thus forming an in-
ftrument capable of producing all the tones admitted
into the mufic of the ancient Chinefe. I hey are cut
into the form of a carpenter’s fquare j their tone is flat¬
tened by diminiftiing their thicknefs, and is made ftiarp-
er by abridging their length.
Although in the eftimation of the Chinefe, univerfal
nature has been forced to contribute towards the perfec¬
tion of their mufic, by furniftiing them with the Ikins
of different animals, metals, ftones, baked earths, and
the fibrous parts of plants, Mr Barrow could difcover
no inftrument among them of a mufical nature, the
tones of which would have been even tolerable to a de¬
licate European ear •, and only one perfon in tbecourfe
of his inveftigations and refearches could with any pro¬
priety be faid to fing from tendernefs and feeling. Yet
without the fmalleft authority for fuch a bold affer-
tion, a certain Jefuit has maintained, that the mufical
fyftem of the Chinefe was borrowed from them by the
Greeks and Egyptians before the time of Orpheus !
He wdio can believe this extravagant afferlion, after
comparing the mufic of thefe countries together at any
given period, will find it an eafy matter to give credit
to any thing whatever. 155
The bells in China have always been made of a Bells of im¬
mixture of tin and copper. They are of differentmenfe
ftiapes, and thofe of the ancients were not round but
flattened, and in the lower part refembling a crefcent.
An inftrument, correfponding to the king, already
mentioned, is compofed of 16 bells of different fizes.
Some of their bells ufed on public oecafions are of
enormous magnitudes. One at Peking is defcribed as
13^ feet in diameter, I2jin height, and 42 in cir¬
cumference *, the weight being upwards of 120,000
pounds. It is ufed for announcing the hours or watches
of the night •, and its found, which is prodigioufly
loud and ftrong, has a moft awful effedl in the night¬
time, by reverberating round the walls and the echo
of the furrounding country. There are feveral others
likewife of vaft fize in the fame city j one of which
deferves greatly to be admired on account of the beau¬
tiful charadlers with which it is covered ; and which
are as neat and perfect as if traced out by the hand of
the fineft writer, or formed by means of a ftarap
upon wax. F. le Compte tells us, that in all the cities
F 2 of
C H I
Chii a.
135
Chinefe
painting.
of China there are bells for marking the hours and
watches of the night. They generally divide the
night into five watches, beginning at feven or eight
in the evening. On the commencement of the firfi:
they give one ftroke, which is repeated a moment af¬
ter y and thus they continue for two hours till the be¬
ginning of the fecond : they then give two ftroke?,
which are repeated at equal intervals till the beginning
of the third watch ; and thus they proceed to the fourth
and fifth, always increafing the number of the ftrokes.
I'or the fame purpofe alfo they ufe enormous drums,
which they beat in a fimilar manner. F. Magaillans
mentions one at Peking upwards of 40 feet in circum¬
ference.
1 he inftrument called Jiuien, which is made of baked
earth, is highly efteemed by the Chinefe on account of
its antiquity. It is diftinguilhed into twm kinds, the
great and (mall 5 the former being of the fize of a goofe’s
egg ; the latter of that of a hen’s. It has fix holes
for the notes, and a feventh for the mouth.
I he kin and tche have been known from the re-
moteft antiquity. I he kin has feven firings made of
lilk, and is diftinguilhed into three kinds, differing
only in fize. The body is formed of a kind of wood
varnilhed black, and its whole length is about five feet
five inches. The tche is about nine feet in length, has
25 firings, and is divided into 25 kinds. F. Amiot
affures us, that we have no inftrument in Europe which
deferves to be preferred to it.
The inftruments which emit the found of wood are
the tchou, the yu, and the tchoung-ton. The firft is
fhaped like a bufhel, and is beat on the infide with a
hammer j the fecond, which reprefents a tyger fquat-
ting, is made to found by fcraping its back gently
with a rod j the third is a colledlion of twelve pieces of
boards tied together, which are ufed for beating time,
by holding them in the right hand, and knocking them
gently againft the palm of the left.
Many inftruments are conftrudted of the bamboo.
Tbefe confift of pipes joined together, or feparate, and
pierced with more or fewer holes. The principal of
all thefe wind inftruments is the cheng, which emits the
found of a gourd. This is formed by cutting off the
neck of a gourd, and referving only the lower part.
To this a cover is fitted, having as many holes as are
equal to the number of founds required. In each of
thefe holes a pipe made of bamboo is fixed, and fnorter
or longer according to the tone intended. The mouth
of the inftrument is formed of another pipe fliaped like
the neck of a goofe ; which is fixed to the gourd on one
fide ; and ferves to convey the air to all the pipes it
contains. The ancient cheng varied in the number of
their pipes ; thofe ufed at prefent have only 13.
The painting of the Chinefe is undoubtedly inferior
to that of the Europeans, though we are not by any
means to judge of the abilities of the painters of this
empire by the performances which are brought to
Europe. M. Grofier remarks, that the works of the
eminent Chinefe painters are never brought to Can¬
ton, becaufe they cannot find purchafers among the
European merchants. The latter delight only in ob-
fcene pidlures, which are not permitted by government,
nor indeed will any artift of charafler execute them,
though they prevail upon fome of the inferior daubers
to gratify them in this refpeft. It feems, however,
[ 44 1
C H I
to be univerfally agreed, that the Chinefe have no no¬
tion of corredlnefs or perfpedtive, and little knowledge
of the proportions ox the human body, though it can¬
not be denied that they excel in painting flowers and
animals. In thefe they pride themfelves in a fcrupu-
loully exadl imitation of natme, infomuch that it is m>
uncommon thing to hear a painter alk his pupil how
many fcales there are between the head and tail of a
carp.
Painting was formerly much efteemed in China, but
has now fallen into difrepute on account of its political
inutility. The cabinets and galleries of the emperor,
however, are filled with European paintings, and the
celebrated artifts Caftiglioni and Attiret were both em¬
ployed j but their offer of erecting a fchool of painting
was rejedted, left they Ihould by this means revive the
tafte for that art which it had been formerly thought
prudent to fupprefs.
Painting in frefco was known in China long before
the Chriftian era 5 and, like the Grecians, the Chinefe
boaft much of their celebrated painters of antiquity.
Thus we are told of a door painted by Fan-hien, which
was fo perfedt an imitation, that the people who enter¬
ed the temple where it was, attempted to go out by it,
unlefs prevented by thofe who had leen it before.
The prefent emperor has in his park an European vil¬
lage painted in frefco, xvhich produced the moft agree¬
able deception. The remaining part of the wall re¬
prefents a landfcape and little hills, which are fo happi¬
ly blended with the diftant mountains, that nothing can
be conceived more agreeable. This was the produc¬
tion of Chinefe painters, and executed from defigns
fketched out for them.
After this account of the ftate of painting in China,
chiefly on the authority ot jM. Grofier, we beg leave
to remark, upon the authority of more recent, and feem-
ingly more competent as well as more inquifitive ob-
fervers, that painting in China is at a-low ebb, which
made a certain artift once exclaim, “ Thefe Chinefe
are fit for nothing but weighing filver, and eating
rice.” They can copy with tolerable exadlnefs what
China.
is laid before them, but fo deficient are they in refpedt
to a judicious alternation of light and fliade 5 and there¬
fore without difcovering a Angle fymptom of tafte, beau¬
ties and defefts are alike flaviftfly imitated. Their
fuppofed excellence in drawing flowers, birds, and in¬
fers to the life, is moft remarkable in the city of Can¬
ton -y from which Mr Barrow conjedlures that they ac¬
quire their eminence by copying the productions of
Europe, oceafionally font over to be transferred to the
porcelain defigned for exportation.
Engraving in three, four, or five colours, is very an-£
cient among the Chinefe, and was known in this em- n£ravni^‘
pire long before its difcovery in Europe.
Sculpture is very little known in this empire j nor Scu pt3u8re#
is there a Angle ftatue in any of the fquares or public 1
edifices of Peking, not even in the. emperor’s palace.
The only real tlatues to be met with in the empire are
thofe which, for the fake of ceremonious diftindlion,
are ufed to ornament the avenues leading to the tombs
of princes and men of great rank ; or thofe that are
placed near the emperor’s coffin, and that of his fons
and. daughters, in the interior part of the vault, where
their remains are depofited.
Th§ Chinefe architeaure is entirely different from Archhec-
that ture.
CHI [ 45 ] CHI
China, that of the Greeks or Romans ; but has neverthelefs
—v——' certain proportions of its own, and a beauty peculiar
to itfelf. The habitations of the emperor are real pa¬
laces, and announce in a ftriking manner the majefty
and grandeur of the mafter who inhabits them. All
the miffionaries who bad accefs to the infide of the
emperor’s palace at Peking, agreed, that if each of its
parts, taken feparately, does not afford fo much delight
to the eye as fome pieces of the grand archite&ure of
Europe, the whole prefents a fight fuperior to any
thing they had ever feen before. In the Chinefe ar¬
chitecture, when a pillar is two feet in diameter at the
bafe, its height muft be 14 feet j and by meafures
of this kind the height of every building is deter¬
mined.
Almoft all the houfes and buildings in China are
conftrufted of wood. One reafon of this may be the
dread of earthquakes $ but, befides this, fuch buildings
are rendered eligible by the heat and dampnefs of the
fouthern provinces, and the exceffive cold in the nor¬
thern, which would render fione houfes almoft unin¬
habitable. Even at Peking, where the rains are but
of fhort duration, it is found neceffary to cover the
fmall marble ftaircafes belonging to the imperial pa¬
lace with pieces of felt ; the humidity of the air
moiftens and foaks into every thing. During winter
the cold is fo exceflively fevere, that no window can
be opened to the north ; and water continues confiantly
frozen to the depth of a foot and a half for more than
three months. For the fame reafons a variety of
ftories are not ufed in the Chinefe buildings $ as nei¬
ther a fecond nor third llory would be habitable du¬
ring the great heats of fumraer or the rigorous cold
of winter. Though Peking is fituated in the northern
part of the empire, the heat there, during the dogdays,
is fo intolerably fcorching, that the police obliges
tradefmen and thopkeepers to deep in the open air in
the piazzas of their houfes, left they thould be ftifled
by retiring into their inner apartments. The habita¬
tions of people of rank, or of thofe in eafy circumftan-
ces, generally eonfift of five large courts, inclofed with
buildings on every fide. The method of building with
feveral ftories was, however, followed for feveral centu¬
ries, when the court refided in the fmthern provinces j
and the tafte for this kind of building was carried to
fuch a height, that immenfe edifices were ere£ted from
150 to 200 feet in height, and the pavilions or towers
at the extremities rofe upwards of 300 feet. This kind
of building, however, at length became difgufting ;
though either to preferve the remembrance of it, or
for the fake of variety, there are ftill fome buildings to
be feen feveral ftories high in the palaces belonging to
140 the emperor.
idges. A multiplicity of bridges is rendered neceffary in
China by the vaft number of canab and rivers which
interfefl the empire. Anciently, however, the Chinefe
bridges were much more ingenious as well as magnifi¬
cent than they are at prefent. Some of them were fo
contrived that they could be erefled in one day to
fupply the place of others which might happen to be
broken down, or for other purpofes. At that time
they had bridges which derived their name from their
figure ; as refernb/mg the rainbow; draw-bridges, bridges
to move with pulleys, compafs bridges, &c. Avith many
others entirely unknoAvn at prtfeftt. The building of china,
bridges indeed was once a luxurious folly of the empe-
rors $ fo that they were multiplied from whim or ca¬
price, Avithout any neceflity, and Avithout ufe. Still,
hoAvever, many of them are extremely beautiful and
magnificent. The arches of fome are very lofty and
acute, with eafy ftairs on each fide, the fteps of which
are not quite three inches in thicknefs, for the greater
facility of afcending and defcending ; others have no
arches, but are compofed of large ftones, fometimes
18 feet in length, placed tranfverfely upon piles like
planks. Some of thefe bridges are conftruded of
ftone, marble, or brick; others of wood 5 and fome
are formed of a certain number of barks joined toge¬
ther by very ftrong iron chains. Thefe are known by
the name of floating bridges, and feveral of them are
to be feen on the large rivers Kiang and Hoang-ho. 141
For feveral centuries the Chinefe have made no pro-
grels in fhip-building. Their veffels have neither mi-ln®*
zen, boAvfprit, nor top-maft. They have only a main
and fore-maft, to Avhich is fometimes added a fmall top-
gallant-maft. The main-maft is placed almoft in the
fame part of the deck as ours ; but the fore-maft ftands
much farther forward. The latter is to the former in
the proportion of tAVo to three j and the mainmaft is
generally two-thirds of the length of the veffel. They
ufe mats for fails, ftrengthening them with whole
bamboos equal in length to the breadth of the fail, and
extended acrofs it at the diftance of a foot from one
another. Tavo pieces of wood are fixed to the top and
bottom of the fail; the upper ferves as a fail-yard ; and
the loAver, which is about five or fix inches in thick¬
nefs, keeps the fail ftretched Avhen it is neceffary to
hoift or lower it. This kind of fail may be folded or
unfolded like a fcreen. For caulking their veffels they
do not ufe pitch, but a particular kind of gum mixed
Avith lime, Avhich forms a compofition of fueh excellent
quality, that one or Iavo wells in the hold are fufficient
to keep the veffel dry. They have not yet adopted the
ufe of pumps, and therefore draw up the Avater Avith
buckets. Their anchors are made of the hard Avood
called iron wood, which they fay is much fuperior to
the metal, becaufe the latter fometimes bend, but the
former never do.
The Chinefe pretemd to have been the firft inA’entors
of the mariners comptifs, but feem to have little incli¬
nation to improve fuch an important inftmment ; hoAV-
ever, they are well acquainted Avith the art of ma¬
noeuvring a veffel, and make excellent coafting pilots*
though they are bad failors in an open fea.
CHINA-Root, in the Materia Medica, the root of a
fpecies of Smilax, brought both from the Eaft and
Weft Indies; and thence diftiqguiftied into oriental
and occidental. Both forts are longilh, full of joints,
of a pale reddifti colour, Avith no fmell, and very little
tafte. The oriental, which is the moft efteemed, is
confiderably harder, and paler-coloured than the other.
Such ftiould be chofen as is frelh, clofe, heavy, and
upon being chewed appears full of a fat undluous juice.
It is generally fuppofed to promote infenfible perfpira-
tion and the urinary difcbarge, and by its unfluous
quality to obtund acrimonious juices, China-root Avas
firft brought into Europe in the year 1535, and
ufed as a fpecific againft venereal and cutaneous
diforders.
CHI [ 46 1 CHI
China- diforders. With this view it was made ufe of for fome
Root time ; but has long fince given place to more powerful
Jl medicines.
T°ne- . CHIN4-Ware. See Porcelain.
CHINCA, a fea-port town in Peru in South Ame¬
rica, fituated in an extenfive valley of the fame name,
in W. Long. 76. O. S. Lat. 13. O.
CHINCOUGH, a .convuliive kind of cough to
which children are generally fubjefh See Medicine
Index.
CHINESE, in general, denotes any thing belonging
to China or its inhabitants.
Chinese Swanpan. See Abacus.
CHINKAPIN. See Eagus, Botany Index.
CHINNOR, a mufical inftrument among the He¬
brews, confifting of 32 chords. Kircher has given a
figure of it, which is copied on Plate CXLV.
CHINON, an ancient town of Tourrain in France,
remarkable for the death of Henry II. king of Eng¬
land, and for the birth of the famous Rabelais. It is
feated on the river Yienne, in a pleafant and fertile
country, in E. Long. o. 18. N. Lat. 47. 2.
CHIO, or Chios, an Afiatic ifland lying near the
coaft of Natolia, oppofite to the peninfula of Ionia.
It was known to the ancients by the name of Ethalia,
Maoris, Pithyufa, &c. as well as that of Chios. Ac¬
cording to Herodotus, the ifland of Chios was peopled
originally from Ionia. It was at firft governed by
kings : but afterwards the government aflumed a re¬
publican form, which by the dire&ion of Ifocrates
was modelled after that of Athens. They were, how¬
ever, foon enflaved by tyrants, and afterwards conquer¬
ed by Cyrus king of Perfia. They joined the other
Grecians in the Ionian revolt 5 but were ftraroefully
abandoned by the Samians, Lefbians, and others of their
allies : fo that they were again reduced under the yoke
of the Perfians, who treated them with the utmoft fe-
verity. They continued fubjeft to them till the battle
of Mycale, when they were reflored to their ancient
liberty : this they enjoyed till the downfal of the Per-
fian empire, when they became fubjeft to the Macedo¬
nian princes. In the time of the emperor Vefpafian
the ifland was reduced to the form of a Roman province $
but the inhabitants were allowed to liye according
to their own laws under the fuperintendence of a prae¬
tor. It is now fubjefl to the Turks, and is called Scio.
See that article.
CHICOCCA. See Botany Index.
CHIONANTHUS, the Snow-drop or Fringe-
tree. See Botany Index.
CHIONE, in fabulops hiftory, was daughter of
Dsedalion, of whom Apollo and Mercury became en¬
amoured. To enjoy her company, Mercury lulled
her to fleep with his caduceus \ and Apollo, in the
night under the form of an old woman, obtained
the fame favours as Mercury. From this embrace
Chione became mother of Philammon and Autoly-
cus •, the former of whom, as being fon of Apollo,
became an excellent mufician •, and the latter was
equally notorious for his robberies, of which his father
Mercurv was the patron. Chione grew fo proud of
her commerce with the gods, that {he even preferred
her beauty to that of Juno ; for which impiety (he was
killed bv the goddefs and changed ir; a lv uk.—-
Another of the fame name was daughter of Boreas and
Orithia, who had Eumolpus by Neptune. She threw Chio^e
her fon into the fea 5 but he was preferred by his fa- U
ther. Chipping.
CHIOS. See Chio and Scio. ' "'
CHIOURLIC, an ancient town of Turkey in Eu¬
rope, and in Romania, with a fee of a Greek biftiop.
It is feated on a river of the fame name, in E. Long.
7. 47. N. Lat. 41. 18.
CHIOZZO, an ancient and handfome town of Italy
in the territory of Venice, and in a fmall ifland, near
the Lagunes, with a podefta, a biftiop’s fee, and a har¬
bour defended by a fort. E. Long. 12. 23. N. Lat.
45- J7- .
CHIPPENHAM, a town of Wiltfliire, feated on
the river Avon. It is a good thoroughfare town 5 has
a handfome ftone bridge over the river, confifting of
arches j and fends two members to parliament. There
is here a manufacture of the beft fuperfine woollen cloth
in England. W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 51. 25.
CHIPPING, a phrafe ufed by the potters and
china men to exprefs that common accident both of
our own ftone and earthen ware, and the porcelain of
China, the flying off of fmall pieces, or breaking at
the edges. Our earthen wares are particularly fubjeft
to this, and are always fpoiled by it before any other
flaw appears in them. Our ftone wares efcape it bet¬
ter than thefe $ but not fo well as the porcelain of
China, which is {efs fubjeft to it than any other manu-
fadfure in the world. The method by which the Chi-
nefe defend their ware from this accident, is this :
They carefully burn fome fmall bamboo canes to a fort
of charcoal, which is very light, and very black ; this
they reduce to a fine powder, and then mix it into a
thin pafte, with fome of the varnifti which they ufe
for their ware 5 they next take the veflels when dried,
and not yet baked, to the wheel; and turning them
foftly round, they, with a pencil dipt in this pafte,
cover the whole circumference with a thin coat of it j
after this, the veflel is again dried j and the border
made with this pafte appears of a pale grayifh colour
when it is thoroughly dry. They work on it after¬
wards in the common way, covering both this edge
and the reft of the veflel with the common varnifti.
When the whole is baked on, the colour given by the
afhes difappears, and the edges are as white as any
other part $ only when the baking has not been fuffi-
cient, or the edges have not been covered with the fe-
cond varniftiing, we fometimes find a duiky edge, as
in fome of the ordinary thick tea-cups. It may be
a great advantage to our Englifti manufadlurers to at¬
tempt fomething of this kind. The willow is known
to make a very light and black charcoal : but the el¬
der, though a thing feldom ufed, greatly exceeds it.
The young green (hoots of this ftirub, which are al-
moft all pith, make the lighteft and the blacked of all
charcoal; this readily mixes with any liquid, and might
be eafily ufed in the fame way that the Chinefe ufe
the charcoal of the bamboo canev, which is a light
hollow vegetable, more refembling the elder (hoots
than any other Englifli plant. It is no wonder that
the fixed fait and oil contained in this charcoal (hould
be able to penetrate the yet raw edges of the ware,
and to give them in the fubfequent baking a fomewhat
different degree of vitrification from the other parts
of the veflfel j which, though, if given to the whole,
it
CHI
[ 47 1
C H I
it might take off from the true femi vitrified ft ate of
that ware, yet at the edges is not to be regarded, and
only ferves to defend them from common accidents,
and keep them entire. The Chinefe ufe two cautions
in this application : the firft in the preparation ; the
fecond in the laying it on. They prepare the bam¬
boo canes for burning into charcoal, by peeling off the
rind. This might eafily be done with our elder fhoots,
•which are fo fucculent, that the bark ftrips off with a
touch. The Chinefe fay, that if this is not done with
their bamboo, the edges touched with the pafte will
burft in the baking : this does not feem indeed very
probable-, but the charcoal will certainly be-lighter
made from the peeled fticks, and this is a known ad¬
vantage. The other caution is, never to touch the
veffel with hands that have any greafy or fatty fub-
ftance about them ; for if this is done, they always
find the veffel crack in that place.
CHIROGRAPH, was anciently a deed which, re¬
quiring a counterpart, was engrofled twice on the
fame piece of parchment, counterwife ; leaving a fpace
between, wherein was written Chirograph ; through
the middle whereof the parchment was cut, fome-
times ftraight, fometimes indentedly j and a moiety
given to each of the parties. This was afterwards
called dividenda, and char tee divifee; and was the fame
with what we now call charter-party. See CHARTER-
Party. The firft ufe of thefe chirographs, with us, was
in the time of Henry III.
Chirograph was alfo anciently ufed for a fine ;
and the manner of engrofling the fines, and cutting
the parchment in two pieces, is ftill retained in the
office called the chirographer's office.
CHIROGRAPHER of Fines, an officer in the
common pleas, who engroffes fines acknowledged in
that court into a perpetual record (after they have
been examined, and paffed by other officers), and
writes and delivers the indentures thereof to the par¬
ty. He makes two indentures; one for the buyer,
the other for the feller ; and a third indented piece,
containing the effeft of the fine, and called the foot of
the fine: and delivers it to the cufios brevium.— The
fame officer alfo, or his deputy, proclaims all fines in
court every term, and indorfes the proclamations on
the backfide of the foot; keeping, withal, the writ of
covenant, and the writ of fine.
CHIROMANCY, a fpecies of divination drawn
from the lines and lineaments of a perfon’s hand, by
which means, it is pretended, the difpofitions may be
difeovered. See Divination, N® 9.
CHIRON, a famous perfonage of antiquity ; ftyled
by Plutarch, in his dialogue on mufic, “ The wife Cen-
taurP Sir Ifaac Newton places his birth in the firft;
age after Deucalion’s deluge, commonly called the
Golden Age \ and adds, that he formed the conftella-
tions for the ufe of the Argonauts, when he was 88
years old; for he was a praftical aftronomer, as well
as his daughter Hippo : he may, therefore, be faid to
have floUrifhed in the earlieft ages of Greece, as he
preceded the conqueft of the Golden Fleece, and the
Trojan war. He is generally called the fun of Saturn
and Phillyra ; and is faid to have been born in Thef-
faly among the Centaurs, who were the firft Greeks
that had acquired the art of breaking and riding hor-
&s whence the poets, painters, and fculptors, have
reprefented them as a compound of man and horfe ; Chiron,
and perhaps it was at firft imagined by the Greeks, v
as well as the Americans, when they firft faw cavalry,
that the horfe and the rider conftituted the fame ani¬
mal.
Chiron was reprefented by the ancients as one
the firft inventors of medicine, botany, and chirur-
gcry; a word which fome etymologifts have derived
from his name. He inhabited a grotto or cave in the
foot of Mount Pelion, which, from his wifdom and
great knowledge of all kinds, became the moft famous
and frequented fchool throughout Greece. Almoft
all the heroes of his time were fond of receiving his
inftru&ions; and Xenophon, who enumerates them,
names the following illuftrious perfonages among his
difciples: Cephalus, /Efculapius, Melanion, Neftor, Am-
phiaraus, Peleus, Telamon, Meleager, Thefeus, Hip-
politus, Palamedes, Ulyfles, Mneftheus, Diomedes, Ca-
ftor and Pollux, Machaon and Podalirius, Antilochus,
./Eneas, and Achilles. From this catalogue it appears,
that Chiron frequently inftruifted both lathers and
fons; and Xenophon has given a ftiort eulogium on
each, which may be read in his works, and which re¬
dounds to the honour of the preceptor. The Greek
hiftorian, however, has omitted naming feveral of his
fcholars, fuch as Bacchus, Phoenix, Cocytus, Aryftaeus,
Jafon, and his fon Medeus, Ajax, and Protefilaus.
Of thefe we (ball only take notice of fuch as intereft
Chiron more particularly. It is pretended that the
Grecian Bacchus was the favourite fcholar of the Cen¬
taur ; and that he learned of this mafter the revels,
orgies, bacchanalia, and other ceremonies of his wor-
ftiip. According to Plutarch, it was likewife at the
fchool of Chiron that Hercules ftudied mufic, medi¬
cine, and juftice; though Diodorus Siculus tells us, that
Linus was the mufic-mafter of this hero. But among
all the heroes who have been difciples of this Centaur,
no one refle&ed fo much honour upon him as Achilles,
whofe renown he in fome meafure lhared ; and to
whofe education he in a particular manner attended,
being his grandfather by the mother’s fide. Apollo-
dorus tells us, that the ftudy of mufic employed a con-
fiderable part of the time which he beftowed upon his
young pupil, as an incitement to virtuous adlions, and
a bridle to the impetuofity of his temper. One of
the beft remains of antique painting now exifting, is
a pidfure upon this fubjedl, dug out of the ruins of
Herculaneum, in which Chiron is teaching the young
Achilles to play on the lyre. The death of this phi-
lofophic mufician was occafioned, at an extreme old
age, by an accidental wound in the knee with a poi-
foned arrow, (hot by his fcholar Hercules at another.
He was placed after his death by Muiaeus among the
conftellations, through refpedt for his virtues, and in
gratitude for the great fervices which he had render¬
ed the people of Greece. Sir Ifaac Newton fays *,* Chronol.
in proof of the conftellations being formed by Chiron P- isl¬
and Mufaeus for the ufe and honour of the Argonauts,
that nothing later than the expedition was delineated
on the fphere : according to the lame author, Chiron
lived till after the Argonautic expedition, in which
he had two grandfons. The ancients have not failed to
attribute to him ft veral writings ; among which, ac¬
cording to Suidas, are precepts, vrrofyKX?, in verfe, com-
pofed for the ufe of Achilles ; and a medicinal trea-
tife
CHI [ 48 ] C H I
Chiron life on ilie difenfes incident to horfes and other qua¬
il drupeds, hrsnar^ev * the lexicographer even pretends,
^llton‘ , that it is from this work the Centaur derived his name.
Fabricius gives a lilt of the works attributed to Chi¬
ron, and difcufles the claims which have been made for
others to the fame writings : and in vol. xiii. he gives
him a diltinguiflred place in his catalogue of ancient
phyficians.
CHIRONI'A. See Botany Index.
CHIRONOMY, in antiquity, the art of reprefent-
ing any pall tranfa&ion by the geftures of the body,
more efpecially by the motions of the hands: this
made a part of liberal education ; it had the approba¬
tion of Socrates, and was ranked by Plato among the
political virtues.
CHIROTONY, among ecclefiaftical writers, de¬
notes the impofition of hands ufed in conferring prieft-
ly orders. However, it is proper to remark, that
chirotony originally was a method of electing magif-
trates, by holding up the hands.
CHIRURGEON, or Surgeon. See Surgeon.
CHIRUBGERY. See Surgery.
CHISLEY-land, in Agriculture, a foil of a middle
nature between fandy and clayey land, with a large ad¬
mixture of pebbles.
CHISON, Ktson, or KissoN, (Judges iv. and v.)
a river of Galilee •, faid to rife in Mount Tabor, to run
by the town of Naim, and to fall into the Mediterra¬
nean between Mount Carmel and Ptolemais, (x Kings
xviii. 40.).
CHISSEL, or Chisel, an inftrument much ufed in
fculpturr, mafonry, joinery, carpentry, &c.
Thefe are chiffels of different kinds ; though their
chief difference lies in their different fize and llrength,
as being all made of fleel well fharpened and tempered :
but they have different names, according to the differ¬
ent ufes to which they are applied. The chifftls ufed
in carpentry and joinery are, 1. The former ; which
is ufed firft of all before the parting chiffel, and juft
after the work is feribed. 2. The paring chiffel 5
which has a fine fmooth edge, and is ufed to pare off
or fmooth the irregularities which the former makes.
This is not ftruck with a mallet as the former is, but
is preffed with the fhaulder of the workman. 3. Skew-
former : this is ufed for cleanfing acute angles with the
point or corner of its narrow edge. 4. The mortife-
chiffel ; which is narrow, but very thick and ftrong,
to endure hard blows, and it is cut to a very broad
bafil. Its ufe is to cut deep fquare holes in the wood
for mortifes. 5. The gouge, which is a chiffel with
a round edge ; one fide whereof ferves to prepare the
way for an augre, and the other to cut fuch wood as
is to be rounded, hollowed, &c. 6. Socket-chiffels,
which are chiefly ufed by carpenters, &c. have their
fhank made with a hollow focket at top ; to receive a
ftrong wooden fprig, fitted into it with a flioulder.
Thefe chiffels are diflinguiflied, according to the
breadth of the blade, into half-inch chiffels, three
-quarters of an inch chiffels, &c. 7. Ripping duffels j
which is a focket-duffel of an inch broad, having a
blunt edge, with no bafil to it. Its ufe is to rip or tear
two pieces of wood afunder, by forcing in the blunt
edge between them.
CHITON, in Zoology, a genus of the order of ver¬
mes teftacete. The name chiton is from yjruv, lorica,
a coat of mail. The (hell is plated, and confifis of ma« Chiton
ny parts lying upon each other tranfveriely : the inha- |)
bitant is a fpecies .of the Doris. See CoNCHOLOGY dnvatry.^
Index. y
CHITTIM, in Ancient Geography, according to
Le Clerc, Caimet, and others, was the fame with Ma¬
cedonia, peopled by Kittim the fon of Javan and grand-
fon of Noah.
CHITTRICK’s MEDICINE for the stone. This
medicine wras fume years ago kept as a fecret, and had
great reputation as a lithontriptic, which indeed it
feems in many cafes to deferve. It was difeovered by
Dr Blackrie to be no more than foap-lye ; and the
following receipt for ufing it was procured by General
Dunbar : “ Take one tea-fpoonful of the ftrongeft
foap-lye, mixed in two table-fpoonfuls of fweet milk,
an hour before breakfaft, and at going to bed. Be¬
fore you take the medicine, take a fup of pure milk,
and immediately after you have fwallowed the medicine
take another. If you find this agrees With you for
two or three days, you may add half as much more to
the dofe.” f
CHIVALRY, (from cheval, “a horfe”) j an ab-Definition,
ftraft term, uled to exprefs the peculiar privileges, ob¬
ligations, and turn of mind, with all the other diftin-
guiftiing charadierifUcs of that order of men who flou-
rifhed in Europe in the dark ages, during the vigour
of the feudal fyftetps of government, under the name
of Knights or Knights Errant.
To afeertain the period at which the order fprung j);^(U]ty
up, and the circumftances to which its origin was ow-of tracing
ing, is no eafy talk. In the hiftory of fociety, fuch Bie origin
a multiplicity of collateral fadts appear interwoven°‘ t^lva^rY*
together, and caufes and effedts run into each other
by a gradation fo imperceptible, that it is exceedingly
difficult, even for the nicelt eye, to difeern caufes
from their immediate effedts, or to difiinguifh to
which among a number of collateral circumltances the
origin of any particular event is to be referred. The
age to which we muff look for the origin of chivalry
was Angularly rude and illiterate. Even the principal
events of that period, emigrations, wars, and the efta-
bliffiment of fyltems of laws and forms of government,
have been but imperfedtly, and in many initances un¬
faithfully, recorded. But the tranfadtions which took
place in the ordinary courfe of civil and domeftic life,
and which, though lefs (hiking, muff have always pre¬
pared the way for the more remakable events, have
been generally thought unworthy of tranfmiffion to
pofterity, and have very feldom found a hiftorian.
Add to thefe difficulties which oppofe our refearche*
on this fubjedl, that the nations of Europe were in
that age a mixed multitude, confiding of the abori-
nal inhabitants, who, though either fubdued by the
Roman arms, or at lealt compelled to retire to the
woods and mountains, ftill obftinately retained their pri¬
mitive manners and cuftoms; Rorpan, colonies, and
fuch of the original inhabitants of the"countries in which
thefe were eftablifhed, as had yielded not only to the
arms of the Romans, but alfo to the influence of their
laws, arts, and manners j and the barbarians, who pro¬
ceeding from the northern regions of Alia and Europe,
the wilds of Scythia and Germany, diffolved the fabric
of the Roman empire, and made themfelves lords of
Europe. Amid this confufion of nations, inllitutions,
and
CHI, [
Chivalry, and cuftoms, it becomes almoft impoflible to trace any
‘—'v----' regular feries of caufes and effe£b.
Yet as the hiftory of that period is not entirely un¬
known to us, and the obfcure and imperfeft records
in which it is preferved, while they commemorate the
more remarkable events, throw a faint light on the
cuftoms, manners, and ordinary tranfa&ions of the
age } we can at leaftcolledl fome circumftances, which,
if they did not of themfelves give rife to the inftitu-
tion of chivalry, muft certainly have co-operated with
others to that end. We may even be allowed, if we
proceed with due diffidence and caution, to deduce,
from a confideration of the effeff, fome inferences con¬
cerning the caufe *, from thofe particulars of its hiftory
which are known to us, we may venture to carry ima¬
gination backwards, under a proper reftraint, to thofe
which are hid under the darknefs of a rude and illite¬
rate age.
Diftin&ion Diftinftion of ranks appears to be effentially necef-
of ranks an fary to the exiftence of civil order. Even in the fim-
effentiai pjgft- anfj ru(jeft focial eftablifliments, we find not
mechanifm mere^y ^e natural dkftin&ions of weak and ftrong,
of foe re ty. young and old, parent and child, hufband and wife ;
thefe are always accompanied with others which owe
their inftitution to the invention of man, and the con-
fent, either tacit or formal, of the fociety among whom
they prevail. In peace and in Avar, fuch diftindftions
are equally necefiary j they conftitute an effential and
4 important part of the mechanifm of fociety.
The early One of the earlieft artificial diftindfions introduced
pre-emi- among mankind, is that which feparates the bold and
military1 6 Skilful Avarrior from thofe Avhofe feeblenefs of body and
character, mind renders them unable to excel in dexterity, ftra-
tagem, or valour. Among rude nations, Avho are but
imperfedtly acquainted Avith the advantages of focial
order, this diftindlion is more remarkably eminent
than in any other ftate of fociety. The ferocity of
the human charadler in fuch a period produces almoft:
continual hoftilities among neighbouring tribes ; the
elements of nature, and the brute inhabitants of the
foreft, are not yet reduced to be fubfervient to the Avill
of man ; and thefe, Avith other concomitant circumftan¬
ces, render the Avarrior, Avho is equally diftinguilhed by
cunning and valour, more ufeful and refpedlable than
^ any other charadter.
Subonli- On the fame principles, as the boundaries of fociety
natediftinc-are enlarged, and its form becomes more complex, the
tionsofrankC}afleS into which it is already diftinguiftied are again
intofociety Subdivided. The invention of arts, and the acquifi-
tion of property, are the chief caufes of thefe new dif-
tindHons Avhich noAv arife among the orders of fociety j
and they extend their influence equally through the
whole fyftem. Difference of armour, and different
modes of military difeipline, produce diftindfion of or-
■ders among thofe who pradlife the arts of Avar j Avhile
other circumftances, originating from the fame general
caufes, occafion fimilar changes to take place amidft the
<S feenes of peace.
Thediftinc- None of the neAV diftindtions Avhieh are introduced
^cVdTm amon£ men> 'v>th refpedt to the difeipline and con-
the military dua of war’ '‘n CRnf<Jfluence of the acquifition of pro¬
order by the perty and the invention of ar^s, is more remarkable
afeof caval-than that occafipned by the ufe of horfes in military
rJr* expeditions, and the training of them to the evolu¬
tions of the military art. Fire-arms, it is true, give
VOL. VI. Part I.
49 ] CHI
to thofe who are acquainted with them a greater fu- Chivalry,
periority over thofe to whom their ufe is unknoAvn, '
than Avhat the horfeman poffelfes over him Avho fights
on foot. But the ufe of fire-arms is of fuch impor¬
tance in Avar, and the expence attending it fo ineonfi-
derable, that Avherever thefe have been introduced,
they have feldom been confined to one particular order
in an army ; and, therefore, they produced indeed a re¬
markable, though tranfient, diftindlion among different
nations, but eftablifh no permanent diftindfions in the
armies in any one nation. But to maintain a horfe,
to equip him with coftly furniture, to manage him
with dexterity and vigour, are circumftances which
have invariably produced a {landing and confpicuous
diftindtion among the military order, Avherever bodies
of cavalry have been formed. The Roman equitesy
Avho, though they became at length a body of ufurers
and farmers-general, Avere originally the only body of
cavalry employed by the ftate, occupied a refpedlable
rank betAveen the fenators and the plebeians j and the
elegance and humanity of their manners Avere fuitable
to their rank. In ancient Greece, and in the cele¬
brated monarchies of Afia, the fame diftindfion pre¬
vailed at a fimilar period. „
Since the circumflances and principles on Avhich Military
this diftindfion depends are not fuch as muft be con-^‘^in^ons
fined in their influence to one particular nation, or one amonS tlie
region of the glob-e, we may hope to trace their ef- Germans,
fedfs among the favage warriors of Scythia and Ger¬
many, as Avell as among the Greeks or Romans.
From the valuable treatife of Tacitus de Moribus Ger-
manorum, we learn that, among the German warriors,
a diftindfion fomeAvhat of this nature, did adtually fub-
fift $ not fo much indeed a diftindtion betAveen the
warrior Avho fought on horfeback and thofe who fought
on foot, as betAveen thofe Avhom vigour of body and
energy of mind enabled to brave all the dangers of
Avar, and fuch as, from the imbecility of youth, the in¬
firmities of age, or the natural inferiority of their men¬
tal and bodily poAvers, Avere unequal to feenes of bard-
ftn'p and deeds of valour. The youth Avas not permit¬
ted to take arms and join his Avarlike countrymen in
their military expeditions Avhenever he himfelf thought
proper : there was a certain age before Avhich he could
not be invefted with armour. When he had attained
that period, if not found deficient in ftrength, adfivity,
or courage, he was formally honoured Avith the fhield
and the lance, called to the duties, and admitted to all
the privileges of a warrior.
Another fa£t worthy of notice, refpe&ing the man-piefpt%a
ners of the barbarians of Germany before they efta-bilityofthe
blifhed themfelves in the cultivated provinces of thew°nien a-
Roman empire, is, that their Avomen, contrary to ay hat moi1£ llie
Ave find among many other rude nations, were treated GermanS*
with a high degree of refpeft. They did not gene¬
rally vie Avith the men in deeds of valour, but they
animated them by their exhortations to diftinguifh
themfelves in the field ; and virgins efpecially Avere con-
fidered with a facred veneration, as endoAved with pro¬
phetic poAvers, capable of forefeeing events hid in the
womb of futurity, and even of influencing the will of
the deities. Hence, though domeftic duties Avere their
peculiar province, yet they were not haifhly treated nor
confined to a ftate of flavery. There appears indeed
a ftriking analogy betAveen the condition of the women
G among
CHI [ 5° ] CHI
Chivalry, among the rude foldiers of Sparta and the rank which
1   - they occupied among the warlike cantons of Germany.
Perhaps indeed the German were ftill more honourable
than the Spartan women •, as they were taught to wield
the magic weapons of fuperltition, which in Greece
were appropriated to the priefts.
It appears, therefore, that in the forefts of Germany
at leaft, if not the more northern regions of Afia and
Europe, the conquerors of the Roman empire, before
they penetrated into its provinces, treated their women
with a degree of refpedi unknown to moft of the na¬
tions of antiquity ; that the charadler of the warrior
was likewife highly honourable, being underftood to
unite all thofe qualities which were in the higheft efti-
mation 5 and that it was only at a particular age, and
with certain forms, that the youth were admitted to
9 bear arms.
Changes in When thofe nations fallied from their deferts and
Hers* of'the forelts, overran the Roman empire, and eftablilhed
barbarians themfelves in its provinces, the changes which took
after they place in their circumftances were remarkable ; and by
fettled in a natural influence it could not but produce an equal-
the Roman jy reraarkable change in their habits, cuftoms, and
whfch^ave manners* The great outlines might ftill remain : but
rife to chi- they could not now fail to be filled up in a different
Taliy. manner. Here, however, the records of hiftory are
peculiarly imperfeil. We have no Caefar or Tacitus
to fupply fadts or diredl our reafonings j the Gothic
nations had not yet learned to read and write *, and the
Romans were fo depreffed under a fenfe of their own
miferies, as to be negligent of the changes which hap¬
pened around them. But as foon as the light of hiftory
begins again to dawn, we find that the leading features
of the barbarian charadler were not effaced, but only
modified in a particular manner, in confequence of their
mixing among a more polilhed people, becoming ac¬
quainted with the luxuries of life, and acquiring exten-
five power and property.
Thofe who fought on horfeback now began to be
diftinguifhed with peculiar honours. The manners of
the warrior too were become more cultivated, and his
fpirit more humane. Leifure and opulence, with the
influence of a poliftied people, even though in a ftate
of flavery, taught thofe barbarians to afpire after more
refined pleafures and more fplendid amufements than
thofe with which they had been before fatisfied. The
influence of Chriftianity, too, which, though grofsly
. corrupted, was ftill favourable to the focial happinefs
of mankind, concurred to polilh their manners and
exalt their chara£ler. Hence in the end of the tenth
and in the beginning of the eleventh century, we fee
knight-errantry, with that romantic gallantry, piety,
and humanity, by which it was principally diftinguilh-
ed, make its appearance. At the court of every
prince, count, or baron, joufts and tournaments be¬
came the favourite amufements. At thofe entertain¬
ments, Ikill in arms, devotion to the fair, and gene¬
rous courtefy, were all at once cultivated. About this
period began the crufades ; and thefe, to which alone
fome have referred the origin of chivalry, though they
could not give rife to what was already in exiftence,
yet moulded the form and diredled the fpirit of the
inftitution in fuch a manner, as to raife it, by a rapid
progrefs from infancy, as it were, to full vigour and
maturity. Its charatter, as it appeared when fully
formed, is well defcribed by an eloquent hiftorian in chivalry.
the following manner : 1  —«
“ Between the age of Charlemagne and that of the Gibbot^
crufades, a revolution had taken place among the Spa-v0^Ju
niards, the Normans, and the French, which was gra-p-
dually extended to the reft of Europe. The fervice
of the infantry was degraded to the plebeians j the ca¬
valry formed the ftrength of the armies, and the ho¬
nourable name of miles, or foldier, was confined to the
gentlemen who ferved on horfeback, and were inveft-
ed with the charadter of knighthood. The dukes and
counts, who had ufurped the rights of fovereignty, di¬
vided the provinces among their faithful barons : the
barons diftributed among their vaffals their fiefs or be¬
nefices of their jurifdidtion ; and thefe military tenants,
the peers of each other and of their lord, compofed
the noble or equeftrian order, which difdained to con¬
ceive the peafant or burgher as of the fame fpecies
with themfelves. The dignity of their birth was pre-
ferved by pure and equal alliances ; their fons alone
who could produce four quarters or lines of anceftry,
without fpot or reproach, might legally pretend to the
honour of knighthood ; but a valiant plebeian was
fometimes enriched and ennobled by the fword, and
became the father of a new race. A fingle kr.ight
could impart, according to his judgment, the character
which he received 5 and the warlike fovereigns of Eu¬
rope derived more glory from this perfonal diftindtion
than from the luftre of their diadem. This ceremony
was in its own origin fimple and profane *, the candidate,
after fome previous trial, was invefted with his fword
and fpurs j and his cheek or Ihoulder was touched
with a flight blow, as an emblem of the laft affront
which it was lawful for him to endure. But fuper-
ftition mingled in every public and private adlion of
life : In the holy wars, it fandlified the profeflion of
arms j and the order of chivalry was affimilated in its
rights and privileges to the facred orders of priefthood.
The bath and white garment of the novice were an
indecent copy of the regeneration of baptifm : his
fword, which he offered on the altar, was bleffed by
the minifters of religion j his folemn reception was
preceded by fafts and vigils j and he was created a
knight in the name of God, of St George, and of St
Michael the archangel. He fwore to accomplilh the
duties of his profeflion j and education, example, and
the public opinion were the inviolable guardians of his
oath. As the champion of God and the ladies, he
devoted himfelf to fpeak the truth ; to maintain the
right, to proted! the diftreffed ; to pradtife courtefy, a
virtue lefs familiar to the ancients j to purfue the infi¬
dels j to defpife the allurements of eafe and fafety j
and to vindicate in every perilous adventure the ho¬
nour of his eharadler. The abufe of the fame fpirit
provoked the illiterate knight to difdain the arts of
induftry and peace j to efteem himfelf the foie judge
and avenger of his own injuries 5 and proudly to ne-
gledt the laws of civil fociety and military difcipline.
Yet the benefits of this inftitution, to refine the temper
of barbarians, and to infufe fome principles of faith,
juftice, and humanity, were ftrongly felt, and have been
often obferved. The afperity of national prejudice
was foftened •, and the community of religion and arms
fpread a fimilar colour and generous emulation over
the face of Chriftendom, Abroad, in enterprife and
pilgrimage j
CHI
[ 5i
Chivalry, pilgrimage ; at home, in martial eWe,_ the war-
Y—' riors of every country were perpetually ailociated ; and
impartial tafte muft prefer a Gothic tournament to
the Olympic games of claffic antiquity. Inftead of the
naked fpeftacles which corrupted the manners of the
Greeks, and banilhed from the ftadiura the virgins
and matrons, the pompous decoration of the litis was
crowned with the prefence of the chafte and high-born
beauty, from whofe hands the conqueror received the
prize of his dexterity and courage. The tkiil and
ftrength that were exerted in wreftling and boxing
bear a diftant and doubtful relation to the merit of a
foldier; but the tournaments, as they were invented in
France, and eagerly adopted both in the eaft and weft,
prefentad a lively image of the bufinefs of the field.
The fingle combat, the general Ikirmilh, the defence
of a pafs or caftle, were rehearfed as in aftual fervice $
and the conteft, both in real and mimic war, was de¬
cided by the fuperior management of the horfe and
lance. The lance was the proper and peculiar wea¬
pon of the knight: his horfe was of a large and heavy
breed; but this charger, till he was roufed by the ap¬
proaching danger, was ufually led by an attendant,
and he quietly rod a pad or palfrey of a more eafy
pace. His helmet and fword, his greaves and buck¬
ler, it would be fuperfluous to defcribe ; but I may
remark, that at the period of the crufades, the armour
was lefs ponderous than in later times; and that, in¬
ftead of a maffy cuirafs, his breaft was defended by a
hauberk or coat of mail. When their long lances
were fixed in the reft, the warriors furioufly fpurred
their horfes againft the foe; and the light cavalry of
the Turks and Arabs could feldom ftand againft the
direfl: and impetuous weight of their charge. Each
knight was attended to the field by his faithful fquire,
a youth of equal birth and fimilar hopes; he was fol¬
lowed by his archers and men at arms ; and four, or
five, or fix foldiers, were computed as the furniture of
a complete lance. In the expeditions to the neigh¬
bouring kingdoms or the Holy Land, the duties of
the feudal tenure no longer fubfifted ; the voluntary
fervice of the knights and their followers was either
prompted by zeal or attachment, or purchafed with re¬
wards and promifes ; and the numbers of each fqua-
dron were meafured by the power, the wealth, and
the fame of each independent chieftain. They were
diftinguilhed by his banner, his armorial coat, and his
cry of war: and the moft ancient families of Europe
mull feek in thefe atchievements the origin and proof
of their nobility.”
The refpe&able author of the Letters on Chivalry
and Romance, traces, with great ingenuity and erudi¬
tion, a ftrong refemblance between the manners of the
age of chivalry and thofe of the old heroic ages deli-
I0 neated by Homer.
The refem- There is, fays he, a remarkable correfpondence be-
blance be- tween the manners of the old heroic times, as painted
by their great romancer Homer, and thofe which are
reprefented to us in the modern books of knight-er¬
rantry. A fa6l of which no good account can be gi¬
ven, but by another not lefs certain ; that the political
ftate of Greece, in the earlieft periods of its ftory,
was fimilar in many refpefls to that of Europe, as
broken by the feudal fyftem into an infinite number of
petty independent governments.'
tween he¬
roic and
Gothic
manners.
] CHI
Some obvious circumftances of agreement between the chivalry,
heroic and Gothic manners may be worth putting down. '—-y 1
1. The military enthufiafm ol the barons is but of
a piece with the fanaticiim of the heroes. Hence the
fame particularity of defcription in the accounts of
battles, wounds, deaths, in the Greek poet as in the
Gothic romancers. Hence the minute curiofity in
the difplay of their dreffes, arms, accoutrements. The
minds of all men being occupied with warlike images
and ideas, were much gratified by thofe details, which
appear cold and unaffefting to modern readers.
We hear much of knights errant encountering gi¬
ants and quelling favages in books of chivalry. Thefe
giants were oppreffive feudal lords; and every lord
was to be met with, like the giant, in his ftrong-hold
or caftle. Their dependents of a lower form, who
imitated the violence of their fuperiors, and had not
their caftles but lurking places, were the favages of
romance. The greater lord was called a giant for his
power ; the lefs, a favage for his brutality.
2. Another terror of the Gothic ages was monfters,
dragons, and ferpents. Their ftories were received in
thofe days for feveral reafons: 1. From the vulgar be¬
lief of enchantments : 2. From their being reported
on the faith of eaftern tradition, by adventurers from
the Holy Land : 3. In ftill later times, from the ftrange
things told and believed on the difeovery of the new
World.
In all thefe refpe£ls, Greek antiquity refembles the
Gothic. For what are Homer’s Leeftrigons and Cy¬
clops, but bands of lawlefs favages, with each of them
a giant of enormous fize at their head ? And what are
the Grecian Bacchus, Hercules, and Thefeus, but
knights-errant, the exa£t counterparts of Sir Launce-
lot and Amadis de Gaul ?
3. The oppreflions which it was the glory of the
knights to avenge, were frequently carried on, as we
are told, by the charms and enchantments of women.
Thefe charms, we may fuppofe, are often metapho¬
rical ; as exprefling only the blandifhments of the fex.
Sometimes they are taken to be real, the ignorance
of thofe ages acquiefcing in fuch conceits. And are
not thofe ftories matched by thofe of Calypfo and
Circe, the enchantreffes of the Greek poet ?
4. Robbery and piracy were honourable in botli :
fo far were they from refledting any diferedit on the
ancient or modern redrejfers of wrongs. What ac¬
count can be given of this, but that, in the feudal
times, and in the early days of Greece, when govern¬
ment was weak, and unable to redrefs the injuries of
petty fovereigns, it would be glorious for private ad¬
venturers to undertake this work ; and, if they could
accomplilh it in no other way, to pay them in kind by
downright plunder and rapine ?
5. Baftardy was in credit with both. They were
extremely watchful over the chaftity of their own wo¬
men ; but fuch as they could feize upon in the ene¬
my’s quarter, were lawful prize. Or if, at any time,
they tranfgrefied in this fort at home, the fault was
covered by an ingenious fidlion. The offspring was
reputed divine. Their greater heroes were the fruit
of goddeffes approached by mortals ; juft as we hear
of the doughtieft knights being born of fairies.
6. With the greateft fiercenefs and favagenefs of
charafler, the utmoft generofity, hofpitality, and cour-
G 2 tefy,
c H 1 [ i
Chivalry, tefy, were imputed to the heroic ages. Achilles was
v—--,i at once the moft relentlefs, vindidilive, implacable, and
the friendlieft of men. We have the very fame repre-
fentation in the Gothic romances. As in thofe law-
lefs times, dangers and ditlreffes of all kinds abounded,
there would be the fame demand for compaffion, gen-
tlenefs, and generous attachment to the unfortunate,
thofe efpecially of their own clan, as of refentment,
rage, and animofity againlt their enemies.
. 7. Again, the martial games celebrated in ancient
Greece, on great and folemn occafions, had the fame
origin and the fame purpofe as the tournaments of the
Gothic warriors.
8. Lattly, the paflion for adventures fo natural in
their fiuation, would be as naturally attended with
the love of praife and glory. Hence the fame encou¬
ragement, in the old Greek and Gothic times, to pa-
negyrifts and poets. In the affairs of religion and
gallantry, indeed, the refemblance between the hero
and the knight is not fo ftriking. But the religious
charaffer of the knight was an accident of the times,
and no proper effedt of his civil condition. And that
his devotion for the fair fex Ihould fo far furpafs that of
the hero, is a confirmation of the fyflem here advanced.
For the confideration had of the females in the feudal
conftitution, will of itfelf account for this deference.
It made them capable of fucceeding to fiefs, as well
as the men. And does not one infiantly perceive what
refpedf and dependence this privilege would draw upon
them ?
It was of great confequence who fhould obtain the
favour of a rich heirefs. And though, in the Uriel
feudal times, (he w'as fuppofed to be in the power and
at the difpofal of her fuperior lord, yet this rigid date
• of things did not lad long. Hence we find fome di-
ilreffed datnfel was the fpring and mover of every
knight’s adventure. She was to be refeued by his
arms, or won by the fame and admiration of his
prowefs. The plain meaning of all which was this :
That as, in thefe turbulent times, a protedlor was necef-
fary to the weaknefs of the fex, fo the courteous and
valorous knight was to approve himfelf fully qualified
for that purpofe.
It may be obferved, that the two poems of Homer
were intended to expofe the mifehiefs and inconve¬
niences arifing from the political ftate of Old Greece :
the Iliad, the diffenfions that naturally fprung up a-
raong independent chiefs ; and the Ody[]ey, the info-
lence of their greater fubje&s, more efpecially when
unreftrained by the prefence of their fovereign. And
can any thing more exadlly referable the condition of
the feudal times, when, on occafion of any great en-
terprife, as that of the crufades, the defigns of the
confederate Chriftian ftates were perpetually fruftra-
ted, or interrupted at leaft, by the diffenfions of their
leaders •, and their affairs at home, as perpetually di-
ftreffed and difdrdered by the rebellious ufurpations of
their greater vaffals ? Jerufalem was to the European
what Troy had been to the Grecian princes. See the
article Knight.
Chivalry, in Law, is ufed for a tenure of lands
by knight’s fervice, whereby the knight was bound
to perform fervice in war unto the king, or the mefne
lord of whom he held by that tenure. And chivalry
was either general or fpeeial: general, when it was
2 ] CHI
only in the feoffment that the tenant held per fervitiutti Chivalry.
ntilitare, without any fpecification of fergeantry, efeu- — ■ t— j
age, &c.; fpecial, when it was declared particularly
by what kind of knight fervice the land was held.
For the better underftanding of this tenure it hath
been obferved, that there is no land but is holden me¬
diately or immediately of the crown by fome fervice j
and therefore all freeholds that are to us and our heirs,
are called feuda or feoda, “ fees j” as proceeding from
the king for fome fmall yearly rent, and the perform¬
ance of fueh fervices as were originally laid upon the
land at the donation thereof. For as the king gave
to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large polfef-
fions for ever, to hold of him for this or that fervice or
rent ; fo they in time parcelled out to fuch others as
they liked the fame lands for rents and fervices as they
thought good j and thefe fervices were by Littleton
divided into two kinds, chivalry and focage; the firft
whereof was martial and military, the other ruftical.
Chivalry, therefore, was a tenure of fervice, whereby
the tenant was obliged to perform fome noble or mili¬
tary office unto his lord : and it was of two kinds j ei¬
ther regal, that is, held only of the king ; or common,
where held of a common perfon. That which might
be held only of the king was called fervitium, or fergen-
iia; and was again divided into grand and petit ferje-
antry. The grand ferjeantry was where one held lands
of the king by fervice, which he ought to do in his
own perfon : as, to bear the king’s banner or fpear, to
lead his hoft, to find men at arms to fight, &c. Petit
ferjeantry was when a man held lands of the king, to
yield him annually fome fmall thing towards his wars,
as a fword, dagger, bow, &c. Chivalry that might
be holden of a common perfon was termed feutagium,
“ efeuage 5” that is, fervice of the ffiield ; which was
either uncertain or certain.”
F.fcuage uncertain, was like wife two-fold: firft, where
the tenant was bound to follow his lord, going in per¬
fon to the king’s wars, either himfelf, or fending a fuf-
ficient man in his place, there to be maintained at his
expence, fo long as was agreed upon between the lord
and his firft tenant at the granting of the fee 5 and the
days of fuch fervice feem to have been rated by the
quantity of land fo holden ; as, if it extended to a whole
knight’s fee, then the tenant was to follow his lord 40
days j and if but to half a knight’s fee, then 20 days $
if a fourth part, then ten days, &c. The other kind
of this efeuage was called cajlle ward, where the tenant
was obliged, by himfelf, or fome other, to defend a
caftle as often as it ftiould come to his turn. And thefe
were called efeuage uncertain ; becaufe it was uncertain
how often a man ffiould be called to follow his lord to
the wars, or to defend a caftle, and what his charge
would be therein.
Efeuage certain, was where the tenure was fet at a
certain lum of money to be paid in lieu of fuch fer¬
vice ; as that a man ffiould pay yearly for every knight’s
fee 20s. for half a knight’s fee 10s. or fome like rate ;
and this fervice, becaufe it is drawn to a certain rent,
groweth to be of a mixed nature, not merely focage,
and yet foeage in effe£l, being now neither perfonal
fervice nor uncertain. Fhe tenure called chivalry had
other Conditions annexed to it : but there is a great
alteration made in thefe things by the flat. 12 Car. H.
c. 24. whereby tenures by knight’s fervice of the king,
or
C H I
[ 53 ]
C H I
Chivalry.
or any other perfon in capite, &c. and the fruits and
* confequences thereof, are taken away and difcharged ;
and all tenures are to be conftrued and adjudged to be
free and common foccage, &c.
Court of CHIVALRT, a court formerly held before
the lord high conftable and earl marlhal of England
jointly, and having both civil and criminal jurifdic-
tion but fince the attainder of Stafford duke of Buck¬
ingham under Henry VIII. and the confequent extin-
guifhment of the office of lord high conftable, it hath
ufually, with refpeft to civil matters, been heard be¬
fore the earl marffial only. This court, by flat. 13.
Rich. II. c. 2. hath cognizance of contrafls and other
matters touching deeds of arms and war, as well out
of the realm as in it. And from its fentences lies an
immediate appeal to the king in perfon. This court
Was in great reputation in the times of pure chivalry ;
and afterwards during the Englifti connexions with
the continent, by the territories which their princes
held in France ; but it is now grown almoft entirely
out of ufe, on account of the feeblenefs of its jurifdic-
tion, and want of power to enforce its judgments j as
it can neither fine nor imprifon, not being a court of
record.
1. The civi/ jurifdiflion of this court of chivalry
is principally in two points j the redreffing injuries of
honour, and correfling encroachments in matters of
coat-armour, precedency, and other diftindlions of fa¬
milies. As a court of honour, it is to give fatisfac-
tion to all fuch as are aggrieved in that point; a
point of a nature fo nice and delicate, that its wrongs
and injuries efcape the notice of the common law,
and yet are fit to be redreffed fomewhere. Such, for
inftance, as calling a man coward, or giving him the
lie j for which, as they are productive of no imme¬
diate damage to his perfon or property, no adtion will
lie in the courts at Weftminfter j and yet they are
flich injuries as will prompt every man of fpirit to
demand fome honourable amends 5 which, by the an¬
cient law of the land, was given in the court of chi¬
valry. But modern refolutions have determined, that
how much foever a jurifdiCtion may be expedient, yet
no adtion for words will at prefent lie therein. And
it hath always been moft clearly holden, that as this
court cannot meddle with any thing determinable by
common law, it therefore can give no pecuniary fatif-
faClion or damages; inafmuch as the quantity and
determination thereof is ever of common law cog¬
nizance. And therefore this court of chivalry can at
moft order reparation in point of honour*, as to compel
the defendant mendacium Jibi ipjt imponere, or to take
the lie that he has given upon himfelf, or to make
fuch other fubmiffion as the laws of honour may re¬
quire. As to the other point of its civil jurifdiClion,
the redreffing of ufurpations and encroachments in mat¬
ters of heraldry and coat-armour ; it is the bufinefs of
this court, according to Sir Matthew Hale, to adjuft
the right and armorial enfigns, bearings, crefts, fup-
porters, pennons, &c. ; and alfo rights of places or
precedence, where the king’s patent or adft of parlia¬
ment, which cannot be overruled by this court, have
not already determined it. The proceedings of this
court are by petition in a fummary way *, and the trial
not by a jury of 12 men, but by witneftes, or by com-
2
bat. But as it cannot imprifon, not being a court of Chivalry
record; and as, by the refolutions of the fuperior n
courts, it is now confined to fo narrow and reftrained
a jurifdi&ion, it has fallen into contempt. The mar-
ffialling of coat-armour, which was formerly the pride
and ftudy of all the beft families in- the kingdom, is
now greatly difregarded j and has fallen into the hands
of certain officers and attendants upon this court, cal¬
led heralds, who confider it only as a matter of lucre,
and not of juftice ; whereby fuch falfity and confufion
have crept into their records (which ought to be the
Handing evidence of families, defcents, and coat-ar¬
mour), that though formerly fome credit has been paid
to their teftimony, now even their common feal will
not be received as evidence in any court of juftice in
the kingdom. But their original vifitation books, com¬
piled when progreffes were folemnly and regularly
made in every part of the kingdom, to inquire into
the ftate of families, and to regifter fuch marriages
and defcents as were verified to them upon oath, are al¬
lowed to be good evidence of pedigrees.
2. As a criminal court, when held before the lord
high conftable of England jointly with the earl mar-
fhal, it had jurifdi&ion over pleas of life and member,
arifing in matters of arms and deeds of war, as well
out of the realm as within it. But the criminal as
well, as civil part of its authority is fallen into entire
difufe, there having been no permanent high conftable
of England (but only pro hac vice, at coronations and
the like)* fince the attainder and execution of Stafford
duke of Buckingham, in the 13th year of Henry VIII.;
the authority and charge* both in war and peace, be¬
ing deemed too ample for a fubjeft ; fo ample, that
when the chief juftice Fineux was aflced by King Hen¬
ry VIII. how far they extended ? he declined an-
fwering, and faid, the decifion of that queftion be¬
longed to the law of arms, and not to the law of Eng¬
land.
CHIVES,or Stamina, \nBotany, areflender thread¬
like fubftances, generally placed within the bloffom, and
furrounding the PoiNTAL, or PlSTILLUM. Ihey are
formed of the woody fubftance of the plant.
CHIUM Marmor, in the natural hiftory of the an¬
cients, the name of a black marble, called alfo the /a-
pis obfdianus. It is very hard, and of a fine black;
and, befide the many ufes which the ancients put it to,
is well known among our goldfmiths by the name of
the touchfone; raoft of them being furniffied with
nothing better for this purpofe than a piece of this :
though the bafaltes, which may be had plentifully
enough, is greatly preferable for thole ufes ; any black
marble, however, that is tolerably hard, will do. There
is a very fine and elegantly fmooth marble, of a com-
patt texture, and fine gloffy black, but Ihowing no
glittering particles when freftv broken, as moft of the
black marbles do. It is extremely hard, and cuts with
difficulty, but is capable of the higheft polifti of any
marble. The ancients had it from Ethiopia and the
ifland of Chios; we have it from Italy.
CHIUM Vinum, Chian Wine, or wine of the growth
of the ifland of Chios, now Scio, is commended by
Diofcorides as affording good nourilhment, fit to drink,
lefs difpofed to intoxicate, endued with the virtue of
reftraining defluxions, and a proper ingredient in ophc
thalmia.
C H O f 54 ] C H O
Glu'um thalmic medicines. Hence Scribonius Largus directs
Vinum the dry ingredients in collyria for the eyes to be made
•' Up with Chian wine.
l 10C° a e‘. CHI UN, or Chevan, in Hebrew antiquity. We
meet with this word in the prophet Amos, cited in the
A6ts of the Apoftles. St Luke reads the paffage
thus: “Ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the
liar of your god Remphan, figures which ye made to
worlhip them.” The import of the Hebrew is as fol¬
lows : “ Ye have borne the tabernacle of your kings,
and the pedeftal (the chiuti) of your images, the ftar of
your gods, which ye made to yourfelves.” The Sep-
tuagint in all probability read Repham or Revan, in-
ftead of Chiun or Chevan, and took the pedeftal for a
god.
Some fay that the Septuagint, who made their tranf-
lation in Egypt, changed the word Chiun into that of
Remphan, becaufe they had the fame fignification. M.
Bafnage, in his book entitled Jevoijh Antiquities, after
having difcourfed a good deal upon Chion, or Remphan,
concludes that Moloch was the fun, and Chion, Chiun,
or Remphan, the moon.
CHLAMYS, in antiquity, a military habit worn
by the ancients over the tunica. It belonged to the
patricians, and was the fame in the time of war that
the toga was in the time of peace. This fort of gown
was called pi£ia, from the rich embroidery with figures
in Phrygian work; and purpurea, becaufe the ground¬
work was purple. The chlamydes of the emperors
were all purple, adorned with a golden and embroider¬
ed border.
CHLOEIA, in antiquity, a feftival celebrated at
Athens in honour of Ceres, to whom, under the name
XXovi, i. e. grafs, they facrificed a ram.
CHLORA. See Botany Index.
CHLOROSIS, in Medicine, a difeafe, commonly
called the green Jicknefs, incident to young girls. See
Medicine Index.
CHOCOLATE, in commerce, a kind of pafte or
cake prepared of certain ingredients, the bafis of which
is cacao. See Cacao.
The Indians, in their firft making of chocolate, ufed
to roaft the cacao in earthen pots ; and having after¬
wards cleared it of the hulks, and bruifed it between
two ftones, they made it into cakes with their hands.
The Spaniards improved this method. When the cacao
is properly roafted and well cleaned, they pound it in
a mortar, to reduce it into a coarfe mafs, which they
afterwards grind on a ftone till it be of the utmoft fine-
nefs: the pafte being fufficiently ground, is put quite
hot into tin moulds, in which it congeals in a very
little time. The form of thefe moulds is arbitrary;
the cylindrical ones, holding two or three pounds, are
the moft proper, becaufe the bigger the cakes are, the
longer they will keep. Obferve, that thefe cakes are
very liable to take any good or bad fcent, and there¬
fore they muft be carefully wrapt up in paper, and
kept in a dry place. Complaints are made, that the
Spaniards mix with the cacao nuts too great a quanti¬
ty of cloves and cinnamon, befides other drugs with¬
out number, as roulk, ambergris, &c. The grocers
of Paris ufe few or none of thefe ingredients ; they
only choofe the bell nuts, which are called caracca,
from the place from whence they are brought; and
with thefe they mix a very fmall quantity of cinnamon, Chocolate
the freftieft vanilla, and the fineft fugar, but very fel- II
dom any cloves. In England the chocolate is made , Chcerilus.
of the fimpie cacao, excepting that fometimes fugar v J
and fometimes vanilla is added.
Chocolate ready made, and cacao pafte, are prohi¬
bited to be imported from any part beyond the feas.
If made and fold in Great Britain, it pays inland duty
is. 6d. per lb. avoirdupoife : it muft be inclofed in pa¬
pers containing one pound each, and produced at the
excife office to be ftamped. Upon three days no¬
tice given to the officer of excife, private families may
make chocolate for their own ufe, provided no lefs
than half an hundred weight of nuts be made at one
time.
The chocolate made in Portugal and Spain is not
near fo well prepared as the Englifh, depending per¬
haps on the machine employed there, viz. the double
cylinder, which feems very well calculated for exa<ft
triture. If perfe&ly prepared, no oil appears on the
folution. London chocolate gives up no oil like the
foreign ; and it alfo may in fome meafure depend on
the thicknefs of the preparation. The folution requires
more care than is commonly imagined. It is proper
to break it down, and diffolve it thoroughly in cold
water by milling it with the chocolate flick. If heat
is applied, it ffiould be done flowly ; for, if fuddenly
the heat will not only coagulate it, but feparate the
oil ; and therefore much boiling after it is diffolved is
hurtful. Chocolate is commonly required by people of
weak ftomachs ; but often rejefted for want of proper
preparation. When properly prepared, it is eafily dif¬
folved ; and an excellent food where a liquid nutrient
vegetable one is required, and is lefs flatulent than any
of the farinacea.
Mr Henley, an ingenious elearician, has lately dif-
covered that chocolate, frefh from the mill, as it cools
in the tin pans into which it is received, becomes
ftrongly elearical ; . and that it retains this property
for fome time after it has been turned out of the pans,
but foon lofes it by handling. The power may be once
or twice renewed by melting it again in an iron ladle,
and pouring it into the tin pans as at firft ; but when
it becomes dry and powdery, the power is not capable
of being revived by fimple melting: but if a fmall
quantity of olive-oil be added, and well mixed with
the chocolate in the ladle, its eleftricity will be com¬
pletely reftored by cooling it in the tin-pan as before.
From this experiment he conje&ures, that there is a
great affinity between carbonic acid and the ele<ftric
fluid, if indeed they be not the fame thing.
Chocolate Nut-Tree. See Cacao.
CHOENIX, £«<»<£, an ancient dry meafure, con¬
taining the 48th part of a medimnus, or fix buffiels.
CHOERILUS, a tragic poet of Athens about the
64th Olympiad. He wrote 150 tragedies, of which
13 had obtained the prize—An hiftorian of Samos 
Two other poets, one of whom was very intimate with
Herodotus. He wrote a poem on the viftory which
the Athenians had obtained over Xerxes; and on ac¬
count of the excellence of the compofition he received
a piece of gold for each verfe from the Athenians.
The other was one of Alexander’s flatterers and
friends.
CHOERINiE,
C H O
[ 55 ]
C H O
Olioerinae
11
Chopine.
CHOERINiE, in antiquity, a kind of fea-fhells,
with which the ancient Greeks ufed to give their fui-
frage, or vote.
CHOIR, that part of the church or cathedral where
chorifters fing divine fervice j it is feparated from the
chancel where the communion is celebrated, and alfo
from the nave of the church where the people are
placed : the patron is faid to be obliged to repair the
choir of the church. It was in the time of Conllan-
tine that the choir was feparated from the nave. In
the x 2th century they began to enclofe it with walls ;
but the ancient balluftrades have been fince reftored,
out of a view to the beauty of architecture.
Choir, in nunneries, is a large hall adjoining to
the body of the church, feparated by a grate, where
the nuns ling the office.
CHOISX, Francis Timoleon de, dean of the ca¬
thedral of Bnyeux, and one of the forty of the French
academy, was born at Paris in 1644. In the early
part of his life he was much diltinguiffied by his frivo¬
lous manners, and particularly by appearing even at
court in a female drefs. In 1685 he was feat with
the chevalier de Chaumont to the king of Siam, and
was ordained prieft in the Indies by the apoltolical vi¬
car. He wrote a great number of works, in a polite,
florid, and eafy ftyle •, the principal of which are, 1.
Four Dialogues on the Immortality of the Soul, &c.
2. Account of a voyage to Siam. 3. An Ecclefiafli-
cal Hiftory, in 11 vols. 4to. 4. Life of David, with
an Interpretation of the Pfalms. 5. Liie ot Solomon,
&c. He died at Paris in 1724.
CHOLEDOCHQ3, in Anatomy, a term applied
to a canal, or dud, called alfo duBus communis ; form¬
ed of the union of the porus biiiarus and duCIus cyfti-
cus. The word comes from choler: and
I receive, or contain.
The choledochus duCIus, paffing obliquely to the
lower end of the duodenum, ferves to convey the bile
from the liver to the inteftines. See Anatomy In¬
dex.
CHOLER. See Bile.
CHOLERA morbus, a fudden eruption or over¬
flowing of the bile or bilious matters both upwards and
downwards. See Medicine Index.
CHOMER, or Omer. See Corus.
CHONDRILLA. See Botany Index.
CHONDROPTERYGII, in Ichthyology, a term
formerly applied to the order of fiffies now called am¬
phibia nantes by Linnaeus. See Amphibia.
CHOP-church, or Church-chopper, a name,
or rather a nick-name, give to parfons who make a
practice of exchanging benefices. See Permutation.
Chop-church occurs in an ancient ftatute as a lawful
trade or occupation ; and fome of the judges fay it
was a good addition. Brook holds, that it was no oc¬
cupation, but a thing permiffible by law.
CHOPIN, or Chopine, a liquid meafure ufed both
in Scotland and France, and equal to half their pint.
See Pint and Measure.
Chopine, Rene, a famous civilian born at Bailleul
in Anjou in 1537. He was advocate in the parlia¬
ment of Paris, where he pleaded for a long time with
great reputation. He at lafl ffiut himfelf up in his
clofet, and compofed many works, which have been
3
Chopine
n
Chord.
collefted together, and printed in 6 vols. folio. He
died at Paris in 1606.
CHORAL, fignifies any perfon that, by virtue of 
any of the orders of the clergy, was in ancient times v
admitted to fit and ferve God in the choir.
Dugdale, in his hiftory of St Paul’s church, fays,
that there were with the chorus formerly fix vicars
choral belonging to that church.
CHORASSAN, or Khorassan, a province of
Perfia, adjoining to Ufbec Tartary. This was the
ancient Bactria, and the birth-place of Kouli-Khan.
CHORAX, 01^ Charax. See Characene.
CHORAZIM, or Chorazin, (Luke, Matthew),
a town of Galilee, whofe wretched incredulity Ghrift
deplores j now defolate, at two miles diftance from Ca-
pernaurq.
CHORD, or Cord, primarily denotes a flender
rope or cordage*. The word is formed of the Latin, * gee
chorda, and that from the Greek, a gut, whereof
firings may be made.
Chord, in Geometry, a right line drawn from one
part of an arch of a circle to another. Hence,
CHORD of an Arch, is a right line joining the ex¬
tremes of that arch.
Chord, in Mafic, the union of two or more founds
uttered at the fame time, and forming together an en¬
tire harmony.
The natural harmony produced by the refonance of
a founding body, is compofed of three different founds,
without reckoning their odlaves; which form among
themfelves the moft agreeable and perfedl chord that
can poffibly be heard : for which reafon they are called,
on account of their excellence, perfeB chords. Hence,
in order to render that harmony complete, it is ne-
ceffary that each chord ffiould at leaft confift of three
founds. The trio is likewife found by muficians to
include the perfedlion of harmony ; whether becaufe
in this all the chords, and each in its full perfedlion,
are ufed ; or, becaufe upon fuch occafions as render
it improper to ufe them all, and each in its integri¬
ty, arts have been fuccefsfully pradtifed to deceive
the ear, and to give it contrary perfuafion, by de¬
luding it with the principal founds of each chord, in
fuch a manner as to render if forgetful of the other
founds neceffary to their completion. Yet the odtave
of the principal found produces new relations, and
new confonances, by the completion of the intervals :
they commonly add this odlave, to have the affem-
blage of all the confonances in one and the fame
chord; (See Consonance). Moreover, the addition
of the diffonance (See Discord), producing a fourth
found fuperadded to the perfedl chord, it becomes in-
difpenfably neceffary, if we would render the chord
full, that we ffiould include a fourth part to exprefs
this diffonance. Thus, the feries of chords can nei¬
ther be complete nor connedfed but by means of four
parts.
Chords are divided into perfedl and imperfedl. The
perfsB chord is that which we have lately deferibed j
which is compofed of the fundamental found below,
of its third, its fifth, and its odlave : they are likewife
fubdivided into major and minor, according as the
thirds which enter into their compofition are flat or
ffiarp : (See Interval). Some authors likewife give
th*
C H O [ 56 ] C H O
Chords, the name of to all chords, even to diflonances,
1—V ' vvhofe fundamental founds are below. Imperfeft chords
are thofe in which the fixth, inftead of the fifth, pre¬
vails, and in general all thofe wbofe lowed: are not
their fundamental founds. Thefe denominations, which
had been given before the fundamental bafs was known,
are now mod unhappily applied : thofe of chords di-
re& and reverfed are much more fuitable in the fame
fenfe.
Chords are once more divided into confonances and
diffonances. The chords denominated confonances, are
the perfedt chord, and its derivatives} every other
chord is a diffonance.
A table of both, according to the fydem of M. Ra¬
meau, may be feen in Rouffeau’s Mufical Didtionary,
vol. i. p. 27.
After the table to which our readers have been re¬
mitted, Rouffeau adds the following obfervations, which
are at the fame time fo juft and fo important, that we
fhould be very forry if they efcape the reader’s atten¬
tion.
At the words harmony, fundamental bafs, compof-
. tion, &c. he promifes to treat concerning the man-
mer of ufing all the chords to form regular har¬
mony ; and only adds, in this place, the fubfequent
refledtions.
1. It is a capital error to imagine, that the methods
of inverting the fame chord are in all cafes equally
eligible for the harmony and for the exprefiion.
There is not one of thefe different arrangements but
had its proper charadter. Every one feels the con-
trafi: between the foftnefs of the falfe fifth, and the
grating found of the tritone, though the one of thefe
intervals is produced by a method of inverting the
other. With the feventh diminifhed, and the fecond
redundant, the cafe is the fame with the interval of the
fecond in general ufe, and the feventh. Who does
not feel how much more vocal and fonorous the fifth
appears when compared with the fourth ? The chord
of the great fixth, and that of the lelfer fixth minor,
are two forms of .the fame fundamental chord: but
how much lefs is the one harmonious than the other ?
On the contrary, chord oi the leffer fixth major is
much more pleafing and cheerful than that of the
falfe fifth. And only to mention the moft fimple of
all chords, refledt on the majefty of the perfedt chord,
the fweetnefs of that which is called the chord of the
fixth, and the infipidity of that which is compofed of
a fixth and a fourth.: all of them, however, compo¬
fed of the fame founds. In general, the redundant
intervals, the {harps on the higher part, are proper by
their feverity to exprefs violent emotions of mind,
fuch as anger and the rougher paflions. On the con¬
trary, fiats in the higher parts, and diminilhed inter¬
vals, form a plaintive harmony, which melts the heart.
There are a multitude of fimilar obfervations, of
which, when a mufician knows how to avail himfelf,
he may command at will the affedtions of thofe who
hear him.
2. The choice of fimple intervals is fcarcely of lefs
importance than that of the chords, with regard to
the Rations in which they ought to be placed. It is,
for inftance, in the lower parts that the fifth and oc¬
tave fliould be ufed in preference ; in the upper parts,
the third and fixth are more proper. If you tranfpofe
this orddr, the harmony will be ruined, even though
the fame chords are preferved.
3. In a word, the chords are rendered ftill more
harmonious by being approximated and only divided (
by the fmalleR practicable intervals, which are more
fuitable to the capacity of the ear than fuch as are re¬
mote. This is what we call contracting the harmony j
an art which few compofers have {kill and abilities
enough to put in pradtice. The limits in the natural
compafs of voices, afford an additional reafon for lef.
fening the diftance of the intervals, which compof©
the harmony of the chorus, as much as pofiible. We
may affirm, that a chorus is improperly compofed,
when the difiance between the chords increafes j when
thofe who perform the different parts are obliged to
fcream when the voices rife above their natural ex¬
tent, and are fo remotely diftant one from the other
that the perception of harmonical relations between
them is loft.
We fay likewife, that an inftrument is in concord
when the intervals between its fixed founds are what
they ought to bej we fay in this fenfe, that the chords
of an inftrument are true or falfe, that it preferves or
does not preferve its chords. The fame form of fpeak-
ing is ufed for two voices which fing together, or for
two founds which are heard at the fame time, whether
in unifon or in parts.
Chords, or Cords of Mufcal Injlruments, are
firings, by the vibration of which the fenfation of
found is excited, and by the divifions of which the
feveral degrees of tone are determined.
CHORDEE, in Medicine and Surgery, a fymptom
attending a gonorrhoea, confifting in a violent pain
under the frenum, and along the duft of the urethra,
during the ere&ion of the penis, which is incurvated
downwards. Thefe erections are frequent and invo¬
luntary.
CHOREA Sancti Viti. See Virus's Dance.
Medicine Index.
CHOREPISCOPUS, an officer in the ancient
church, about whofe fundlion the learned are much di¬
vided. The word comes from a region, or little
country, and i%i<rx.0Tct<;, a bijloop or overfeer.
The Chorepifcopi were {uffiagan or local biffiops,
holding a middle rank between biffiops and preffiy-
ters, and delegated to exercife epifcopal jurifdi£tion
within certain diftridls, when the boundaries of parti¬
cular churches, over which feparate bilhops prefided,
were confiderably enlarged. It is not certain when
this office was firft introduced ; fome trace it to the
clofe of the firft century : others tell us, that chore-
pifcopi were not known in the eaft till the beginning
of the fourth century ; and in the weft about the year
439- They ceafed both in the eaft and weft in the
tenth century.
Chorepiscopus is alfo the name of a dignity ftill
fubfifting in fome cathedrals, particularly in Ger¬
many ; fignifying the fame with chon epifcopus, or
bifliop of the choir.” 1 he word, in this fenfe, does
not come from place, but choir, &c. In
the church of Cologne, &c. the firft chanter is called
chorepifcopus.
CHOREUS, Xagsof, a foot in the ancient poetry,
more commonly called trochccus. See Trochee.
CHORIAMBUS, in ancient poefry, a foot con¬
fiding
Chords
II
Choriafn-
bus.
I IWy
G&oriam-
bus
9
Chorus.
C - H O t 57 1 ' c H °
{ifHng of four fyllables, whert-of the firft and laft are
long, and the two middle ones are ftiort; or, which
is the fame thing, it is made up of a trochaeus and
iambus ; fuch is the word nobilitas.
CHORION, in Anatomy, the exterior membrane
which inverts the foetus in the uteru*. See Foetus.
CHOROBATA, or Chokobates, a kind of wa¬
ter-level among the ancients, of the figure of the let¬
ter T, according to Vitruvius’s,defcription.
CHOROGRAPHY, the art of making a map of
any country or province.
Chorography differs from geography, as the de-
fcription of a particular country differs from that of
the whole earth \ and from topography, as the de-
fcription of a country is different from that of a town
or diftrift. See the articles Geography, Topogra¬
phy, and Map.
CHOROIDES, or Choroeides, in Anatomy, a
term applied to feveral parts of the body, bearing
fome refemblance to the chorion. The word is form¬
ed from %*£'«», chorion, and likcnefs.
Choroides is particularly ufed for the inner mem¬
brane which immediately inverts the brain 5 fo called
as being intermingled with a great number of blood-
veffels, like the chorion : but more ufually denominated
the fiia mater or mininx tenuis.
Plexus or Lacis CHOROIDES, is a knot of veins and
arteries in the anterior ventricle of the brain, woven
out of the branches of the carotid.
Choroides is alfo applied to the inner and pofte-
rior tunic of the eye, immediately under the fcleroti-
ca. It is foft, thin, and black : and its inner or con¬
cave furface is very fmooth and polifhcd. It has its
name from its being interfperfed with veffels.
CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one or more per-
fons prefent on the ftage during the reprefentation,
and fuppofed to be by-danders without any fhare in
the aftion.
Tragedy in its origin was no more than a fingle
chorus, who trode the ftage alone, and without any
aflors, finging dithyrambics or hymns in honour of
Bacchus. Thefpis, to relieve the chorus, added an
aiRor, who rehearfed the adventures of fome of their
heroes; and HLfchylus, finding a fingle perfon too dry
an entertainment, added a fecond, at the fame time
reducing the finging of the chorus, to make more
room for the recitation. But when once tragedy be¬
gan to be formed, the recitative, which at firft was in¬
tended only as an acceffary part to give the chorus a
breathing time, became a principal part of the trage¬
dy. At length, however, the chorus became inferted
and incorporated into the a6b’on : fometimes it was
to fpeak ; and then their chief, whom they called co-
ryphcxus, ipoke in behalf of the reft : the finging was
performed by the whole company ; fo that when the
coryphaeus ftruck into a fong, the chorus immediately
joined him.
The chorus fometimes alfo joined the aftors, in the
courfe of the reprefentation, with their plaints and la¬
mentations on account of any unhappy accidents that
befel them ; but the proper fumRion, and that for which
it feemed chiefly retained, was to (how the intervals of
the aiRs : while the aRors were behind the fcenes, the
chorus engaged the fpeRators; their fongs ufually
turned on what was exhibited, and were not to con-
Voe. VI. Part I.
tain any thing but what was fuited to the fubjeR, and
had a natural conneRion with it 5 fo that the chorus
concurred with the aRors for advancing the aRion.
In the modern tragedies the chorus is laid afide, and
the fiddles fupply its place. M. Dacier looks on this
retrenchment as of ill confequence, and thinks it robs
tragedy of a great deal of its luftre ; he therefore judges
it neceffary to re-eftablilh it, not only on account of the
regularity of the piece, but alfo to correR, by prudent
and virtuous refteRions, any extravagancies that might
fall from the mouths of the aRors when under any vio¬
lent paflion.
Pel. Dacier obferved alfo, that there was a chorus,
or grex, in the ancient comedy : but this is fupprefled
in the new comedy, becaufe it was ufed to reprove
vices by attacking particular perfons j as the chorus
of the tragedy was laid afide to give the greater
probability to thofe kinds of intrigue which require
fecrecy.
Chorus, in Mafic, is when, at certain periods of a
fong, the whole company are to join the finger in re¬
peating certain couplets or verfes.
CHOSE (Fr.), “ a thing-,” ufed in the common
law with divers epithetsj as choje local, chofe tranjitory,
and chofe in aSlion. Chofe local is fuch a thing as is an¬
nexed to a place, as a mill and the like -, chofe tranfi-
tory is that thing which is moveable, and may be taken
away, or carried from place to place ; and chofe in ac¬
tion is a thing incorporeal, and only a right, as an ob¬
ligation for debt, annuity, &c. And generally all
caufes of fuit for any debt, duty, or wrong, are to be
accounted chofes in aRion : and it feems, chofe in ac¬
tion maybe alfo called in fufpenfe; becaufe it hath
no real exiftence or being, nor can properly be faid to
be in our poflefiion.
CHOSROES I. the Great, king of Perfia after
bis father Cabades, A. D. 532. He made peace with
the Romans ; but broke it the third year, and forced
Juftinian to a difadvantageous peace. Afterwards, he
was fo fwelled with his viRories, as to bid the empe¬
ror’s ambaflador follow him for audience to Cmfarea ;
but Tiberius lent an army under Juftinian, who made
himfelf marter of the country, and put Chofroes to
death in 586.
Chosroes II. His fubjeRs put his father Hormif-
das in prifon, and the fon upon the throne of Perfia.
He ufed his father tenderly at firft ; but afterwards
caufed him to be put to death. This, together with
his killing fome of the nobility, obliged him to fly : he
gave his horfe the bridle, which carried him into a
town of the Romans, where Mauricius the emperor
received him kindly, and fent an army under Narfes
which fet him again upon the throne. He took Jeru-
falem ; after this he made himfelf mafter of Libya and
Egvpt, and carried Carthage. Heraclius fued for
peace ; which was offered him on condition, That he
and his fubjeEls Jhould deny Jefus Chrijf: Hereupon
Heraclius attacked him with fuccefs, and put him to
flight. His own fon purfued him, and he was ftarved
in prifon in 627-
CHOUGH, in Ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of Corvus. See Ornithology Index.
CHOUS, in the eaftern military orders, the title
of the meffengers of the divan Janifaries. There
are feveral degrees of honour in this poll. When a
H perfon
Chorus
II
Chous.
C H R
perfon is nr(l advanced to it, he is called a kuchuk, or
little chous ; after this he is advanced to be the a//oi/
chous, that is, the meflenger of ceremonies 5 and from
this, having paffed through the office of petelma, or
procurator of the effects of the body, he is advanced to
be the has chous.
CHOWDER beer, a provincial phrafe of Devon-
fhive, denoting a cheap and eatily prepared drink,
highly commended for preventing the fcurvy in long
voyages, or for the cure of it where it may have been
contrafted. It is prepared in the following manner :
Take twelve gallons of water, in which put three
pounds and a half of black fpruce : boil it for three
hours, and having taken out the fir or fpruce, mix
with the liquor feven pounds of melaffes, and juft boil
it up ; ftrain it through a fieve, and when milk-warm
put to it about four fpoonfuls of yeaft to work it. In
two or three days flop the bung of the calk : and in
five or fix days, when fine, bottle it for drinking. Two
■gallons of melafies are fufficient for a hogfhead of li¬
quor •, but if melaffes cannot be procured, treacle or
coarfe fugar will anfwer the purpofe.
CHREMNI1 Z, the principal of the mine towns in
Upper Hungary, fituated about 68 miles north-eaft of
Prefburg, and fubjedt to the houfe of Audria. E. Long.
19. N. Lat. 48. 4^.
CHRENECRUDA, a term occurring in writers
of the middle ages, and expreffing a cuftom of thofe
tunes ; but its iignification is doubtful. It is men¬
tioned in Lege Sahcdy tit. 61. which fays, he w’ho kills
a man, and hath not wherewithal to fatisfy the law or
pay the fine, makes oath that he hath delivered up every
thing he was pofTeffed of j the truth of which muft be
confirmed by the oaths of 12 other perfons. Then he
invites his next relations by the father’s fide to pay
off the remainder of the fine, having firft made over
to them all his effects by the following ceremony. He
goes into his houfe, and taking in his hand a fmall
quantity of duft from each of the four corners, he re¬
turns to the door, and with his face inwards throws
the duft with his left hand over his flioulders upon his
neareft of kin. Whieh done, he ftrips to his ffiirt j
and coming out with a pole in his hand, jumps over
the hedge. His relations, whether one or feveral, are
upon this obliged to pay off the compofition for the
murder. And if thefe (or any one of them) are not
able to pay iterum fuper ilium chrenecruda, quipauperior
ejlyja£iat, et ille totam legem componat. Whence it ap¬
pears, that chrenecruda jaciare, is the fame with throw¬
ing the duft gathered from the four corners of the
houfe. Goldaflus and Spelman tranflate it viridem
herbum, “ green grafs,” from the German gruen kraut,
or from the Dutch groen, “ green,” and gruid, “ grafs.”
Wendelinus is of a contrary opinion, who thinks that
by this word denotam purificalionis approbationem, from
clreln, “ pure, chafte, clean $” and keuren, “ to prove j”
fo that it muft refer to the oaths of the twelve jurors.
Be this as it will, King Childebert reformed this law
by a decree, chap. 15. both becaufe it favoured of
Pagan ceremonies, and becaufe feveral perfons were
thereby obliged to make over all their effe&s : De
chrenecruda lex quam paganorum tempore obfervabant,
deinceps nunquam valeat, quia per ipfam cecidet multo-
fiim poteff.as.
CHRISM (from I anoint), oil confecrated by
[ 58 1
C H R
the biffiop, and ufed in the Romiffi and Greek churches,
in the adrniniftration of bapiifm, confirmation, ordina¬
tion, and extreme un&ion, which is prepared on holy
Thurfday with much ceremony. In Spain it wTas an¬
ciently the cuftom for the bilhop to take one-third of
a fol for the chrifm diftributed to each church, on ac¬
count of the balfam that entered its compofition.
Da Cange obferves, that there are two kinds of
chrifm ; the one prepared of oil and balfam, uftd in
baptifm, confirmation,' and ordination ; the other of
oil alone, confecrated by the bilhop, ufed anciently for
the catechumens, and ftill in extreme unflion. The
Maronites, before their reconciliation with Rome, be--
fides oil and balfam, ufed mulk, faffron, cinnamon,
rofes, white frankincenfe, and feveral other drugs men¬
tioned by Rynaldus, in 1541, with the dofes of each.
1 he Jefuit Dandini, who went to Mount Libanus in
quality of the pope’s nuncio, ordained, in a fynod held
there in 1596, that chrifm for the future ffiould be
made only of two ingredients, oil and balfam ; the
one reprefenting the human nature of Jefus Chrift, the
other his divine nature. The aflion of impofing the
chrifm is called chrifmation : this the generality of the
Romiffi divines hold to be the next matter of the facra-
ment of confirmation.
The chrifmation in baptifm is performed by the
prieft ; that in confirmation by the biffiop j that in or¬
dination, &c. b more ufually ftyled unBion.
Chrism Fence, ChrISMATIS Denarii, or CHRIS-
MALES Denarii, a tribute anciently paid to the biffiop
by the pariffi clergy, for their chrifm, confecrated at
Eafter for the enfuing year : this was afterwards con¬
demned as fimoniacal.
CHRISOM, a white garment put upon a child by
the prieft immediately after baptifm, accompanied with
this devout prayer ; “ Take this white vefture as a token
of the innocency which, by God’s grace in this holy
facrament of baptifm is given unto thee, and for a fign
whereby thou art admoniffied, fo long as theu liveft, to
give thyfelf to innocence of living, that after this tran-
fitory life thou mayeft be partaker of life everlafting-.
Amen.”
From this circumftance the white garment got the
name of chrifom, which, after being worn a few days^
was delivered to the prieft as a 1'acred depofit, to be
produced in future as an evidence againft the perfon,
fhould he be fo impious as to renounce his baptifmal
engagements. This ceremony continued in ufe for a
confiderable time after the reformation in the church of
England, which required the mother of the child, when
churched, to offer the chrifom and other cuftomary
oblations. . On pronouncing the above mentioned pray¬
er, the prieft anointed the head of the in fan!, feyirsg,
“ Almighty God, the father of our Lord Jefus Chrift,
who hath regenerated thee by water and the Holy
Ghoft, and hath given unto thee the remiffion of all
thy fins, vouchfafe to anoint thee with the unftion of
his Holy Spirit, and bring thee to the inheritance of
everlafting life. Amen.”
CHRIS I, an appellation fynonymous with MeJJiah,
ufually added to Jefus : and, together therewith, de¬
nominating the Saviour of the world. See Christi¬
anity and Messiah.
The word yjptrroi fignifies anointed, from inungo,
“ 1 anoint.” Sometimes the word Chrijl is ufed fin,
§lvs
C H R [ 59 ] C H R
Gh.'ift
gly, by way of antonomajis, to denote a perfon fent
from God, as an anointed prophet, king, or prieft.
Order of CHRIST, a military order, founded by Dio-
nyfius I. king of Portugal, to animate his nobles a-
gainft the Moors. The arms of this order are gules,
patriarchal crofs charged with another crofs argent :
they had their refidence,at firft at Caftromarin : after¬
wards they removed to the city of Thomar, as being
nearer to the Moors of Andalufia and Eftfemadura.
Christ is alfo the name of a military order in Li¬
vonia, inflituted in 1205 by Albert bifhop of Riga.
The end of this inftitution was to defend the new
Chriilians who were converted every day in Livonia,
but were perfecuted by the heathens. They wore on
their cloaks a fword with a crofs over it, whence they
Were alfo denominated brothers of the fword.
CHRIST-Burgh, a town of Poland, near the lake
Draufen, and about three Polifh miles from Marien-
burgh.
CHRIST-Church, a borough town of Hamplhire, 30
miles fouth-weft of Winchefter, near the fea-coafl. W.
Long. 2. N. Lat. 50. 40. It fends two members to
parliament.
CHRIST-Thorn. See Rhamnus, BoTAKY Index.
CHRISTIAN. See Christianity and Chris¬
tians.
Mof CHRISTIAN King, one of the titles of the for¬
mer kings of France.
The French antiquarians trace the origin of this
appellation up to Gregory the Great, who, writing a
letter to Charles Martel, occafionally gave him that
title, which his fucceflors retained.
CHRISTIAN Religion, that inflituted by Jefus ChrilL
1 See Christianity.
Origin of CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Chriftians.
ev\on. worcj js analogically derived, as other abftra&s
from their concretes, from the adjedlive Ghiriflian.
This again is derived from the name Xg.-fof, Chrifus,
from the word xqu, I anoint. Chrift is called the a-
nointed, from a cullom which extenfively prevailed in
antiquity, and was originally faid to be of divine in-
Ritution, of anointing perfons in the facerdotal or re¬
gal chara&er, as a public fignal of their confecration
to their important offices, and as a teftimony that
heaven itfelf was the guarantee of that relation which
then commenced between the perfons thus confecrated
2 and their fubordinates.
By what The difciples of Jefus, after the death of their teach-
name the er, had for fome time been called Nazarenes, from Na-
were firft zaretb in Galilee, where he dwelt j which afterwards
diftinguifli- became the defignation of a particular fe£h They,
«d. who adopted the principles and profefied the religion
which he taught, were firft diftinguifhed by the name
of Chrifians at Antioch. That profeffion, and thofe
dodlrines, we now proceed to delineate with as much
perfpicuity as the limits of our plan will admit, yet
with the concifenefs which a vTork fo multiform and
3 extenfive requires.
Delineation When a Chriftian is interrogated concerning the
»ity nftia" nature and foundation of his faith and pra£lice, his
ultimate reference, his laft appeal, is to the fads, the
dodrines, and the injundions, contained in the books
of the Old and New Teftament. From tbefe, there¬
fore, and from thefe alone, mu ft every fair account,
or the materials of which it is compofed, be extraded
or reduced. Other formularies, or conftffions of faith, Chrifb'a-
may, according to the Chriftian, deferve more or lefs rhy.
attention, as they are more or lefs immediately con- ' ' » 'f
tained or implied in the fcriptures. But whatever is
not adualiy exprtffi-d in, or reduced by fair and ne-
ceffary confequence from, thefe writings, muft be re¬
garded as merely human $ and can have no other title
to our affent and obfervation than what they derive
from ^heir conformity with the fcripture-^ with the dic¬
tates and feelings of a reformed and cultivated mind,
or with thufe meafures which are found expedient and
ufeful in human life. But as thofe books, from whence
the Chriftian inVeftigates his principles of belief and
rul es of condud, have been varioufty interpreted by
different profeffors and commentators, thefe diverfities
have given birth to a multiplicity of different feds.
It cannot, therefore, be expeded, that any one who
undertakes to give an account of Chriftianity, ffiould
comprehend all the writings and opinions which have
been propagated and exhibited by hiftorical, fyflema-
tical, or polemical authors. Thefe, if at all contained
in fuch a Work as this, ffiould be ranged under their
proper articles, whether fcientifical, controverfial, or
biographical. It is our prefent bufinefs, if poffible, to
confine ourfelves to a detail of fuch fads and dodrines
as, in the ftrid and primitive fenfe of the word, are ca¬
tholic, or, in other expreffions, to fuch as uniformly
have been, and ft ill are, recognized and admitted by
the whole body of Chriftians. ^
We have already faid that thefe, or at leaft the Account of
greateft number of them, appeal to the fcriptures of ^hriftiani-
the Old and New Teftament as the ultimate ftandard,V
the only infallible rule .of faith and manners. If youtttUU
afk them, by what authority thefe books claim an ab-
folute right to determine the confciences and under-
ftandings of men with regard to what they ffiould be¬
lieve and what they ftiould do ? They will anfwer you,
tlrat all fcripture, whether for dodrine, corredion, or
reproof, was given by immediate infpiration from
God. ^
If again you interrogate them how thofe books, The natures
which they call Scripture, are authenticated ? they re-‘ts eva-
ply, that the evidences by which the Old and New ^t,r,ces‘
Teftament are proved to be the Word of God, are
either external or internal. The external may again
be divided into dired or collateral. 'The dired evi¬
dences are fuch as arife from the nature, confiftency,
and probability, of the fads ; and from the fimplicity,
uniformity, competency, and fidelity, of the teftimonies
by which they are fupporttd. The collateral events
are either the fame occurrences fupporUd by Hea¬
then teftimonies, or others which concur with and
corroborate the hiftory of Chriftianity. Its internal
evidence arifes either from its exad conformity with
the charader of God, from its aptitude to the frame
and circumftances of man, or from thofe fupernatural
convidions and affiftances which are impreffed on the
mind by the immediate operation of the divine Spirit.
Thefe can only be mentioned in a curfory manner in
a detail fo concife as the prefent. <j
Such fads as are related in the hiftory of his reli-How Chri-
gion, the Chriftian afferts to be not only confiftent ^':in‘ty’s
each with itfelf, but likewife one with another. Hence j/
it is, that, by a feries of antecedents and confequen-
ces, they corroborate each other, and form a chain
H 2 -which
C H R ‘f <5° ] C H R
Clirilia- "wliicli cannot be broken but by an abfolute fubver-
nity. fion of all hiftorical authenticity. Nor is this all : for,
 1 according to him, the fads on which Chrittianity is
founded, not only conftitute a feries of themfelves,
but are likewife in feveral periods the belt resources
for fupplving the chafms in the hiftory of our nature,
and preserving the tenor of its annals entire. The
fafts themfelves are either natural or fupernatural.
By natural fa&s we mean fuch occurrences as happen
or may happen from the various operations of mecha¬
nical powers, or from the interpofition of natural a-
gents without higher afliflants. Such are all the com¬
mon occurrences of biftory, whether natural, biogra¬
phical, or civil. By fupernatural fafls, we mean fuch
as could not have been produced without the interpo¬
fition of Deity, or at lead of powers fuperior to the
laws of mechanifm or the agency of embodied fpirits.
Among thefe may be reckoned the immediate change
of water into wine, the inftantaneous cure of difeafes
-without the intervention of medicine, the refufeitation
of the dead, and others of the fame kind. In this or¬
der of occurrences may likewife be numbered the ex¬
ertions and exhibitions of prophetic power, where the
perfons by whom thefe extraordinary talents were dif-
played could neither by penetration nor conjefture un¬
ravel the mazes of futurity, and trace the events of
which they fpoke from their primary caufes to their
remote completions. So that they muft have been the
paflive organs of fome fuperior Being, to whom the
whole concatenation of caufes and effe&s which ope¬
rate from the origin to the confummation of nature,
7 was obvious at a glance of thought.
Natural It has already been hinted, that the fa&s which we
and how*31’ ^aV6 ca^e<^ natt*ral, not only agree with the analogy
conducive ^uman events, and corroborate each other, but in
to the elu- a great many emergencies nobly illuftrate the hifiory
cidatiou of of nature in general. For this a Chriftian might offer
•biftory. one'mfiance, of which pbilofophy will not perhaps be
able to produce any tolerable folution, without having
recourfe to the fads upon which Chrifiianity is found¬
ed. For if mankind were originally defeended from
one pair alone, how ftiould it have happened that long
before the date of authentic hiftory every nation had
its own diftimfi language ? Or, if it be fuppofed, as
fome late philofophers have maintained, that man is
an indigenous animal iji every country ; or, that he
was originally produced in, and created for, each par¬
ticular foil and climate which he inhabits j ftill it may
be demanded, whence the prodigious multiplicity, the
immenfe diverfity of languages ? Is the language of
every nation intuitive, or were they dictated by exi¬
gences, and eftabliftied by convention ? If the laft of
thefe fuppofitions be true, what an immenfe period of
time muft have paffed l How many revolutions of
material and intelle£hial nature muft have happened ,r
What acceflions of knowledge, refinement, civiliza¬
tion, muft human intercourfe have gained before the
formation and eftablilhment even of the moft fimple,
imperfeft, and barbarous language ! Why is a period
fo vaft obliterated fo entirely as to efcape the retrofpeft
of hiftory, or tradition, and even of fable itfelf ? Why
was the acquifition and improvement of other arts fo
infinitely diftant from that of language, that the era of
the latter is entirely loft, whilft we can trace the for-
4
mer from their origin through the various gradations of chriftia-
their pregrefs. nity.
Thefe difficulties, inextricable by all the lights of ——'
hiftory or pbilofophy, this more than Cimmerian ^ar^* q-his obfeu
nefs, is immediately diflipated by the Mofaic account rjty jnex. *
of the confufion of tongues ; wifely intended to fepa- phcable
rate the tribes of men one from another, to replenith but by the
the furface of the globe, and to give its multiplied in- Mofaic ac*
habitants thofe opportunities of improvement which C0Unt‘
might be derived from experiment and induftry, va-
rioufly exerted, according to the different fituations in
which they were placed, and the different employ¬
ments which thefe fituations dilated. Thus the time
of nature’s exiftence is limited to a period within the
ken of human intelleft. Thus whatever has happen¬
ed might have happened during the prefent mode of
things •, whereas, it we deduce the origin and diverfity
of language from a period fo remotely diftant as to be
abfolutely loft, and entirely detached from all the
known occurrences and viciffitudes of time, we muft
admit the prefent forms and arrangements of things
to have fubfitted perhaps for a much longer duration
than any mechanical philofopher will allow to be pof-
fible. Other inftances equally pregnant with convic¬
tion might be multiplied ; but precluded by the limits
of our plan, we proceed to a Angle obfervation upon the
fafts which have been termed fupernatural.
Of thofe changes which happen in fenfible objeds,
fenfation alone can be judge. Reafon has nothing to how con-*
do in the matter. She may draw conclufions from^uc>veto
the teftimonies of fenfe, but can never refute them.prcve tl5®
If, therefore, our fenfes inform us that fnow is white, chriftiani-
in vain would the moft learned and fubtile philofopher ty.
endeavour to convince us, that it was of a contrary
colour. He might confound, but never could per-
fuade us. Such changes, therefore, as appear to hap¬
pen in fenfible objefts, muft either be real or fallaci¬
ous. If real, the miracle is admitted ; if fallacious,
there muft be a caufe of deception equally unaccount¬
able from the powers of nature, and therefore equally
miraculous. If the veracity or competency of the
witneffes be queftioned, the Chriftian anfwers, that
they muft be competent, becaufe the fafts which they
relate are not beyond their capacity to determine.
They muft likewife be faithful, becaufe they had no
fecular motives for maintaining, but many for fuppref-
fing or difguifing, what they teftified. Now the Chrif¬
tian appeals to the whole feries of hiftory and expe¬
rience, whether fuch a man is or can be found, as will
offer a voluntary, folemn, and deliberate facrifice of Ia
truth at the ftirine of caprice. But fuch fads as after Prophecy
a long continuance of time have been found exaflly evident by
agreeable to predifb'ons formerly emitted, muft fu_itsownna-
perfede the fidelity of teftimony, and infallibly prove
that the event was known to the Being by whom hits vehi-
was foretold. ^ In vain it has been urged, that prophe-cle*.
cies are ambiguous and equivocal. For though they
may prefigure fubordinate events, yet if the grand oc¬
currences to which they ultimately relate, can alone
fulfil them in their various circumftances, and in their
utmoft extent, it is plain, that the Being by whom
they were revealed muft have been a&ually prefeient
of tbofe events, and muft have had them in view when
the. prediaions were uttered. For this fee a learned
and
Chriftia-
nity.
II
Properties
ia
Chriftian
theology.
1
C H R [
and ingenious Diflertation on the Credibility of Gof-
pel-hiftory, by Dr M‘Knight 5 where the evidences
urged by the Chriftian in defence of his tenets, which
appear detached and fcattered through innumerable
volumes, are aflembled and arranged in fuch a manner
as to derive ftrength and luftre from the method in
which they are difpofed, without diminiftiing the force
of each in particular. See alfo the works of Dr Hurd :
confult likewife thofe of Newton, Sherlock, Chandler,
&c. For the evidences of thofe preternatural fads
wdftch have been termed miracles, the reader may per-
ufe a (hort but elegant and conclufive defence of thefe
aftoniftiing phenomena, in anfwer to Mr Hume, by the
Rev. George Campbell, D. D.
It muft be obvious to every refle&ing mind, that
common to whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion
all rehgi- ^ priori, or contemplate thofe which have been already
exhibited, certain fa&s, principles, or data, muft be pre-
eftabliftied, from whence will refult a particular frame
of mind and courfe of aftion fuitable to the charadler
and dignity of that being by whom the religion is en¬
joined, and adapted to the nature and fituation of thofe
agents who are commanded to obferve it. Hence
Chriflianity may be divided into credenda or do&rines,
and agenda or precepts.
As the great foundation of his religion, therefore,
the Chriftian believes the exiftence and government
of one eternal and infinite Eftence, which for ever re¬
tains in itfelf the caufe of its own exiftence, and inhe¬
rently polTefleS all thofe perfections which are com¬
patible with its nature j fuch are, its almighty power,
omnifeient wifdom, infinite juftice, boundlefs good-
nefs, and univerfal prefence. In this indivifible ef-
fence the Chriftian recognifes three diftinfl fubfift-
ences, yet diftinguifhed in fuch a manner as not to be
incompatible with effential unity or fimplicity of be¬
ing. Nor is their eflential union compatible with
their perfonal diftinClion. Each of them pofltfles the
fame nature and properties to the fame extent. As,
therefore, they are conftituents of one God, if we may
ufe the expreffion, there is none of them fubordinate,
none fupreme. The only way by which the Chriftian
can diferiminate them is, by their various relations,
properties, and offices. Thus the Father is faid eter¬
nally to beget the Son, the Son to be eternally begot¬
ten of the Father, and the Holy Ghoft eternally to
proceed from both.
This infinite Being, though abfolutely independent
and for ever fufficient for his own beatitude, was gra-
cioufly pleafed to create an univerfe replete with in¬
ferior intelligences, who might for ever contemplate
and enjoy his glory, participate his happinefs, and imi¬
tate his perfeCfions. But as freedom of will is eflen¬
tial to the nature of moral agents, that they may co¬
operate with God in their own improvement and hap¬
pinefs, fo their natures and powers are neceflarily li¬
mited, and by that conftitution rendered peccable.
This degeneracy firft took place in a rank of intelli¬
gence fuperior to man. But guilt is never ftationarv.
Impatient in itfelf, and curfed with its own feelings, it
proceeds from bad to worfe, whilft the poignancy of
its torments increafes with the number of its perpe¬
trations. Such was the fituation of Satan and his
apoftate angels. They attempted to transfer their tur¬
pitude and mifery to man; and were, alas I but too
61 ] C H R
fuccefsful. Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcile- chriftia-
able principles which operate in his nature. Hence rnty.
that inexplicable medley of wifdom and folly, of rec-
titude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of
fincerity and fraud, exhibited through his whole con-
du<ft. Hence the darknefs of his underftanding, the
depravity of his will, the pollution of his heart, the ir¬
regularity of his affedtions, and the abfolute fubverfion
of his whole internal economy. Thefe feeds , of per¬
dition foon ripened into overt a£ts of guilt and horror.
All the hoftilities of nature were confronted, and the
whole fublunary creation became a theatre of diforder
and mifehief.
Here the Chriftian once more appeals to fa<ft and
experience. If thefe things are fo j if man is the
veffel of guilt and the vitftim of mifery ; he demands
how this conftitution of things can be accounted for ?
how can it be fuppofed, that a being fo wicked and
unhappy ftiould be the produ£lion of an infinitely per-
fe6t Creator ? He therefore infills, that human nature
muft have been difarranged and contaminated by fome
violent fhock j and that, of confequence, without the
light diflfufed over the face of things by Chriftianity,
all nature muft remain an infcrutable and inexplicable
myftery.
To redrefs thefe evils, to re-eftablilh the empire of
virtue and happinefs, to rtftore the nature of man
to its primitive redlitude, to falisfy the remonftran-
ces of infinite juftice, to purify every original or con-
traded ftain, to expiate the guilt and deftroy the
power of vice, the eternal Son of God, the fecond
Perfon of the facred Trinity, the Logos or Divine
Word, the Redeemer or Saviour of the world, the
Immanuel or God with us, from whom Chriftianity
takes its name, and to whom it owes its origin, de-
feended from the befom of his Father ; aflumed the
human nature ; became the reprefentative of man ;
endured a fevere probation in that charader 5 exhibit¬
ed a pattern of perfed righteoufnefs 5 and at laft ra¬
tified his dodrine, and fully accompliftied all the ends
of his million, by a cruel, unmerited, and ignominious
death. Before he left this world, he delivered the
dodrine of human falvation, and the rules of human
condud, to his apoftles, whom he empowered to in-
ftrud the world in all that concerns their eternal fe¬
licity, and whom he invefted with miraculous gifts to
afeertain the reality of what they taught. To them
he likewife promifed another comforter, even the Di¬
vine Spirit, who Ihould relume the darknefs, confole
the woes, and purify the ftains, of human nature. Ha¬
ving remained for a part of three days under the power
of death, he rofe again from the grave, difeovered him-
felf to his difciples, converfed with them for fome time,
then afeended to heaven ; from whence the Chriftian
expeds him, according to his promife, to appear as
the Sovereign Judge of the living and the dead, from
whofe awards there is no appeal, and by whofe fentenee
the deftiny of the pious and the wicked lhall be eter¬
nally fixed.
Soon after his departure to the right hand of his
Father, where, in his human nature, he fits fupreme
of all created beings, and invefted with the abfolute
adminiftration of heaven and earth, the Spirit of grace
and confolation defeended on his apoftles with vifible
fignatures of divine power and prefence. Nor were
his
G H R [ 62
eiiriftia- his falutary operations confined to them, but extend-
, nity- ed to all the rational world, who did not by obftinate
repel his influence, and provoke him to with¬
draw them. Thefe, indeed, were lefs confpicuous
than at the glorious era when they were vifibly exhi¬
bited in the perfons of the apoftles } but though his
energy is lefs obfervable, it is by no means lefs effeftual
to all the purpofes of grace and mercy.
The Chriftian is convinced, that there is and fhall
continue to be a fociety upon earth, who worthip God
as revealed in jefus Chrift j who believe his doftrines j
who obferve his precepts j and who {hall be faved by
his death, and by the ufe of thefe external means of fal-
13 vation which he hath appointed.
The exter- Thefe are few and Ample. The facraments of bap-
ofchrlftia- t^m an^ ^ eucharift> the interpretation and appli-
nity, what, eat*on °f fcripture, the habitual exercife of public
and how and private devotion, are obvioufly calculated to dif-
promotive fufe and promote the interefts of truth and virtue, by
»ndheir Superinducing the falutary habits of faith, love, and re-
n * pentance.
The Chriftian is firmly perfuaded, that at the con-*
fummation of things, when the purpofes of providence
in the various revolutions of progreffive nature are
accomplilhed, the whole human race (hall once more
blue from their graves; fome to immortal felicity,
from the aflual perception and enjoyment of their
Creator’s prefence j others to everlafting fliame and
mifery.
It is worthy of obfervation, that all who profefs to
believe, the Chriftian fyftem, do not fubfcribe to the
truth of everlafting mifery. They conceive it impof-
lible that a good and merciful being could create in¬
numerable intelligences with a view to make them
eternally wretched, elfe they apprehend that exiftence
would be a curfe and not a bleffing ; and that although
man, by being created free, becomes amenable to God
for his condufl, yet they contend that this God muft
have feen from eternity what ufe man would make of
his free agency, and have devifed the moft effe&ual
means for counterafling the evils refulting from moral
depravity, and refolved to bring final and eternal
good out of all the evil which now does, or which in
future may exift. Finally, they deny that any epithet
applied to the miferies of a future ftate denotes dura¬
tion without end, and they alfert that all the judge¬
ments infli&ed on nations and individuals here upon
earth, are manifeftly the ehaftifements of a father for
the recovery of delinquents, in which light they alfo
confider the punilhments to be infli&ed in the world
to come. It is our province to give a candid ftatement
of both fides of a queftion, leaving it to our readers to
T4 form a judgment for themfdves.
Chriftian The two grand principles of adlion, according to
morality, the Chriftian, are, The love of God, which is the fove-
reign paflion in every perfeft mind j and the love of
man, which regulates our actions according to the va¬
rious relations in which we ftand, whether to commu¬
nities or individuals. This facred conne&ion can ne¬
ver be totally extinguilhed by any temporary injury.
It ought to fubfift in fome degree even amongft ene¬
mies. It requires that we fhould pardon the offences
of others, as we expeft pardon for our own j and that
we fhould no farther refill evil than is neceffary for the
. prefervation of perfonal rights and focial happinefs.
] C H R
It didlates every relative and reciprocal duty between Chnftia»
parents and children, mailers and fervants, governors o^y.
and fubjt-61s, friends and friends, men and men. Nor v
does it merely enjoin the obftrvation of equity, but
likewife infpires the moll fublime and extenfive charity,
a boundlefs and difinterefted effufion of tendernefs for
the whole fpecies, which feels their diftrefs and ope¬
rates for their relief and improvement. Thefe celeftial
difpofitions, and the different duties which are their
natural exertions, are the various gradations by which
the-Chriftian hopes to attain the perfection of his na¬
ture and the moll exquifite happinefs of which it is
fufceptibki
Such are the fpeculative, and fuch the practical xhis^yf-
principles of Chrillianity. From the former, its vo- tem aflert-
taries contend, that the origin, economy, and revolu-ed by the
tions of intelligent nature alone can be rationally ex- Chriftian,
plained. From the latter they alfert, that the na-[heeexcel-
ture of man, whether confidered in its individual or ienCe 0t its
focial capacity, can alone be conducted to its higbeft nature, and
perfection and happinefs. With the determined A-the evi_ .
theifts they fcarcely deign to expoftulate. For, oftJ)ts
cording to them, philofophers who can deduce the ^11 others,
origin and conftitution of things from cafual rencoun¬
ters or mechanical necelfity, are capable of deducing
any conclufion from any premifes. Nor can a more
glaring inltance of abfurdity be produced, than the
idea of a contingent or felf-originated univerfe. When
Dei Its and other feClarians upbraid them with mylte-
rious or incompatible principles, they without hefita-
tion remit fuch cavillers to the creed of natural re¬
ligion. They demand why any reafoner fliould re-
fufe to believe three diftinft fubltances in one indivi-
fible elfence, who admits that a being may be omni-
prefent without extenfion ; or that he can imprefs
motion upon other things, whilft he himfelf is necef-
farily immoveable. They alk the fage, why it Ibould
be thought more extraordinary, that the Son of God
Ihould be fent to this world, that he Ihould unite the
human nature to his own, that he Ihould fuflfer and die
for the relief of his degenerate creatures, than that an
exiftence whofe felicity is eternal, inherent, and in¬
finite, Ihould have any motive for creating beings ex¬
terior to himfelf > Is it not, fays the Chriltian, equal¬
ly worthy of the divine interpofition to rcftore order
and happinefs where they are loft, as to communicate
them where they never have been ? Is not infinite
goodnefs equally confpicuous in relieving mifery as in
diffufing happinefs ? Is not the exiftence of what we
call evil in the world, under the tuition of an infinite¬
ly perfect Being, as infcrutable as the means exhibited
by Chriftianity for its abolition ? Vicarious punilb-
ment, imputed guilt and righteoufnefs, merit or de¬
merit transferred, are certainly not lefs reconcileable
to human reafon, a priori, than the exiftence of vice
and punilhment in the productions of infinite wifdom,
power, and goodnefs: particularly when it is con¬
fidered, that the virtues exerted and difplayed by a
perfeft Being in a Hate of humiliation and fuffering,
muft be meritorious, and may therefore be rewarded
by the reftored felicity of inferior creatures in propor¬
tion to their glory and excellence 5 and that fuch me¬
rit may apply (he blelfings which it has defervcd, in
whatever manner, in whatever degree, and to whom-
foever it pleafes, without being under any necefiity to
violate
e h r
Chriftia- violate the freedom of moral agents, in recalling them
mty. to the paths of virtue and happinefs by a mechanical
* ■ ancJ irrefiltible force.
Miracu- ^ granted to philofophy by the Chrillian,
lous as pof- that as no theory of mechanical nature can be formed
[ 63 1
C H R
fib!e, ■tnd
perhaps as
neceffary,
as natural
events.
without prefuppofing facred and eltablithed laws from
which file ought rarely if ever to deviate, fo in fad
ftie tenacioufly purfues thefe general inftitutions, and
from their con 11 ant obfervance refult the order and
regularity of things. But he cannot admit, that the
• important ends of moral and intelledual improvement
may be uniformly obtained by the fame means. He
affirms, that it the hand of God ffiould either remain
always entirely invitible, or at lead only perceptible
in the operation of fecond caufes, intelligent beings
would be apt in the courfe of time to refolve the inter-
pofitions of Deity into the general laws of mechanifm $
to forget his connexion with nature, and confequently
their dependence upon him. Hence, according to the
didates of common fenfe, and to the unanimous voice
of every religion in every age or clime, for the pur-
pofes of wifdom and benevolence, God may not only
controul, but has adually controuled, the common
courfe and general operations of nature. So that, as in
the material world the law of cavfe and ej}e£l \s general¬
ly and fcrupuloufly obferved for the purpofes of natu¬
ral fubfiftence and accommodation: thus fufpenfes
and changes of that univerfal law are equally neceflary
for the advancement of moral and intelledual perfec-
I7 tion.
Chriftiani- But the difciple of Jefus not only contends, that no
ty not only fyftem of religion has ever yet been exhibited fo con-
the^heno fiftent with congruous to philofophy and the
mena. but co.mmon mankind, as Chriftianity ; he like-
confoles wife avers that it is infinitely more produddve of real
the mife- and fenfible confolation than any other religious or
nesofhu- philofophical tenets, which have ever entered into the
ture.na* fou1’ or keen applied to the heart of man. For what
is death to that mind which confiders eternity as the
career of its exiftence ? WFat are the frowns of for¬
tune to him who claims an eternal world as his inhe¬
ritance ? What is the lofs of friends to that heart
which feels, with more than natural convidion, that
it ffiall quickly rejoin them in a more tender, intimate,
and permanent intercourfe than any of which the pre-
fent life is fufceptible ? What are the fluduations and
viciffitudes of external things to a mind which ftrongly
and uniformly anticipates a ftate of endlefs and immu¬
table felicity ? What are mortifications, difappoint-
ments, and inluits, to a fpirit which is conlcious of be¬
ing the original offspring and adopted child of God ;
which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in pro¬
per^ time, effeduaily affert the dignity and privileges
of its nature ? In a word, as earth is but a fpeck of
creation, as time is not an inftant in proportion to
eternity, fuch are the hopes and profpeds of the Chri-
fiian in comparifon of every fublunary misfortune or
difficulty. It is therefore, in his judgment, the eternal
wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man-,
that a religion fo worthy of God, fo fuitable to the
frame and circumlfances of our nature, fo confonant
to all the didates of reafon, fo friendly to the dignity
and improvement of intelligent beings, pregnant with
genuine comfort and delight, fhould be rejeded and
deipifed. Were there a poflibility of fufpenfe or hefi-
tation between this and any other religion extant, he Chriftia-
could freely truft the determination of a queftion fo nity.
important to the candid decifion of real virtue and im-
partial philofophy.
It mud be allowed that the utmoft extent of human
inveftigation and refearch into the dodrine of a future
life, reached no farther than fplendid conjedure before
the promulgation of Chriftianity, at which period life
and immortality were clearly brought to light. It is
therefore a fingular circumftance that the deift fhould
not perceive the wonderful fuperiority of the Chriftian
over every other fyftem, if it had nothing elfe to boaft;
of but this fingle dodrine, fo pregnant with unalloyed
felicity. If Chriftianity be falfe, the believer of it
has nothing to lofe, fince it inculcates a mode of con-
dud which muft ever be amiable in the eye of infinite
goodnefs; but if it be true, he has every thing to gain :
while upon this hypothefis the deift has every thing to
lofe and nothing to gain. This is a momentous con-
fideration, and that man muft; be truly infatuated who
can treat fuch an idea with contempt.
Mr Gibbon, in his Hiftory of the Decline and Fall Mr ^b_
of the Roman Empire, mentions five fecondary caufes bon at-
to which he thinks the propagation of Chriftianity, tempts to
and all the remarkable circumftances which attended Prove>that
it, may with good reafon be aferibed. He feems tol1't^of~
infinuate, that Divine Providence did not a£i in a fin-ohriftiani-
guiar or extraordinary manner in diffeminating thetywasow-
religion of Jefus through the world ; and that, if every inS t0 cau-
other argument which has been adduced to prove the
facred authority of this religion can be parried or re-JioV'of™
futed, nothing can be deduced from this fource to pre- which no
vent it from (haring the fame fate with other fyftems argument*
of fuperftition. The caufes of its propagation w’ere in\an k,e.^e"
his opinion founded on the principles of human nature proof ofits
and the circumftances of fociety. If we aferibe not authenti«
the propagation of Mahometilm, or of the doflrines c‘ty*
of Zerduft, to an extraordinary interpofition of Divine
Providence, operating by an unperceived influence on
the difpofitions of tire human heart, and controuling
and confounding the ordinary laws of nature $ neither
can we, upon any reafonable grounds, refer the promul¬
gation of Chriftianity to fuch an interpofition.
The fecondary caufes to which he aferibes thefe ef-
fe£ls are, 1. I he inflexible and intolerant zeal of the (^e cau“
Chriftians j derived from the Jewifti religion, but pu¬
rified from the narrow and unfocial fpirit which, in-
ftead of inviting, deterred the Gentiles from embracing
the law of Mofes. 2. The do&rine of a future life, im¬
proved by every additional circumftance which could
give weight and efficacy to that important truth.
3. The miraculous powers aferibed to the primitive
church. 4. The pure and auftere morals of the Chri-
ftians. 5. The union and difeipline of the Chriftian
republic, which gradually formed an independent and
increafing ftate in the heart of the Roman empire.
Before we enter on the examination of Mr Gibbon’s
caufes in the order in which they are here enumerated
we beg leave to remark, that we cannot perceive the
propriety of denominating fome of thefe fecondary
caufes, fince the miraculous powers aferibed to the pri¬
mitive church, if they were real, muft have conftituted
a primary caufe, and if fallacious, could have been no
caufe at all, if not of its complete fubverfion. As lit¬
tle can we conceive how fuch an elegant and learned
author,.
e H R [ 64 ] C H R
C.hriftla- author could imagine a zeal ftri&ly and properly in*
drxible and intolerant, as qualified to produce any
v ' other effeft than the deftruftion of the fyftem which
they are allowed to have been anxious to promote.
But our fentiment of thefe caufes afligned by Mr Gib¬
bon will be more fully developed as we proceed in our
20 candid and impartial examination of them.
Caufe I. In pointing out the connexion between the JirJl of
? thefe caufes and the effefls which he reprefents as ari-
Jing from it, this learned and ingenious writer obferves,
that the religion of the Jews does not feem to have
been intended to be propagated among the Heathens,
and that the converfion of profdytes was rather acci¬
dental than confident with the purport of the general
fpirit of the inftitutions of Judaifm. The Jews were,
of confequence, ftudious to preferve themfelves a pecu¬
liar people. 'I heir zeal for their own religion was in¬
tolerant, narrow, and unfocial.
In Chriftianity, when it made its appearance in the
'world, all the better part of the predominant fpirit of
Judaifm was retained; but whatever might have a
tendency to confine its influence within narrow limits
was laid afide. Chriilians were to maintain the doc¬
trines and adhere to the conftitutions of their religion
with facred fidelity. They were not to violate their
allegiance to Jefus by entertaining or profefling any
reverence for Jupiter or any other of the Heathen
deities; it was not even neceffary for them to comply
with the pofitive and ceremonial inftitutions of the
law of Mofes,—although thefe were acknowledged to
have been of divine origin. The zeal, therefore, which
their religion inculcated, was inflexible. It was even
intolerant: for they were not to content themfelves
with profefling Chriftianity and conforming to its
laws; they were to labour with unremitting afliduity,
and to expofe themfelves to every difficulty and every
danger, in converting others to the fame faith.
But the fame circumftances which rendered it thus
intolerant, communicated to it a more liberal and a
lefs unfocial fpirit than that of Judaifm. The religion
of the Jews was intended only for the few tribes; Chri¬
ftianity was to become a catholic religion ; its advan¬
tages were to be offered to all mankind.
All the different fefts which arofe among the pri¬
mitive Chriftians uniformly maintained the fame zeal
for the propagation of their own religion, and the fame
abhorrence for every other. The orthodox, the Ebi-
r unites, the Gnoftics, were all equally animated with
■the fame exclufive zeal, and the fame abhorrence of
:idolatry, which had diftinguiftied the Jews from other
21 nations.
Obferva- Such is the general purport of what Mr Gibbon ad-
tions in an- vances concerning the influence of the firft of thofe fe-
lwer’ condary caufes in the propagation of Chriftianity. It
would be uncandid to deny, that his ftatement of faffs
appears to be, in this inftance, almoft fair, and his de¬
ductions tolerably logical. The firft Chriftians were
remarkable for their deteftation of idolatry, and for
the generous difinterefted zeal with which they labour¬
ed to convert others to the fame faith. The firft of
thefe principles, no doubt, contributed to maintain the
dignity and purity of Chriftianity ; and the fecond
to diffeminate it through the world. But the faffs
which he relates are fcarce confiflent throughout. He
feems to reprefent the zeal of the firft Chriftians as fo
hot and intolerant, that they could have no focial inter-
courfe with thofe who ftill adhered to the worlhip of
Heathen deities. In this cafe, how could they propa¬
gate their religion l Nay, we may even alk, How
could they live ? If they could not mingle with the
Heathens in the tranfaffions either of peace or war ;
nor witnefs the marriage or the funeral of the deareft
friend, if a heathen ; nor praffife the elegant arts of
mufic, painting, eloquence, or poetry ; nor venture to
ufe freely in converfation the language of Greece or of
Rome ;—it is not eafy to fee what opportunities they
could have of difleminating their religious fentiments.
If, in fuch circumftances, and obferving rigidly fuch
a tenor of conduff, they were yet able to propagate
their religion with fuch amazing fuccefs as they are
faid to have done ; they mult furely either have prac-
tifed fome wondrous arts unknown to us, or have
been aflifted by the fupernatural operation of divine
Chriftia¬
nity.
power.
But all the hiftorical records of that period, whether
facred or profane, concur to prove, that the primitive
Chriftians in general did not retire with fuch religious
horror from all intercourfe with the Heathens. They
refufed not to ferve in the armies of the Roman em¬
pire : they appealed to Heathen magiftrates, and fub-
mitted refpe&fully to their decifion ; the hulhand was
often a Heathen, and the wife a Chrittian ; or, again,
the hufband a Chriftian, and the wife a Heathen.
Thefe are fads fo univerfally known and believed, that
we need not quote authorities in proof of them.
This refpedable writer appears therefore not to
have ftated the fads wMeh he produces under this head
with fufficient ingenuoufnefs; and he has taken care to
exaggerate and improve thofe which he thinks ufeful
to his purpofe with all the dazzling and delufive colours
of eloquence.- But had the zeal of the firft Chriftians
been fo intolerant as he reprefen ts it, it muft have
been, highly unfavourable to the propagation of their
religion : all their withes to make converts would, in
that cafe, have been counteraded by their unwilling-
nefs to mix in the ordinary intercourfe of life, with
thofe who were to be converted. Their zeal and the
liberal fpirit of their religion, were indeed fecondary
caufes which contributed to its propagation : but their
zeal was by no means fo ridiculoufly intoierant as this
writer would have us believe ; if it had, it muft have
produced effeds diredly oppofite to thofe which he
afcribes to it.
In illuftrating the influence of the fecond of thefe fe- Caufe II.
condary caufes to which he afcribes the propagation of
Chriftianity, Mr Gibbon difplays no lefs ingenuity than
in tracing the nature and the effeds of the firft. The
dodrine of a future life, improved by every additional
circumftance which can give weight and efficacy to that
important truth, makes a confpfcuous figure in the
Chriftian fyftem ; and it is a dodrine highly flattering
to the natural hopes and wifhes of the human heart.
Though the Heathen philofophers wertypot unac¬
quainted with this dodrine; yet to them the-fpiritu-
ality of the human foul, its capacity of exiftence in a
feparate ftate from the body, its immortality, and its
profped of lafting happinefs in a future life, rather
appeared things poffible and defirable, than truths
fully eftablidled upon folid grounds. Thefe dodrines,
Mr Gibbon would perfuade us, had no influence on
the
C H R
Chriftia
nity.
[ 65
the moral fentiments and general conduct of the Hea¬
thens. Even the philofophers, who amufed themfelves
with difplaying their eloquence and ingenuity on thofe
fplendid themes, did not allow them to influence the
tenor of their lives. The great body of the people,
who were occupied in purfuits very different from the
fpeculations of philofophy, and were unacquainted with
the queftions difcufled in the fchools, were fcarce ever
at pains to refleft whether they confifted of a material
and a fpiritual part, or whether their exiftence was to
be prolonged beyond the term of the prefent life j and
they could not regulate their lives by principles which
they did not know.
In the popular fuperftition of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, the do£lrine of a future ftate was not omitted.
Mankind were not only flattered with the hopes of
'continuing to exift beyond the term of the prefent
life •, but different conditions of exiftence were promi-
fed or threatened, in which retributions for their con-
duff in human life vvere to be enjoyed or fuffered.
Some were exalted to heaven, and affociated with the
gods j others were rewarded with lefs illuftrious ho¬
nours, and a more moderate ftate of happinefs, in
Elyfium ; and thofe, again, who by their eondudl in
life had not merited rewards, but punifhments, were
configned to Tartarus. Such were the ideas of a fu¬
ture ftate which made a part of the popular fuperfti¬
tion of the Greeks and Romans. But they produced
only a very faint impreflion on the minds of thofe
among whom they prevailed. They were not truths
fupported by evidence ; they were not even plaufible;
they were a tiffue of abfurdities. They had not there¬
fore a more powerful influence on the morals, than
the more refined fpeculations of the philofophers.
Even the Jews, whofe religion and legiflature were
communicated from heaven, were in general, till with¬
in a very (hort time before the propagation of the go-
fpel, as imperfeftly acquainted with the doflrine of a
future ftate as the Greeks and Romans. This doflrine
made no part of the law of Mofes. It is but darkly
and doubtfully inlinuated through the other parts of
the Old Teftament. Thofe among the Jew's who
treated the facred Scriptures with the higheft reve¬
rence, always denied that fuch a doftrine could be de¬
duced from any thing which thefe taught j and main¬
tained that death is the final diffolution of man.
The rude tribes who inhabited ancient Gaul, and
fome other nations not more civilized than they, en¬
tertained ideas of a future life, much clearer than
thofe of the Greeks, the Romans, or the Jews.
Chriftianity, however, explained and inculcated the
truth of this doffrine in all its fplendour and all its
dignity. It exhibited an alluring, yet not abfurd, view
of the happinefs of a future life. It conferred new hor¬
rors on the place of punilhment, and added new feve-
rity to the tortures to be inflifted, in another world.
The authority on which it taught thofe do&rines, and
difplayed thefe views, was fuch as to filence inquiry and
doubt, and to command implicit belief. What added
to the influence of the doftrine of a future ftate of ex¬
iftence, thus explained and inculcated, was, that the
firft Chriftians confidently prophefied and fincerely be¬
lieved that the end of the world, the confuramation of
all things, wras faft approaching, and that the genera¬
tion then prefent fliould live to witnefs that awful
Vol. VI. Part I.
Chriftia¬
nity.
l 23
the Obferva-
C H R
event. Another circumftance which contributed to
render the fame doftrine fo favourable to the propaga¬
tion of Chriftianity was that the firft Chriftians dealt
damnation without remorfe, and almoft without making
any exceptions, on all who died in the belief of the
abfurdities of Heathen fuperftition. Thus taught, and
improved with thefe additional and heightened cir-
cumftances, this doftrine, partly by prefenting allur¬
ing profpefts and exciting pleafing hopes, partly by
working upon the fears of the human heart with re-
prefentations of terror, operated in the moft powerful
manner in extending the influence of the Chriftian
faith.
Here, too, fafts are rather exaggerated, and
inferences fcarce fairly deduced. It muft be confeffed tions in at!-
that the fpeculations of the Heathen philofophers did^wer*
not fully and undeniably eftablilh the doftrine of the
immortality of the human foul 5 nor can we prefume to
affert, in contradiftion to Mr Gibbon, that their argu¬
ments could imprefs fuch a conviftion of this truth as
might influence in a very ftrong degree the moral fen¬
timents and conduft. They muft, however, have pro¬
duced fome influence on thefe. Some of the moft il¬
luftrious among the Heathen philofophers appear to
have been fo ftrongly impreffed with the belief of the
foul’s immortality, and of a future ftate of retribution,
that their general conduft was conftantly and in a high
degree influenced by that belief. Plato and Socrates
are eminent and well known inftances. And if, in
fuch inftances as thefe, the belief of thefe truths pro¬
duced fuch confpicuous effefts, it might be fairly in¬
ferred, though we had no further evidence, that thofe
charafters were far from being Angular in this refpeft.
It is a truth acknowledged as unqueftionable in the hi-
ftory of arts and fciences, that wherever any one per-
fon has cultivated thefe with extraordinary fuccefs,
fome among his contemporaries will always be found
to have rivalled his excellence, and a number of them
to have been engaged in the fame purfuits. On this
occafion we may venture, without hefitation, to reafon
upon the fame principles. When the belief of the im¬
mortality of the human foul produced fuch illuftrious
patterns of virtue as a Plato and a Socrates, it muft
certainly have influenced the moral fentiments and con¬
duft of many others, although in an inferior degree.
We fpeculate, we doubt, concerning the truth of ma¬
ny doftrines of Chriftianity j many who profefs that
they believe them, make this profeflion only becaufe
they have never confidered ferioufly whether they be
true or falfe. But, notwithftanding this, thefe truths
ftill exert a powerful influence on the fentiments and
manners of fociety in general. Thus, alfo, it appears
that the doftrines of ancient philofophy concerning a
future life, and even the notions concerning Olympus,
Elyfium, and Tartarus, which made a part of the po¬
pular fuperftition, did produce a certain influence on
the lentiments and manners of the Heathens in gene¬
ral. That influence was often indeed inconfiderable,
and not always happy ; but ftill it was fomewhat
greater than Mr Gibbon feems willing to allow. Chri¬
ftians have been fometimes at pains to exaggerate the
abfurdities of Pagan fuperftition, in order that the ad¬
vantages of Chriftianity might acquire new value from
being contrafted with it. Here we find one who is ra¬
ther difpofed to be the enemy of Chriftianity, difplay-
lng
C H R [ 66 ] C H R
Ghriftia- ing, and even exaggerating, thofe abfurdities for a very
nity- different purpofe. But the truth may be fafely admit-
* '' ted ; it is only when exaggerated that it can ferve any
purpofe inimical to the facred authority of our holy re¬
ligion. Mr Gibbon certainly reprefents the religious
doftrine of the ancient Gauls, in refpedt to the immor¬
tality of the human foul and a future date, in too fa-
. vourable a light. It is only becaufe the whole fyftem
of fuperftition which prevailed among the barbarians
is fo imperfectly known, that it has been imagined to
confift of more fublime doCtrines than thofe of the po¬
pular fuperftition of the Greeks and Romans. The
evidence which Mr Gibbon adduces in proof of what
he afferts concerning thefe opinions of the ancient
Gauls, is partial, and far from fatisfaCtory. They did
indeed alfert and believe the foul to be immortal 5 but
this doCtrine was blended among a number of abfurdi¬
ties much grofler than thofe which characterize the
popular religion of the Greeks and Romans. The lat¬
ter was the fuperftition of a civilized people, among
whom reafon was unfolded and improved by cultiva¬
tion, and whofe manners were poliftied and liberal; the
former was that of barbarians, among whom reafon was,
as it were, in its infancy, and who were ftrangers to
the improvements of civilization. When hafty obfer-
vers found that thofe barbarians were not abfolutely
ftrangers to the idea of immorality, they were moved
to undue admiration ; their furprife at finding what
they had not expeCled, confounded their underftanding,
and led them to mHconceive and mifreprefent. What
we ought to afcribe to the favage ferocity of the cha¬
racter of thofe rude tribes, has been attributed by mif-
take to the influence of their belief of a future ftate.
In the law of Mofes, it mult be allowed, that this
doftrine is not particularly explained nor earneftly in¬
culcated, The author of the Divine Legation of
Mofes, &c. has founded upon this faCt an ingenious
theory, which we ftiall elfewhere have occafion to
examine. The reafons why this do&rine was not
more fully explained to the Jews, we cannot pretend
to aflign, at leaft in this place ^ yet we cannot help
thinking, that it was more generally known among
the Jews than Mr Gibbon and the author of the Di¬
vine Legation are willing to allow. Though it be
not ftrongly inculcated in their code of laws, yet there
is fome reafon to think that it was known and general¬
ly prevalent among them long before the Babylonith
captivity ; even in different paffages in the writings of
Mofes, it is mentioned or alluded to in an unequivocal
manner. In, the hiftory of the patriarchs, it appears
that this dodlrine was known to them; it appears to
have had a ftrong influence on the mind of Mofes
himfelf. Was David, was Solomon, a ft ranger to this
dodtrine ? We cannot here defcend to very minute
particulars •, but furely all the efforts of ingenuity muft
be infufficient to torture the facred Scriptures of the
Old Teftament, fo as to prove that they contain no¬
thing concerning the dodirine of a future ftate any¬
where but in the writings of the later prophets, and
that even in thefe it is only darkly infinuated. Were
the Jews, in the earlier part of their hiftory, fo totally
fecluded from all intercourfe with other nations, that a
dodtrine of fo much importance, more or lefs known
to all around, could not be communicated to them ?
The Pharifees did admit traditions, and fet upon them
3
an undue value j yet they appear to have been confi- Chrftlia-
dered as the mod: orthodox of the different fedls which nity.
prevailed among the Jews: the Sadducees were rather
regarded as innovators.
But though we are of opinion, that this ingenious
writer allows to the dodlrine of the Greek and Roman
philofophers, concerning the immortality of the human
foul, as well as the notices concerning a future ftate,
which made a part of the popular fuperftitions of thofe
nations, lefs influence on the moral fentiments and con-
dudt of mankind than what they really exerted ; though
we cannot agree with him in allowing the ideas of the
immortality of the foul and of a future ftate, which
were entertained by the Gauls and fome other rude
nations, to have been much fuperior in their nature, or
much happier in their influence, than thofe of the
Greeks and Romans j and though, in confequence of
reading the Old Teftament, we are difpofed to think
that the Jews knew fomewhat more concerning the im¬
mortality of the human foul, and concerning the fu¬
ture ftate in which human beings are deftined to exift,
than Mr Gibbon reprefents them to have known : yet
ftill we are very fenftble, and very well pleafed to ad¬
mit, that “ life and immortality were brought to light
through the gofpel.”
The dodtrine of a future life, as it was preached by
the firft Chriftians, was eftabliftitd on a more folid ba¬
lls than that on which it had been before maintained 5
was freed from every abfurdity j and was, in fhort, fo
much improved, that its influence, which, as it was
explained by Heathen poets and philofophers, muft be
confeffed to have been in many inftances doubtful, now
became favourable only to the interefts of piety and
virtue, and to them in a very high degree. It un¬
doubtedly contributed to the fuccefsful propagation of
Chriftianity ; for it was calculated to attradl and pleafe
both the fpeculating philofopher and the fimple unen¬
lightened votary of the vulgar fuperftition. The views
which it exhibited were diftindf \ and all was plaufible
and rational, and demonftrated by the fulleft evidence.
But the happinefs which it promifed was of a lefs fen-
fual nature than the enjoyments which the Heathens
expe&ed on Olympus or in Elyfium ; and would there¬
fore appear lefs alluring to thofe who were not very
capable of refined ideas, or preferred the gratifications
of the fenfes in the prefent life to every other fpecies of
good. If the firft-'Chriftians rejoiced in the hope of
beholding all the votaries of Pagan idolatry affli£ted
with the torments of hell in a future ftate, and boafted
of thefe hopes with inhuman exultation, they would in
all probability rather irritate than alarm thofe whom
they fought to convert from that fuperftition : the
Heathens would be moved to regard with indignant
fcorn the preacher who pretended that thofe whom
they venerated as gods, heroes, and wife men, were
condemned to a ftate of unfpeakable and lafting tor¬
ment. Would not every feeling of the heart revolt
againft the idea, that a parent, a child, a huiband, a
wife, a friend, a lover, or a miftrefs, but lately loft,
and ftill lamented, was configned to eternal torments
for adtions and opinions which they had deemed highly
agreeable to fuperior powers ?
We may conclude, then, with refpedt to the in¬
fluence of this fecondary caufe in promoting the pro¬
pagation of Chriftianity? that the circumftances of the
Heathen
C H R
[
Chriftia- Heathen world were lefs favourable to that influence
nity. than Mr Gibbon pretends; that the means by which
he reprefents the primitive Chriftians, as improving its
efficacy, were fome of them not employed, and others
rather likely to weaken than to ftrengthen it; and that
therefore more is attributed to the operation of this
caufe than it could poffibly produce.
Caufe III. The third caufe, the miraculous powers of the pri¬
mitive church, is with good reafon reprefented as ha¬
ving conduced very often to the convidtion of infidels.
Mr Gibbon’s reafonings under this head are, That nu¬
merous miraculous works of the mofl: extraordinary
kind were oflentatioufly performed by the firfl: Chri-
ftians : that, however, from the difficulty of fixing the
period at which miraculous powers ceafed to be com¬
municated to the Chriflian church,' and from fome
other circumftances, there is reafon to fufpedt them to
have been merely the pretences of impofture ; but this
(to ufe a phrafe of his own) is only darkly infinuated :
and, laftly, that the Heathens having been happily
prepared to receive them as real by the many wonders
nearly of a fimilar nature to which they were aceuf-
tomed in their former fuperftition, the miracles which
the firft Chriftians employed to give a fandtion to their
dodtrines, contributed in the moft effedtual manner to
2^ the propagation of Chriftianity.
Obferva- In reply to what is here advanced, it may be foo--
tions in re- gefted, that the miracles recorded in the New Tefta-
ply. ° • - • • - • • ■  
ment, as having been performed by the firft Chriftians
when engaged in propagating their religion, as well
as a number of others recorded by the Fathers, are
eftabliffied as true, upon the moft indubitable evidence
which human teftimony can afford for any fadt. Mr
Hume, who was too fond of employing his ingenuity
in undermining truths generally received, has endea¬
voured to prove, that no human teftimony, however
ftrong and unexceptionable, can afford fufficient evi¬
dence of the reality of a miracle. But his reafonin«s
on this head, which once excited doubt and wonder,
have been fince completely refuted ; and mankind ftill
continue to acknowledge, that though we are all lia¬
ble to miftakes and capable of deceit, yet human tef¬
timony may afford the moft: convincing evidence of
the moft: extraordinary and even fupernatural fa6ts.
‘The reader will not expett us to enter, in this place,
into a particular examination of the miracles of our
Saviour and his apoftles, and the primitive church.
An inquiry into thefe will be a capital objeft in ano¬
ther part of this work (Theology.) We may here
confider it as an undeniable and a generally acknow-
ledged faff, that a certain part of thofe miracles were
real. Such as were real undoubtedly contributed, in
a very eminent manner, to the propagation of Chri¬
ftianity ; but they are not to be ranked among the na¬
tural and fecondary caufes.
It is difficult to diftinguiffi at what period miracu¬
lous gifts c.eafed to be conferred on the members of the
primitive church ; yet wTe diftinguiffi, if we take
pains to inquire with minute attention, at what period
the evidence ceafes to be fatisfa&ory. We can alfo, by
confidering the circumftances of the church through
the feveral ftages of its hiftory, form fome judgment
concerning the period during which the gifts of pro-
phefying, and fpeaking with tongues, and working mi-
67 ] CHE
racles, were moft neceffary to Chriftians to enable them
to affert the truth and dignity of their religion.
The Heathens were no ftrangers to pretended mi¬
racles and prophecies, and other feeming interpofitions
of fuperior beings, difturbing the ordinary courfe of
nature and of human affairs : but the miracles to which
they were familiarized had been fo often detefted to
be tricks of impofture or pretences of mad enthufiafm,
that, inftead of being prepared to witnefs or to receive
accounts of new miracles with eafy credulity, they muft
have been in general difpofed to view them with jea-
loufy and fufpicion. Befides, the miracles to which
they had been accuftomed, and thofe performed by the
apoftles and the firft preachers of Chriftianity, were di-
reddly contradictory; and therefore the one could receive
no affiftance from the other.
Yet we muft acknowledge, notwithftanding what we
have above advanced, that as difagreements with re-
fpedt to the principles and inftitutions of their reli¬
gion very early arofe among Chriftians j fo they like-
wife fought to extend its influence, at a very early pe¬
riod, by the ufe of pious frauds. Pious frauds, too,
appear to have fometimes ferved the immediate pur-
pofes for which they were employed, though eventu¬
ally they have been highly injurious to the caufe of
Chriftianity.
We conclude, then, that Chriftianity was indebted
to the influence of miracles in a confiderable degree
for its propagation : but that the real miracles of our
Saviour and his apoftles, &c. were not among the fe¬
condary caufes of its fuccefs : that the Heathens who
■were to be converted were not very happily prepared
for receiving the miracles of the gofpel with blind cre¬
dulity : that, as it is poffible to difcern between fuffi-
cient and infufficient evidence, fo it is not more diffi- .
cult to diftinguifti between true and falfe miracles: and,
laftly, that falfe miracles were foon employed by Chri¬
ftians as engines to fupport and propagate their reli¬
gion, and perhaps not unfuccefsfully 5 but were, upon
the whole, more injurious than ferviceable to the caufe
which they were called in to maintain. 26
d he fourth of this feries of fecondary caufes, which ^au^e
this author thinks to have been adequate to the propa¬
gation of Chriftianity, is the virtues of the primitive
Chriftians. Thefe he is willing to attribute to other
and lefs generous motives, rather than to the pure in¬
fluence of the dodtrines and precepts of their religion.
The firft converts to Chriftianity were moft of them
from among the loweft and moft worthlefs charadlers.
The wife, the mighty, and thofe who were diftinguilh-
ed by fpecious virtues, were in general perfedlly fatis-
fied with their prefent circumftances and future pro-
fpedls. People whofe minds were naturally weak, un¬
enlightened, or opprefled with the fenfe of atrocious
guilt, and who were infamous or outcafts from fociety,
were eager to grafp at the hopes which the gofpel held
out to them.
When, after enlifting under the banner of Chrift,
they began to confider themfelves as “ born aeain to
newnefs of life remorfe and fear, which eafily pre¬
vail over weak minds; felfiih hopes of regaining their
reputation, and attaining to the honours and happinefs
of thofe manfions which Jefus was faid to have gone to
prepare 5 with a defire to raife the honour and extend
I 2 the
C H R [ 68 ] C H R
Chriftia- the influence of the fociety of which they were become
t nity* members: all together operated fo powerfully as to
_ v enable them to difplay both aftive and paffive virtue
in a very extraordinary degree. Their virtues did not
flow from the pureft and nobleft fource $ yet they at-
trafled the notice and moved the admiration of man¬
kind. Of thofe who admired, feme were eager to
imitate j and, in order to that, thought it neceflary to
adopt the fame principles of adtion.
Their virtues, too, were rather of that fpecies which
excite wonder, becaufe uncommon, and not of effen-
tial utility in the ordinary intercourfe of fociety ; than
of thofe which are indifpenfably neceflary to the exift-
ence of focial order, and contribute to the eafe and con¬
venience of life. Such virtues were well calculated to
engage the imitation of thofe who had failed egregiouf-
ly in the practice of the more focial virtues.
Thus they praftifed extraordinary, but ufelefs and
unfucial virtues, upon no very generous motives j thofe
virtues drew upon them the eyes of the world, and in-
27 duced numbers to embrace their faith.
Obferva- We muft, however unwillingly, declare that this is
tions in an- p]ainJy an uncandid account of the virtues of the pri¬
mitive Chriftians, and the motives from which they o-
riginated. The focial virtues are ftrongly recommend¬
ed through the gofpel. No degree of mortification or
felf-denial, or feclufion from the ordinary bufinefs and
amufements of focial life, was required of the early
converts to Chriftianity ; fave what was indifpenfably
neceflary to wean them from the irregular habits in
which they had before indulged, and which had ren¬
dered them nuifances in fociety, and to form them to
new habits equally neceflary to their happinefs and
their ufefulnefs in life. We allow that they praftifed
virtues which in other circumftances would, however
fplendid, have been unneceflary. But in the difficult
circumftances in which the firft Chriftians were placed,
the virtues which they pradifed were in the higheft
degree focial. The moft prominent feature in their
charafter was, “ their continuing to entertain fenti-
ments of generous benevolence, and to difeharge feru-
puloufly all the focial duties,” towards thofe who ex-
ercifed neither charity nor humanity, and frequently not
even bare integrity and juftice, in their conduct towards
them.
It cannot be faid with truth, that fuch a proportion
of the primitive Chriftians were people whofe charac¬
ters had been infamous and their circumftances defpe-
rate, as that the chara&er of the religion which they
embraced can fuffier from this circumftance. Nor were
they only the weak and illiterate whom the apoftles and
their immediate fuccefibrs converted by their preach¬
ing. The criminal, to be fure, rejoiced to hear that
he might obtain abfolution of his crimes 5 the mourner
was willing to receive comfort ; minds of refined and
generous feelings were deeply affe6ted with that good'
nefs which had induced the Son of God to fubmit to
the puniftiment due to finners: but the fimplicity, the
rationality, and the beauty of the Chriftian fyftem, like-
wife prevailed in numerous inftances over the pride and
prejudices of the great and the wife : in fo many in¬
ftances, as are fufficient to vindicate the Chriftian church
from the afperfions by which it has been reprefented as
being in the firft period of its exiftcnce merely a body
of criminals and idiots*
The principles, too, from which the virtues of the chrifHa.
firft Chriftians originated, were not peculiarly mean nity.
and felfiih j nay, they feem to have been uncommonly v—->/——■
fublime and difinterefted. Remorfe in the guilty mind
is a natural and reafonable fentiment ; the defire of
happinefs in every human breaft is equally fo. It is
uncandid to cavil againft the firft Chriftians for being,
like the reft of mankind, influenced by thefe fenti-
ments : And when we behold them overlooking tem¬
porary poffeflions and enjoyments, extending their
views to futurity, and “ living by faith j” when we
obferve them “ doing good to thofe who hated them,
blefling thofe who curfed them, and praying for thofe
by whom they were defpitefully ufed can we deny
their virtues to have been of the moft generous and dif¬
interefted kind.
We allow then that the virtues of the firft Chri¬
ftians muft have contributed to the propagation of their
religion : but it is with pain that we obferve this re-
fpeftable writer ftudioufly labouring to mifreprefent the
principles from which thofe virtues arofe ; and not only
the principles from which they arofe, but alfo their im¬
portance in fociety. 2g
The Jifth caufe was the mode of church government Caufe V.
adopted by the firft Chriftians, by which they were witfi okto-
knit together in one fociety j who preferred the churchYatl0ns*
and its interefts to their country and civil concerns.
We wifh not to deny, that the mutual attachment of
the primitive Chriftians contributed to fpread the in¬
fluence of their religion \ and the order which they
maintained, in confequence of being animated with this
fpirit of brotherly love, and with fuch ardent zeal for
the glory of God, muft no doubt have produced no
lefs happy effe&s among them than order and regula¬
rity produce on every other occafion on which they
are ftricily obferved. But whether the form of church-
government, which was gradually eftabliftied in the
Chriftian church, was actually the happieft that could
poflibly have been adopted ; or whether, by eftablifh-
ing a diftindt fociety, with feparate interefts, within
the Roman empire, it contributed to the diflfolution of
that mighty fabric, we cannot here pretend to inquire.
Thefe are fubjedls of difeuflion, with refpedl to which
we may with more propriety endeavour to fatisfy our
readers elfewhere.
From the whole of this review of what Mr Gibbon General
has fo fpecioufly advanced concerning the influence ofconcJufioB
thefe five fecondary caufes in the propagation of '“nctehr"jn
gofpel, we think ourfelves warranted to conclude,fl^ence oT
That the zeal of the firft Chriftians was not, as he re-the five
prefents it, intolerant: That the dodlrine of the im-caufes*
mortality of the human foul was fomewhat better un¬
derflood in the Heathen world, particularly among the
Greeks and Romans, and the jews, than he reprefents
it to have been; and had an influence fomewhat hap¬
pier than what he aferibes to it : That the additional
circumftances by which, he. tells us, the firft preachers
of Chriftianity improved the eflfedls of this dotfrine,
were far from being calculated to allure converts :
That the heathens, therefore, were not quite fo well
prepared for an eager reception of this do&rine as he
would perfuade us they were ; and, of confequence,
could not be influenced by it in fo confiderable a de¬
gree in their converfion : That real, unqueftionable mi¬
racles, performed by our Saviour, by his apoftles, and
by
c H R [ 69 ] C H R
Cbriftia- ^7 fucceffbrs, did contribute fignally to the pro-
niry, pagation of ChrifHanity j but are not to be ranked
Cliriftians among the fecondary caufes: That weaknefs and blind
* zeal did at times employ pretended miracles for the
fame purpofe not altogether ineffe&ually : That though
thefe defpicable and wicked means might be in fome
inflances fuccefsful j yet they were, upon the whole,
much more injurious than beneficial : That the virtues
of the primitive Chriftians arofe from the moft gene¬
rous and noble motives, and were in their nature and
tendency highly favourable to focial order, and to the
comfort of mankind in the focial Hate : And, laftly,
That the order and regularity of church-government,
which were gradually eftablilhed among the firft Chri-
flians, contributed greatly to maintain the dignity and
fpread the influence of their religion j but do not ap¬
pear to have disjoined them from their fellow-fubjefts,
or to have rendered them inimical to the welfare of the
ftate of which they were members.
Upon the whole, then, we do not fee that thefe fe¬
condary caufes were equal to the effedfs that have
been afcribed to them ; and it feems undeniable, that
others of a fuperior kind co-operated with them. We
earneftly recommend to the perufal of the reader a
valuable performance of Lord Hailes’s, in which he
inquires into Mr Gibbon’s affertions and reafonings,
concerning the influence of thefe five caufes, with the
utmoft accuracy of information, ftrength, and clearnefs
of reafoning, and elegani fimplicity of ftyle, and with¬
out virulence or paflion.
CHRISTIANS, thofe who profefs the religion of
Chrift : See Christianity and Messiah.—The name
ChriJIian was firfl: given at Antioch, in the year 42, to
fuch as believed in Chrift, as we read in the Acts : till,
that time they were called difciples.
The firft Chriftians diftinguifhed themfelves in the
moft remarkable manner by their condud and their
virtues. The faithful, whom the preaching of St Pe-.
ter had converted, hearkened attentively to the exhor¬
tations of the Apoftles, who failed not carefully to in-
ftrudt them, as perfons who were entering upon an
entirely new life. They went every day to the temple
with one heart and one mind, and continued in pray¬
ers ; doing nothing different from the other Jews, be-
caufe it was yet not time to feparate from them. But
they made a ftill greater progrefs in virtue ; for they
fold all that they pofieffed, and diftributed their goods
in proportion to the wants of their brethren. They
ate their meat with gladnefs and Jinglenefs of heart,
praijing God, and having favour with all the people*
St Chryfoftom, examining from what fource the emi¬
nent virtue of the firft Chriftians flowed, afcribes it
principally to their diverting themfelves of their pof-
feflions : “ For (fays the father) perfons from whom
“ all that they have is taken away, are not fubjeft to
“ fin ; whereas, whoever has large pofTeflions, wants
“ not a devil or a tempter to draw him into hell by a
“ thoufand ways.”
The Jews were the firft and the moft inveterate
enemies the Chriftians had. They put them to death
as often as they had it in their power : and when
they revolted againft the Romans in the time of the
emperor Adrian. Barcochebas, the head of that re¬
volt, employed againft the Chriftians the moft rigo-
rpus punifhments to compel them to blafpheme and
%
renounce Jefus Chrift. And we find that, even in the Chriftianj.
third century, they endeavoured to get into their 1—v—^
hands Chriftian women, in order to fcourge and ftone
them in their fynagogues. They curfed the Chriftians
folemnly three times a-day in their fynagogues, and
their rabbins would not fuffer them to converfe with
Chriftians upon any occafion. Nor were they content¬
ed to hate and deteft them ; but they defpatched emif-
faries all over the world to defame the Chriftians, and
fpread all forts of calumnies againft them. They ac-
cufed them, among other things, of worfhipping the
fun and the head of an afs. They reproached them
with idlenefs, and being an ufelefs race of people.
They charged them with treafon, and endeavouring
to ereft a new monarchy againft that of the Romans.
They affirmed, that, in celebrating their myfteries,
they ufed to kill a child and eat its flefti. They ac-
cufed them of the moft (hocking incefts, and of intem¬
perance in their feafts of charity. But the lives and
behaviour of the firft Chriftians were fufficient to re¬
fute all that was faid againft them, and evidently de-
monftrated that thefe accufations were mere calumny
and the effect of inveterate malice.
Pliny the younger, who was governor of Pontus
and Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a
very particular account of the Chriftians in that pro¬
vince, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Tra¬
jan, of which the following is an extra£l : “ I take
“ the liberty, Sir, to give you an account of every
“difficulty which'arifes to me. I have never been
“ prefent at the examination of the Chriftians; for
“ which reafon I know not what queftions have been
“ put to them, nor in what manner they have been
“ puniftied. My behaviour towards thofe who have
“ been accufed to me has been this : I have interro-
“ gated them, in order to know whether they were
“ really Chriftians. When they have confeffed it, I
“ have repeated the fame queftion two or three times,
“ threatening them with death if they did not re-
“ nounce this religion. Thofe who have perfifted
“ in their confeffion, have been, by my order, led to
“ punifhment. I have even met with fome Roman
“ citizens guilty of this phrenfy, whom, in regard to
“ their quality, I have fet apart from the reft, in or-
“ der to fend them to Rome. Thefe perfons de-
“ dare, that their whole crime, if they are guilty,
“ confifts in this ; that, on certain days, they aflem-
“ ble before funrife, to fing alternately the praifes
“ of Chrift, as of a god, and to oblige themfelves,
“ by the performance of their religious rites, not to
“ be guilty of theft, or adultery, to obferve inviolably
“ their word, and to be true to their truft. This
“ depofition has obliged me to endeavour to inform
“ myfelf ftill farther of this matter, by putting to the
“ torture two of their women-fervants, whom they
“ call deaconnejfes; but I could learn nothing more
“ from them than that the fuperftition of thefe peo-
“ pie is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is afto-
“ niffiing.”
There is extant a juftification, or rather panegyric,
of the Chriftians, pronounced by the mouth of a Pa- .
gan prince. It is a letter of the emperor Antoninus,
written in the year 152, in anfwe.r to the States of
Afia, who had accufed the Chriftians of being the
caufe of fome earthquakes which had happened in,
C H II [ 70
Ghriftians. that part of the world. The emperor advifes them
to “ take care, left, in torturing and punching thofe
whom they accufed of Atheifm (meaning the Chri-
ftians), they thould render them more obftinate, in-
ftead of prevailing upon them to change their opinion 5
lince their religion taught them to fuffer with plea-
fure for the fake of God.” As to the earthquakes
which had happened, he put them in mind, “ that
they themfelves are always difcouraged, and fink un¬
der fuch misfortunes; whereas the Chriftians never
difcovered more cheerfulnefs and confidence in God
than upon fuch occafions.” He tells them, that
“ they pay no regard to religion, and negleft the
worlhip of the Eternal 5 and, becaufe the Chriftians
honour and adore Him, therefore they are jealous of
them, and perfecute them even to death.” He con¬
cludes : “ Many of the governors of provinces have
formerly written to my father concerning them 5 and
his anfwer always was, that they Ihould not be moleft-
ed or difturbed, provided they quietly fubmitted to the
authority of the government. Many perfons have like-
wife confulted me upon this affair, and I have returned
the fame anfwer to them all; namely, that if any one
accufes a Chriftian merely on account of his religion,
the accufed perfon {hall be acquitted, and the accul'er
himfelf punifhed.” This ordinance, according to Eu-
febius, was publicly fixed up at Ephefus in an affembly
of the ftates.
It is no difficult matter to difcover the caufes of the
many perfecutions to which the Chriftians were ex-
pofed during the three firft centuries. The purity of
the Chriftian morality, dire&ly oppofite to the cor¬
ruption of the Pagans, was doubtlefs one of the moft
powerful motives of the public averfion. To this may
be added, the many calumnies unjuftly fpread about
concerning them by their enemies, particularly the Jews.
And this occafioned fo ftrong a prejudice againft them,
that the Pagans condemned them without inquiring in¬
to their do&rine, or^ permitting them to defend them¬
felves. Befides, their worffiipping Jefus Chrift as God,
was contrary to one of the moft ancient laws of the
Roman empire, which exprefsly forbade the acknow¬
ledging of any God which had not been approved by
the fenate.
But notwithftanding the violent oppofition made to
the eftabliffiment erf the Chriftian religion, it gained
ground daily, and very foon made a furprifing pro-
grefs in the Roman empire. In the third century,
there were Chritlians in the camp, in the fenate, in the
palace : in ffiort everywhere, but in the temples and
the theatres : they filled the towns, the country, the
iflands. Men and women of all ages and conditions,
and even thofe of the firft dignities, embraced the faith
infomuch that the Pagans complained that the reve¬
nues of their temples were ruined. They were in fuch
great numbers in the empire, that (as’Tertullian ex-
prefles it) were they to have retired into another coun¬
try, they would have left the Romans only a frightful
folitude. ' &
The piimitive Chriftians were not only remarkable
for. the praftice of every virtue •, they were alfo very
eminently diftinguifhed by the many’miraculous gifts
and graces beftowed by God upon them. “ Some
of the Chriftians (fays Irenaeus) drive out devils, not
In appearance only, but fo as that they never return :
] C H R
whence it often happens, that thofe who are difpof- chrifti,
feffed of evil fpirits embrace the faith and are received —v—
into the church. Others know what is to come, fee
vifions, and deliver oracles as prophets. Others heal
the fick by laying their hands on them, and reftore
them to perfect health : and we find feme who even
raife the dead.—It is impoffible to reckon up the gifts
and graces which the church has received from God—
what they have freely received they as freely beftow.
They obtain thefe gifts by prayer alone, and invoca¬
tion of the name of Jefus Chrift, without any mixture
of enchantment or fuperftition.”
We {hall here fubjoin the remarkable ftory, altefted
by Pagan authors themfelves, concerning the Chriftian
Legion in the army of the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
That prince having led his forces againft the Quadi,
a people on the other fide of the Danube, was fur-
rounded and hemmed in by the enemy in a difadvan-
tageous place, and where they could find no water.
The Romans were greatly embarraffed, and, being
prefied by the enemy, were obliged to continue un¬
der arms, expofed to the violent heat of the fun, and
almoft dead with tbirft; when, on a fudden, the clouds
gathered, and the rain fell in great abundance. The
foldiers received the water in their bucklers and hel¬
mets, and fatisfied both their own thirft and that of
their horfes. The enemy, prefently after, attacked
them ; and fo great was the advantage they had over
them, that the Romans muft have been overthrown,
had not Heaven again interpofed by a violent ftorm of
hail, mixed with lightning, which fell on the enemy,
and obliged them to retreat. It was found after¬
wards, that one of the legions, which confifted of
Chriftians, had by their prayers, which they offered
upon their knees before the battle, obtained this fa¬
vour from heaven : and from this event that legion
was furnamed The Thundering Legion. See, however
the criticifm of Mr Moyle on this ftory in his Works,
vol. ii. p. 81—390. See alfo Mojheim's Church Hijlo-
ry, vol. i. p. 124.
Such were the primitive Chriftians, whofe religion
has by degrees fpread itfelf over all parts of the world,
though not with equal purity in all. And though, by
the providence of God, Mahometans and Idolaters
have been fuffered to poffefs themfelves of thofe places
Greece, Alia, and Africa, where the Chriftian re¬
ligion formerly moft flourilhed ; yet there are ftill fuch
remains of the Chriftian religion among them as to
give them opportunity fufficient to be converted.
For, m the dominions of the Turk in Europe, the
Chriftians make two third parts at leaft of the inha¬
bitants 5 and in Conftantinople itfelf there are above
twenty Chriftjan churches, and above thirty in Thef-
falonica. Philadelphia, now called A/a-Jhahiir, has no
fewer than twelve Chriftian churches. The whole
ifland of Chio is governed by Chriftians-, and fome
iflands of the Archipelago are inhabited by Chriftians
only. In Africa, befides the Chriftians living in E-
gypt, and in the kingdom of Congo and Angola, the
iflands upon the weftern coafts are inhabited bv Chri¬
ftians ; add the vaft kingdom of Abyffinia, fuppofed
to be as big as Germany, France, Spain, and Italy,
put together, is poffeffed by Chriftians. In Afia, moft
part of the empire of Ruffia, the countries of Circaffia
and Mingrelia, Georgia, and Mount Eibanus, are in¬
habited
C H ft [
Chrifliaris habited only by Chriftians. In America, it is notori-
|| ous that the Chriftians are very numerous, and fpread
Chrittina. over parts of that vaft continent.
L“ v CHRISTIANS of St John, a fe£l of Chriftians very nu¬
merous in Balfara and the neighbouring towns: they
formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St
John baptized, and it was from thence they had their
name. They hold an anniverfary feaft of five days j
during which they all go to the biftiop, who baptizes
them with the baptifm of St John. Their baptifm is
alfo performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays :
they have no notion of the third perfon in the Trinity ;
nor have they any canonical book, but abundance full
of charms, &c. Their bishoprics defcend by inheri¬
tance, as our eftates do, though they have the cere¬
mony of an eleftion.
CHRISTIANS of St Thomas, a fort of Chriftians in a
peninfula of India on this fide of the gulf: they in¬
habit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring
country : thefe admit of no images j and receive only
the crofs, to which they pay a great veneration : they
affirm, that the fouls of the faints do not fee God till
after the day of judgment : they aeknovdedge but
three facraments, viz. baptifm, orders, and the eucha-
rift 5 they make no ufe of holy oils in the adminiftra-
tion of baptifm j but, after the ceremony, anoint the
infant with an unftion compofed of oil and walnuts,
without any benediiftion. In the eucharift, they con-
fecrate with little cakes made of oil and fait, and in-
Head of wine make ufe of water in which raifins have
been infufed.
CHRISTIANA, a town of Norway, in the province
of Aggerhuys, fituated in a bay of the fea. E. Long'.
10. 20. N. Lat. 59. 30.
CHRISTIANOPLE, a port-town of Sweden, fitu¬
ated on the Baltic fea, in the territory of Bleckingen,
and province of South Gothland. E. Long. 15. 47.
N. Lat. 570.
CHRISTIANSTADT, a ftrong fortified town of
Sweden ; fituated in the territory of Bleckingen and
province of South Gothland. It was built in 1614 by
Chriftian IV. king of Denmark, when this province
belonged to the Danes j and finally ceded to the Swedes
by the peace of Rolkild in 1658. The town is fmall
but neatly built, and is efteemed the ftrongeft fortrefs
in Sweden. The houfes are all of brick, and moftly
ftuccoed white. It Hands in a marffiy plain clofe to
the river Helgeia, which flows into the Baltic at Ahus,
about the diftance of 20 miles, and is navigable only
for fmall craft of feven tons burden. Engliffi veffels an¬
nually refort to this port for alum, pitch, and tar. The
inhabitants have manufa&ures of cloth and filken fluffs,
and carry on a fmall degree of commerce. E. Long.
14. 40. N. Lat. 56. 30.
CHRISTINA, daughter of Guflavus Adolphus
king of Sweden, was born in 1626 •, and fucceeded to
the crown in 1633, when only feven years of age.
Ihis princefs difcovered, even in her infancy, what the
afterwards expreffed in her memoirs, an invincible an¬
tipathy for the employments and converfation of wo¬
men ; and {he had the natural aukwardnefs of a man
with refpeft to all the little works which generally fall
to their {hare. She was, on the contrary, fond of vio¬
lent exercifes, and fuch amufements as confift in feats
of flrength and adlivity. She bad alfo both ability and
71 ] C H ft
tafte for abftra&ed fpeculations $ and amufed herfelf Chriftina.
with language and the fciences, particularly that of1-—
legiflation and government. She derived her know¬
ledge of ancient hiftory from its fource ; and Polybius
and Thucydides were her favourite authors. As Hie
was the fovereign of a powerful kingdom, it is not
flrange that almoft all the princes in Europe afpired
to her bed. Among others, were the prince of Den¬
mark, the eledlor Palatine, the eledftor of Branden¬
burg, the king of Spain, the king of the Romans, Don
Jehn of Auftria, Sigifmund of Rockocci, count and
general of Caffovia 5 Staniflaus king of Poland; John
Caffimir his brother ; and Charles Guftavus duke of
Deux Ponts, of the Bavarian Palatinate family, fon of
her father the great Guftavus’s lifter, and consequently
her firft coufin. To this nobleman, as well as to all
his competitors, flie conftantly refufed her hand ; but
ftie caufed him to be appointed her fucceffor by the
ftates. Political interefts, differences of religion, and
contrariety of manners, furniffied Chriftina with pre¬
tences for rejecting all her fuitors; but her true mo¬
tives were the love of independence, and a ftrong aver-
fion fhe had conceived, even in her infancy, from the
marriage yoke. “ Do not force me to marry (faid
{lie to the ftates) ; for if I ffiould have a fon, it is not
more probable that he ftiould be an Auguftus than a
Nero.”
An accident happened in the beginning of her reign,
which gave her a remarkable opportunity of difplaying
the ftrength and equanimity of her mind. As fhe w'as
at the chapel of the caftle of Stockholm, affifting at
divine fervice with the principal lords of her court, a
poor wretch, who was difordered in his mind, came
to the place with a defign to affaffinate her. This man,
who was preceptor of the college, and in the full vi¬
gour of his age, chofe, for the execution of his'de¬
fign, the moment in which the affembly was perform¬
ing what in the Swedifti church is called an ad of re-
colleBion; a filent and feparate a£t of devotion, per¬
formed by each individual kneeling and hiding the face
with the hand. Taking this opportunity, he ruflied
through the crowd, and mounted a balluftrade within
which the queen was upon her knees. The Baron
Braki, chief juftice of Sweden, was alarmed, and cried
out ; and the guards croffed their partifans, to prevent
his coming further : but he ftruck them furicufly on
one fide ; leaped over the barrier ; and, being then
clofe to the queen, made a blow at her with a knife
which he had concealed without a {heath in his fleeve.
The queen avoided the blow, and pufhed the captain
of her guards, who inftantly threw himfelf upon the
affaffin, and feized him by the hair. All this happen¬
ed in lefs than a moment of time. The man was known
to be mad, and therefore nobody fuppofed he had any
accomplices : they therefore contented themfelves with
locking him up ; and the queen returned to her devo¬
tion without the leaft emotion that could be perceived
by the people, who were much more frightened than
herfelf.
One of the great affairs that employed Chriftina
while ffie was upon the throne, was the peace of
Weftphalia, in which many claftiing interefts were to
be reconciled, and many claims to be afcertained. It
was concluded in the month of Oiffober 1648. The
fuccefs Qf the Swedifti anus rendered Chriftina the ar-
bitreff
C H R
^Omflina. bitrefs of this treaty j at leaft as to the affairs of Swe-
*~' ^en» ^ which this peace confirmed the pofieffion of
many important countries. No public event of im¬
portance took place during the reft of Chriftina’s
reign j for there were neither wars abroad, nor trou¬
bles at home. I his quiet might be the effe6f of
chance j but it might alfo be the effeft of a good, ad-
miniftration, and the great reputation of the queen ;
and the love her people had for her ought to lead us
to this determination. Her reign was that of learn¬
ing and genius.. She drew about her, wherever ftie
was, all the diftinguiftied characters of her ti me : Gro-
tius, Pafchal, Bochart, Defcartes, Gaflendi, Saumaife,
Naude, Voflxus, Heinfius, Meibom, Scudery, Me-
nage, Lucas, Holftentius, Lambecius, Bayle, Madame
Dacier, Filicaia, and many others. The arts never
fail to immortalize the prince who proteCts them ; and
almoft all thefe illuftrious perfons have celebrated Chrif-
tina, either in poems, letters, or literary productions
of fome other kind, the greater part of which are now
forgotten. They form, however, a general cry of
praife, and a mafs of teftimonials which may be confi-
dered as a folid bafis of reputation. Chriftina, how¬
ever, may be juftly reproached with want of tafte, in
not properly affigning the rank of all thefe perfons,
whofe merits, though acknowledged, were yet une¬
qual ; particularly for not having been fufficiently fen-
fible ot the fuperiority of Defcartes, whom (he difguft-
ed, and at laft wholly negleCted. The rapid fortune
which the adventurer Michon, known by the name of
Bourdeht, acquired by her countenance and liberality,
was alfo a great fcandal to literature. He had no pre-
tenfions to learning j and though fprightly was yet in¬
decent. He was brought to court by the learned Sau¬
maife ; and, for a time, drove literary merit out of it,
making learning the objeCt of his ridicule, and exact¬
ing from Chriftina an exorbitant tribute to the weak-
nefs and inconftancy of her fex ; for even Chriftina,
with. refpeCt to this man, (bowed herfelf to be weak
and inconftant. At laft (he was compelled, by the
public indignation, to banilh this unworthy minion ;
and he was no fooner gone than her regard for him
was at an end. She was alhamed of the favour (he had
mown him ; and, in a (hort time, thought of him with
natred or contempt. This Bourdelot, during his af-
cendency over the queen, had fupplanted Count Mag¬
nus de la G.ardie, fon of the conftable of Sweden, who
was a relation, a favourite, and perhaps the lover of
Chnft.ina. M. de Mottville, who had feen him ambaf-
fador m France, fays, in his memoirs, that he fpoke
ot Ins queen in terms fo paflionate and refpeftful, that
every one concluded his attachment to her to be’more
ardent and tender than a mere fenfe of duty can
produce. This nobleman fell into difgrace becaufe he
(bowed an inclination to govern ; while M. Bourdelot
feemed to aim at nothing more than to amufe; and
concealed, under the unfufpeaed charafter of a droll
the real afcendency which he exercifed over the queen’s’
mind.
About this time, an accident happened to Chriftina
which brought her into ftill greater danger than that
which has been related already. Having given or¬
ders for fome (hips of war to be built at the port of
Stockholm, (he went to fee them when they were fi-
•fiilhed $ and as (he was going on board of them, crofs
C v- 1
C H R
a narrow plank, with Admiral Fleming, his foot (lip¬
ping, he fell, and drew the queen with him into the '■
fea, which in that place was near 90 feet deep. An¬
thony Steinberg, the queen’s firft equerry, inftantly
threw himfelf into the water, laid hold of her robe,
and, with fuch afliftance as was given him, got the
queen athore : during this accident, her recolle&ion
was fuch, that the moment her lips were above water,
(he cried out, “ Take care of the admiral.” When
(he was got out of the water, (he difcovered no emo¬
tion either by her gefture or countenance j and (he
dined the fame day in public, where (he gave a hu¬
morous account of her adventure.
But though at firft (he was fond of the power and
fplendour of royalty, yet (he began at length to feel that
it embarrafled her ; and the fame love of indepen¬
dency and liberty which had determined her againft
marriage, at laft made her weary of the crown. As,
after her firft difguft, it grew more and more irkfome
to her, (lie refolved to abdicate} and, in 1652, com¬
municated her refolution to the fenate. The fenate
zealoufly remonftrated againft it } and was joined by
the people ; and even by Charles Guftavus himfelf,
who was to fucceed her : (he yielded to their importu¬
nities, and continued to facrifice her own pleafure to
the will of the public till the year 1654, an^ then (lie
carried her defign into execution. It appears by one
of her letters to M. Canut, in whom (he put great con¬
fidence, that (he had meditated this project for more
than, eight years ; and that (he had communicated it
to him five years before it took place.
The ceremony of her abdication was a mournful fo-
lemnity, a mixture of pomp and fadnefs, in which
fcarce any eyes but her own were dry. She conti¬
nued firm and compofed through the whole } and, as
foon as it was over, prepared to remove into a coun¬
try more favourable to fcience than Sweden was.
Concerning the merit of this a&ion, the world has al¬
ways been divided in opinion'} it has-been condemned
alike both by the ignorant and the learned, the trifler
and the fage. It was admired, however, by the
great Conde : “ How great was the magnanimity of
this princefs (faid he), who could fo eafily give up
that for which the reft of mankind are continually
deftroying each other, and which fo many through¬
out their whole lives purfue without attaining !” It
appears, by the. works of St Evremond, that the abdi¬
cation of Chriftina was at that time the univerfal to¬
pic of fpeculation and debate in France. Chriftina,
oefides. abdicating her crown, abjured her religion :
but this aft was univerfaliy approved by one party
and cenfured by another} the Papifts triumphed, and
the Proteftants were offended. No prince, after a
long imprifonment, ever (hewed fo much joy upon
being reftored to his kingdom, as Chriftina did in
emitting hers. When (he came to a little brook, which
leparates Sweden from Denmark, (he got out of her
carriage ; and leaping on the other fide, cried out in
a tranfport of joy, “ At Jaft I am free, and out of
Sweden, whither, I hope, I (hall never return.”
She difmiffed her women, and laid by the habit of
her fex : “ I would become a man (faid (lie) } yet I
do not love men becaufe they are men, but becaufe
n0t women” She her abjuration at
Bruilels} where die faw the great Conde, who, after
his
Chriftina.
C H R [
Chriflina. Hs defe^ion, made that city his afylum. “ Coufin,
(laid (he), wha would have thought, ten years ago,
that we ihould have met at this diilance from our
countries
i he inconftancy of Chritlina’s temper appeared in
her going continually from place to place : from Bruf-
fels (he went to Rome j from Rome to France, and
from France (he returned to Rome again j after this
fhe went to Sweden, where (lie was not very well re¬
ceived } from Sweden (he went to Hamburgh, where
(he continued a year, and then went again to Rome j
from Rome (he returned to Hamburgh ; and again
to Sweden, where (he was (fill worfe received than
before j upon which (he went back to Hamburgh,
and from Hamburgh again to Rome. She intended
another journey to Sweden*, but it did not take place,
any more than an expedition to England, where
Cromwell did not feem well difpofed to receive her j
and after many wanderings, and many purpofes of
wandering dill more, (he at lait died at Rome in
1689.
It mud be acknowledged, that her journeys to
Sweden had a motire of neceflity ; for her appoint¬
ments were very ill paid, though the dates ofte‘n con¬
firmed them after her abdication : but to other places
(he was led merely by a roving difpodtipn; and,
what is more to her discredit, (he always didurbed
the quiet of every place (he came into, by exacting
greater deference to her rank as queen than (he had
a right to expedl, by her total non-conformity to the
cudoms of the place, and by continually exciting and
fomenting intrigues of date. She was indeed always
too bufy, even when (he was upon the throne ; for
there was no event in Europe in which (he was not
ambitious of ailing a principal part. During the
troubles in France by the fadlion called the Fronde,
die wrote with great eagernefs to all the intereded’
parties,^ officioudy offering her mediation to recon¬
cile their intereds, and calm their padions, the fecret
fprings of which it was impoflible (he (hould know.
I his was fird thought a dangerous, and afterwards a
ridiculous behaviour. During her refidence in France
(he gave univerfal difgud, not only by violating all the
cudoms of the country, but by pradifing others di-
reitly oppofite. She treated the ladies of the court
with the greated rudenefs and contempt : when they
came to embrace her, (he, being in man’s habit, cried
out, “ What a drange eagernefs have thefe women to
kiis me ! is it becaufe I look like a man ?”
But though (he ridiculed the manners of the French
court, die was very folicitous to enter into its intrigues.
Louis XIV. then very young, was enamoured of Ma-
detnoifelle de Mancini, niece to Cardinal Mazarine :
Chridina flattered their paflion, and offered her fer-
vme. “ I would fain be your confidant (laid (he) : if
you love, you mud marry.”
The murder of Monaldechi is, to this hour, an in-
icrutable mydery. It is, however, of a piece with the
expreffions condantly ufed by Chridina in her letters,
with refpeft to tbofe with whom (he was offended :
or le . carce ever fignified her difpleafure without
threatening the life of the offender. “ If you fail in
lT\du7’ ^aid aiC t0 ,!er fecretat7> whom die fent to
Stockholm after her abdication), not all the power of
the king of Sweden dial! fave your life, though you
Vol. VI. Part I.
73 ] C H R
(hould take (belter in his arms.” A mufician having
quitted her fervice for that of the duke of Savoy, (he
was lo tran(ported with rage as to difgrace hertelf by
thefe words, in a letter written with her own hand :
“ He lives only for me : and if he does not dng for
me, he (hall not fing long for any body.”
Bayle was alfo threatened for having faid that the
letter which Chridina wrote, upon the revocation of
the edi(R of Nantes, was “ a remain of Protedantifm j”
but he made his peace by apologies and fubmidion.
See the article Bayle.
Upon the whole, die appears to have been an un¬
common mixture of faults and great qualities 5 which,
however it might excite fear and refpeil, was by no
means amiable. She had wit, tade, parts, and learn¬
ing : (he was indefatigable upon the throne; great in
private life ; firm in misfortunes ; impatient of contra¬
diction j and, except in her love letters, incondant
in her inclinations. The mod remaikable indance of
this ficklenefs is, That after (he had abdicated the
crown of Sweden, die intrigued for that of Poland.
She was, in every action and purfuit, violent and ar¬
dent in the higheit degree ; impetuous in her defires,
dreadful in her refentment, and fickle in her con-
duCt.
She fays of herfelf, that, “ (he was midrudful, am¬
bitious, padionate, haughty, impatient, contemptuous,
fatirical, incredulous, undevout, of an ardent and vio¬
lent temper, and extremely amorous ;” a difpofition,
however, to which, if (he may be believed, her pride
and her virtue were always fuperior. In general, her
failings were thofe ot her ftx, and her virtues the vir¬
tues of ours.
Santa Christina, one of the Marquesas IJlands.
CHRISTMAS day, a fedival of the Chndian
church } obfervtd on the 25th of December, in me¬
mory of the nativity or birth of Jefus Chrid. As to
the antiquity of this fedival, the fird footdeps we find
of it are in the fecond century, about the time of the
emperor Commcdus. The decretal epidles indeed
carry it up a little higher; and (ay that Telefphorus,
who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered di¬
vine fervice to be celebrated, and an angelical hymn to
be fung the night before the nativity of our Saviour.
However, that it was kept before the times of Con-
dantine, we have a melancholy proof: for whild the
perfecution raged under Diocledan, who then kept
his court at Nicomedia, that prince, among other aCts
of cruelty, finding multitudes of Chridians affembled
together to celebrate Chrid’s nativity, commanded the
church doors where they ivere met to be (hut, and fire
to be put to it, which, in a (hoi t time, reduced them
and the church to adies.
CHRIS 1 OF rlER’s, St, one of theCaribbee idands,
in America, lying on the north-wed of Nevis, and
about 60 miles wed of Antigua. It was formerly in¬
habited by the French and Englidi; but, in 1713, it
was ceded entirely to the latter. In 1782, it'was
taken by the French, but redored to Britain at the
peace. It is about 20 miles in breadth, and feven in
length ; and has high mountains in the middle, whence
rivulets run down. Between the mountains are dread¬
ful rocks, horrid precipices, and thick woods; and
in the fouth-wed part of the idand, hot fidphureous
fprings at the foot of them. The air is good ; the foil
K light,
Chriftina
I!
Lhrifto-
pher’s.
C H R [ 74 ] C H R
f.hrifto-
pher’s
i!
Chromatic.
light, fandy, and fruitful j but the ifland is fubjeft to
hurricanes. The produce is chiefly fugar, cotton, gin¬
ger, indigo, and the tropical fruits. W. Long. 62. 32.
N. Lat. 17. 30.
CHRO AST ACES, an old term in Natural Hi/lory,
applied to gems, and comprehending all thofe of vari¬
able colours, as viewed in different lights and in dif¬
ferent pofitions y of which kinds are the opal and the
ajleria or cat’s eye.
CHROMATIC, a kind of mufic which proceeds
by feveral femitones in fucceflion. The wqrd is de¬
rived from the Greek wupx,, which fignifies colour.
For this denomination 1’everal caufes are afligned, of
which none appear certain, and all equally unfatisfac-
tory. Inftead, therefore, of fixing upon any, we flrall
offer a conjedture of our own ; which, however, we
do not impofe upon the reader as more worthy of his
attention than any of the former. X^upct, may per¬
haps not only fignify a colour, but that of a (hade of a
colour by which it melts into another, or what the
French call nuance. If this interpretation be admitted,
it will be highly applicable to femitones j which being
the fmalleft interval allowed in the diatonic fcale, will
mofl: eafily run one into another. To find the reafons
affigned by the ancients for this denomination, and
their various divifions of the chromatic fpecies, the
reader may have recourfe to the fame article in Rouf-
feau’s Mufical Didlionary. At prefent, that fpecies
confifls in giving fuch a procedure to the fundamental
bafs, that the parts in the harmony, or at leaf! fome
of them, may proceed by femitones, as well in riling
as defcending •, which is moll frequently found in the
minor mode, from the alterations to which the lixth and
feventh note are fubjedled, by the nature of the mode
itfelf.
The fucceffive femitones ufed in the chromatic fpe¬
cies are rarely of the fame kind ; but alternately ma¬
jor and minor, that is to fay, chromatic and diatonic:
for the interval of a minor tone contains a minor or
chromatic femitone, and another which is major or dia¬
tonic ; a meafure which temperament renders common
to all tones : fo that we cannot proceed by two minor
femitones which are conjun&ive in fucceflion, without
entering into the enharmonic fpecies $ but two major Chromatic,
femitones twice follow each other in the chromatic or- v—J
der of the fcale.
The mofl: certain procedure of the fundamental bafs
to generate the chromatic elements in afcent, is alter¬
nately to defcend by thirds, and rife by fourths, whilft
all the chords carry the third major. If the funda¬
mental bafs proceeds from dominant to dominant by
perfect cadences avoided, it produces the chromatic in
defcending. To produce both at once, you interweave
the perfect and broken cadences, but at the fame time
avoid them.
As at every note in the chromatic fpecies one mull
change the tone, that fucceflion ought to be regulated
and limited for fear of deviation. For this purpofe, it
will be proper to recoiled!, that the fpace moft luitable
to chromatic movements, is between the extremes of the
dominant and the tonic in afcending, and between the
tonic and the dominant in defcending. In the major
mode, one may alfo chromatically delcend from the do¬
minant upon the fecond note. This tranfition is very
common in Italy ; and, notwithftanding its beauty, be¬
gins to be a little too common amongft us.
The chromatic fpecies is admirably fitted to exprefs
grief and affliction ; thefe f unds boldly ftruck in af¬
cending tear the foul. Their power is no lefs magi¬
cal in defcending \ it is then that the ear feems to be
pierced with real groans. Attended with its proper
harmony, this fpecies appears proper to exprefs every
thing j but its completion, by concealing the melody,
facrifices a part of its expreffion j and for this dif-
advantage, arifing from the fulnefs of the harmony,
it can only be compenfated by the nature and ge¬
nius of the movement. We may add, that in propor¬
tion to the energy of this fpecies, the compofer ought
to ufe it with greater caution and parfimony ; like
thofe elegant viands, which, when profufely admini-
ftered, immediately forfeit us with their abundance }
as much as they delight us when enjoyed with temper¬
ance, fo much do they difguft when devoured with pro¬
digality.
Chromatic, Enharmonic. See Enharmonic.
CHROMATICS;
rT ’HAT part of optics which explains the feveral
properties of the colours of light, and of natural
t bodies.
Different Before the time of Sir Ifaac Newton, we find no
hypothefes hvpothefis concerning colours of any confequence.
cencerning opinions of the old philofophers, however, we
colours. briefly mention, in order to gratify the curiofity
of our readers. The Pythagoreans called colour the
fuperfices of body. Plato faid that it was a flame if-
fuing from them. According to Zeno, it is the firft
configuration of matter j and Ariftotle faid, it was that
which moved bodies a<flually tranfparent. Des Cartes
afferted, that colour is a modification of light j but he
imagined, that the difference of colour proceeds from
the prevalence of the diredt or rotatory motion of the
particles of light. Father Grimaldi, Dee hales, and
many others, thought the difference of colour depend¬
ed upon the quick or flow vibrations of a certain elaf-
tic medium filling the whole univerfe. Rohault ima¬
gined that the different colours were made by the
rays of light entering the eye at different angles with
refpedt to the optic axis; and from the phenomena of
the rainbow, he pretended to calculate the precife
quantity of the angle that conftituted each particular
colour. Laftly, Dr Hooke, the rival of Newton, ima¬
gined that colour is caufed by the fenfaiion of the ob¬
lique or uneven pulfe of light $ and this being capable
of no more than two varieties, he concluded there could
be no mere than two primary colours. 2
In the year 1666, Sir Ifaac Newton began to invef-This fub-
tigate this fubjedt j and finding the coloured image ofie<^ inveH
the fun, formed by a glafs prifm, to be of an oblong,
and Newton.
75
C H R O M
and not of a circular form, as, according to the laws
of refra&ion, it ought to be,\he began to conje&ure
that light is not komogeneal; but that it confifts of rays,
feme of which are much more refrangible than others.
See this difcovery fully explained and afcertained un¬
der the article Optics.
This method of accounting for the different colours
of bodies, from their refleding this or that kind of
rays moft copioufly, is fo eafy and ^U.Vt, r’nat Sir
Ifaac’s fynem quickly overcame all obje&ions, and to
this day continues to be almoft univerfally believed.
It is now acknowledged, that the light of the fun
which to us feems perfe&ly homogeneal and white, is
compofed of no fewer than feven different colours, viz.
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and violet
or indigo. A body which appears of a red colour
hath the property of reflecting the red rays more power¬
fully than any of the others 5 and fo of the orange,
yellow, green, &c. A body which is of a black co¬
lour, inftead of reflecting, abforbs all or the greateft
part of the rays that fall upon it; and, on the contra¬
ry, a body which appears white refleCts the greateft
part of the rays indifcriminately, without feparating
the one from the other.
The foundation of a rational theory of colours be¬
ing thus laid, it next became natural to inquire, by
what peculiar mechanifm in the ftruCfure of each par¬
ticular body it was fitted to refleCt one kind of rays
more than another ? This Sir Ifaac Newton attributes
to the denfity of thefe bodies. Dr Hooke had remark¬
ed, that thin tranfparent fubftances, particularly water
and foap blown into bubbles, exhibited various colours
according to their thinnefs j though, when they have
a confiderable degree of thicknefs, they appear colour-
lefs 5 and Sir Ifaac himfelf had obferved, that as he
was comprefling two prifms hard together, in order to
make their fides (which happened to be a little con¬
vex) to touch one another, in the place of contaCI they
were both perfectly tranfparent, as if they had been
p j 3 but one continued piece of glafs. Round the point of
aBiiearins- conta&> where the glafles were a little feparated from
between each other, rings of different colours appeared. To
two glafs obferve more nicely the order of the colours,produced
plates. jn this manner, he took two objeCt-glaffes j one of
them a plano-convex one belonging to a 14 feet re-
' fraCting telefcope, and the other a large double con¬
vex one for a telefcope of about 50 feet j and laying
the former of them upon the latter, with its plain fide
downwards, he preffed them flowly together ; by
which means the colours very foon emerged, and ap¬
peared diftinft to a confiderable diftance. Next to
the pellucid centrical fpot, made by the contad of the
glaffes, fucceeded blue, white, yellow, and red. The
blue was very little in quantity, nor could he difcern
any violet in it ; but the yellow and red were very co¬
pious, extending about as far as the white, and four
or five times as far as the blue. The next circuit im¬
mediately furrounding thefe, confifted of violet, blue,
green, yellow, and red : all thefe were copious and
vivid, except the green, which was very little in quan¬
tity, and feemed more faint and dilute than the other
colours. Of the other four the violet was the leaf! in
extent ; and the blue lefs than the yellow or red. The
third circle of colours was purple, blue, green, yellow,
and red. In this the purple feemed more reddilh than
A T I C S.
the violet in the former circuit, and the green was
more confpicuous ; being as brilk and copious as anv
of the other colours, except the yellow •, but the red
began to be a little faded, inclining much to purple.
The fourth circle confifted of green and red $ and of
thefe the green was very copious and lively, inclining
on the one fide to blue, and on the other to yellow j
but in_ this fourth circle there was neither violet, blue,
nor yellow, and the red was very imperfect and dirty.
All the fucceeding colours grew more and more imper-
fe<ff and dilute, till after three or four revolutions they
ended in perfect whitenefs. ^
As the colours were thus found to vary according Suppofed
to the different diftances of the glafs plates from each to arife
other; our author thought that they proceeded fromtrom ^en-
the different thicknefs of the plate of air intercepted11
between the glaffes ; this plate of air being, by the
mere circumftance of thinnefs or thicknefs, difpofed
to refleft or tranfmit this or that particular colour.
From this he concluded, as already obferved, that the
colours of all natural bodies depended on their den¬
fity, or the bignefs of their component particles. He
alfo conftrufted a table, wherein the thicknefs of a
plate neceffary to refleft any particular colour was
expreffed in parts of an inch divided into 1,000,000
parts. ^
Sir Ifaac Newton, purfuing his difcoveries concern-Colours by
ing the colours of thin fubftances, found that the famerefle<a‘0"*
were alfo produced by plates of a confiderable thick¬
nefs. There is no glafs or fpeculum, he obferves,
how well poliftied foever, but, befides the light which
it refradls or refle&s regularly, fcatters every way ir¬
regularly a faint light ; by means of which the po¬
liftied furface, when illuminated in a dark room by a
beam of the fun’s light, may eafily be feen in all po-
fitions of the eye. It was with this fcattered light that
the colours in the following experiments were pro¬
duced.
The fun fhining into his darkened chamber throuoh
a hole in the ftiutter one inch wide, he let the beam
of light fall perpendicularly upon a glafs fpeculum con¬
cave on one fide and convex on the other, ground to a
fphere of five feet eleven inches radius, and quickfil-
vered over on the convex fide. Then, holding a quire
of white paper at the centre of the fphere to which the
fpeculums were ground, in fuch a manner as that the
beam of light might pafs through a little hole made in
the middle of the paper, to the fpeculum, and thence
be refrafted back to the fame hole, he obferved on the
paper four or five concentric rings of colours like rain¬
bows, furrounding the hole, very much like thofe which
appeared in the thin plates above mentioned, but lar¬
ger and fainter. Thefe rings, as they grew larger
and larger, became more dilute, fo that the fifth was
hardly vifible; and yet fometimes, when the fun (hone
very clear, there appeared faint traces of a fixth and
feventh. 5
We have already taken notice, that the thin plates CoI°urs by
made ufe of in the former experiments reflefted feme rt'lraft*C)n
-kinds of rays in particular parts, and tranfmitted
others in the fame parts. Hence the coloured rings merated"
appeared varioufly difpofed, according as they were
viewed by tranfmitted or refledled light; that is, ac-
. cording as the plates were held up between the light
and the eye, or not. For the better underftanding of
K % vihich
76
CHROMATICS.
which vve fubjoin the following table, wherein on one
fide are mentioned the colour.1' appearing on the plates
by refle&ed light, and on the other thofe which were
oppofite to them, and which became vifible when the
glaffes were held up between the eye and the window.
We have already obferved, that the centre, when the
glaffes were in full contaft, was perfectly tranfparent.
This fpot, therefore, when viewed by reflected light,
appeared black, becaufe it tranfmitted all the rays ;
and for the fame reafon it appeared white when view¬
ed by tranfmitted light.
Colours by Refle&ed
Light.
Black.
Blue
White
Yellow
Bed
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Purple
Blue
Green
Yellow 7
Red $
Green
Red
Greenilb-blue
Red
COLOURS by Tranfmitted
Light.
White
Yellowilh-red
Black
Violet
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Bluilh-green
Red
Btuilh-green
Red
The colours of the rings produced from reflexion
by the thick plates, followed the order of thofe pro¬
duced by tranfmiffion through the thin ones j and by
the analogy of their phenomena with thofe produced
from the thin plates, Sir Ifaac Newton concluded that
they were produced in a fimilar manner. For he
found, that if the quickfilver was rubbed off from the
back of the fpeculum, the glafs alone would produce
the fame rings, but much more faint than before ; fo
that the phenomenon did not depend upon the quiek-
filver, except in as far as, by increafing the reflettion
at the back of the glafs, it increafed the light of the
coloured rings. He alfo found that a fpeculum of me¬
tal only, produced none of thefe rings j which made
him conclude, that they did not arife from one furface
only, but depended on the two furfaces of the plate of
glafs of which the fpeculum was made, and upon the
^ thicknefs of the glafs between them.
General From thefe experiments and obfervations, it will be
theory of eafy to underftand the Newtonian theory of colours,
colours by Every fubtf ance in nature feems to be tranfparent,
Newton Provided it is made fufficiently thin. Gold, the moft
J ’ denfe fubftance we know, w'hen reduced into thin
leaves, tranfmits a bluilh-green light through it. If,
therefore, we fuppofe any body, gold, for inftance, to
be divided into a vail number of plates, fo thin as to
be almoft perfe&ly tranfparent, it is evident that all
or greateft part of the rays will pafs through the up¬
per plates, and when they lofe their force will be re-
fledted from the under ones. They will then have
the fame number of plates to pafs through which they
had penetrated before j and thus, according to the
4
number of thofe plates through which they are obli¬
ged to pafs, the objedl appears of this or that colour,
juft as the rings of colours appeared different in the
experiment of the two plates, according to their di-
ftance from one another, or the thicknefs of the plate
of air between them. s
This theory is adopted by Edward Huffey Delaval, Mr Deta¬
in his Experimental Inquiry into the caufe of the v.ai 5 fcXPe"
chsi'ges of colours in opaque and coloured bodies,
He endeavours to confirm it by a number of experi-tion of it.
ments on the infufions of flowers of different colours;
but his ftrongeft arguments feem to be thofe derived
from the different tinges given to glafs by metallic
fubftances. Here he obferves, that each metal gives a
tinge according to its fpecific denfity : The more denfe
metals producing the lefs refrangible colours, and the
lighter ones thoie colours which are more eafily refran¬
gible. Gold, which is the denfeft of all metals, im¬
parts a red colour to glafs, whenever it can be divided
into particles fo minute, that it is capable of being
mixed with the materials of which glafs is made. It
feems indifferent by what means it is reduced to this
ftate, nor can it by any means be made to produce
another colour. If it is mixed in large maffes without
being minutely divided, it imparts no colour to the
glafs, but remains in its metallic form. Lead, the me¬
tal vvhofe denfity is next in order to that of gold, af¬
fords a glafs of the colour of the hyacinth ; a gem
whofe diitinguiftiing charadteriftic is, that it is red
with an admixture of yellow, the fame colour which
is ufuaily called orange. Glafs of lead is mentioned by
feveral authors as a compofition proper, without the
addition of any other ingredient, for imitating the hy¬
acinth. Silver, next in denfity to lead, can only be
made to communicate a yellow colour to glafs. If
the metal is calcined with fulphur, it readily commu¬
nicates this colour. Leaf-filver laid upon red hot glafs,
likewife tinges it yellow. When vTe meet with au¬
thors who mention a blue, or greenifti colour commu¬
nicated by filver, the caufe muft have been, that the
filver ufed in fuch proceffes was mixed with copper.
Mr Delaval affures us, from his own experience, that
filver purified by the teft retains fo much copper, that,
when melteu feveral times with nitre and borax, it al¬
ways imparted a green colour at the firft and fecond
melting : though afterwards no fuch colour was ob¬
tainable from it. The only colour produced by cop¬
per is green. It is indifferent in what manner the
copper is prepared in order to tinge the glafs, provided
it is expofed without any other ingredient to a fuffi-
cient degree of heat. If a quantity of falls is added
in the preparation, they will, by attenuating the mix¬
ture, make the glafs incline to blue, the colour next
in order : but this happens only when the fire is mo¬
derate ; for, in a greater degree of heat, the redun¬
dant falls, even thofe of the moft fixed nature, are ex¬
pelled. It is true, that copper is mentioned by fome
writers as an ingredient in red glafs and enamel : but
the red, which is the colour of the metal not diffolved
or mixed with the glafs, remains only while the com¬
pofition is expofed to fuch a degree of heat as is too
fmall to melt and.incorporate it; for if it be buffered
to remain in the furnace a few minutes after the cop¬
per is added, the mafs will turn out green inftead of
red. Iron, the metal next in denfity to copper, is apt
to
77
9
Sir Ilaac’s
theory de¬
fended by
Dr Prieft-
ky.
to •
His experi¬
ments.
it
Mr Can¬
ton’s expe¬
riments.
CHROMATICS.
to be calcined, or reduced to a ruddy crocus, fimilar
to that ruft which it contracts fpontaneoufly in the
air. In this date it requires a confiderable degree of
heat to difiolve and incorporate it with glafs : till that
heat is applied, it retains its ruddy colour : by in-
creafing the heat, it paffes through the intermediate
colours, till it arrives at its permanent one, which is
blue ; this being effected in the greateft degree of heat
the glafs will bear, without lofing all colour whatever.
Iron vitrified per fe is converted into a blue glafs. In
lliort, it is indubitable, that iron is the only metal
which will, without any addition, impart to the glafs
a blue colour : for copper will not communicate that
colour without the addition, of a confiderable quan¬
tity of falls, or fome other matter that attenuates it j
and the other metals cannot by any means be made to
produce it at all.
Thefe are the principal of Mr Delaval’s arguments
in favour of Sir Ifaac Newton’s theory of colours be¬
ing formed by denfity. Dr Prieftley too hath men¬
tioned fome which deferve attention. “ It was a
difcovery of Sir Ifaac Newton (fays he), that the co¬
lours of bodies depend upon the thicknefs of the fine
plates .which compofe their furfaces. He hath fiiown,
that a change of the thicknefs of thefe plates occafions
a change in the colour of the body $ ra,ys of a differ¬
ent colour being thereby difpofed to be tranfmitted
through it ; and confequently rays of a different co¬
lour reflefted at the fame place, fo as to reprefent an
image of a different colour to the eye. A variation
in the denfity occafions a variation in the colour : but
ftill a medium of any denfity will exhibit all the co¬
lours according to the thicknefs of it. Thefe obfer-
vations he confirmed by experiments on plates of air,
water, and glafs. He likewife mentions the colours
which arife on poliftied fteel by heating it, as likewife
on bell-metal, and fome, other metalline fubftances,
when melted and poured on the ground, where they
may cool in the open air ; and he afcribes them to
the fcorige or vitrified parts of the metal, which, he
fays, moft metals, when heated or melted, do continu¬
ally protrude and fend out to their furfaces, covering
them in the form of a thin glaffy fkin. This great
difcovery concerning the colours of bodies depending
on the thicknefs of the fine plates which compofe their
furfaces, of whatever denfity thefe plates may be, I
have been fo happy as to hit upon a method of illuf-
trating and confirming by means of eleiffrical explo-
fions. A number of thefe being received on the fur-
face of any piece of metal, change the colour of it to
a confiderable difiance from the fpot on which they
were difcharged ; fo that the whole circular fpace is
divided into a number of concentric rings, each of
which confifis of all the prifmatic colours, and per¬
haps as vivid as they can be produced in any method
whatever. Upon (liowing thele coloured rings to Mr
Canton, I was agreeably furprifed to find, that he had
likewife produced all the priftnatic colours from all
the metals, but by a different operation. He ex¬
tended fine wires of all the different metals along the
furface of pieces of glafs, ivory, wood, &e. *, and
when the wire was exploded, he always found them
tinged with all the colours. They are not difpofed
in fo regular and beautiful a manner as in the rings I
produced, but they equally demonfirated that none of
the metals thus exploded difcovers the leaft preference
to one colour more than to another. In what manner
thefe colours are formed it may not be eafy to conjec¬
ture. In Mr Canton’s method of producing them,
the metal, or the calcined and vitrified parts of it,
feem to be difperfed in all directions from the plate
of explofion, in the form of Ipheres of a very great
variety of fizes, tinged with all the variety of colours,
and fome of them fmaller than can be diflinftly feen
by any magnifier. In my method of making thefe co¬
lours, they feem to be produced in a manner fimilar to
the produdion of colours on fteel and other metals by
heat j i. e. the furface is affeCted without the parts of
it being removed from their places, certain plates
or laminae being formed of a thicknefs proper to exhi¬
bit the refpective colours.” ^
But, however well fupported this doCtrine of the Newtonian
formation of colours by de'nfity may be, we find the theory im-
fame author (Dr Prieftley), whom we have juft now Pu§ne^'’X
feen arguing for it in his hiftory of eleCtricity, arguing Pr Pnell>
againft it in his hiftory of vifion. “ There are (fays 5’
he) no optical experiments with which Sir Ifaac New¬
ton feems to have taken more pains than thofe rela¬
ting to the rings of colours which appear in thin plates $
and in all his obfervations and inveftigations concern¬
ing them, he difcovers the greateft fagacity both a< a
philofopher and mathematician \ and yet in no objeCl
to which he gave his attention, does he feem to have
overlooked more important eircumftances in the ap¬
pearances he obferved, or to have been more mifta-
ken with regard to their caufes. The former will be
evident from the obfervations of thofe who fucceeded
him in thefe inquiries, particularly thofe of the Abbe
Mazeas. This gentleman, endeavouring to give a Curious
very high polifh to the flat fide of an objeCt glafs, hap- experi-
pened to be rubbing it againft another piece of flatments by,
and fmooth glafs j when he was furprifed to find, that ^ Ahbe
after this friCtion, they adhered very firmly together, 'lazeas’
till at laft he could not move the one above the other.
But he was much more furprifed to obferve the fame
colours between thefe plane glaffes that Newton ob¬
ferved between the convex objeCt-glafs of a telefcope
and another that is plane. Thefe colours between
the plane glaffes, the Abbe obferves, were in propor¬
tion to their adhefion. The refemblance between
them and the colours produced by Newton, induced
him to give a very particular attention to them ; and
his obfervations and experiments were as follows:
“ If the furfaces of the pieces of glafs are tranfpa-
rent, and well poliihed, fuch as are ufed for mirrors,
and the preffure be as equal as poflible on every part
of the two furfaces, a refiftance, he fays, will foon be
perceived when one of them is made to Aide over the
other 5 fometimes towards the middle, and fometimes
towards the edges •, but wherever the refifiance is felt,
two or three very fine curve lines will be perceived,
fome of a pale red, and others of a faint green. Con¬
tinuing the fri&ion, thefe red and green lines increafe
in number at the place of contact, the colours being
fometimes mixed without any order, and fometimes
difpofed in a regular manner. In the laft cafe, the
coloured lines are generally concentric circles, or el-
lipfes, or rather ovals, more or lefs elongated as the
furfaces
78
C H R 0 M
furfaces are more or lefs united. The e figures will
not fail to appear, if the glaffes are well w iped and
warmed before the fri6tjon.
“ When the colours are formed, the glafies adhere
with eonfiderable force, and would always continue fo
without any change in the colours. In the centre of
all thofe ovals, the longer diameter of which generally
exceeds ten lines, there appears a fmall plate of the
fame figure, exaftly like a plate of gold interpofed
between the glaffes ; and in the centre of it there is
often a dark fpot, which abforbs all the rays of !i ght
except the violet: for this colour appears very vivid
through a prifm.
“ If the glaffes are feparated fuddenly, either by
Aiding them horizontally over one another, or by the
aflion of fire, as will be explained hereafter, the co¬
lours will appear immediately upon their being put to¬
gether again, without the leaft friflion.
“ Beginning by the flighteft touch, and increafing
4he preffure by infenfible degrees, there firft appears
an oval plate ef a faint red, and in the midft of it a
fpot of light green, which enlarges by the preffure,
and becomes a green oval, with a red fpot in the
centre ; and this, enlarging in its turn, difcovers a
green fpot in its centre. Thus the red and the green
fucceed one another in turns, affuming different fhades,
and having other colours mixed with them, which will
be diftinguilhed prefently.
“ The greateft difference between thefe colours ex¬
hibited between plane furfaces and thofe formed by
curve ones is, that in the former cafe preffure alone
will not produce them, except in the cafe above men¬
tioned. With whatever force he compreffed them, his
attempts to produce the colours wrere in vain without
previous friftion. But the reafon of this plainly was,
that with Aiding one of the glaffes over the other, they
could not be brought to approach near enough for the
purpofe.
“ Having made thefe obfervations with plates of
glafs whofe fides were nearly parallel, he got two
prifms with very fmall refrafting angles; and rubbing
them together, when they were joined fo as to form a
parallelopiped, the colours appeared with a furpriling
luftre at the places of contaft, owing, he did not
doubt, to the feparation of the rays of light by the
prifm. In this cafe, differently coloured ovals appear¬
ed, but the plate of gold in them was much whiter,
and only appeared yellow about its edges. The plate
having a black fpot in its centre, was bordered by a
deep purple. He could not perceive any violet by his
naked eye, but it might be perceived by the help of
a lens with a weak light. It appeared in a very fmall
quantity at the confines of the purple and the blue,
and feemed to him to be only a mixture of thefe two
colours It was very vifible in each of the coloured
rings by inclining the glaffes to the light of the moon.
Next to the purple and violet appeared blue, orange,
red tinged with purplt-, light green, and faint purple.
The other rings appeared to the naked eye to con-
fift of nothing but faint reds and greens ; and they
were fo fhaded that it was not eafy to mark their ter¬
minations. That the order of thefe may be compared
with Newton’s, he gives a view of both in the follow¬
ing table :
A T I C S.
'Order of the Colours in the
Plane Glajfes.
TBlack fpot
\ Whitilh oval
J Yellow border
(_Deep purple
Order I.
Order II.
Order III.
Order IV.
Order. V.
Order VI.
Order VII.
f Blue
< Qrange
(. Purple
^ Greenish blue
< Yellow green
(. Purple red
f Green
l Red
f Faint green
\ Faint red
r Weak green
£ Light red
F Very faint green
(_ Very faint red
Order of the Colours in
Nexvt. Objeft Glajfes.
Black
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Purple
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Green
Red
GreeniAi blue
Red
Greenilh blue
Red
Greenilh blue
Pale red.
“ When thefe coloured glaffes were fufpended over
the flame of a candle, the colours difappeared fudden¬
ly, though the glaffes ftill continued to adhere to one
another, when they were parallel to the horizon. When
they were fuffered to cool, the colours returned by de¬
grees to their former places, in the order of the pre¬
ceding table.
“ After this the Abbe took two plates much thicker
than the former, in order to obferve at his leifure the
a&ion of fire upon the matter which he fuppofed to
produce the colours j and obferved, that as they grew
warm, the colours retired to the edges of the glaffes,
and there became narrower and narrower till they were
reduced to imperceptible lines. Withdrawing the
flame, they returned to their place. This experiment
he continued till the glaffes were bent by the violence
of the heat. It was pleafant, he fays, to obferve thefe
colours glide over the furface of the glafs as they were
purfued by the flame.
“ At the firft our author had no doubt but that
thefe colours were owing to a thin plate of air between
the glaffes, to which Newton has aferibed them : but
the remarkable difference in the circumftances attend¬
ing thofe produced by the flat pieces, and thofe produced
by the objeft-glaffes of Newton, convinced him that the
air was not the caufe of this appearance. The colours
of the flat plates vanifhed at the approach of flame,
but thofe of the objeit-glaffes did not. He even heat¬
ed the latter till that which was next the flame was
cracked by the heat, before he could obferve the leaft
dilatation of the coloured rings. This difference was
not owing to the plane glaffes being lefs compreffed
than the convex ones; for though the. former were
compreffed ever fo muc h by a pair of forceps, it did not
in the leaft binder the effe<ft of the flame.
“ Afterwards he put both the plane glaffes and the
convex ones into the receiver of an air pump, fufpend-
ing the former by a thread, and keeping the latter com¬
preffed
X
79
CHROMATICS.
prefled by two firings; but he obferved no change in
the colours of either of them in the moft perfect va¬
cuum he could make.
“ Notwithtlanding thefe experiments feemed to be
conclufive againft the hypothefis of thefe colours be¬
ing formed by a plate of air, the Abbe frankly ac¬
knowledges, that the air may adhere fo obftinate-
ly to the furface of the glafl'es as not to be fepa-
rated from them by the force of the pump j which,
indeed, is agreeable to other appearances: but the
following experiments of our author make it flill more
improbable that the air fhould be the caufe of thefe co¬
lours.
“ To try the utmofl effe£l of heat upon thefe co¬
loured plates, after warming them gradually, he laid
them upon burning coals 5 but though they were near¬
ly red, yet when he rubbed them together by means
of an iron rod, he obferved the fame coloured circles
and ovals as before. When he ceafed to prefs upon them,
the colours feemed to vanifh ; but when he repeated
the fri&ion, they returned, and continued till the pie¬
ces of glafs began to be red hot, and their furfaces to be
united by fufion.
“ When the outward furface of one of his plates of
glafs was quickfilvered, none of thefe colours were vi-
lible, though the glaffes continued to adhere with the
fame force. This he aferibed to the ftronger impref-
fion made on the eye by the greater quantity of light
reflefted from the quickfilver.
“ Judging from the refemblance between his ex¬
periments and thofe of Sir Ifaac Newton, that the co¬
lours were owing to the thicknefs of fome matter,
whatever that was, interpofed between the glaffes,
the Abbe, in order to verify his hypothefis, tried the
experiment on thicker fubftances. He put between
his glaffes a little ball of fuet, about a fourth of a line
in diameter, and preffed it between the two furfaces,
warming them at the fame time, in order to difperfe
the fuet; but though he rubbed them together as be¬
fore, and ufed other foft fubftances befides fuet, his
endeavours to produce the colours had no effect. But, ,
rubbing them with more violence in a circular man¬
ner, he was furprifed on looking at a candle through
them, to fee it furrounded with two or three concen¬
tric rings, very broad, and with very lively delicate
colours ; namely, a red inclining to a yellow, and a
green inclining to that of an emerald. At that time
he obferved only thefe two colours; but continuing the
friftion, the rings affumed the colours of blue, yellow,
and violet, especially when he looked through the
glafles on bodies direftly oppofed to the fun. If, after
having rubbed the glafles, the thicknefs was confide-
rably diminifhed, the colours grew weaker by tranf-
mitted light, but they feemed to be much ftronger by
refledlion, and to gain on one fide what they loft on the
other.
Newtonian “ Our author was confirmed in his opinion, that
liypothefis there muft be fome error in Newton’s hypothefis, by
oppofed. confidering, that, according to his meafures, the co¬
lours of the plates varied with the difference of a
millionth part of an inch j whereas he was fatisfied
that there muft have been much greater differences in
the diftance between his glaffes, when the colours re¬
mained unchanged.
“ If the colour depended upon the thicknels only, he
thought that the matter interpofed between the glaffes
ought to have given the fame colour when it was re¬
duced to a thin plate by fimple fufion as well as by fric¬
tion, and that, in rubbing two plates together, warm¬
ing them at different times, and compreffing them with
a confiderable force, other colours would have appeared
befides thofe above mentioned.
“ Thefe circumftances made him fufpeft, that the
different thickneffes of the fubftance interpofed be¬
tween the glaffes ferved only to make them more or
lefs tranfparent j which was an effential condition in
the experiment; and he imagined that the fri&ion
diffufed over the furface of the thin fubftance a kind
of matter on which the colours are formed by refledled
light j for when he held the plates (which gave the
colours when the fuet was between them) over the
flame of a fmall candle, the colours fled with great
precipitation, and returned to their place without
his being able to perceive the leaft alteration in the
fuet.
“ He was confirmed in his conje&ures, by frequent¬
ly obferving, that when the glaffes were feparated, at
the moment the colours difappeared, they were cover¬
ed with the fame greafy matter, and that it feemed to
be in the very fame ftate as when they were feparated
without warming. Befides, having often repeated
the fame experiment with different kinds of matter, ho
found that the degree of heat that difperfed the colours
was not always fufficient to melt it j which difference
was more fenfible in proportion as the matter interpofed
was made thinner.
“ Inftead of the fuet, he fometimes made ufe of
Spanifh wax, refin, common wax, and the fediment
of urine. He began with Spanifh wax, on account of
its remarkable tranfparency in Mr Haukfbee’s eledftri-
cal experiments; but he had much difficulty in making
it fufficiently thin by friftion, being often obliged to
warm his glaffes, to feize the moment of fufion, which
continued but a ftiort time, and to hazard the burning
of his fingers.
“ The experiment at length fucceeding, the Spa-
niffi wax appeared with Its opacity and natural colour
when it refle&ed the light, but they both difappeared
in the tranfmitted light. He obferved the fame rings
in it as in the fuet j and indeed he could perceive but
little difterence between the colour of fuet, Spanifh
wax, common wax, or refin ; except that this laft fub¬
ftance did not make the colours fo vivid, on account of
the too great tranfparency of its particles.
“ The fediment of urine had fomething more par¬
ticular in its appearance, as its colours were more
lively. Holding it above the flame, its colour difap¬
peared ; and keeping it in that fituation, there were
formed, upon its furface, ramifications, like thofe of
the hoar froft, which difappeared as the glaffes grew
cold. There were the fame ramifications both upon
the fuet and the wax, but they were not fo confider¬
able. The glaffes which had Spaniffi wax and refin
between them adhered with fo much force, that they
could not be feparated without the help of fire; and
when they^.began to grow warm, they feparated with
a noife like that of glafs breaking in the hie, though
the glaffes were not broken, and the matter between
them was not melted.
“ Separating the glaffes which he firft ufed very
fuddenlj;,
8o
fuddenly, lie obferved upon their i'urface very thin
vapours, which formed different colours, but prefent-
ly vanifhed altogether.
“ lo try the efteft of vapour, he breathed upon
one of his plates of glafs, and obferved that the va¬
pours which adhered to the glaffes fometimes formed,
before they were entirely difperfed, a furprifing va¬
riety of colours. This experiment, he obferves, does
not always fucceed at the firft trial. The glafs muff
be breathed upon feveral times, and care mutt be ta¬
ken to wipe it every time with one’s hand, both to
take off the moitture, and alfo to make upon the glafs
a kind of furrows, which contribute very much to the
variety of colours, by making inequalities in the thick-
neffes of the vapours. It is neceffary alfo, that the
glaffes on which thefe experiments are made have no
quickfilver upon them.
“ When the particles of water which formed this
vapour were too thick to exhibit thefe colours, he
* ft ruck them feveral times with his pencil, in order to
attenuate them } and then he faw an infinity of fmall
coloured threads which fucceeded one another with
great rapidity.
“ Putting a drop of water between two pieces of
common glafs, he obferved that the compreflion of them
produced no colour ; but if, while they were compref-
fed, the water was made to pafs from one place to an¬
other, it left behind it large fpots, red, yellow, green,
purple, &c. and the fpots affumed different colours with
a furprifing rapidity, and prefented to the eye a aiott
beautiful variety of (hades.
• In order to determine with greater certainty whe¬
ther they were vapours that caufed the colours in his
firft obfervations, he firft breathed upon one of his plates ■
of glafs, and then rubbed them againft one another,
when the colours appeared in the fane order as before’
but darker, and difperfed in confufion in the places oc¬
cupied by the vapours: but when be made ufe of fire,
to diffipate the watery particles, the colours refumed
their luftre.
“ Newton, having introduced a drop of water be¬
tween his two objeft-glaffes, obferved, that in pronor-
tion as the water infinuated itfelf between the ^laffes
the colours grew fainter, and the rings were contract¬
ed : and afcribing thefe colours to the thicknefs of the
plate of water, as he afcribed the former to that of the
plate of air, he meafured the diameters of the colour¬
ed rings made by the plate of water, and concluded
that the intervals between the glaffes at the fimilar
rings of thefe two mediums were nearly as three to
four ; and thence he inferred, that in all cafes, thefe
intervals would be as the fines of the refraCHons of thefe
mediums.
“ The Mazeas, in order to affure himfelf
whether, agreeable to this rule, the coloured rings of
bis glaffes depended upon the thicknefs of the water
only, dipped one of the edges of his coloured glaffes
in a veffel of water, having taken care to wipe and
warm them well, before he produced his colours by
friCtion. . The water was a confiderable time in ri-
fing as high as the glaffes ; and in proportion as it
afcended, he perceived a very thin plate of water, which
feemed to pafs over the matter which he thought
produced the colours, without mixing with it j for
beyond this plate of water, he fiill perceived the co-
CHROMATICS.
lours in the fame place and order, but deeper and
darker ; and holding the glaffes above the flame of a
candle, he faw the colours go and come feveral times
as he moved them nearer to or farther from the flame.
He then moiftened both the glafi'es more than before ;
and rubbing them as ufual, he always faw the fame
appearance 5 and feiziog the moment when the co¬
lours had difappeared to feparate the glaffes, he al¬
ways found that they were wet. On this account,
he thought that it could not be the water on which
the colour depended, but fome fubftance much more
fenfible to heat. He alfo thought that thefe coloured
rings could not be owing to the compreflion of the
glaffes; or that, if this circumflance did contribute
any thing to them, it ferved rather to modify than to
generate them.
“ M. du Tour gave particular attention to the pre-M ^
ceding obfervations of the Abbe Mazeas. He repeat-Tour’s ob-
ed the experiments with fome variation of circum- fervations.
fiances, particularly comparing them with thofe of
Sir Ifaac Newton. He is fo far from fuppofing a plate
of air to be neceffary to the formation of thefe co¬
loured rings, that he thinks the reafon of their not ap¬
pearing between the flat plates of glafs is the adhe¬
ring of the air to their furfaces 5 and that mere pref-
fure is not fufficient to expel it ; except, as the Abbe
Mazeas obferved, the rings had before been made in
the fame place j in which cafe, fimple appofition with¬
out fn&ion is fufficient; the air, probably, not having
had time to apply itfelf io clofely to the furface of the
glafs. The contact of fome other fubftances, M. du
1 ouv obferves, is not fo prejudicial in this experiment
>is that of air ; for he found, that, if he only gave the
plates' a flight coating of any kind of greafe, the rings
woulu appear without fndlion. Alfo dipping them
flightly in vv’ater, or wiping them with his finger, would
an.ue. the lame purpofe. He verified his corije£fures
by means of the air-purrvp : for, dipping two pieces
of grafs in water, one of which had been wiped, and
the other not, the former appeared to have no bubbles
adhering to it when the air was exhaufted, whereas the
other had.
\\ hen one of the glaffes is convex, our author
obferves, that the particles of air may more eafily
make their efcape by preflure only ; whereas their re¬
treat is in a manner cut off when they are compreffed
oetween two flat furfaces. The air-pump, he found,
was not able to detach thefe particles of air from the
jur.aces to which they adhere ; leaving thefe flat plates
for a confiderable time in an exhaufted receiver, was
not fufficient to prepare them fo well for the experi¬
ment as wiping them. ^
Befides the obfervations on the colours of thin Experi-
p ates, it has been feen that Sir Ifaac Newton ima-11161115 on
gined he could account for the colours exhibited by G0i0Uf. by
thic.Y ones in fome cafes in a fimilar manner; parti-^ ec 10n*
cularly m thofe curious experiments in which he ad¬
mitted a beam of light through a hole in a piece of
palteboard, and obferved the rings of colours reflefted
back upon it by a concave glafs mirror of equal thick-
neis in all places. Thefe experiments were refumed,
and happfty purfued by the Duke de Chaulnes, who
afcnbed thefe colours to the infleaion of light*. Chance * -
!ed the duke to obferve, that when the nearer furface^
ot the glafs mirror was clouded by breathing upon it,
fo <
8i
G H R O M
fo as lightly to tarnilh it, a white diffufed and vivid
light was feen upon the pafteboard, and all the colours
of the rings became much ftronger, and more diftind.
This appearance he made conftant by moiftening the
furface of the mirror with a little milk and water, and
fuffering it to dry upon it.
“ In all his experiments upon this fubjeft, he found,
that when the rays fell converging on the furface of
the mirror, the rings were hardly vifible ; when they
fell parallel upon it, as they muft have done in all the
experiments of Newton, they appeared fufficiently
diftinft ; but when, by means of a convex lens placed
in the hole of the window, they w7ere made to diverge
from the centre of the fphere to which the mirror was
ground, fo that they fell perpendicularly on the furface
of the mirror, the colours were as vivid as he could
make them. In this cafe he could remove the refleft-
ed image to a great diftance from the hole, without
making the rings difappear ; and he could plainly per¬
ceive them to arife from their central fpots, which chan¬
ged their colours feveral times.
“ The effect of tarnifliing the mirror convinced him,
that thefe coloured rings depended on the fir ft furface
of the mirror; and that the fecond furface, or that
which refledled them after they had paffed the firft,
only ferved to colleft them and throw them upon the
pafteboard in a quantity fufficient to make them vifi¬
ble ; and he was confirmed in his fuppofition by the
following experiments.
“ He took a plano-convex objeft-glafs, of fix feet
focus, and placed it fix feet from the pafteboard with
its convex fide towards it. By this means the rays
which fell upon that furface, after being refra&ed there,
were tranfmitted through the thicknefs of the glafs, pa¬
rallel to one another, and fell perpendicularly on the
plane furface that refle&ed them, and, in their return,
would be colle&ed upon the pafteboard. In thefe cir-
cumftances the rings appeared very diftinft after he
had tarnilhed the convex furface, which in this pofition
was next to the light.
“ Turning the fame glafs the contrary way, fo that
the plane furface was towards the pafteboard, he could
perceive none of the rings at the diftance of fix feet ;
but they were vifible at the diftance of three feet 5
becaufe at that diftance the fecond furface reflefted
the rays by its concavity direftly towards the pafte¬
board.
“ Thefe two experiments demonftrate the ufe of the
fecond furface of the mirror, and Ihow the manner of
placing it to moft advantage. Thofe that follow (how
the ufe of the firft furface with refpeft to thefe rings j
and he was led to make them by the cafual obfervation
above mentioned.
“ Newton, he obferves, had remarked, that when he
made ufe of a mirror of the fame focus with the firft
he had ufed, but of twice the thicknefs, he found the
diameter of the rings much fmaller than before. This
obfervation the duke thought favourable to his own
conclufions j for if thefe rings depend upon the firft
furface, the nearer it is to the fecond, which only re¬
flects the ray tranfmitted from it, the larger they ought
to appear upon the pafteboard.
“ afcertain this faft, he thought of making ufe
of two moveable furfaces j and to make ufe of a mi¬
crometer to meafure the diftance between them with
Vol. VI. Part I.
A T I C S.
exaCtnefs. For this purpofe he took a metallic mirror
belonging to a reflecting telefcope, being part of a
fphere of ten feet radius j and he fixed it firm upon a
foot in which was a groove that carried a light frame,
to which was fattened a thin piece of talk tarniftied
with milk and water. The frame that fupported the
piece of talk could either be brought into contaCt with
the mirror, or be removed to the diftance of eight or
nine inches from it, and the micrometer Ihowed to the
utmoft exaftnefs the leaft motion of the frame.
“ Having placed this mirror ten feet from the pafte¬
board, that is, at the diftance of the radius of its own
fphere, he obferved the rings to appear very diftinft :
the form of his mirror being very true : but the dia¬
meter of the rings upon the pafleboard varied with the
diftance of the talk from the mirror: fo that they were
very large when the talk was near the mirror, and very
fmall when it was placed at the diftance of feven or
eight inches.
“ Thefe experiments proved that the rings were
formed by the firft furface, and reflected by the fe¬
cond 5 but it ftill remained to be determined in what
manner they were formed. He imagined that the
fmall pencils of rays that were tranfmitted through
the pores of the glafs, or any other tranfparent fub-
ftance, might fuffer a kind of inflection, which might
change the cylinder which they formed into a trun¬
cated cone, either by means of their different degrees
of inflexibility, or by the different diftances at which
they pafs by the edges of the fmall hole, through which
they are tranfmitted. Purfuing this idea, he thought
of making ufe of feme body, the pores of which were
of a known and determined fhape. Inftead, therefore,
of the piece of talk, he placed a piece of fine linen in
the above-mentioned frame, ftretching it as even as
poflible, to make the pores formed by the threads more
exaCl, and more permeable by the light j and he foon
found, with great pleafure, that his conjedure was
verified; for inftead of the circular rings which he had
before, they were now manifeftly fquare, though their
angles were a little rounded ; and they were colour¬
ed as the others, though the light was not very vi¬
vid, on account of the quantity that was flopped by
the muflin.
“ When, inftead of the muflin, he ftretched acrofs
his frame fine filver wires exaClly parallel, at the di¬
ftance of about three quarters of a line, or a whole
line from one another, without any other wires acrofs
them ; inftead of the rings which he had feen before,
there was nothing upon the pafteboard but a gleam of
white light, divided by many fmall ftreaks, coloured
in a very vivid manner, and in the fame manner as the
rings.” # .y
Thus we have another hypothefis of the formation Another
of colours, namely, by the inflection of light in its theory of
paffage out from between the folid and impenetrablecolours*
particles of which bodies are compofed. It is, how¬
ever, very difficult, upon the hypothefis either of Sir
Ifaac Newton, or that of the duke de Chaulnes, to
give a reafon why bodies that are not entirely white,
fhould not appear varioufly coloured. For it appears
from Sir Ifaac Newton’s experiments, that plates of
different denfity are capable of exhibiting the fame
colours ; and that where a plate is continually varying
in denfity, it will produce all the colours. Now it. is
L evident.
§2
CHROMATICS.
evident, that the plates of which we fuppofe all na¬
tural bodies to be compofed, rauft be limilar to one
that is perpetually varying in its thicknefs *, for fuppo-
iing the plates of which any fubftance is compofed to
be of any determinate thicknefs, 9 millionth parts of
an inch for inftance 5 fuch of the rays as are reflected
from this plate will be red. But if any of them pe¬
netrate to the depth of u£ of thefe parts, they will
be refle&ed by a violet colour, &c. and thus muft al¬
loy and obfcure the red 5 and fo of others. If we
fuppofe the colours to be produced by inflection, it
will be equally difficult to account for fome particular
rays being inflated and others not j feeing we ob-
ferve that all of them are capable of being infleCted
by every fubftance whatever, when they pafs very
near it. In fome cafes, too, colours are produced
when the light is neither refrafted nor infleCted, as far
as we can judge j and this feems to obfcure the theory
- of chromatics more than any thing we have yet men¬
tioned.
As the experiments we are now about to mention are
of the greateft importance, and in direCt terms contra¬
dict one of Sir Ifaac Newton’s, we ftiall give a full ac¬
count of them, from Prieftley’s Hiftory of Vifion, &c.
„ with his remarks thereon.
One of Sir experiment in queftion is the eighth ofNew-
Ifaac New-ton’s fecond book of Optics : “He (Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s expe- ton) found, he fays, that when light goes out of air
riments through feveral contiguous refraCting mediums, as
erroneous water and glats, and thence goes out again
into air, whether the refraCling furfaces be parallel or
inclined to one another, that light, as often as, by con¬
trary refraftions, it is fo corrected, that it emerges in
lines parallel to thofe in which it was incident, con¬
tinues ever after to be white ; but if the emergent
rays be inclined to the incident, the whitenefs of the
emerging light will, by degrees, in paffing on from
the place of emergence, become tinged at its edges
with colours. This he tried by refraCling light with
prifms of glafs, placed within a prifmatic veffel of wa¬
ter.
“ By theorems, deduced from this experiment, he
infers, that the refraClion of the rays of every fort,
made out of any medium into air, are known by ha¬
ving the refraClion of the rays of any one fort ; and al-
fo, that the refraClion out of one medium into another
is found as often as we have the refraClions out of them
both into any third medium.
“ On the contrary, a Swediffi philofopher (M. Klin-
* Sived. genftierna) obferves *, that in this experiment, the
Abband. rays of light, after paffing through the water and the
'vol. xvi. glafs, though they come out parallel to the incident
P- 3&0< rays, will be coloured ; but that the fmaller the glafs
prifm is, the nearer will the refult of it approach to
Newton’s defcription.
“ This paper of M. Klingenftierna, being communi¬
cated to Mr Dollond by M. Mallet, made him enter¬
tain doubts concerning Newton’s report of the refult
of his experiment, and determined him to have re-
courfe to experiments of his own.
“ He therefore cemented together two plates of
parallel glafs, at their edges, fo as to form a prifmalic
veffel when flopped at the ends or bafes 5 and the edge
being turned downwards, he placed in it a glafs prifm
with one of its edges upwards, and filled up the va-
2
cancy with clear water $ fo that the refraClion of the
prifm was contrived to be contrary to that of the wa¬
ter, in order that a ray of light, tranfmitted through
both thefe refraCted mediums, might be effeCled by the
difference only between the two refraClions. As he
found the water to refraCl more or lefs than the glafs
prifm, he diminithed or increafed the angle between
the glafs plates, till he tound the two contrary refrac¬
tions to be equal, which he dilcovered by viewing an
objeCl through this double prifm. For when it ap¬
peared neither raifed nor depreffed, he was fatisfied that
the refraClions were equal, and that the emergent rays
were parallel to the incident.
“ Now, according to the prevailing opinion, he ob¬
ferves, that the objeCl ffiould have appeared through
this double prifm in its natural colour $ for if the dif¬
ference of refrangibility had been in all refpeCts equal,
in the two equal refraClions, they would have reClified
each other. But this experiment fully proved the fal- Colours
lacy of the received opinion, by (bowing the divergen-Pr.ot'ucet*
cy of the light by the glals prifm to be almoft double
of that by the water; for the image of the objeCl,lefle(^iont
though not at all refraCled, was yet as much infeCled
with prifmatic colours as though it had been feen
through a glafs wedge only whole angle was near 30
degrees.
“ This experiment is the very fame with that of Sir
Ifaac Newton above mentioned, notwithftanding the
refult was fo remarkably different : but Mr Dollond
affures us, that he ufed all poffible precaution and care
in his procefs ; and he kept his apparatus by him, that
he might evince the truth of what he wrote, whenever
he (hould be properly required to do it.
“ He plainly iaw, however, that if the refraCling
angle of the water veiiel could have admitted of a fuf-
ficient increafe, the divergency of the coloured rays
would have been greatly diminiffied, or entirely reCli¬
fied ; and that there would have been a very great re¬
fraClion without colour, as he had already produced a
great difcolouring without refraClion ; but the incon-
veniency of (b large an angle as that of the prifmatic
veffel muft have been, to bring the light to an equal
divergency with that of the glafs prifm, whofe angle
was about 60®, made it neceffary to try fome experi¬
ments of the fame kind with fmaller angles.
“ Accordingly he got a wedge of plate-glafs, the
angle of which was only nine degrees ; and, ufing it
in the fame circumftances, he increafed the angle of
the water-wedge, in which it was placed, till the diver¬
gency of the light by the water was equal to that by
the glafs ; that is, till the image of the objeCl, though
confiderably refraCted by the excels of the refraClion
of the water, appeared neverthelef- quite tree from any
colours proceeding from the different refrangibility of
the light.
“ Notwithftanding it evidently appeared, I may fay Defences oil
to almoft all philofophers, that Mr Dollond had made Sir Ifaac.
a real difeovery of fomething not comprehended in
the optical principles of Sir Ifaac Newton, it did not
appear to fo fenfible a man, and lo good a mathema¬
tician as Mr Murdoch is univerfally acknowledged to
be. Upon this occafion he interpofed in the defence,
as he imagined, of Sir Ifaac Newton ; maintaining,
that Mr Dollond’s pofitions, which he fays, he knows
not by what milhap have been deemed paradoxes iiv
Six
p. 804.
21
Mr Dela-
tal’s expe-
rimems on
the colours
of opaque
bodies.
CHROMATICS.
Sir Ifaac’s tlieory of light, are really the neceffary con-
fequences of it. He alfo endeavours to ftiow, that
Sir Ifaac might not be miftaken in his account of
the experiment above mentioned. But admitting all
that he advances in this part of his defence, Newton
muft have made ufe of a prifm with a much fmaller re-
frafting angle than, from his own account of his expe¬
riments, we have any reafon to believe he ever did make
ufe of.
“ The fa& probably was, that Sir Ifaac deceived
himfelf in this cafe, by attending to what he imagined
to be the clear confequences of his other experiments ;
and though the light he faw was certainly tinged with
colours, and he muft have feen it to be fo, yet he might
imagine that this circumftance arofe from fome imper-
fertion in his prifms, or in the difpofition of them,
which he did not think it worth his while to exa¬
mine. It is alfo obfervable, that Sir Ifaac is not fo
particular in his defcription of his prifms, and other
parts of his apparatus, in his account of this experi¬
ment, as he generally is in other cafes, and therefore
probably wrote his account of it from his memory
only.
“ Much has been faid on this experiment j and it is
thought very extraordinary, that a man of Sir Ifaac’s ac¬
curate attention (hould have overlooked a circumftance,
the effe& of which now appears to be fo confiderable.
But it has happily occurred to Mr Mitchel, that, as Sir
Ifaac Newton obferves, he ufed to put faccharum fa-
turni into his water to increafe its refra&ive power,
the lead, even in this form, might increafe the difli-
pative refra&ion, as it does in the compofition of glafs;
and if fo, that this would account for Newton’s not
finding his diflipative power of water lefs than that of
the glafs prifms, which he otherwife ought to have
done, if he had tried the experiment as he faid he did.
“ Accordingly he included a prifm of glafs in wa¬
ter, as highly impregnated with faccharum faturni
as it would bear, the proportion of faccharum to wa¬
ter being about as 5 to 11. When the image, feen
through the water (fo impregnated) and a glafs prifm,
was in its natural place, it ftill was coloured, though
very little : he thought not more than a fourth part
as much as when feen through the plain water, and the
prifm in its natural place j fo that he had no doubt,
but that, if his prifm had had a little lefs of the dif-
perfing power, its errors would have been perfeftly cor-
refted.”
Befides the experiments of Mr Delaval above rela¬
ted, and which were made on the colours of tranf-
parent bodies, he has lately publifhed an account of
fome made upon the permanent colours of opaque fub-
ftances ; the difcovery of which muft be of the ut-
moft confequence in the arts of colour-making and dye¬
ing. Thefe arts, he obferves, were in very remote
ages carried to the utmoft height of perfe6tion in the
countries of Phoenicia, Egypt, Paleftine, India, §tc.
and that the inhabitants of thefe countries alfo ex¬
celled in the art of imitating gems, and tinging glafs
and enamel of various colours. The colours ufed in
very ancient paintings were as various as thofe now in
ufe, and greatly fuperior both in beauty and durabi¬
lity. The paints ufed by Apelles were fo bright, that
he was obliged to glaze his pictures with a dark co¬
loured varnifti, left the eye ftiould be offended by their
exceflive brightnefs j and even thefe were inferior to
what had been ufed among the ancient Egyptians.
Pliny complains that the art of painting was greatly
decayed in his time 5 and the moderns were not fur-
niftied with any means of retrieving the art, until they
began to avail themfelves of experimental obferva-
tions. 22
The changes of colour in permanently coloured bo-Thefe co-
dies, our author obferves, are produced by the fame lours de-
laws which take place in tranfparent colourlefs fub-Pe"^<^t"
fiances; and the experiments by which they can be0£
inveftigated confift chiefly of various methods of uni-tiie colour-
ting the colouring particles into larger, or dividinging parti-
them into fmaller maffes. Sir Ifaac Newton made hiscles*
experiments chiefly on tranfparent fubftances; and in
the few places where he treats of others, acknowledges
his deficiency of experiments. He makes the follow¬
ing remark, however, on thofe bodies which refledt
one kind of light and tranfmit another, viz. that “ If
thefe glaffes or liquors were fo thick and mafly that no
light could get through them, he queftioned whether
they would not, like other opaque bodies, appear of
one and the fame colour in all pofitions of the eye ;
though he could not yet affirm it from experience.”
It was the opinion of this great philofopher, that all
coloured matter refledts the rays of light, fome refledt-
ing the more refrangible, and others the Itfs refrangible
rays more copioufly ; and that this is not only a true
reafon of thefe colours, but likewife the only reafon.
He was likewife of opinion, that opaque bodies refledt
the light from their interior furface by fome power of
the body evenly diffufed over and external to it. With
regard to tranfparent-coloured liquors, he exprefles
himfelf in the following manner : “ A tranfparent
body, which looks of any colour by tranfmitted light,
may alfo look of the fame colour by refledled light;
the light of that colour being refledled by the farther
furface of that body, or by the air beyond it : and then
the refhdled colour will be diminiffied, and perhaps
ceafe, by making the body very thick, and pitching it
on the back fide to diminifh the refledtion of its farther
furface, fo that the light refledled from the tinging par¬
ticles may predominate. In fuch cafes, the colour of the
refledled light will be apt to vary from that of the light
tranfmitted.”
To inveftigate the truth of thefe opinions, Mr Dela¬
val entered upon a courfe of experiments with tranf¬
parent coloured liquors and glaffes, as well as with
opaque and femi-tranfparent bodies. From thefe he
difcovered feveral remarkable properties of the colour¬
ing matter; particularly, that in tranfparent coloured
fubftances it does not refledt any light ; and when, by
intercepting the light which was tranfmitted, it is hin¬
dered from pa fling through fuch fubftances, they do
not vary from their former colour to any other, but
become entirely black (a). *
This incapacity of the colouring particles of tranf-
L 2 parent
(a) Here our author obferve's, that he makes ufe of the word colour only to exprefs thofe called primary;
fuch
8-4
43
No light
reflected
by the co-
touring
particles.
24
Apparatus
for making
thofe expe¬
riments.
The colour¬
ing matter
only fliows
itfelf by
tranfmitted
light.
G H R O M
parcni bodies to reflect light, being deduced from very
numerous experiments, may therefore be held as a ge¬
neral law. It will appear the more extenfive, if we
conllder, that,, for the moft part, the tinging particles
of liquors or other tranfparent fubftances are extracted
from opaque bodies ; that the opaque bodies owe their
colours to thofe particles, in like manner as the tranf¬
parent fubftances do 5 and that by the lofs of them they
are deprived of their colours.
For making his experiments, Mr Delaval ufed fmall
phials of flint-glafs, whofe form was a parallelepiped, and
their height, excluftve of the neck, about two inches,
the bafe about an inch fquare, and the neck two inches
in length. The bottom and three fides of each of
thefe phials were covered with a black varnilh 5 the
cylindrical neck, and the anterior fide, except at its
edges, being left uncovered. He was careful to avoid
any crevices in the varnilh, that no light might be ad¬
mitted except through the neck or anterior fide of the
|>hials.
In thefe experiments it is of importance to have the
phials perfe&ly clean ; and as many of the liquors are
apt to depofit a fediment, they ought to be put into
the phials only at the time the experiments are to be
made. The uncovered fide of the phials fhould not be
placed oppofite to the window through which the light
is admitted $ becaufe in that fituation the light would
be refledled from the farther fide of the phial j and our
author obferves, that fmooth black fubftances refleft
light very powerfully. But as it is a principal ohjeft
in the experiment, that no light be tranfmitted through
the liquor, this is beft accomplilhed by placing the un¬
covered fide of the phial in fuch a fituation that it may
form a right angle with the window.
With thefe precautions, our author viewed a great
number of folutions, both of coloured metallic falts
and of the tinging matter of vegetables j univerfally ob-
ferving, that the colour by refle&ion was black, what¬
ever it might be when viewed by tranfmitted light. If
thefe liquors, however, are fpread thin upon any white
ground, they appear of the fame colour as when viewed
by tranfmitted light 5 but on a black ground they
afford no colour, unlefs the black body be polifhed ; in
which cafe the reflexion of the light through it pro¬
duces the fame effeft as tranfmiflion.
The experiments with tinged glaffes were in many
refpe&s analogous to thofe with tranfparent-coloured
liquors. For thefe he made feveral parcels of colour-
lefs glaffes, principally ufing one compofed of equal parts
of borax and white fand. The glafs was reduced to
powder, and afterwards ground, together with the in¬
gredients by which the colours were imparted. “ This
method (fays he) of incorporating the tinging particles
is greatly preferable to mixing them with the raw ma¬
terials ; and the glafles thus compofed excel mofl: o-
thers in hardnefs, being fcarcely inferior in luftre to
real gems.’*
The refult of all the experiments made in this man¬
ner was, that when matter is of fuch thinnefs, and the
tinge fo diluted, that light can be tranfmitted through
A T I C S.
it, the glaffes then appear vividly coloured j but when
they are in larger maffes, and the tinging matter is
more denfely diffufed through them, they appear black ;
for thefe, as well as the tranfparent-coloured liquors,
{how their colour by tranfmiflion. The following ex¬
periments were made with a view to determine the pro¬
portion of tinging matter which produces colour or
blacknefs. ^
1. Glafs was tinged green by adding to it ■g^th ofExperj_
its weight of copper 5 and that whether the latter wasmentsto
ufed in its metallic or calcined ftate. determine
2. A blue glafs was made by the addition of zaffre, th®tPor°"of
a purple one by manganefe, a red glafs by gold, and tinging
yellow glaffes by filver and calcined iron. A yellow matter,
glafs refembling a topaz was likewife made by the ad¬
dition of a fmall quantity of charcoal in powder. The
fame colour was likewife procured by the addition of
wheat-flour, rofin, and feveral other inflammable mat¬
ters. Small pieces of each of thefe glaffes being
ground by a lapidary, refembled gems of their different
colours.
3. Having formed pieces of fuch glaffes about two
inches thick, he inclofed them in black cloth on all
fides, except their farther and anterior furfaces. In
this fituation each of them fliowed a vivid colour when
light was tranfmitted through them; but when the
pofterior furface was likewife covered with the cloth to
prevent this tranfmiflion, no other colour than black
was exhibited by any of them.
4. When plates of tranfparent. coloured glafs, fome-
what thicker than common window-glafs, were made
ufe of, they always exhibited their colours by tranf¬
mitted light.
5. On intercepting the light tranfmitted through
thefe coloured plates, they as conftantly appeared black
when placed in fuch a direftion as to form a right
angle with the window.
From thefe phenomena Mr Delaval deduced the
following obfervations : 1. That the colouring particles
do not refleft any light. 2. That a medium, fuch as
Sir Ifaac Newton has defcribed, is diffufed over both
the anterior and farther furfaces of the plates, where¬
by objects are equally and regularly reflefted as by a
mirror. Hence, when it is faid that light is refle&ed
by the furface of any fubftance, it fhould be underftood
from this expreffion, that the refleftion is effedted by
the medium diffufed over its furface.
6. When a lighted candle is placed near one of thofe 0n the re¬
coloured plates, the flame is refledted by the medium fledlion of
which is diffufed over the anterior furface. The image the light of
thus refledted entirely refembles the flame in fize and a €an<ile hy
colour ; being fcarcely diminifhed, and not in the leaf!
tinged by the coloured glafs. ' ^ *
7* If the plate be not fo intenfely coloured, or fo
maffy, as to hinder the tranfmiflion of the light of the
candle, there appears a fecondary image of the flame,
which is refledled by the medium contiguous to the
farther furface of the glafs; and as the light thus re-
fledted paffes through the coloured glafs, it is tinged
very vividly.
8. When
fuch a mixture of them as does not compofe whitenefs, or any of the gradations between white and black ; fuch
as are called by Sir Ifaac Newton, gray, dun, or ruffet J}rown,
CHROMA T I C S.
8. When the glafs ufed in this experiment is of a
green colour, the image of the flame is always of a
bright green ; and when glaflfes of other colours are
ufed, that of the fecondary flame is always the fame
with that of the glafs.
9. The fecondary image is lefs than that refle&ed
from the anterior furface. This diminution is occa-
fioned by the lofs of that part of the light which is
abforbed in pafling through the coloured glafs. For
whenever any medium tranfraits one fort of rays more
copioufly than the reft, it flops a great part of the dif¬
ferently coloured rays. Much more light alfo is loft in
paiTing through coloured than tranfparent fubftances.
In making thefe obfervations, it is proper to choofe
coloured plates of glafs which are not in every part of
an equal thicknefs, that the fecondary image may not
coincide with that reflefled from the anterior furface,
and be intercepted by it.
10. When the plates are fo thick, and fo copioufly
coloured, that the light cannot penetrate to their far¬
ther furface, they appear intenfely black in whatever
direction they are viewed, and afford no fecondary
image, but only reflect, from their anterior furface,
the flame, or any other objedls that are oppofed to
them. Thefe objefts are reprefented in their own
proper colours, and are as free from tinge as thofe re-
fle<fted from quickfilvered glafs, or fpecula made of
white metals.
Hence again it is manifeft, that the colouring par¬
ticles do not poffefs any {hare of refle6tive power j for
if they had any ftiare in this refledlion, they would
certainly impart fome (hare of colour to the light they
reflefted. Hence alfo it appears, that tranfparent co¬
loured bodies, in a folid ftate, poffefs no more reflec-
38 live power than thofe in a fluid ftate.
Experi- Our author next confiders the colouring particles
thepure1 themfelves, pure, and unmixed with other media. In
colouring order to procure maffes made up of fuch particles, fe-
particles. veral tranfparent coloured liquors were reduced to a
folid confiftence by evaporation. By employing a gen¬
tle heat, the colouring matter may thus remain unim¬
paired $ and is capable of having its particles again fe-
parated by water or other liquids, and tinging them as
before.
In this ftate the colouring particles refleft no light,
and therefore appear uniformly black, whatever fub-
ftance they have been extraSed from. In the courfe
of his experiments, Mr Delaval made ufe of the in-
fufions of brazil wood, logwood, fuftic, turmeric, red
faunders, alkanet, fap-green, kermes, and all the other
tranfparent coloured liquors he had tried before, a-
mong which were infufions of red and yellow flowers,
without obferving the leaft variation in the refult.
Some liquors are apt to become totally opaque by
evaporation j the reafon of which may be the cryftal-
lization of faline matters, or the coalefcence of the
particles into maffes, differing confiderably in denfity
from the menftrua in which they were diffolved. When
this opacity takes place, our author has conftantly ob-
ferved, that they became incapable of entering the
pores of wool, filk, or other matters of that kind, or
of adhering to their furface $ and confequently unfit
for the purpofes of dyeing. This he fuppofes to arife
from their increafed bulk j for the attraflive force by
which the particles cohere together is weakened in pro¬
portion as their bulk increafes; fo that the degree of
magnitude of the colouring particles, which is effential
to the capacity of liquors, is inconfiftent with the mi-
nutenefs requifite for dyeing. An inftance of this is
given in an infufion of fuftic. Having infufed fome of
this wood in fuch a quantity of water, that the latter
w'as faturated with the colouring particles, he evapo¬
rated the liquor to a folid confiftence with an unin¬
terrupted, but very gentle heat. During every part
of the procefs the liquor continued tranfparent, and
the folid extraft yielded by it tranfmitted a yellow co¬
lour when fpread thin, but appeared black when thick¬
er mafies were viewed. Having prepared another pint
of this liquor, he evaporated half the water, and al¬
lowed the remainder to become cold. In this ftate it
became turbid and opaque ; on filtering, a tranfparent
tin&ure paffed through, an opaque fecula remaining on
the paper. This fecula did not adhere to the paper,
but was eafily feparable from it: on being dried, it
appeared white with a flight tinge of yellow ; but was
neverthelefs foluble in water, and by folution gave a
liquid in all refpe&s fimilar to the original infufion.
“ From thefe circumftances (fays he) it appears that
a given proportion of water, or a fufficient degree of
heat, is requifite to the folution of the colouring parti¬
cles of fuftic. And experience evinces that thofe par¬
ticles which are too grofs to pafs through filtering pa¬
per, are incapable of entering the pores, or firmly co¬
hering to the furface of bodies. Many ingredients,
fuch as the colouring particles of logwood, kermes,
and various other matters, are foluble in water in every
proportion j and therefore their infufions are not fub-
je& to become opaque or turbid during their evapora¬
tion. The folid extracts obtained by evaporation refleft
no colour, but are black.”
Our author alfo formed folid maffes by mixing a
fmall quantity of drying oil with pigments which con-
fift chiefly of colouring matter ; as Pruffian blue, indi¬
go, and fap green. Thefe paints likewife exhibit their
refpe£Hve colours only by tranfmitted light, appearing
entirely black when viewed by refledlion. Inftances
of blacknefs arifing from this denfity of the colouring
matter, may be obferved in feveral kinds of fruits, as
black currants, cherries, &c. for the juices of thefe
appear red when fpread thin on a w'hite ground, or o-
therwife viewed by tranfmitted light.
Mr Delaval’s next attempt was to confider- the ac¬
tion and properties of the colouring particles of opaque
bodies themfelves, and the means by which thefe co¬
lours are produced. Here our author endeavours to
prove, that thefe colours of opaque bodies appear on
the fame principles as thofe already mentioned, which
feem black when very denfe, but (how their proper
tinge when fpread thin upon a w'hite ground. On this
fubjeft the following experiments were made :
1. Grafs, and other green leaves of plants, were di-
gefted in rectified fpirit of wine ; by which means a
tranfparent green tin&ure was obtained. One of the
vials formerly mentioned being filled with this liquid,
it was obferved to tranfmit a vivid green colour ; but
the other part of the tinflure, which was contiguous to
the uncovered fide of the vial, refle&ed no light, and
therefore appeared black.
2. Having poured fome of the tin£lure into a China
cup, the bottom was thejeby made to look green, ex-
a£Uy
S6
CHROMATICS.
a£Uy refembling the colour which had been extrafted
from the leaves.
3. After the colour had been totally extra&ed by
the vinous fpirit, the leaves remained apparently un¬
altered, either as to figure or texture j but were en¬
tirely white, or had their whitenefs (lightly tinged with
brown.
4. Red, purple, and blue flowers, were alfo digefted
in fpirit of wine, all of which yielded their colouring
matter to the fpirit, and became white by being de¬
prived of it. From mod of thefe flowers, however, the
fpirit acquired either no tinge at all, or only a very
faint one ; but when acidulated, it became red, and
by the addition of an alkali appeared blue, purple, or
green, according to the quantity of alkali, and the na¬
ture of the infufion. In thefe dates, all of them, when
viewed by tranfmitted light, or poured upon a white
ground, fliowed their colours, but univerfally appeared
black by reflexion.
5. Red, purple, and blue flowers, were digefled in
water (lightly acidulated with nitrous acid. Thus,
red infufions were obtained, which, by faturation with
fea-falt, might be preferved for many years.
6. The fame liquors were changed green, blue, or
purple, by the addition of an alkali: but here the cafe
was the fame as before j all of them yielding vivid co¬
lours by tranfmiflion, but none by reflection. In ma¬
king this experiment, care mud be taken to add the al¬
kali very gradually j for if too much is put in at once
to the red liquor, the immediate colours between the
red and the green will be wanting. To half an ounce
of the red infufion it is proper to add, at once, only
the fmalled quantity that can be taken upon the point
of a pen ; repeating this addition (lowly, until each of
the colours be produced.
7. The flowers, after having been repeatedly mace¬
rated in acidulated water, lofl their colouring matter,
and became white.
8. Yellow flowers alfo communicated their colours
to water and to fpirit of wine. The infufion and
tinftures of thefe flowers were fubjeded to the fame
experiments as had been employed in the examination
of the liquors already mentioned ; and appeared yel¬
low by tranfmitted light, but did not refleCt any co¬
lour.
9. White paper, linen, &c. may be tinged of any
of thefe colours, by dipping them in the infufions;
and the confideration of the manner in which the co¬
lours are imparted to the linen, affords much infight
into the manner in which natural colours are produ¬
ced. It has already been obferved, that, when the co¬
louring matter of plants is extracted from them, the
folid fibrous parts, thus divefted of their covering, dif-
play their natural whitenefs. White linen, paper,
&c. are formed of fuch fibrous vegetable matter;
which is bleached by diflblving and detaching the he¬
terogeneous colouring particles. When thefe are dyed
or painted with vegetable colours, it is evident that
they do not differ in their manner of a&ing on the
•rays of light from natural vegetable bodies; both
yielding their colours by tranfmitting, through the
tranfparent coloured matter, the light which is re-
fle&ed from the white ground. This white matter
frequently exifts, without any confiderable mixture, in
plants, while they are in a Rate of vegetation $ as cot¬
ton, white flowers, the pith, wood, feeds, roots, and
other parts of feveral kinds of vegetables. When de¬
cayed trees, &c. have been long expofed to the atmo-
fphere, their coloured juices are fometimes fo perfedt-
ly extracted, that the fibres appear white. This white
matter is not diftindl from the vegetable earth to which
plants are reduced to burning. Mr Delaval has ren-How aihef
dered a(hes intenfely white, by carefully calcining may be
them, and afterwards grinding with a fmall
tion of nitre, and expofing them to fuch a degree of^.j,,^
heat as would caufe the nitre deflagrate with the re¬
maining quantity of phlogifton. Laftly, the allies were
digefted with muriatic acid, in order to diffolve the fer¬
ruginous matter diffufed through them, and repeated¬
ly waffling the remainder in water. Mixing afiies thus
purified with borax, and applying a vitrifying heat, an
opaque enamel is obtained, remarkable for its white¬
nefs.
Hence it appears, that the earth which forms the whhe
fubftance of plants is white, and feparable from that earth of
fubftance which gives to earth its peculiar colour j that P*ants»
whenever it is pure and unmixed, or diffufed through "nly
colourlefs media, it (hows its native whitenefs 5 and is fhemVhat
the only vegetable matter endowed with a reflexive refleas the
power. It may be difcovered, however, by other
means than that of burning: thus, rofes may be
whitened by expofing them to the vapour of burning
fulphur: an effett which cannot be attributed to the
fulphuric acid, but to the phlogifton contained in that
vapour. "I his was proved to be the cafe, by expofing
feveral kinds of red and purple flowers to the phlogi-
ftic vapour itfuing from hepar fulphuris j and by this
every one of them was whitened ; their colour being
afterwards reftored by the addition of an acid either
mineral or vegetable.
“.Thus (fays Mr Delaval) it appears, that the co-Coj0urr;n»
louring matter of the flowers is not difcharged or re- matter dif-
moved, but only dilfolved by carbonic acid $ and by
thereby divided into particles too minute to exhibitcarbonio
any colour. In this ftate, together with the vege-aC^ *
table juice in which they are diffufed, they form a co-
lourlefs tranfparent covering, through which the white
matter of the flowers is feen untinged. The colouring
particles of plants confift principally of inflammable
matter, and their folubility in carbonic acid, and union
with it, are analogous to the aftion of other inflam¬
mable bodies upon each other. Thus, aether diffolves
all effentiai and exprefled oils, animal empyreumatic
oils, and refins. Sulphur, camphor, and almoft all fub-
ftances abounding in phlogifton, are foluble in oils,
ardent fpirits, or other inflammable menftma. The
manner in which the red colour of vegetable flowers
is reftored, appears to be explicable from known che¬
mical laws. When acids are applied to the whitened
flowers, they unite with the phlogifton which the ful¬
phur had communicated, and difengage it from the
colouring particles; which, being thus extricated, re-
fume. their original magnitude and hue. A change of
the fame kind is alfo produced by fixed alkali, which,
like the acids, has a ftrong attraaion for phlogifton,
always changes the whitened flowers to a blue, purple
or green colour. 1 ’
“ In like manner, the aaion of the rays of light Colours de-
operates upon coloured bodies. Thus, dyed filk, or ftroyed by
other fubftances of that kind, when expofed to thethe aSht
^ r , the fun.
iun’s
87
33
How to di-
ftinguifli
the folu-
tions made
by carbone
from thofe
made by
acids.
CHROMATICS.
fun’s light, are deprived of their colour in every part
on which the rays are allowed to a6t j whilft thofe pre-
ferve their colour which are defended from the light
by the folds of the cloth, or intervention of any opaque
body. The colours thus impaired, may be reltored,
if acids are implied while the injury is recent; but they
are afterwards apt to fly off, on account of that volati¬
lity which is conftantly imparted by inflammable mat¬
ter to any other with which it is united.”
Our author now proceeds, at confiderable length, to
prove the identity of the folar light and carbonic acid ;
but as recent experiments have fhown that thefe two
are effentially diftinft, we omit his argumentation up¬
on this head. The error of his theory in this refpedl:,
however, does not in the leafl affedt the do&rine con¬
cerning colours above laid down : on the contrary, the
lateft experiments have determined, that carbonic acid
in its groffeft form, viz. that of common charcoal, mani-
fefts a furprifing power of whitening various fubllan-
ces; which, according to Mr Delaval’s theory, pro¬
ceeds from the power it has of diffolving the colouring
matter with which they are impregnated. This fol-
vent power, according to our author, is manifeft in
many other inflances befides thofe already mentioned.
Silk is whitened by the carbonated vapours of fulphur;
and this operation does not appear to differ from the
change effected on flowers by the fame vapour. The
light of the fun is found to be a neceffary and elfential
agent in bleaching linen, wax, and various other fub-
ftances ; fome part of the colouring matter which im¬
pairs the whitenefs of thefe bodies not yielding to any
other folvent. Red flowers are whitened by the elec¬
tric fpark, of whofe inflammable nature we cannot en¬
tertain the leaft doubt ; for the fpark itfelf is a bright
flame, and yields the fame fmell which all other carbon¬
ated matters impart. The eleflric fpark, in like man¬
ner, changes the blue infufion of turnfole to red (b).
The effedls which it produces on the turnfole, and on
red flowers, do not differ from each other, except in
degree only. For when vegetable matter is diffolved,
it is changed from blue to red ; and, when farther dif¬
folved, it is divided into particles too minute to exhi¬
bit any colour.
Solutions effefled by means of phlogifton frequently
are wrongly attributed to the operation of fuppofed acid
menftrua, as feveral kinds of fubflances are capable of
being diffolved indifcriminately both by acids and phlo¬
gifton. For the purpofe of diftinguiftiing, therefore,
in any cafe between the a&ion of the acid folvents and
that of the inflammable menftrua, it is proper to exa¬
mine the nature of the matter by which either of thefe
principles are furnifhed. It appears from various che¬
mical proceffes, that alkalies are rendered mild, and
capable of cryflallization, in proportion as they are
united to carbone. The carbonated alkaline lixi¬
vium, when faturated, is perfectly mild ; and by a
flight evaporation is reduced to a concrete cryftaliine
mafs, which does not deliquefce or imbibe the leaf!
moifture from the air, and no longer retains any alka¬
line property. M; Beaume, by an elegant and ingeni¬
ous experiment, has proved the prefence of carbone
in mild alkalies, and has fhown that their power of
cryftallizing depends on their union with that prin¬
ciple. He heated in a filver veffel a lixivium of mild
alkali, which imparted to the filver a covering or coat¬
ing of inflammable matter, by which its furface was
tarnifhed and became black. The lixivium was feve¬
ral times poured out of the filver veffel, and after the
furface of the metal had been freed from the tarnifh,
the lixivium was replaced in it, and again heated, by
which the tarnifh was renewed $ and this was repeated
till the lixivium no longer communicated any ftam to
the filver. The caufticity of the lixivium was increaf-
ed in proportion as it imparted its carbone to the
filver $ and at the end of the procefs the alkali became
perfectly cauftic and incapable of cryftallizing.
“ From the preceding experiments (fays he) it ap¬
pears, that the colouring particles of flowers and leaves
are foluble in acid, alkaline, and carbonated menftrua.
The other parts of vegetables confift of materials fimi-
lar to thofe which are contained in their flowers and
leaves, and undergo the fame changes from the fame
caufes. Having extrafted from logwood its colouring
particles by repeatedly boiling it in water, the wood
was thus deprived of its yellow colour, and affumed a
brown hue fimilar to that of oak wood. Some pieces
of it thus deprived of its colour were then macerated
in nitric acid j and after they had undergone the adlion
of that acid, they were wafhed in a fufficient quantity
of water. The wood was thus reduced to white¬
nefs.”
Here our author obferves, that though moft authors Logwood
who treat of colouring fubftances defcribe logwood as affords only
of a red colour, he was never able to procure any ^ y^iow
other colour from it than yellow. It imparts yellow WIt^ wa_
and orange colours to diftilled water. Other waters ter.
extra# a red tinge from it by means of the alkali
which they contain. Thefe obfervations are alfo ap¬
plicable to the other dyeing woods, kermes, and va¬
rious other articles of the materia tin#oria. By a fi¬
milar treatment, fuftic wood alfo loft its colouring mat¬
ter, and became white.
The refults of all the experiments above related are,
that the colouring matter of plants does not exhibit
any colour by refleflion, but by tranfmifikm only j that
their folid earthy fubftance is a white matter •, and
that it is the only part of vegetables which is endowed
with a reflexive power; that the colours of vegetables
are produced by the light reflected from this white
matter, and tranfmitted from thence through the co¬
loured coat or covering which is formed on its fijrface
by the colouring particles ; that whenever the colour¬
ing matter is either difcharged.or divided by folution
into particles too minute to exhibit any colour, the
folid earthy fubftance is expofed to view, and difplays
that whitenefs which is its diftinguifhing charadleri-
^ ^ 35
Mr Delaval next proceeds to examine the coloured ('°l°urin£
parts of animal fubftances, and finds them exa#ly fi-^
milar, with regard to the manner in which the colour ^ances
is
34
(b) 1 his effe# of the ele#ric fpark is now known to be produced, not by its carbonated nature, but by the
generation of an acid.
48
CHROMATICS.
Is produced, to the vegetable bodies already treated of.
The tinftures and infufions of cochineal and of kermes
yield their colours when light is tranfmitted through
them, but fhow none by refleflion. On diluting frelh
ox-gall with water, and examining it in the phials al¬
ready mentioned, that part of it which was in the
neck of the phial, and viewed by tranfmitted light,
was yellow ; but the anterior furface was black, and
rededled no colour. Flelh derives its colour entirely
from the blood, and when deprived of it, the fibres and
veflels are perfe&ly white; as are likewife the mem¬
branes, finews, and bones, when freed from their aque¬
ous and volatile parts j in which cafe they are a mere
earth, unalterable by fire, and capable of imparting an
36 opaque whitenefs to glafs.
Of the co- On examining blood diluted with water in one of
blood f t^e f°rmerly defcribed, it tranfmitted a red co¬
lour, and the anterior furface was almoft, but not en¬
tirely, black j for it received a flight hue of brown
from fome coagulated particles that were fufpended in
the liquor. In order to procure blood fufficiently di¬
luted, and at the fame time equably and perfedlly dif-
folved, he mixed as much cruor with fpirit of fal am¬
moniac as imparted a bright colour to it. The liquor
being then viewed in the phial, that part which was
contained in the neck, and tranfmitted the light, ap¬
peared of a fine red ; but the anterior part reflecting
no light, was intenfely black. Hence it appears, that
the. florid red colour of the flefh arifes from the light
which is refleaed from the white fibrous fubftance,
and tranfmitted back through the red tranfparent co¬
vering which the blood forms on every part of it.
Blood, when recently draAvn, does not aflume the
appearance common to tranfparent coloured liquors ;
for thefe, when too mafly to tranfmit light from their
farther furfaces, always appear black ; but blood, when
recently drawn, always (hows a fine red colour, in
whatever way it be viewed. Thi^s is occafioned by a
white matter diffufed through the blood ; and which
is eafily feparated from the cruor, by dividing it after
coagulation into a number of thin pieces, and walhino-
in a fufficient quantity of pure water. Thus the water
acquires a red colour, and ought to be changed daily.
Ir a few days it will acquire no more tinge j and the
remaining mafles of the cruor are no longer red, but
37 white.
“I,S In IJke rnann>er, the red colour of the (hells of lob-
o o ers. pers^. after is no m0re a mere fUperf|c;ai
covering fpread over the white calcareous earth of
which the (hells are compofed, and may be eafily re¬
moved from the furface by fcraping or filing. Before
the application of heat, this fuperficial covering is
much denfer, infomuch that, in fome parts of the (hell,
it appears quite black, being too thick to admit the
palfage of the light to the (hell and back again ; but
where this tranfparent blue colour of the unboiled lob-
(ler is thinner, it conftantly appears like a blue film.
In like manner, the colours of the ^ggs of certain
birds are entirely fuperficia], and may be fcraped off,
38 leaving the white calcareous earth expofed to view. ’
Of feathers. The cafe is the fame with feathers, which owe their
colours entirely to a very thin layer of fome tranfpa¬
rent matter upon a white ground. Our author afeer-
tained this by fcraping off the fuperficial colours from
certain feathers which were ftrong enough to bear the
operation ; and thus feparated the coloured layers from
the white ground on which they had been naturally
fpread. The lateral fibres of the feathers cannot indeed
have their furfaces feparated in this manner j but their
texture, when viewed by a microfcope, feems to indi¬
cate, that the colours are produced upon them by no
other means than thofe already related. In the exa¬
mination of fome animal fubjeds, where the colouring
matter could not be feparated by chemical means, our
author had recourfe to mechanical divifion $ but this
can only be employed when the principal part of the
white fubftance is unmixed with the coloured coat or
covering which is fpread upon its furface. All of
them, however, by whatever means their colours could
be feparated, (bowed that they were produced in the
fame manner, namely, by the tranfmiflion of light
from a white ground through a tranfparent coloured
medium.
The coloured fubftances of the mineral kingdom are Of th^co-
very numerous, and belong principally to twTo clafi'es, l°urs °f nd-
viz. earths and metals. The former, when pure, are neralfub-
all perfedly white, and their colours arife from’car-^t!lnCCS■
bonic or metallic mixtures. Calcareous earths, when
indurated, conftitute marble, and may be tinged with
various colours by means of metallic folutions: all
which are fimilar in their nature to the dyes put upon
filk, cotton, or linen, and invariably proceed from the
fame caufe, viz. the tranfmiflion of light through a .
very thin and tranfparent coloured medium. Flints
are formed from filiceous earths, and owe their colour
to carbone. When fufficiently heated, they are ren¬
dered white by the lofr of the inflammable matter
which produced their colour. When impregnated
with metals, they form agates, cornelians, jafper, and
coloured cryftals. Fhe coloured gems alfo receive their
different hues from metals : and all of them may be
imitated by glaffes tinged with fuch carbonic or me¬
tallic matters as enter into the compofition of the ori¬
ginal fubftances.
Thus our author concludes, that the coloured earths nf 4*
gems, &c. exhibit their various tints in the fame ^
manner with other fubftances ; viz. by the tranfmiffion
of light reflected from a white ground. Our author
however, proceeds farther j and afferts, that even the
colours of metals themfelves are produced in the fame
manner.
“ Gold (fays he) exhibits a white light, which is
tinged with yellow. I have ufed this expreflion, be-
caufe it appears from experiment that gold refle&s a
white light, and that its yellow colour is a tinge fuper-
added to its whitenefs. The experiment is thus fet
forth by Sir Ifaac Newton. Gold in this light (that
is, a beam of white light) appears of the fame yellow
colour as in day light, but by intercepting at the lens
a due quantity of the yellow-making rays, it will ap¬
pear white like filver, as I have tried; which (hows,
that its yellownefs arifes from the excefs of the inter¬
cepted rays, tinging that whitenefs with their colour
when they are let pafs.
. “ * kave already frown, by numerous experiments,
in what manner coloured tinges are produced j and it
uniformly appears, from all thefe experiments, that
colours do not arife from reflexion, but from tranf-
mifljon only. A folution of filver is pellucid and co-
lourlels. A folution of gold tranfmits yellow, but re¬
fle&s
89
CHROMATICS.
fleets no colour. This metal alfo, when united with
glafo, yields no colour by reHeftion, but by tranfmii-
fion only. All thefe circumitanees feem to indicate,
that the yellow colour of gold arifes from a yellow
tranfparent matter, which is a conllituent part of that
metal ; that it is equally mixed with the white parti¬
cles of the gold, and tranirnits the light which is re¬
flected by them, in like manner as when lilver is gilt,
or foils are made by covering white metals with tranf¬
parent colours. But thefe factitious coverings are
only fuperficial ; whereas the yellow matter of gold is
diffufed throughout the whole fubftance of the metal,
and appears to envelope and cover each of the white
particles. In whatfoever manner the yellow matter
of gold is united to its white fubltance, it exills in a
rare ftate; for it bears only the fame proportion to the
white particles of the gold as that of the yellow-making
rays which were intercepted bear to all the other rays
comprifed in the white light of the fun.
“ Sir Ifaac Newton has fliovvn, that when fpaces or
interftices of bodies are replenifhed with media of dif¬
ferent denfities, the bodies are opaque ; that thofe fu-
perftces of tranfparent bodies reflect the greateft quan¬
tity of light which intercede media that dilfer molt in
their refraCtive denflties ; and that the reflections
of very thin tranfparent fubltances are confiderably
ftronger than thofe made by the fame fubltances of a
greater thicknefs. Hence the minute portions of air,
or of the rarer medium which occupies fpaces void of
other matter, refleCt a vivid white light whenever
their furfaces are contiguous to media whofe denfities
differ confiderably from their own fo that every fmall
mafs of air, or of the rarer medium which fills the
pores or interftices of denfe bodies, is a minute white
fubltance. This is manifeft in the whitenefs of froth,
and of all pellucid colourlefs bodies j fuch as glafs,
cryftal or falts, reduced to powder, or other wife flaw¬
ed : for in all thele inftances a white light is refledted
from the air or rarer medium which intercede the par¬
ticles of the denfer fubftances whole interftices they oc¬
cupy.”
From thefe principles our author takes occafion to
explain the reafon why the particles of metals, which
yield no colour by incident light when fufpended in
their folvents, are difpofed to exhibit colours when
feparated from them. Hence alfo we fee why opaque
white fubftances are rendered pellucid by being re¬
duced to uniform mafles, whofe component parts are
everywhere nearly of the fame denfity ; for as all pel¬
lucid fubftances are rendered opaque and white by the
admixture of pellucid colourlefs media of confiderably
different denfities, they are again deprived of their
opacity by extricating thefe media which kept their
particles at a diftance from each other : thus froth or
fnow, when refolved into water, lufe their whitenefs,
and alfume their former pellucid appearance. In
like manner, by proper fluxes, the opaque white
earths are reduced to pellucid colourlefs glafles j be-
caufe all reflections are made at the furfaces of bodies
differing in denfity from the ambient medium, and in
the confines of equally denfe media there is no reflec¬
tion.
As the oxides of metals are enabled to refleCt their
colours by the intervention of the particles of air ; fo,
when mixed with oil in the making of paint, they al-
Vol. VI. Part I. ;
ways aiTutne a darker colour, becaufe the excefs of the
denfity of oil over that of air forms a fenlible difference
when comparatively confidered with reipeCI to the fpe-
cific gravity of the rarer metals. From this caufe.
perceptibly lefs light is reflected from the moleculae of
oil than from thole of air, and conlequently the mats
appears darker. The cafe, however, is different with
fuch paints as are formed of the denfer metals j as ver¬
milion, minium, &e. for though oil differs very con¬
fiderably from air in its fpecific denlity, yet it alfo dif¬
fers very much in this refpeCt from the denfer metallic
powders: and the moleculte of oil which divide their
particles, aCt upon the light fo ftrongly, that the re¬
flection occafioned by them cannot be diltinguiihed
from thofe which are caufed by rarer media. Hence
though we mix vermilion or minium with oil, the co¬
lour is not lefs fenlibly altered.
This part of our author’s theory, however, feems Obj^fHons
liable to objection ; for though it be true that the ox- to his theo-
ides of fome metals are denfer than others, yet that is, ry °f me-
comparatively fpeaking, but in a very fmall propor-taI1,c c0"
tion $ nor is even the difference of denfity between oil1 UrS‘
and the oxides of the heavier metals at all comparable
to that between the denfity of air and oil. Thus,
though the oxide of iron may be 10 or n times more
denfe than oil; yet, as the latter is between 500 or 600
times denfer than air, the fmall difference between the
oil and metallic oxide ought to be imperceptible. In
this refpeCI, indeed, there are confiderable differences
with regard to the oils employed, which cannot be fup-
pofed to arife from the mere circumflance of denfity.
Thus the colour of vermilion, when mixed with tur-
pentine-varnilh, is much brighter than with linfeed oil ;
and yet the difference between the denfities of linfeed
oil and turpcntine-varnifh is very trifling. The mere
aCtion of heat likewife has a furprifing effeCt in this
cafe. Thus the red oxide of iron, called fcarlet-oker,
by being only heated a certain degree, appears of a very
dark purple, refuming its red colour when cold ; and
this variation may be induced as often as we pleafe bv
only heating it over the fire in a fhovel. In like man¬
ner, by gradually heating red lead, it may be made to
aflume a moljt beautiful crimfon colour; %vhich grow¬
ing gradually darker, becomes at laft almoft quite
black. On cooling, if the heat has not been raifed too
high, it gradually returns through the fame (hades of
colour, until at laft it fixes in its original hue. Thefe
immenfe differences in colour cannot by any means be
attributed either to (he expulfion of air, or to an alte¬
ration in denfity. I he fire indeed does certainly ex¬
pand thefe oxides as well as other bodies; but as the
medium interfperfed between their particles is thus
alfo expanded, the colour ought at leaft to remain the
fame, if not to become lighter, on account of the fu-
perior expanfion of air to that of metal by the fame
degree of heat. It would feem, therefore, that the ac¬
tion of the element of fire itlelf has a confiderable
(hare in the production of colours; and indeed its
(hare in the operations of nature is fo great, that we
might well think it ftrange if it fliould be entirely ex¬
cluded from this.
With regard to femipellucid fubftances, which ap- 4*
pear of one colour by incident, and another by tranf-°f1*she c?“
mitted light, our author likewife endeavours to (howmlpelkcid*
that no reflection is made by the coloured matter, but fubftances.
^ only
90 C H R O M
only by the white or colourlefs particles. They con-
bil: of pellucid media, throughout which white or co¬
lourlefs opaque particles are difperfed. The latter are
difpofed at fuch diftances from each other, that fome
of the incident rays of light are capable of palling
through the intervals which intercede them, and thus
are tranfmitted through the femipellucid mafs. Some
forts of rays penetrate through fuch maffes, while
others, which differ from them in their refrangibility,
are reflefled by the light or colourlefs particles j and
from thence are tranfmitted through the pellucid part
of the medium which intervenes between the refle&ing
particles and the anterior furface of the mafs. On the
fame principle our author explains the blue colour of
the Iky, the green colour of the fea, and other natural
phenomena : and from his numerous experiments on
How co- this fubjeft at laft concludes, “ that the power by which
Jours are the feveral rays of light are tranfmitted through differ-
tranfmiueilGnt meci‘a inherent in the particles themfelves, and
light. therefore is not confined to the furfaces of fuch media.
For if the tranfmiffive force was exerted at the furface
only, the thinner plates of coloured fubftances would
act upon the rays as powerfully as thicker mafifes. But
it appears from experiment, that in proportion as the
rays pals through different thickneffes of coloured me¬
dia, they exhibit colours differing not only in degree,
but frequently in fpecies alfo.
“ The fun’s light, by which bodies are illuminated,
eonfilts of all the rays of which a white light is com¬
pounded. Thefe rays, in their entire and undivided
date, are incident upon the opaque particles of femi¬
pellucid fubftances, and upon the colouring particles
of tranfparent coloured fubftances, whenever thei'e me¬
dia are expofed to the light. When the rays accede
to the opaque particles of femipellucid fubftances,
fome forts of them are refie&ed back from the ante¬
rior furface of thefe particles ; the other forts of rays,
which are not reflected back, are diverted from the
direction which is oppofite to the anterior furface
of the opaque particles, and pafling through the inter¬
vals between the particles, are tranfmitted through
the mafs.
“ When the rays are incident upon the particles of
tranfparent coloured bodies, none of them are reflected
back ; becaufe the colouring particles are not endowed
with any refle&ive power ; but fome of the rays are
'either flopped at the interior furface of the particles,
or are diverted into fuch dire&ions as render them in¬
capable of pafling towards the further fide of the mafs;
and confequently fuch rays cannot be tranfmitted. The
rays which are not thus intercepted or difperfed, are
tranfmitted in the fame manner as thofe which pafs
through femipellucid media. Thus it is evident, that
the coloured rays which are tranfmitted through femi-
pellucid fubftances, are infieBed by the opaque particles ;
and thofe which are tranfmitted through tranfparent-
coloured fubftances are inJieBed by the colouring par¬
ticles. From the preceding obfervalions likewife it ao-
poars, that the particks of coloured media infleft the
feveral forts of rays according to the feveral fixes and
denfities of the particles ; alfo in proportion ta the in¬
flammability of the media which owe their colour to
them *, and it is manifeft that the tranfmiffion of co¬
loured rays depends upon their inflexion. All thefe ob-
fcrvatkns are conformable to Sir Ifaac Newton’s doc-
I
A T I C S.
trine that the rays of light are refle&ed, refracted, and
inflefted, by one and the fame principle adding vari-
oully in various circumftances.”
The rnoft remarkable part of Mr Delaval’s doftrine
is that concerning the metals ; for the better under-
ftanding of which we {hall premife a ftiort abftradd of
his general doctrine concerning white bodies, and the
manner in which light is refledded by them. “ All theoftjj4
earths, (he obferves), which in their natural ftate are mi!nt)er in
of a pure white, conilitute tranfparent colourlefs media which light
when vitrified with proper fluxes, or when difibived in i3 refle<fted
colouriefs menftrua; and the faline maffes obtainable whit®
from their folutions are tranfparent and colourlefs, °C leS*
while they retain the water which is effential to their
cryftallization, and are not flawed or reduced to pow¬
der ; but after their pores and interftices are opened
in fuch a manner as to admit the air, they become
then white and opaque by the entrance of that rare
medium. The earthy particles which form the folid
parts of bodies generally exceed the other in denfity j
confequently thefe particles, when contiguous to ihe
rare media already mentioned, muft refledt the rays of
light with a force proportionate to their denfity. The
refiedtive power of bodies does not depend merely upon
their excels of denfity, but upon their difference of
denfity with refpedl to the furrounding media. Tranf¬
parent colourlefs particles, whofe denfity is greatly in¬
ferior to that of the media they come between, alfo
powerfully refledf all forts of rays, and thereby become
white. Of this kind are the air or other rare fluids
which oceupy the interftices of liquors ; and in gene¬
ral of all denfer media in whofe interftices fuch rare
particles are admitted.
Hence we may conclude, that white opaque bodies
are conftituted by the union or contiguity of- two or
more tranfparent colourlefs media differing confider-
ably from each other in their refledtive powers. Of
thefe fubftar.ces we have examples in froth, emulfions,
or other imperfedt combinations of pellucid liquors,’
milk, fnow, calcined or pulverized falls, glafs or cry-
ftal reduced to powder, white earths, paper, linen, and
even thofe metals which are called white by mineralo-
gifts and chemifts r for the metals juft mentioned do
not appear white unlefs their furfaces be rough ; as in
that cafe only there are interftices on their furfaces fuf-
ficient to admit the air, and thus make a refleftion of a
white and vivid light.
“ But jho polifhed furfaces of metallic mirrors re¬
fled! the incident rays equably and regularly, accord-
ing to their feveral angles of incidence 5 fo that the
refledled rays do not interfere with each other, but
remain feparate and unmixed, and therefore diftindtly
exhibit their feveral colours. Hence it is evident,
that white furfaces cannot ad! upon the light as mir¬
rors ; becaufe all the rays which are refledled from
them are blended in a promifcuous and diforderly
manner.
I he above mentioned phenomena give much in-of the
fight into the nature and caufe of opacity: as theycauleof
clearly (how, that even the rare!! tranfparent colour-opacity,
lefs fubftances, when their furfaces are adjacent to me¬
dia differing greatly from them in refradtive power,
may thereby acquire a perfeft opacity, and may affume
a refplendency and hue fo fimilar to that of white me-
ick, tnat the rarer pellucid lubftar.ces cannot by the
fight
CHROMATICS.
fight be diftinguifhed from the denfe opaque metals.
And this fitnilarity to the furfaces of metals, occurs
in the rare pellucid fubftanees, not only when, from
the roughnefs of their furfaces, they referable unpo-
lifhed metals in whitenefs, but alfo when, from their
fmoothnefs, they referable the polifbed furfaces of me¬
tals.
“ Metals feem to confift entirely of tranfparent mat¬
ter, and to derive their apparent opacity and luftre
folely from the copious refleflion of light from their
furfaces. The analogy between the metals and tranf¬
parent media, as far as refpefls their optical properties,
■will appear from the following confiderations.
“ I. All metals dilfolved in their proper mendrua
are tranfparent. 2. By the union of two or more tranf¬
parent media, fubftances are conftituted which are fimi-
lar to metals in their opacity and' luflre, as plumbago
and marcafites. 3. The tranfparent fubftances of me¬
tals, as well as thofe of minerals, by their union with
carbone, acquire their ftrong refiedive powers from
which their Juftre and opacity arife. 4. The furfaces
of pellucid media, fuch as glafs or water, aflume a me¬
tallic appearance, when by their fmoothnefs, differ¬
ence of denfity with refped to the contiguous media,
or any other caufe, they are difpofed copioufly to re-
fled the light.
“ From all thefe confiderations it is evident, that
opaque fubftances are conftituted by the union or con-
tiguity of tranfparent colourlefs media, differing from
one another in their refledive powers j and that, when
the common furface, which comes between fuch media,
is plane, equal, and fmooth, it refleds the incident
rays equally and regularly as a mirror ; but when the
furface is rough and uneqsal, or divided into minute
particles, it refleds the incident rays irregularly and
promifcuoufly in different diredions, and confequently
appears white.”
Theory of From all thefe experiments we can only conclude,
colours ftill that the theory of colours feems not yet to be deter-
uncertain. mined with certainty •, and very formidable, perhaps
unanfwerable, objedions might be brought againft
every hypothefis of this fubjed that hath been invent¬
ed. The difcoveries of Sir Ifaac Newton, however,
are fufficient to juflify the following
APHORISMS.
1. All the colours in nature proceed from the rays
»f light.
2. There are feven primary colours*, which are red,
•range, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
3. Every ray of light may be feparated into the
feven primary colours.
4.. The rays of light in pafling through the fame
medium have different degrees of refrangibility.
5. I he difference in the colours of light arifes from
its different refrangibility : that which is the leaf! re¬
frangible producing red ; and that which is the moft
refrangible, violet.
6. By compounding any of the two primary colours,
(c) From hence it arifes. that black bodies, when
•thers.
as red and yellow, or yellow and blue, the intermediate
colour, a’s orange or green, may be produced.
7. The colours of bodies arife from their difpofitimis
to refled one fort of rays and to abforb the other \ thofe
-that refled the leaft refrangible rays appearing red j and
thofe that refled the moft refrangible, violet.
8. Such bodies as refled two or more forts of rays
appear of various colours.
9. The whitenefs of bodies arifes from their difpofi*
tion to refled all the rays of light promifcuoufly.
10. I he blacknefs of bodies proceeds from their in¬
capacity to refled any of the rays of light (c).
Entertaining Experiments, founded on the pre¬
ceding Principles*
I. Out of a Jingle colourhfs ray of light to produce feven
other rays, which Jhall paint, on a white body, the
feven primary colours of nature.
Procure from an optician a large glafs prifm DEF, Plate
(fig. 1.), well polifhed, two of whofe fides muft contain CXLV.
an angle of about fixty-four degrees. Make a room FiS* I*
quite dark, and in the window-fhutter AB, cut a round
hole, about one-third of an inch in diameter, at C,
through which a ray of light LI pafling, falls on the
prifm DEF ; by that it is refraded out of the diredion
IT, in which it would have proceeded, into another
GH ; and, falling on the paper MNSX, will there
form an oblong fpedrum P£), whofe ends will be femi-
circular, and its fides ftraight $' and if the diftance of
the prifm from the paper be about eighteen feet, it will
be ten inches long, and two inches wide. This fped¬
rum will exhibit all the primary colours 5 the rays be¬
tween P and V, which are the moft refraded, will paint
a deep violet ; thofe between V and I, indigo ; thofe
between I and B, blue *, thofe between B and G, green j
thofe between G and Y, yellow ; thofe between Y and
O, orange j and thofe between O and R, being the leaft
refraded, an intenfe red. The colours between thefe
fpaces will not be everywhere equally intenfe, but will
incline to the neighbouring colour: thus the part of the
orange next to R will incline to a red, that next to Y t®
a yellow j and fo of the reft.
II. From two or more of the primary colours, to compofe
others that Jhall, in appearance, refemble thofe of the
former.
By mixing the two homogeneous colours red and
yellow, an orange will be produced, fimilar in appear¬
ance to that in the feries of primary colours ; but the
light of the one being homogeneous, and that of the
other heterogeneous, if the former be viewed through a
prifm it will remain unaltered, but the other will be
refolved into its component colours red and yellow.
In like manner, other contiguous homogeneous colours
may compound new colours $ as by mixing yellow and
green, a colour between them is formed ; and if blue
be added, there will appear a green, that is the middle
M 2 colour
expofed to the fun, become fooner heated than all
92
Fig. 2.
C H 11 O M
colour of tbofe three. For the yellow and blue, if
they are equal in quantity, will draw the intermediate
green equally toward them, and keep it, as it were, in
equilibrio, that it verge not more to the one than to
the other. To this compound green there may be
added feme red and violet ; and yet the green will not
immediately ceafe, but grow lefs vivid ; till by adding
more red and violet it will become more diluted ; and
at lafl, by the prevalence of the added colours, it will
be overcome, and turned into fame anomalous colour.
If the fun’s white, compofed of all kinds of rays, be
added to any homogeneous colour, that colour will not
vanifli, nor change its fpecies, but be diluted ; and by
adding more white, it will become continually more
diluted. Laftly, if red and violet be mixed, there will
be generated, according to their various proportions,
various purples, fuch as are not like, in appearance,
to the colour of any homogeneous light; and of thefe
purples, mixed with blue and yellow, other new colours
may be compofed.
III. Out of three of the primary colours, red, yellow,
and blue, to produce all the other prifmatic colours, and
all that are intermediate to them.
Provide three panes of glafs (fig. 2.) of about five
inches fquare; and divide each of them, by parallel lines,
into five equal parts. Take three {beets of very thin
paper j which you muft paint, lightly, one blue, an¬
other yellow, and the third red (d). Then pafle on
one of the glafies five pieces of the red paper, one of
which muft cover the whole glafs, the fecond only the
four lower divifion*, the third the three lower, the
fourth the two lowed, and the fifth the laft divifion
only. On the other glafles five pieces of the blue and
yellow papers muft be parted in like manner. You muft
alfo have a box of about fix inches long, and the fame
depth and width as the glafles ; it muft be black on
the infide : let one end be quite open, and in the
oppofite end there muft be a hole large enough to fee
the glafles completely. It muft alfo open at the top,
that the glafles may be placed in it conveniently.
When you have put any one of thefe glafles in the
box, and the open end is turned toward the fun, you
will fee five diftinft (hades of the colour it contains.
If you place the blue and yellow glafles together, in a
fimilar direflion, you will fee five {hades of green dif-
tinflly formed. When the blue and red glafles are
A T l C s.
placed, a bright violet will be produced : and by the
red and yellow, the feveral (hades of orange.
If, inftead of placing thefe glafles in a fimilar pofi-
tion, you place the fide AB of the yellow7 glafs again!!
the fide BD of the blue, you will fee all the various
greens that are produced by nature (e) ; if the blue
and red glafles be placed in that manner, you will have
all the poflible varieties of purples, violets, &c. 5 and,
laftly, if the red and orange glafles be fo placed, there
will be all the intermediate colours, as the marygold,
aurora, &c.
IV. By means of the three primary colours, red, yellow,
and blue, together with light and fhade, to produce all
the gradations of the prifmatic colours.
On feven fquare panes of glafs, pafte papers that
are painted with the feven prifmatic colours, in the fame
manner as the laft experiment. The colours for the
orange, green, indigo, and violet, may be made by
mixing the other three. Then with biftre (F,) well
diluted, (hade a {beet of very thin paper, by laying it
light on both its fides. With pieces of this paper cover
four-fifths of a glafs, of the fame lize with the others,
by laying one piece on the four loweft divifions, an-
other on the three loweft, a third on the tw7o loweft,
and the fourth on the loweft divifion only, and leaving
the top divifion quite uncovered. When one of the
coloured glafles is placed in the box, together with the
glafs of {hades, fo that the fide AB of the one be ap¬
plied to the fide BC of the other, as in fig. 3. the fe¬
veral gradations of colours will appear (haded in the
fame manner as a drapery judicioufly painted with that
colour.
It is on this principle that certain French artifts
have proceeded in their endeavours to imitate, by de-
figns printed in colours, paintings in oil : which they
do by four plates of the fame fize, on each of which is
engraved the fame defign. One of thefe contains all
the {hades that are to be reprefented, and which are
painted either black or with a dark gray. One of the
three other plates is covered with blue, another with
red, and the third with yellow 5 each of them being
engraved on thofe parts only which are to reprefent
that colour (g) and the engraving is either ftronger
or weaker, in proportion to the tone of colour that is
to be reprefented (h).
Thefe four plates are then parted alternately under
the
(n) Water-colours muft be ufed for this purpofe : the blue may be that of Pruflia, and very bright ; the red,
carmine ; and the yellow, gamboge, mixed with a little faffron. Thefe colours muft be laid very light and even
on both fides of the paper.
(e) In the firft pofition of the glafles, the quantity of blue and yellow being equal, the fame fort of green was
conftantly vifible ; but by thus inverting the glafles, the quantity of the colours being conftantly unequal, a
very pleafmg variety of tints is produced.
(f) The biftre here ufed muft be made of foot, not that in ftone.
(g) When a red drapery is required, it is engraved on the plate afligned to that colour; and fo of yellow
and blue : but if one of the other colours be wanting, fuppofe violet, it mart be eng-aved on thofe that print the
red bine, and fo of the reft. I he plates of this kind have been hitherto engraved in the manner of mezzotinto;
out thefe, unlefs they are fkilfully managed, are foon effaced. Engravings in the manner of crayon will per¬
haps anfwer better.
(h) The principal difficulty in this fort of engraving arifes from want of fkilful management, in giving
each plate that precife degree of engraving which will produce the tone of colour required. If a bright green
4 is
Fig. 3.
93
CHROMATICS.
tbr prefc, and the mixture of their colours produces
a print that bears no finall refemblanqe to a painting.
It mull: be confeffed, however, that what has been hi¬
therto done of this kind falls far (hort of that degree
of perfection of which this art appears fufceptible. If
they who engrave the belt in the manner of the crayon,
were to apply themfelves to this art, there is reafon to
expeCt they would produce far more finished pieces than
we have hitherto feen.
V. To make figures appear of different colours fuccef-
fvely.
^ Make a hole in the window-fhutter of a dark room,
1^'^' through which a broad beam of light may pafs, that is
to be refraCted by the large glafs prifm ABC, (fig. 4.),
which may be made of pieces of mirrors cemented to¬
gether, and filled with water. Provide another prifm
DEF, made of three pieces of wood : through the mid¬
dle of this there muft pafs an axis on which it is to re¬
volve. This prifm mult be covered.with white paper ;
and each of its fides cut through in feveral places, fo
as to reprefent different figures ; and thofe of each fide
fhould likewife be different. The infide of this prifm
is to be.hollow, and made quite black, that it may not
reflect any of the light that paffes through the fides in¬
to it. When this prifm is placed near to that of glafs,
as in the figure, with one of its fide* EF perpendicular
to the ray of light, the figures on that fide will appear
perfectly white : but when it comes into the pofition
g h, the figures will appear yellow and red j and when
it is in the pofitiun k /, they will appear blue and vio¬
let. As the prifm is turned round its axis, the other
fides will have a fimilar appearance. If, inftead of a
prifm, a four or five-fided figure be here ufed, the ap¬
pearances will be ftill further diverfified.
This phenomenon arifes from the different refrangi-
bility of the rays of light. For when the fide EF is in
the pofition g h, it is more ftrongly illuminated by
the leaf! refrangible rays j and wherever they are pre¬
dominant, the objeCt will appear red or yellow. But
when it is on the pofition k /, the more refrangible rays
being then predominant, it will appear tinged with blue
and violet.
VI. The fo/ar magic lanthorn.
Procure a box, of about a foot high, and eighteen
inches wide, or fuch other fimilar dimenfions as you
fliall think fit, and about three inches deep. Two of
the oppofite fides of this box muft be quite open ; and
in each of the other fides let there be a groove, wide
enough to pafs a ftiff paper or paftebord. This box
muft be faftened againft a window on which the fun’s
rays fall direCt. The reft of the window fhould be
clofed up, that no light may enter. Provide feveral
fheets of ftiff paper, which muft be blacked on one
fide. On thefe papers cut out fuch figures as you
fhall think proper j and placing them alternately in
the grooves of the box, with their blacked fides to¬
wards you, look at them through a large and clear
glafs prifm : and if the light be ftrong, they will ap¬
pear to be painted with the moft lively colours in na¬
ture. If you cut on one of thefe papers the form of
the rainbow, about three quarters of an inch wide, you
will have a lively reprefentation of that in the atmo-
fphere.
This experiment may be farther diverfified, by
palling very thin papers, lightly painted with different
colours, over fome of the parts that are cut out :
W'hich will appear to change their colours when viewed
th rough the prifm, and to Hand out from the paper,
at different diftances, according to the different de¬
grees of refrangibility of the colours with which they
are painted. For greater convenience, the prifm may
be placed in a ftand on a table, at the height of your
eye, and made to turn round on an axis, that when
you have got an agreeable profpe£f, you may fix it in
that pofition.
VII. The prifnatic camera obfcura.
Make two holes, F,j^ (fig. 5.) in the fhutter of a Fig. 5.
dark chamber, near to each other ; and againft each
hole place a prifm ABC, and « £ c, in a perpendicular
direction, that their fpe&rums NM may be call on the
paper in a horizontal line, and coincide with each
other 5 the red and violet of the one being in the
fame part with thofe of the other. The paper fhould
be placed at fuch a diftance from the prifms that the
fpeftrum may be fufficiently dilated. Provide feveral
papers nearly of the fame dimenfions with the fpedtrum j
crofs thefe papers, and draw lines parallel to the divi-
fions of the colours. In thefe divifions cut out fuch
figures as you fhall find will have an agreeable effe£l,
as flowers, trees, animals, &c. When you have placed
one of thele papers in its proper pofition, hang a black
cloth or paper behind it, that none of the rays that pafs
through may be reflefted and cop.fufe the phenomena.
The figures cut on the paper will then appear flrongly
illuminated with all the original colours of nature.
If, while one of the prifms remains at reft, the other
be revolved on its axis, the continual alteration of the
colours will afford a pleafing variety ; which may be
further increafed by turning the prifm round in differ¬
ent directions.
When the prifms are fo placed that the two fpec-
trums become coincident in an inverted order of their
colours, the red end of one falling on the violet end of
the other •, if they be then viewed through a third
prifm DH, held parallel to their length, they will no
longer appear coincident, but in the form of two di-
ftinit fpeCtrums, p t and n m (fig. 6.'), crofting one an- Fig 6.
other in the middle, like the letter X : the red of one
fpeftrum and violet of the other, which were co¬
incident at NM, being parted from each other by a
greater refra&ion of the violet to p and m, than that
of t he red to n and t.
This experiment may be further diverfified by add¬
ing two other prifms, that fliall form a fpeffrum in the
fame line, and contiguous to the other ; by which not
only the variety of figures, but the viciflitude of colours,
will be confiderably augmented.
VIII.
is to be reprefented, there fliould be an equal quantity of engraving on the red and yellow plates : but if an olive
green, the yellow plate fliould be engraved much deeper than the red.
9*
Fig. 7.
Fig. S.
CHROMATICS.
VIII. The diatonic fcale of colours.
The illuftrious Newton, in the courfe of his invefti-
gations of the properties of light, difeovered that the
length of the fpaces which the {even primary colours
poffefs in the fpeftrum, exa6Uy correfponds to thofe
of chords that found the feven notes in the diatonic
fcale of mufic : As is evident by the following experi¬
ment.
On a paper in a dark chamber, let a ray of light be
largely refra&ed into the fpeflrum AFTMGP (fig.
7.), and mark the precife boundaries of the feveral
colours, as «, £, c, &c. Draw lines from thofe points
perpendicular to the oppofite fide, and you will find
that the fpaces M r/F, by which the red is bounded ;
rSef by which the orange is bounded; q p e d, by
which the yellow is bounded, &c. will be in exa£t pro¬
portion to the divifions of a mufical chord for the notes
of an odlave ; that is, as the intervals of thefe numbers
T8r?iip 1
■g'J Si Si T> T 1 O) T3-*
IX. Colorific mufc.
Father Cartel, a Frenchman, in a curious book he
has publiftied on chromatics, fuppofes the note ut to
anfwer to blue in the prifmatic colours; the note re to
yellow, and mi to red. The other tones he refers to the
intermediate colours; from whence he conftru&s the
following gamut of colorific mufic :
Ut
Ut {harp
Re
Re {harp
Mi
Fa
Fa (harp
Sol
Sol {harp
La
La fliarp
Si
Ut
Blue
Sea green
Bright green
Olive green
Yellow
Aurora
Orange
Red
Crimfon
Violet
Blue violet
Sky blue
Blue
This gamut, according to this plan, is to be conti-
nued in the fame manner for the following oftave ; ex¬
cept that the colours are to be more vivid.
He fuppofes that thefe colours, by ftriking the eye
in the fame fucceffion as the founds (to which he
makes them analogous) do the ear, and in the fame
order of time, they will produce correfpondent fen-
fations of pleafure in the mind. It is on thefe general
principles, which F. Cartel has elucidated in his trea-
tife, that he has endeavoured, though with little fuccefs,
to eftablifh his ocular harpfichord.
The conftru&ion of this inftrument, as here ex¬
plained, will {how that the effe&s produced by colours
by no means anfwer thofe of founds, and that the
principal relation there is between them confifts in
the duration of the time that they refpedively affeft the
fenfes.
Between two circles of pafteboard, of ten inches dia¬
meter, AB and CD, (fig. 8.), inclofe a hollow pafte¬
board cylinder E, 18 inches long. Divide this cylin¬
der into fpaces half an inch wide, by a fpiral line that
runs round it from the top to the bottom, and divide
its furface into fix equal parts by parallel lines drawn
between its two extremities: as is expreffed in the
figure.
Let the circle AB, at top, be open, and let that at
bottom, CD, be clofed, and fupported by an axis or
fcrew, of half an inch diameter, which muft turn free¬
ly in a nut placed at the bottom of a box we Ihall
prefently defcribe. To the axis juft mentioned adjuft '
a wooden wheel G, of two inches and a half in dia¬
meter, and that has 12 or 15 teeth, which take the
endlefs fcrew H. Let this cylinder be inelofed in a
box ILMN (fig. 9.) whofe bafe is fquare, and at
whofe bottom there is a nut, in which the axis F
turns. Obferve that the endlefs fcrew H ftiould come
out of the box, that it may receive the handle O, by
which the cylinder is to be turned.
This box being clofed all round, place over it a tin
covering A, which will be perforated in different
parts; from this cover there muft hang three or four
lights, fo placed that they may ftrongly illumine the
infide of the cylinder. In one fide of this box (which
fliould be covered with pafteboard) cut eight apertures,
a, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, (fig. 9.) of half an inch wide, and Fig.
-y of an inch high ; they muft be dire&ly over each
other, and the diftance between them muft be exadlly
two inches. It is by thefe openings, which here
correfpond to the mufical notes, that the various co¬
lours analogous to them are to appear; and which
being placed on the pafteboard cylinder, as we have
Ihown, are reflefted by means of the lights placed
within it.
It is eafy to conceive, that when, the handle O is
turned, the cylinder in confequence rifing half an
inch, if it be turned five times round, it will fuccef-
fively ftiow, at the openings made in the fide of the
box, all thofe that are in the cylinder itfelf, and which
are ranged according to the direftion of the inclined
lines drawn on it. It is therefore according to the
duration of the notes which are to be expreffed, that
the apertures on the cylinder are to be cut. Obferve,
that the fpace between two of the parallel lines drawn
vertically on the cylinder, is equal to one meafure of
time ; therefore, for every turn of the cylinder, there
are fix meafures, and thirty meafures for the air that
is to be played by this inftrument.
The feveral apertures being made in the fide of the
cylinder, in conformity to the notes of the tune that
h to be expreffed, they are to be covered with double
pieces of very thin paper, painted on both fides with
the colours that are to reprefent the mufical notes.
This experiment might be executed in a different
manner, and with much greater extent; but as the
entertainment would not equal the trouble and ex¬
pence, we have thought it fufficient to give the above
piece, by which the reader will be enabled to judge
how far the analogy fuppofed by F. Cartel really
exifls.
CHRONIC,
Chromatics
\
r
<7
n
O
n
m
XMltcAs///?.,;//,
C H R
[
Monthly
Review.
Jan, 17 Sp.
ehronic, CHRONIC, or Chronical, among'phyficians, an
Chronicle, apj^llation givtn to difeufes that continue a long time ;
U—-Y—' in contradillinflion to thofe that foon terminate, and
are called acute.
CHRONICLE, in matters of literature, a fpecies
or kind of hiftory difpofed according to the order of
time, and agreeing in mod refpe&s with annals. See
Annals.
Parian CHRONICLE. See AR UNDELJAN Marbles.
Since that article was printed, in which an abtlraH was
given of Mr Robertfon’s doubts and obfervations refpedt-
ing the authenticity of the Parian Chronicle, one or
two publications have appeared in anfwer, but none
of them calculated to remove the obj eft ions, or mate¬
rially to affeft the arguments that had been Hated with
fo much learning and ingenuity againft it. The fol¬
lowing ftriftures, however, with which the Monthly
Reviewers have concluded their critique of Mr Robert¬
fon’s performance, feem to merit confideration.
On Objeftion I. That the chara&ers have no certain
or unequivocal marks of antiquity, the Reviewers remark,
that this feems rather to be an anfwer to a defender of
the infcription, than an objeftion. If a zealous parti-
zan of the marble Ihould appeal to its charafters and
orthography, as decifive proofs of its being genuine, it
would be proper enough to anfwer, that thefe circum-
flances afford no certain criterion of authenticity. But
in this word certain fculks an unlucky ambiguity. If
it means demonftrative, it muft be allowed that no in¬
fcription can be proved to be certainly genuine from
thefe appearances j but if it means no more than high¬
ly probable, many infcriptions poffefs fufficient inter¬
nal evidence to give their claims this degree of cer¬
tainty. The true queftion is, Has not the Parian
Chronicle every mark of antiquity that can be expeft-
ed in a monument claiming the age of 2000 years ?
The letters T and S3 are, by Mr R.’s own confeffion,
fuch as occur in genuine infcriptions ; and to fay in an¬
fwer, that an impoftor might copy the forms of thefe
letters from other infcriptions, is already to fuppofe
the infcription forged, before it is rendered probable
by argument. The learned author of the Differtation
feems to betray fome doubt of his own concluilon :
for he adds, p. 56. “ that the antiquity of an infcrip¬
tion can never be proved by the mere form of the let¬
ters, becaufe the mod ancient charafters are as eafily
counterfeited as the modern.” But this objeftion is
equally applicable to all other ancient infcriptions;
and is not to the purpofe, if the prefent infcription has
any peculiar marks of impoflure in its charafters and
orthography. “ The charafters do not refemble the
Sigean, the Nemean, or the Delian infcriptions.” Mr
R. anfwers this objeftion himfelf, by adding, “ which
are fuppofed to be of a more ancient date.” The op-
pofite reafon to this will be a fufficient anfwer to the
other objeftion, “ that they do not refemble the Far-
nefian pillars or the Alexandrian MS.” If “ they
differ in many refpefts from the Marmor Sandvicenfe,”
they may be prefumed to agree in many. “ They
feem to refemble more than any other, the alphabet
taken by Montlaugon from the marmor Cyzictnum.”
Ihus it appears that the Parian Chronicle mod; nearly
refembles the two infcriptions, to whofe age it mpft
nearly approaches.
When Mr R. adds, that the letters “ are fuch as
95 1 C H It
an ordinary ffone-cutter would probably make, if he
were employed to engrave a Greek infcription, accord¬
ing to the alphabet now in ufe,” he muft be under-
ftood cutn grano falis. The engraver of a fac-fimile
generally omits fome nice and minute touches in ta¬
king his copy; but, even with this abatement, we dare
appeal to any adept in Greek calligraphy, whether the
fpecimen facing p. 56. will juftify our author’s obfer-
vation ? “ The fmall letters (O, 0, £2,) intermixed
among the larger, have an air of affeftation and arti¬
fice.” Then has the greater part of ancient infcrip¬
tions an air of affeftation and artifice. For the O is
perpetually engraved in this diminutive fize ; and £2
being of a kindred found, and 0 of a kindred ffiape,
how can we wonder that all three (houid be reprefent-
ed of the fame magnitude ? In the infcription which,
immediately follows the marble in Dr Chandler’s edi¬
tion, No. xxiv. thefe very three letters are never fo
large as the reft, and often much fmaller; of which
there are inftances in the three firft lines. See alfo
two medals in the fecond part of Dorville’s Sicula,
Tab. xvi. Numb. 7. 9.
“ From the archaifms, fuch as iy Av»a^ux? iy
tfx ITflsg6i<, &c. &c. no conclufion can be drawn in fa¬
vour of the authenticity of the infcription.” Yet fure-
ly every thing common to it with other infcriptions,
confeffedly genuirte, creates a reafonable prefump-
tion in its favour. “ But what reafon could there be
for thefe archaifms in the Parian Chronicle ? We do
not ufually find them in Greek writers of the fame
-age, or even of a more early date.” The reafon is,
according to our opinion, that fuch archaifms were
then in ufe : this we know from other infcriptions, in
which fuch archaifms (or, 3s our author afterwards,
calls them, harbarifms) are frequent. Nothing can
be inferred from the Greek writers, unlefs we had
their autographs. The prefent fyftem of orthography
in our printed Greek books is out of the queftion. A-
gain, “ The infcription fometimes adopts and fome-
times neglefts thefe archaifms, as in lines 4, 12, 27,
52, 63, 67.” This inconfiftency either is no valid
objeftion, or if it be. valid, will demoliffi not only al-
moft every other infcription, but almoft every writing
whatfoever. For example, in the infcription juft
quoted, No. xxiv. we find roN fiantex, 1. 20. and crxNL,
ors/xTrw, 24. A little farther, N° xxvi. 1. 31. we have
sF Mxyr/itrtxf, 37’ 73* Mxyv/io-ixf, and 106, 108.
eKF Maywrixs. The Corcyrean infcription (Montfau-
^on, Diar. Ital. p. 420.) promifcuoufly ufes iK^xvu^o/xxt
and srdxmtyftxi. In Englilh, who is furprifed to find
has and hath, a hand and an hand, a ufeful and an ufe-
fid, in the works of the fame author ? We could pro¬
duce inftances of this inaccuracy from the fame page,
nay from the fame fentence.
“ The authenticity of thofe infcriptions, in which
thefe archaifms appear, muft be eftablilhed, before
they can be produced in oppofition to the prefent ar¬
gument.” This is, we cannot help thinking, rather
too fevere a reft rift ion. If no infcription may be
quoted before it be proved genuine, the learned author
of the Differtation need not be afraid of being con- •
futed ; for nobody will engage with him on fuch con¬
ditions. Perhaps the reverfe of the rule will be thought
more equitable ; that every infcription be allowed to
be genuine, till its authenticity be rendered doubtful
Chronicle.
 '
c H R [ 96 ]
C H
R
Chronicle, by probable arguments. We will conclude this head
with two fhort ohfervations. In Selden’s copy, 1. 26.
Avas written HOHSIN, which the later editions have al¬
tered to IIOIHSIN, but rvithout reafon, the other be¬
ing t he more ancient Avay of Avriting, common in MSS.
and fosnetimes found on infcriptions. (See G. Koen’s
Notes on Gregorius de Dial eel is, p. 30.) In 1. 83. the
marble has KctXteov, for which Palmer Avifhed to
fubllitute KxWiov. Dr Taylor refutes him from the
Marmor Sandvicenfe, obferving at the fame time, that
this orthography occurs in no other place Avhatever
except in thefe tAvo monuments. Is it likely that two
engravers fhould by chance coincide in the fame mif-
take, or that the forger of the Parian Chronicle (if it
be forged) (hould have feen the Marmor Sandvicenfe,
and taken notice of this peculiarity with the intention
of afterward employing it in the fabrication of an im-
pofture >
The reviewers next proceed to confider, but more
briefly, the other objections.
II. It is not probable that the Chronicle was engraved
for private ufe.—1. Becaufe it was fuch an expence, as
few learned Greeks were able to aff.rd. If only a few
were able to afford it, fome one of thofe few might be
willing to incur it. But let Mr R. confider horv like¬
ly it is that a modern, and probably a needy Greek,
Ihould be more able to afford it in the laft century, than
a learned Greek 2000 years ago ! 2. A manufeript is
more readily circulated. Do men ner'er prefer cumbrous
fplendor to cheapnefs and convenience ? And if this
cumpofition, inftead of being engraved on marble, had
been committed to parchment, Avould it have had a
better chance of coming doAvn to the prefent age ?
Such a flying fheet would foon be loft ; or, if a copy
had, by miracle, been preferved to us, the objeclions
to its being genuine Avould be more plaufible than any
that have been urged againft the infeription. What
Mr R, fays about the errors to Avhich an infeription is
liable, &c. Avill only prove that chronological infcrip¬
tions ought not to be engraved •, but not that they ne¬
ver were. We allow that the common method of Avri¬
ting in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus Avas.NOT on
STONES. But it was common enough to occur to the
mind of any perfon Avho wilhed to leave behind him a
memorial at once of his learning and magnificence.
III. This obje&ion, that the marble does not appear
to be engraved by public authority, Ave (hall readily ad¬
mit, though Bentley (Diff. on Phalaris, p. 251.) leans
to the contrary opinion. In explaining this objeflion,
the learned differtator obferves, that though the. ex-
prtffion, u.oypvT0<; sp. Avould lead us to fuppofe that
the infeription related to Paros, not a fingle circum-
ftance in the hiftory of that ifland is mentioned. But
this expreflion only ftioAvs that the author Avas an in¬
habitant of Paros, and intended to give his readers a
clue, or parapegma, by the aid of which they might
adjuft the general chronology of Greece to the dates
of their own hiftory. “ It is as abfurd as Avould be a
marble in Jamaica containing the revolutions of Eng¬
land.” We fee no abfurdity in fuppofing a book to
be written in Jamaica containing the revolutions of
England. The natives of Paros Avere not uninterefted
in events relating to the general hiftory of Greece,
particularly of Athens ; and hoAv can Ave tell whether
the author were an inquilimis, or a native of the ifland 5
whether he thought it a place beneath his care ; or Chronicle,
whether he had devoted a feparate infeription to the ■——v-—j
chronology ot Paros ?
IV. It has been frequently obferved, that the earlier
periods of the Grecian h-Jlory are involved in darknefs and
confujion. Granted. It follows, then, that “ an author
who (hould attempt to fettle the dates of the earlier pe¬
riods would frequently contradif! preceding, and be con-
tradi&ed by fubfequent, writers ; that he would natu¬
rally fall into miftakes j and at beft could only hope to
adopt the moft probable fyftem. But the difficulty of
the talk, or the impoflibilily of fuccefs, are not fufficient
to prove that no man has been rath or mad enough to
make the attempt.” On the contrary, we know that
many have made. it. What a number of difeordant
opinions has Mr R. himfelf given us from the ancients
concerning the age of Homer ? This confideration
Avill in part obviate another objeftion, that the Parian
Chronicle does not agree Avith any ancient author.
For if the ancients contradift one another, how could
it folloAV more than one of them ? and why might not
the author, Avithout any imputation of ignorance or
raftmefs, fometimes depart from them all ? If indeed
he difagrees with them when they are unanimous, it
might furnifti matter for fufpicion : though even this
would be far from a decifive argument, unlefs the an¬
cients were fo extremely unlike the moderns, as never
to be fond of Angular and paradoxical pofitions.
V. 1 his Chronicle is not once mentioned by any writer
of antiquity. How many of thofe infcriptions, Avhich
are prelerved to the prefent day, are mentioned by
claflical authors ? Verrius Flaccus compofed a Roman
kalendar, which, as a monument of his learning and
induftry, Avas engraved on marble, and fixed in the moft:
public part of Preriefle. Fragments of this very ka¬
lendar Avere lately dug up at Prenefte, and have been
publiftied by a learned Italian. Now if the paffage
of Suetonius, Avhich informs us of this circumftance,
had been loft, Avould the filence of the Latin Avriters
prove that the fragments Avere not genuine remains of
antiquity ? It may be faid that the cafes are not pa¬
rallel ^ for not a fingle author mentions the Parian
Chronicle, whereas Suetonius does mention VerriuS’s
Roman kalendar. Io this we anfwer, It is dangerous
to deny the authenticity of any monument on the
fiender probability of its being cafually mentioned by
a fingle author. We ftiall alfo obferve, that this faft
of the Hemicyclium of Verrius Avill ar.fwer fome part of
the Differtator’s fecond obje&ion : “ The Parian Chro¬
nicle is not an infeription that might have been con¬
cealed in a private library.” Why not ? it is of no
extraordinary bulk ; and might formerly have been
concealed in a private library, or in a private room,
Avith as much eafe as many infcriptions are now con¬
cealed in very narrow fpaces. But unlefs this monu¬
ment were placed in fome confpicuous part of the
ifland, and obtruded itfelf on the notice of every tra¬
veller, the Avonder will in great meafure ceafe why it
is never quoted by the ancients. Of the nine authors
named in p. 109, had any one ever vifited Paros ? If
Paufanias had travelled thither, and publifhed his de-
feription of the place, avc might perhaps expeft to
find fome mention of this marble in lo curious and in-
quifitive a writer. But though the infeription exifted,
and were famous at Paros, there feems no neceflity for
any
€ H R [ 97 ] C H R
Ghronkle. any of the authors whofe works are ftill extant to have
v—'Y——'known'or recorded it. If there be, let this learned
antagonift point out the place where this mention
ought to have been made. If any perfons were bound
by a ftronger obligation than others to fpeak of the
Parian infcription, they muft be the profeffed chrono-
logers; but alas! we have not the entire works of fo
much as a Angle ancient chronologer : it is therefore
impoffible to determine whether this Chronicle were
quoted by any ancient. And fuppofing it had been
feen by fome ancient, whofe writings ftill remain, why
Ihould he make particular mention of it ? Many au¬
thors, as we know from their remains, very freely co¬
pied their predeceffbrs without naming them. Others,
finding only a colleftion of bare events in the infcrip¬
tion, without hiftorical proofs or reafons, might entire¬
ly negleft it, as deferving no credit. Mr R. feems to
lay much ftrefs on the precife, exa£t, and particular
fpecification of the events, p. 109. But he ought to
refledt, that this abrupt and pofitive method of (peak¬
ing is not only ufual, but neceflary, in fuch ftiort fy-
ftems of chronology as the marble contains, where
events only, and their dates, are fet down, unaccompa¬
nied by any examination of evidences for and againft,
without ftating any computation of probabilities, or
deduction of reafons. When therefore a chronological
writer had undertaken to reduce the general hiftory of
Greece into a regular and confiftent fyftera, admitting
that he was acquainted with this infcription, what
grounds have we to believe that he would fay any
thing about it ? Either his fyftem coincided with the
Chronicle or not: if it coincided, he would very pro¬
bably difdain to prop his own opinions Avith the un-
fupported affertions of another man, Avho, as far as he
knew, was not better informed than himfelf. On the
other hand, if he differed from the authority of the
marble, he might think it a fuperfluous exertion of
complaifance, to refute, by formal demonftration, a
writer Avho had chofen to give no reafons for his own
opinion. We fhall pafs hence to
Obje&ion VII. With refpeft to the parachronifms
that Mr R. produces, we Ihall without hefitation grant
that the author of the infcription may have committed
fome miftakes in his chronology, as perhaps concern¬
ing Phidon, whom he feems to have confounded with
another of the fame name, &c. But thefe miftakes
will not conclude againft the antiquity of the infcrip¬
tion, unlefs we at the fame time rejeft many of the
principal Greek and Roman writers, who have been
convifted of fimilar errors. We return therefore to
Objedtion VI. Some of the faBs feem to have been
taken from authors of a later date. We have endea¬
voured impartially to examine and compare the paffages
quoted in proof of this objection j but we are obliged
to confefs, that we do not perceive the fainteft traces of
theft or imitation. One example only deferves to be
excepted ; to which we (hall therefore pay particular
attention.
“ The names of fix, and, if the lacunae are proper¬
ly fupplied, the names of twelve cities, appear to have
been engraved on the marble, exactly, as we find them
in ./Elian’s Various Hiftory. But there is not any
imaginable reafon for this particular arrangement. It
does not correfpond with the time of their foundation,
with their fituation in Ionia, with their relative impor-
Vol. VI. Part I.
tance, or with the order ih which they are placed by chronicle,
other eminent hiftorians.” <—y—~.
The chance of fix names, fays Mr R. being placed
by two authors in the fame order, is as 1 to 720 ; of
12, as 1 to 479,001,600. “ It is therefore utterly
improbable that thefe names would have been placed
in this order on the marble, if the author of the in¬
fcription had nottranfcribed them from the hiftorian.”
On this argument we ftiall obferve, ift, That the
very contrary conclufion might poftibly be juft, that
the hiftorian tranfcribed from the infcription. Yet avc
{hall grant that in the prefent cafe this is improbable,
efpecially if the author of the Various Hiftory be the
fame iElian, Avho, according to Philoftratus, Vit. So-
phift. II. 31. never quitted Italy in his life. But an
intermediate writer might hav’e copied the marble, and
./Elian might have been indebted to him. 2dly, We
fee no reafon to alloAV, that the lacunce are properly
fupplied. Suppofe Ave ftiould affert, that the names
ftood originally thus : Miletus, Ephefus, Erythrse,
Clazomene, Lebedos, Chios, Phocaea, Colophon, Myus,
Priene, Samos, Teos. In this arrangement, only four
names would be together in the fame order Avith
./Elian •, and from thefe Miletus muft be excepted, be-
caufe there is an obvious reafon for mentioning that
city firft. Three only Avill then remain j and furely
that is too flight a refemblance to be conftrued into an
imitation. For Paufanias and Paterculus, quoted by
our author, p. 154, have both enumerated the fame
tAvelve cities, and both agree in placing the five laft in
the fame order ; nay, the fix laft, if Voflius’s conjedlure
that TEUM ought to be inferted in Paterculus after
Myum TEM, be as true as it is plaufible. But Avho
imagines that Paufanias had either opportunity or in¬
clination to copy Paterculus ? 3dly, Allowing that the
names were engraved on the marble exaftly in the or¬
der that ./Elian has chofen, is there no Avay of folving
the phenomenon but by fuppofing that one borrowed
from the other ? Seven authors at leaft (Mr R. feems
to fay more, p. 154, 155.) mention the colonization of
the fame cities: how many authors noAV loft may we
reafonably conjedture to have done the fame ? If there¬
fore the compofer of the Chronicle and zElian light¬
ed on the fame authors, the former Avould probably
preferve the fame arrangement that he found, becaufe
in tranfcribing a lift of names, he could have no temp¬
tation to deviate ; and the latter Avould certainly ad¬
here faithfully to his original, becaufe he is a notori¬
ous and fervile plagiarift. Mr R. indeed thinks,
p. 158, that if a fucceeding writer had borroAved the
words of the infcription, he would not have fuppreffed
the name of the author. This opinion muft fall to the
ground, if it be fhown that ./Elian Avas accuftomed to
fupprefs the names of the authors to whom he Avas
obliged. ./Elian has given a lift of fourteen celebra¬
ted gluttons ; and elfewhere, another of twenty-eight
drunkards (from Avhich, by the Avay, it appears, that
people Avere apt to eat and drink rather too freely in
ancient as Avell as modern times) j and both thefe lifts
contain exa&ly the fame names in the fame order
Avith Atheneus. Noav it is obfervable, that four¬
teen names may be tranfpofed 87,178,291,200 dif¬
ferent ways, and that twenty-eight names admit of
304,888,344,611,713,860,501,504,000,000 different
tranfpofitions, &c. &tc. Lilian therefore tranfcribed
N them
C H R [ 98 J C H R
Chronicle, them from Atheneiis: yet Ailian never mentions Athe-
'  v—~~ neiis in his Various Hiftory. So that whether At,lian
copied from the marble, or only drew from a common
fource, he might, and very probably would, conceal
his authority.
VIII. The hijlory of the difeovery of the Marbles is
obfeure and unfatisfattory.
In p. 169, it is laid to be “ related with fufpicious
circuinltances, and without any of thofe clear and un¬
equivocal evidences which always diferiminate truth
from fallehood.” The queftion is then finally decided.
If the infeription has not any of thofe evidences which
truth always pofleffes, and which falfehood always
wants, it is moft certainly forged. The learned dif-
« fertator feems for a moment to have forgotten the mo-
deft charafter of a doubter, and to perfonate the dog-
matift. But waving this, we {hall add, that, as far
as we can fee, no appearance of fraud is difcoverable
in any part of the tranfa&ion. The hiftory of many
inferiptions is related in a manner equally unfatisfadfto-
ry j and if it could be clearly proved that the marble
Avas dug up at Paros, what could be eafier for a critic,
who is determined at any rate to object, than to fay,
that it was buried there in order to be afterward dug
up ? If the perfon who brought this treafure to light
had been charged on the fpot with forging it, or con¬
curring in the forgery, and had then refufed to pro¬
duce the external evidences of its authenticity, we
ftiould have a right to queftion, or perhaps to deny,
that it was genuine. But no fuch objection having
been made or hinted, at the original time of its difeo¬
very, it is unreafonable to require fuch teftimony as it
is now impoffible to obtain. “ There is nothing faid
of it in Sir T. Roe’s negociations.” What is the in¬
ference ? That Sir Thomas knew nothing of it, or be¬
lieved it to be fpurious, or forged it, or v'as privy to
the forgery ? Surely nothing of this kind can be pre¬
tended. But let our author account for the circum-
ftance if he can. To us it feems of no confequence on
either fide. “ Pierefc made no effort to recover this
precious relic; and from this compofure he feems to
have entertained feme fecret fufpicions of its authenti¬
city.” Pierefc would h ave had no chance of recover¬
ing it after it was in the poffeflion of Lord Arundel’s
agents. He was either a real or a pretended patron of
letters ; and it became him to affeft to be pleafed that
the infeription had come into England, and was illu-
ftrated by his learned friend Selden. John F. Grono-
vius had, with great labour and expence, collated An¬
na Comnena’s Alexiades, and intended to publiftr them.
While he was waiting for feme other collations, they
were intercepted, and the work was publiftied by an¬
other. As foon as Gronovius heard this unpleafant
news, he anfwered, that learned men were engaged in
a common caufe •, that if one prevented another in any
publication, he ought rather to be thanked for light¬
ening the burden, than blamed for interfering. But
who would conclude from this anfwer, that Gronovius
thought the Alexiades fpurious, or not worthy of any
regard ?
Mr R. calculates, that the venders of the marble re¬
ceived 200 pieces. But here again we are left in the
dark, unlefs we knew the precife value1 of thefe pieces.
Perhaps they might be equal to an hundred of pur
pounds, perhaps only to fifty. Befides, as they at firft
bargained with Samfen, Pierefe’s fuppofed Jew agent, Chronicle
for fifty pieces only, they could not have forged the y-w
infeription with the clear profpeft of receiving more j
neither does it appear that they were paid by Samfen.
It is fully as reafonable to fuppofe fraud on the one
fide as on the other j and if Samfen, after having the
marble in his poffeflion, refufed or delayed to pay the
fum ftipulated, he might, in confequence of fuch refu-
fal or delay, be thrown into prifon, and might, in re¬
venge, damage the marble before the owners could re¬
cover it. We own this account of ours to be a ro¬
mance 5 but it is lawful to combat romance with ro¬
mance.
IX. The world has been frequently impofed upon by
fpurious boohs and infcriptions ; and therefore we fhould
be extremely cautious with regard to what we receive
under the venerable name of antiquity.
Much truth is obfervable in this remark. But the
danger lies in applying fueh general apophthegms to
particular cafes. In the firft place, it muft be obferv-
ed, that no forged books will exadlly fuit Mr R.’s
purpofe, but fuch as pretend to be the author’s owns
hand-writing; nor any infcriptions, but fucb as are
ftill extant on the original materials, or fuch as were
known to be extant at the time of their pretended dif¬
eovery. Let the argument be bounded by thefe li¬
mits, and the number of forgeries will be very much
reduced. We are not in pofftflion of Cyriacus Anco-
nitanus’s book j but if we were governed by authority,
we ftiould think that the teftimony of Reinefius in his
favour greatly overbalances all that Auguftinus has faid
to his prejudice. The opinion of Reinefius is of the
more weight, becaufe he fufpedfs Urfinus of publifiling
counterfeit monuments. We likewife find the moft
eminent critics of the prefent age quoting Cyriacus
without fefpicion (Vid. Ruhnken. in Timaei Lex. Plat,
p. 10. apud Keen, ad Gregor, p. 140.). The do&rine
advanced in the citation from Hardouin is exattly con¬
formable to that writer’s ufual paradoxes. He wanted
to deftroy the credit of all the Greek and Latin wri¬
ters. But infcriptions hung like a millftone about the
neck of his projedl. He therefore refelved to make
fere work, and to deny the genuinenefs of as many as
he faw convenient : to effeft which purpofe, he in¬
trenches himfelf in a general accufation. If the author
of the differtation had quoted a few more paragraphs
from Hardouin, in which he endeavours, after his man¬
ner, to ftiow the forgery of feme infcriptions, he would
at once have adminiftered the poifen and the antidote.
But to the reveries of that learned madman, refpeft-
ing Greek feppofititious compofitions of this nature,
we (hall content ourfelves with oppofing the fentiments
of a modern critic, whofe judgment on the fubjeft of
fpurious infcriptions will not be difputed. Maffei, in
the introdu&ion to the third book, c. 1. p. 51. 0f his
admirable, though unfiniftied, work, de Arte Critica
Lapidana, ufes thefe words : Infcriptionum Greece lo-
quentium commentitias, f cum Latinis comparemus, de-
prehendi paucas; neque enim utlutn omnino efl, in tanta
debacchantium falfariorum libidine, monumenti genus, in
quod iifbi minus licere putaverint. Argamento eft, pait-
ciftimas ufque in hanc diem ab eruditis viris, et in hoc li-
terarum genere plurimum verfatis rejcBas effe, falfique
damnatas.
Bocks of CHRONICLES, a canonical writing of the
Old
C H R O N
.. Old Teftament. It is uncertain which were written
^ironi- es. y/^ Books of Kings, or The Chronicles, lince they
each refer to the other. However it be, the latter is
often more full and comprehenfive than the former.
Whence the Greek interpreters call thefe two books
Jlct^xteiTripwix., Supplements, Additions, or things omit¬
ted, becaule they contain fome circumftances which are
omitted in the other hiftorical books. The Jews make
but one book of the Chronicles, under the title of Di-
hre-Hniamim, i. e. Journals or Annals. Ezra is ge¬
nerally believed to be the author of thefe books. It is
certain they were written after the end of the Babylo-
nifh captivity and the firft year of the reign of Cyrus,
of whom mention is made in the lalt chapter of the fe-
cond book.
The Chronicles, or Paraleipomena, are an abridge¬
ment of all the facred hiftory, from the beginning of
O L O G Y 99
the Jewifh nation to their firft return from the capti- chrono-
vity, taken out of thofe books of the Bible which we pram,
ft ill have, and out of other annals which the author
had then by him. The defign of the writer was to _—
give the Jews a feries of their hiftory. 1 he firft book
relates to the rife and propagation of the people of
Ifrael from Adam, and gives a punftual and exaft ac¬
count of the reign of David. I he fecond book fets
down tlie progrefs and end of the kingdom of Judah,
to the very year of their return from the Babylonifh
captivity.
ChRONOGRAM, a fpecies of falfe wit, confin¬
ing in this, that a certain date or epocha is expreffed
by numeral letters of one or more verfes ; fuch is that
which makes the motto of a medal ftruck by Guftavus
Adolphus in l 6^2 :
ChrlftVs DVX ; ergo trlVMphVs.
CHRONOLOGY,
TREATS of time, the method of meafuring its
parts, and adapting thefe, when diftinguiftud by
proper marks and charadlers, to paft tranfadlions, for
! the illuftration of hiftory. This feience therefore con-
Howdivi- fifts of two parts. The firft treats of the proper mea-
ded. 'furement of time, and the adjuftment of its feveral di-
vifions ; the fecond, of fixing the dates of the various
events recorded in hiftory, and ranging them accord¬
ing to the feveral divifions of time, in the order in
a which they happened.
Chronolo- Chronology, comparatively fpeaking, is but of mo-
gy on- dern date. The ancient poets appear to have been en-
kheTn t0 tirely unacquainted with it •, and Homer, the moft ce¬
dents.* lebrated of them all, mentions nothing like a formal
kalendar in any part of his writings. In the moft early
periods, the only meafurement of time was by the fea-
fons, the revolutions of the fun and moon ; and many
ages muft have elapfed before the mode of computation
by dating events came into general ufe. Several een-
^ turies intervened between the era of the Olympic games
Inaccurate and the firft hiftorians ; and feveral more between thefe
methods of ancl the authors of chronology. When time firft
computing began to be reckoned, we find its meafures very inde-
macteufe1^ terminate. The fucceflion of Juno’s prieftefles at Ar-
of. gos ferved Hellanicus for the regulation of his narra¬
tive ; while Ephorus reckoned his matters by genera¬
tions. Even in the hiftories of Herodotus and Thucy¬
dides, wre find no regular dates for the events record¬
ed: nor was there any attempt to eftablifti a fixed era,
until the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who attemp¬
ted it by comparing and correfling the dates of the O-
lympiads, the kings of Sparta, and the fucceflion of
the prieftefles of Juno at Argos. Eratofthenes and A-
pollodorus digefted the events recorded by them, ac¬
cording to the fucceflion of the Olympiads and of the
Spartan kings.
The uncertainty of the meafures of time in the moft
early periods renders the hiftories of thofe times equal¬
ly uncertain ; and even after the invention of dates
and eras, we find the ancient hiftorians very inatten¬
tive to them, and inaccurate in their computations,
frequently their eras and years were reckoned dif¬
ferently without their being fenfible of it, or at leaft
without giving the reader any information concerning
it; a circumftance which has rendered the fragments
of their umrks now remaining of very little ufe to po-
fterity. The Chaldean and Egyptian writers are ge¬
nerally acknowledged to be fabulous; and Strabo ac¬
quaints us, that Diodorus Siculus, and the other early 4
hiftorians of Greece, were ill informed and credulous. Ancient hi-
Hence the difagreement among the ancient hiftorians,
and the extreme confufion and contradiftion we meet^J^
with on comparing their works. Hellanicus and Acu-
filaus difagreed about their genealogies *, the latter ge-
jetted the traditions of Hefiod. Timaeus accufed E-
phorus of falfehood, and the reft of the world accufed
Timteus. The moft fabulous legends tvere impofed
on the world by Herodotus j and even Thucydides and
Diodorus, generally accounted able hiftorians, haA'e
been convifled of error. I he chronology of the La¬
tins is ftill more uncertain. The records of the Ro¬
mans Avere deftroyed by the Gauls j and Fabius Pic-
tor, the moft ancient of their hiftorians, was obliged
to borroAV the greateft part of his information from the
Greeks. In other European nations the chronology
is ftill more imperfeft and of a later date ; and even
in modern times, a confiderable degree of confufion
and inaccuracy has arifen from Avant of attention in the
hiftorians to afeertain the dates and epochs Avith preci-
fion. ^
From thefe obfervations it is obvious Iioav neceflary Utility of
a proper fyftem of chronology muft be for the right chronology,
underftanding of hiftory, and likewife how very diffi-llflj of c^ro-
cult it muft be to eftablifh fuch a fyftem. In this,g°c®ger5’
however, feveral learned men have excelled, particu¬
larly Julius Africanus, Eufebius of Csefarea, George
Cyncelle, John of Antioch, Dennis, Petau, Cluviar,
Calvifius, Uftier, Simfon, Marftiam, Blair, and Play¬
fair. It is founded, I. On aftronomical obfervations,
particularly of the eclipfes of the fun and moon, com¬
bined with the calculations of the eras and years of dif¬
ferent nations. 2. The teftimonies of credible authors.
3. Thofe epochs in hiftory which are fo well attefted
and determined, that they have never been contro-
N 2 verted.
100
CHRONOLOGY.
verted.. 4. Ancient medal?, coins, monuments, and
infcriptions. None of thefe, however, can be fuffi-
ciently intelligible without an explanation of the firft
part, which, we have already obferved, confiders the
divifions of time, and of which therefore w'e fhall treat
6 in the firtt place.
Of the di- The muft obvious divifion of time is derived from the
vifion °f apparent revolutions of the celeftial bodies, particular-
days. which by the viciffitudes of day and
night, becomes evident to the moft barbarous and ig¬
norant nations. In ftridt propriety of fpeech, the word
day fignifies only that portion of time during which
the fun diffufes light on any part of the earth ; but in
the moft comprehenfible fenfe, it includes the night
alfo, and is called by chronologers a civil day ; by
aftronomers a natural, and fometimes an artificial
„ dav. ^
7 J
Civil, folar, ' By a civil day is meant the interval betwixt the
5e.c. clays ftm s departure from any given point in the heavens
and next return to the fame, with as much more as
anfwers to its diurnal motion eaftward, which is at the
rate of 59 minutes and 8 feconds of a degree, or 3 mi¬
nutes and ^7 feconds of time. It is alfo called a folar
day, and is longer than a fulereal one, infomuch that,
if the former be divided into 24 equal parts or hours,
the latter will confift only of 23 hours 56 minutes.
The apparent inequality of the fun’s motion, likewife,
aiifing from the obliquity of the ecliptic, produces an¬
other inequality in the length of the days : and hence
the difference betwixt real and apparent time, fo that
the apparent motion of the fun cannot always be a true
meafure of duration. I hofe inequalities, however,
are. capable of being reduced to a general ftandard,
which furnifhes an exa& meafure throughout the year ;
whence arifes the difference between mean and appa¬
rent time, as is explained under the article Astro-
s NOMY.
Different There have been very confiderable differences among
ways of nations with regard to the beginning and endine of
thcTbelTn- !^e*r beginning of the day was counted
ring of the ^rom f^rife by the . Babylonians, Syrians, Perfians,
day. and Indians. The civil day of the Jews was begun
from funrife, and their facred one from funfet ; the
latter mode of computation being followed by the A-
themans, Arabs, ancient Gauls and other European
nations. According to fome, the Egyptians began
their day at funfet, while others are of opinion that
they computed from noon or from funrife ; and Pliny
informs us that they computed their civil day from one
midnight to another. It is probable, however, that
they, had different modes of computation in different
provinces or cities. The Aufonians, the moft ancient
inhabitants of Italy, computed the day from mid¬
night 5 and the aftronomers of Cathay and Oighur in
the Eaft Indies reckoned in the fame manner. This
mode of computation was adopted by Hipparchus,
Copernicus, and other aftronomers, and is now in com¬
mon ufe among ourfelves. The afronomical faj, how¬
ever, as it is called, on account of its being ufed in
aftronomical calculation, commences at noon, and
Strange ends at the feme time the following day. The Maho-
method of metans reckon from one twilight to another. In Ita-
computa- ly, the civil day commences at fome indeterminate
Ataly* point after funfet; whence the time of noon varies with
the feafon of the year. At the fummer folftice, the
clock ftrikes 16 at noon, and 19 at the time of the
winter folftice. Thus alfo the length of each day dif¬
fers by feveral minutes from that immediately preced¬
ing or following it. This variation requires a confi¬
derable difficulty in adjufting their time by clocks. It
is accompliflied, however, by a hidden movement
which corrects the difference when it amounts to a
quarter of an hour ; and this it does fometimes at the
end of eight days, fometimes at the end of 13, and
fometimes at the end of 40. Information of all this is
given by a printed kalendar, which announces, that
from the 16th of February, for inftance to the 24th,
it will be noon at a quarter paft 18; from the 24th of
February to.the 6th of March, it will be noon at 18
o’clock precifely ; from the firft of June to the 13th of
July, the hour of noon will be at 16 o’clock ; on the
13th of July it will be at half an hour after 16; and
fo on throughout the different months of the year.
Ihis.abfurd method of meafuring the day continues
notwithftanding feveral attempts to fupprefsit, through¬
out the whole of Italy, a few provinces only ex¬
cepted.
The fubdivifions of . the day have not been lefs vari-var;oJs
ous than the computations, of the day itfelf. The moft fubdivifion*
obvious divifion, and which could at no time, nor
no age, be miftaken, was that of morning and evening.
In procefs of time the two intermediate points of noon
and midnight were determined ; and this divifion in¬
to quarters was in ufe long before the invention of
hours.
From this fubdivifion probably arofe the method
ufed by the Jews and Romans of dividing the day and
night into four vigils or watches. The firft began at
funrifing, or fix in the morning ; the fecond at nine;
the third at twelve ; and the fourth at three in the af¬
ternoon. In like manner the night was divided into
four parts ; the firft beginning at fix in the evening,
the fecond at nine, the third at twelve, and the fourth
at three in the morning. The firft of thefe divifion
was called by the Jews the third hour of the day ; the
fecond ihefxth ; the third the ninth ; and the fourth
the twelfth, and fometimes the eleventh. Another di¬
vifion in ufe, not only among the nations above men¬
tioned, but the Greeks alfo, was that which reckoned
the firft. quarter from. funfet to midnight; the fecond
from midnight to funrife ; the third, or morning watch,
from morning to noon ; and the fourth from noon to
funfst.
It is uncertain at what time the more minute fub- 11
divifion of the day into hours firft commenced jt1™41'™
does not appear from'the writings of Mofes that he uncertain,
was acquainted with it, as he mentions only the morn¬
ing, mid-day, evening, and funfet. Hence we may
conclude, that the Egyptians at that time knew no¬
thing of it, as Mofes was well fldlled in their learning.
According to Herodotus, the Greeks received the
knowledge of the. twelve hours of the day from the
Babylonians. It is probable, however, that the divi¬
fion was a&ually known and in ufe before the name
hour was applied to it ; as Cenforinus informs us that
the term was not made ufe of in Rome for 300 years
after its foundation ; nor was it known at the time
the twelve tables were conftru&ed.
The eaftern nations divide the day and night in a
very fingular manner ; the origin of which is not eafily
difcovered.
101
C! H R O N
difcover^d. The Chinefe have five watchesin the night,
which are announced by a certain number of ftrokes
on a bell or drum. They begin by giving one flroke,
which is anfwered by another j and this is repeated at
the didance of a minute or two, until the fecond watch
begin, which is announced by two ftrokes j and fo on
throughout the reft of the watches. By the ancient
Tartars, Indians, and Perfians, the day was divided
I2 into eight parts, each of which contained feven hours
Method of and a half. The Indians on the eoaft of Malabar di-
i computa- vide the day into fix parts, called najika; each of
tion on the t]iepe parts \s fubdivided into 60 others, called ve-
Mafab ir naigas ; the venaiga into 60 birpes; the birpe into 10
kenikans; the kenikan into four mattires j the mat-
tire into eight kaunimas or caignodes; which divi-
fions, according to our mode of computation, ftand as
follow :
Najika, Venaiga, Birpe, Kenikan, Mattire, Caignode.
24 min. 24 fee. 4 fee. fee, TV ^ec* To ^ec*
The day of the Chinefe is begun at midnight, and
ends with the midnight following. It is divided into
twelve hours, each diftinguifhed by a particular name
and figure. They alfo divide the natural day into
100 parts, and each of thefe into 100 minutes 5 fo
that the whole contains 10,000 minutes. In the north¬
ern parts of Europe, where only two feafons are
reckoned in the year, the divifions of the day and night
are confiderably larger than with us. In Iceland the
24 hours are divided into eight parts j the firft of
which commences at three in the morning j the fe¬
cond at five ; the third at half an hour after eight j the
fourth at eleven ; the fifth at three in the afternoon ;
the fixth at fix in the evening} the feventh at eight,
and the laft at midnight. In the eaftern part of Tur-
keftan, the day is divided into twelve equal parts, each
of which is diftinguilhed by the name of fome animal.
Thefe are fubdivided into eight keh; fo that the whole
24 hours contain 96 keh.
. .p The modern divifions of the hour in ufe among us
ofthe^hpur are ^nto ™inutesi feconds, thirds, fourths, &c. each
into mi- being a fixtieth part of the former fubdivifion.^ By
nutes, &c. the Cbaldaeans, Jews, and Arabians, the hour is di¬
vided into 1080 ferupjes j fo that one hour contains
60 minutes, and one minute, 18 fcruples. I he an¬
cient Perfians and Arabs were likewife acquainted
with this divifion 5 but the Jews are fo fond of it, that
they pretend to have received it in a fupernatural man¬
ner. “ Iffachar (fay they) afeended into heaven, and
brought from thence 1080 parts for the benefit of the
nation.”
Methods of The divifion of the day being afeertained, it foon
announcing became an objeft to indicate in a public manner the
the hours, expiration of any particular hour or divifion ; as with¬
out fome general knowledge of this kind, it would be
in a great meafure impoflible to carry bn bufinefs.
The methods of announcing this have been likewife
very different. Among the Egyptians it was cufto-
mary for the priefts to proclaim the hours like watch¬
men among us. The fame method was followed at
Rome *, nor was there any other method of knowing
the hours until the year 293 B. C. when Papirius
Curfor firft fet up a fun-dial in the Capitol. A fimi-
lar method is pra&ifed among the Turks, whofe priefts
proclaim from the top of their mofques, the cock-
3
O L O G Y.
crowing, day-break, mid-day, three o’clock in.the af¬
ternoon, and twilight, being their appointed times of
worlhip. J5.
As this mode of proclaiming the hour could not but Invention
be very inconvenient, as well as imperfeft, the introduc-
tion of an inftrument which every one could have in this pur_
his poffeflion, and which might anfwer the fame pur-pGfe.
pofe, muft have been confidered as a valuable acquifi-
tion. One of the firft of thefe was the clepfydra or
water-clock*. Various kinds of thefe were in ufe # See
among the Egyptians at a very early period. The ia-fydra.
vention of the inftrument is attributed to Thoth .or
Mercury, and it was afterwards improved by Ctefibius
of Alexandria. It was a common meafure of time
among the Greeks, Indians, and Chaldaeans, as well as
the Egyptians, but was not introduced into Rome till
the time of Scipio Nafica. The Chinefe aftronomers
have long made ufe of it; and by its means divided
the zodiac into twelve parts ; but it is a very inac¬
curate meafure of time, varying, not only according to
the quantity of water in the veffel, but according to
the ftate of the atmofphere.
The clepfydra was fucceeded by the gnomon or
fun-dial.—This at firil was no more than a ftile
erected perpendicularly to the horizon ; and it Avas a
long time before the principles of it came to be tho¬
roughly underftood. The invention is with great
probability attributed to the Babylonians, from whom
the Jews received it before the time of Ahaz, when
we know that a fun-dial was already erebted at Jeru-
falem. The Chinefe and Egyptians alfo were ac¬
quainted with the ufe of the dial at a very early pe¬
riod, and it was confiderably improved by Anaximan¬
der or Anaximenes; one of whom is for that reafon
looked upon to be the inventor. Various kinds of
dials, however, were invented and made ufe of in dif¬
ferent nations long before their introdu&ion at Rome.
The firft eretted in that city, as has been already men¬
tioned, was that by Papirius Curfor $ and 30 years
after, Valerius Meffala brought one from Sicily,
which was ufed in Rome for no lefs than 99 years,
though conftrufted for a Sicilian latitude, and con-
fequently incapable of {howing the hours exaftly in
any other place j but at laft another was conftru&ed
by L. Philippus, capable of meafuring time with great¬
er accuracy.
It was long after the invention of dials before man¬
kind began to form any idea of clocks j nor is it well
known at what period they were firft invented. A
clock was fent by Pope Paul I. to Pepin king of
France, which at that time was fuppofed to be the
only one in the world. A very curious one was alfo
fent to Charles the Great from the caliph Haroun Al-
rafehid, which the hiftorians of the time fpeak of with
furprife and admiration : but the greateft improvement
was that of Mr Huygens, who added the pendulum to
it. Still, however, the inftruments for dividing time
were found to be inaccurate for nice purpofes. The
expanfion of the materials by heat, and their contrac¬
tion by cold, would caufe a very perceptible alteration
in the going of an inftrument in the fame place at dif¬
ferent times of the year, and much more if carried
from one climate to another. Various methods have
been contrived to correft this 5 which indeed can be
done very effe&ually at land by a certain conftru&ion
102
C H R 0 N
of the pendulum } hut at fea, where a pendulum can-
hot be ufed, the inaccuracy is uf confequenee much
greater ; nor was it thought poffible to correal the er¬
rors arifing from thefe caufes in any tolerable degree,
until the late invention of Mr Harrifon’s time-piece,
which may be confidered as making perhaps as near an
approach to perfection as poflible.
Having thus given an account of the more minute
divifions of time, with the methods of meafuring
them, we muft now proceed to the larger j which more
properly belong to chronology, and which muft be
16 kept on record, as no inftrument can be made to
Of weeks point them out. Of thefe the divifion into weeks of
i’even days is one of the moft ancient, and probably
took place from the creation of the world. Some,
indeed, are of opinion, that the week was invented
fome time after for the more convenient notation of
. time j but whatever may be in this, we are certain
that it is of the higheft antiquity, and even the moft
rude and barbarous nations have made ufe of it. It is
lingular indeed that the Greeks, notwithftanding their
learning, ftiould have been ignorant of this divifion j
and M. Goguet informs us, that they were almoft the
Only nation who were fo. By them the month of 3D
days was divided into three times 10, and the days of
it named accordingly. Thus the 15th day of the
month was called the fecond Jifth, or fifth of the fe-
cond tenth $ the 24th was called the third fourth, or
the fourth day of the third tenth. This method was
in ufe in the days of Hefiod, and it was not until fe-
veral ages had elapfed, that the ufe of weeks was re¬
ceived into Greece from the Egyptians. The inha¬
bitants of Cathay, in the northern part of China, were
likewife unacquainted with the wreek of feven days,
but divided the year into fix parts of 60 days each.
They had alfo a cycle of 15 days, which they ufed
as a week. The week was likewife unknown to the
ancient Perfians and to the Mexicans j the former
having a different name for every day of the month,
and the latter making ufe of a cycle of 13 days. By
almoft all other nations the week of feven days was
adopted.
Ofhou- It is remarkable, that one day in the week has ai-
4ajs. ways been accounted as facred by every nation. Thus
Saturday was confecrated to pious purpofes among
the Jews, Friday by the Turks, Tuefday by the Afri¬
cans of Guinea, and Sunday by the Chriftians.
Hence alfo the origin of Fence or holidays frequent¬
ly made ufe of in Syftems of Chronology •, and which
arofe from the following circumftance. In the church
of Rome the old ecclefiaftical year began with Eafter
week j all the days of which were called Ferice or Fe-
riati, that F, holy or facred days ; and in procefs of
time the days of other weeks came to be diftinguifli-
ed by the fame appellation, for the two following rea-
ibns, 1. Becaufe every day ought to be holy in the
eftimation of a Chriftian. 2. Becaufe all days are holy
to ecclefiaftics, wliofe time ought to be entirely de¬
voted to religious worlhip.—The term uceek is fome-
times ufed to fignify feven years, not only in the pro¬
phetical writings, but likewife by profane authors :
thus Varro, in his'book micnhe& Hebdomades, informs
us, that he had then entered the 12th week of his
l5 years.
Of months. The next divifion of time fuperior to weeks, is that
2
O L O G Y.
of months. This appears to have been, if not coeval
with the creation, at leaft in ufe before the flood. As
this divifion is naturally pointed out by the revolution
of the moon, the months of all nations Were origi¬
nally lunar j until after fome confiderable advances
had been made in fcience, the revolutions of that lu¬
minary were compared with the fun, and thus the li¬
mits of the month fixed with greater accuracy. The
divifion of the year into r 2 months, as being found¬
ed on the number of full revolutions of the moon in
that time, has alfo been very general; though Sir John
Chardin informs us, that the Perfians divided the year
into 24 months; and the Mexicans into i8 months of
20 days each. The months generally contained 3O
days, or 29 and 30 days alternately j though this rule
was far from being without exception. The months
of the Latins confifted of 16, 18, 22, or 36 days'j
and Romulus gave his people- a year of 10 months
and 304 days. The Kamtfchatkadales divide the year
into 10 months; reckoning the time proper for la¬
bour to be nine months, and the winter feafon, when
they are obliged to remain ina&ive, only as one
month.
It has been a very ancient cuftom to give names to
the different months of the year, though this appears
to have been more modern than the departure of the
Ifraelites out of Egypt, as they would otherwife un¬
doubtedly have carried it with them ; but for a con¬
fiderable time after their fettlement in Canaan, they
diftinguilhed the months only by the names of firft,
fecond, &c. After their return from the Babylo-
nilh captivity, they adopted the names given to the
months by the Chaldaeans. Other nations adopted
various names, and arranged the months themfelves ac¬
cording to their fancy. From this laft circumftance
arifes the variety in the dates of the months ; for as
the year has been reckoned from different ftgns in the
ecliptic, neither the number nor the quantity of months
have been the fame, and their fituation has likewife
been altered by the intercalations neceffary to be
made.
Thefe intercalations became neceffary oti account
of the excefs of the folar above the lunar year ; and
the months compofed of intercalary days are likewife
called embolifmal. Thefe embolifmal months are either
natural or civil. By the former the folar and lunar
years are adjufted to one another ; and the latter arifes
from the deleft of the civil year itfelf. The adar of
the Jews, which always confifts of 30 days, is an ex¬
ample of the natural embelifmal month.
The Romans had a method of dividing their months
into kalends, nones, and ides. The firft was derived
from an old ^rd calo, “ to callbecaufe, at every new
moon, one of the lower clafs of priefts affembled the
people, and called over, or announced, as many days as
intervened betwixt that and the nones, in order to no¬
tify the difference of time and the return of feftivals.
The 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th of March, May,
July, and Oftober, were the nones of thefe months ;
buj in the other months were the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th
days only. Thus the 5th of January was its nones ;
the 4th was pridie nonarum ; the 3d, tertio nonarum,
&-c. The ides contained eight days in every month,
and were nine days diftant from the nones. Thus the
13th day of the four months already mentioned was
the
IQ3
CHRONOLOGY.
the ides of them; but in the others the 13th was ac¬
counted as fuch j the 12th was pridie iduum, and the
11 th tertio iduum. The ides were fucceeded by the ka¬
lends j the 14th of January, for inftance, being the
19th kalend of February *, the 15th was the 18th ka-
lend * and fo on till the 31ft of January, which was
pridie halendarum ; and February ill was the kalends.
Utronomi- Among the European nations the month is either
al and ci- aftronomical or civil. The former is meafured by
il months, the motion of the heavenly bodies ; the civil confifls of
a certain number of days fpecified by the laws, or by
the civil inftitutions of any nation or fociety. The
aftronomical months, being for the moft part regulated
by the motions of the fun and moon, are thus divided
into folar and lunar, of which the former is fometimes
alfo called civil. The aftronomical folar month is the
time which the fun takes up in palling through a fign
of the ecliptic. The lunar month is periodical, fyno-
dical, fidereal, and civil. The fynodical lunar month
is the time that paffes between any conjunction of the
moon with the fun and the conjunction following. It
includes the motion of the fun ealtward during that
time; fo that a mean lunation confifts of Spd. 1 2h.
44' 2" 8921. The fidereal lunar month is the time
of the mean revolution of the moon with regard to the
fixed ftars. As the equinoCtial points go backwards
about 4' in the fpace of a lunar month, the moon muft,
in confequence of this retroceflion, arrive at the equi¬
nox fooner than at any fixed ftar, and confequently the
mean fidereal revolution muft be longer than the mean
periodical one. The latter confifts of 2yd. yh. 43'
4" 6840. The civil lunar month is computed from
the moon, to anfwer the ordinary purpofes of life;
and as it would have been inconvenient, in the com¬
putation of lunar months, to have reckoned odd parts
of days, they have been compofed of 30 days, or of
29 and 30 alternately, as the neareft round numbers*
When the month is reckoned from the firft appearance
of the moon after her conjunction, it is called the month
of illumination. The Arabs, Turks, and other nations,
who ufe the era of the Hegira, follow this method
of computation. As twelve lunar months, however,
are 11 days lefs than a folar year, Julius Caefar ordain¬
ed that the month ftiould be reckoned from the courfe
of the fun and not of the moon ; and that they ftiould
confift of 30 and 31 days alternately, February only
excepted, which was to confift of 28 commonly, and of
20 29 in leap years.
Of years. The higheft natural divifion of time is into years.
At firft, however, it is probable that the courfe of the
fun through the ecliptic would not be obferved, but
that a’l nations would meafure their time by the revo¬
lutions of the moon. We are certain, at leaft, that the
Egyptian year confifted originally of a fingle lunation ;
though at length it included two or three months, and
was determined by the ftated returns of the feafons.
As the eaftern nations, however, particularly the E-
gyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, applied themfelves
in very early periods to aftronomy, they found, by
comparing the motions of the fun and moon together,
that one revolution of the former included nearly 12 of
the latter. Hence a year of 12 lunations was formed,
in every one of which were reckoned 30 days ; and
hence alfo the divifion of the ecliptic into 360 degrees.
The lunifolar year, confiding of 360. days, was in ufe
long before any regular intercalations were made ;
and hiftorians inform us, that the year of all ancient
nations was lunifolar. Herodotus relates, that the
Egyptians firft divided the year into 12 parts by the
afliftance of the ftars, and that every part confifted of
30 days. The Thebans corre&ed this year by add¬
ing five intercalary days to it. The old Chaldean year
was alfo reformed by the Medes and Perfians : and
fome of the Chinefe miflionaries have informed us,
that the lunifolar year was alfo correfted in China;
and that the folar year was afcertained in that country
to very confiderable exaftnefs. The Latin year, before
Numa’s correction of it, confifted of 360 days, of
which 304 were divided into ten months; to which
were added two private months not mentioned in the
kalendar. ^
The imperfeClion of this method of comparing timeExplana-
is now very evident. The lunifolar year was abouttionofa
57 days (horter than the true folar year, and as much paflage if1
longer than the lunar. Hence the months could notHerodotUsi’
long correfpond with the feafons ; and even in fo (hort
a time as 34 years, the winter months would have
changed places with thofe of furamer. From this ra¬
pid variation, Mr Playfair takes notice, that a paffage
in Herodotus, by which the learned have been exceed-
ihgly puzzled, may receive a fatisfaCIory folution, viz.
that “ in the time of the ancient Egyptian kings, the
fun had twice arifen in the place where it had former¬
ly fet, and twice fet where it had arifen.” By this
he fuppofes it is meant, “ that the beginning of the
year had twice gone through all the figns of the eclip¬
tic ; and that the fun had rifen and fet twice in every
day and. month in the year.” This, which fome have
taken for a proof of moft extravagant antiquity, he
further obferves, might have happened in 138 years
only ; as in that period there would be a difference of
nearly two years between the folar and lunar year.
Such evident imperfeClions could not but produce a
reformation everywhere ; and accordingly we find that
there was no nation which did not adopt the me¬
thod of adding a few intercalary days at certain inter¬
vals. We are ignorant, however, of the perfon who
was the firft inventor of this method. The Theban
priefts attributed tfie invention to Mercury or Thoth ;
and it is certain that they were acquainted with the
year of 365 days at a very early period. The length
of the folar year was reprefented by the celebrated
golden circle of Ofymandyas of 365 cubits circumfe¬
rence; and on every cubk of which was inferibed a
day of the year, together with the heliacal rifings and
fettings of the ftars. That monarch is fuppofed to
have reigned in the nth or I2tb century before the
Chriftian era. aa
The Egyptian folar year being almoft fix hours Great
ftiorter than the true one, this inaccuracy, in procefsEgyptian
of time, produced another revolution; fome circ:um-year’0.r
flances attending which ferve to fix the date of the dif-^jg” at
covery of the length of the year, and which, from the ^
above defcription of the golden circle, we may fuppofe
to have been made during the reign of Ofymandyas.
The inundation of the Nile was annually announced
by the heliacal riling of Sirius, to which the reformers
of the kalendar adjufted the beginning of the year, fup-
pofing that it would remain immoveable. In a num¬
ber of years, however, it appeared that their Tuppofi-
tions
104
Of the
time when
it commen¬
ced.
'*4.
Uncertain¬
ty of the
time when
the true
folar year
was difco-
vered.
as
Years of
the Jews,
&c.
26
Reforma¬
tion of the
kalendar
by Julius
Caffar and
Pope Gre¬
gor .
CHRONOLOGY.
lions of this were ill founded. By reafon of the ine¬
quality above mentioned, the heliacal riling of Sirius
gradually advanced nearly at the rate of one day in
four years ; fo that in 1461 years it completed a revo¬
lution, by arifing on every fucceeding day of the year,
and returning to the point originally fixed for the be¬
ginning of the year. This period, equal to 1460
Julian years, was termed the great Egyptian year, or
canicular cycle. From the accounts we have of the
time that the canicular cycle was renewed, the time of
.its original commencement may be gathered with to-
leraole certainty. T his*happened, according to Cen-
forinus, in the 138th year of the Chriltian era. Rec¬
koning backward therefore from this time for 1460
years, we come to the year B. C. 1322, when the fun
was in Cancer, about 14 or 13 days after the fummer
folftice, which happened on July 5th. The Egyptians
fifed no intercalation till the time of Augulfus, when
the correfted Julian year was received at Alexandria
by his order 5 but even this order was obeyed only by
the Greeks and Romans who refided in that city ; the
fuperftitious natives refufing to make any addition to
the length of a year which had been fo long eftablilh-
ed among them.
We are not informed at what precife period the
true year was obferved to confift of nearly fix hours
more than the 365 days. Though the priefts of The¬
bes claim the merit of the difcovery, Herodotus makes
no mention of it ; neither did Thales, who introduced
the year of 365 days into Greece, ever ufe any inter¬
calation. Plato and Eudoxus are faid to have obtain¬
ed it as a fecret from the Egyptians about 8o years
after Herodotus, and to have carried it into Greece ;
which Ihovved, that the knowledge of this form of the
year was at that time recent, and only known to a few
learned men.
The year of the ancient Jews was lunifolar 5 and
we are informed by tradition, that Abraham preferved
in his family, and tranfmitted to pofterity, the Chal¬
dean form of the year, confiding of 360 days ; which
remained the fame without any correftion until the
date of the Era of Nabonaffar. The folar year was
adopted among them after their return from the Ba-
bylonilh captivity j but when fubje&ed to the fuccef-
fors of Alexander in Syria, they were obliged to admit
the lunar year into their kalendar. In order to adjuft
this year to the courfe of the fun, they added at cer¬
tain periods a month to Adar, formerly mentioned,
and called it Ve Adar. They compofed alfo a cycle
of 19 years, vin feven of which they inferted the inter¬
calary month. This correftion was intended to regu¬
late the months in fuch a manner, as to bring the 15th
of Nifan to the equinoctial point ; and likewife the
courfes of the feafons and feafts in fuch a manner, that
the corn might be ripe at the palfover as the law re¬
quired.
We fhall not take up the reader’s time with any
further account of the years made ufe of by different
nations, all of which are refolved at laft into the luni¬
folar ; it will be fufficient to mention the improve¬
ments in the kalendar made by the two great reformers
of it, Julius Csefar, and Pope Gregory XIII. The
inftitution of the Roman year by Romulus has been
already taken notice of; but as this was evidently very
imperfeft, Numa, on his advancement to the throne,
undertook to reform it. With a defign to make a
complete lunar year of it, he added 50 days to the
304 of Romulus ; and from every one of his months,
which confifted of 31 and 30 days, he borrowed one
day. Of thefe additional days he compofed two
months; calling the one January, and the other Fe¬
bruary. Various other corrections and adjuftments
were made ; but when Julius Caefar obtained the fove-
reignty of Rome, he found that the months had con-
fiderably receded from the feafons to which Numa had
adjulted them. To bring them forward to their places,
he formed a year of 15 months, or 445 days ; which,
on account of its length, and the defign with which it
was formed, has been called the year efconfufion. It
terminated on the firft of January 45 B. C. and
from this period the civil year and months were re¬
gulated by the courfe of the fun. The year of Nu¬
ma being ten days ftiorter than the folar year, two
days were added by Julius to every one of the months
of January, Auguft, and December; and one to April,
June, September, and November. He ordained like¬
wife, that an intercalary day fliould be added every
fourth year to the month of February, by reckoning
the 24th day, or fixth of the kalends of March, twice
over. Hence this year was ftyled bijjextile, and alfo
leap year, from its leaping a day more than a common
year.
The Julian year has been ufed by modern chronolo-
gers, as being a meafure of time extremely fimple and
fufficiently accurate. It is ftill, however, fomewhat
imperfeft, for as the true folar year confifts of 36jd.
5ln 48'45-S-",. it appears that in 131 years after the
Julian correction, the fun muft have arrived one day
too foon at the equinoctial point. During Csefar’s
reign the vernal equinox had been obferved by Sofige-
nes on the 25th of March ; but by the time of the
Nicene council it had gone backward to the 21ft.
The caufe of the error was not then known ; but in
1582, when the equinox happened on the nth of
M^arch, it was thought proper to give the kalendar its
laft correftion. Pope Gregory XIII. having invited
to Rome a confiderable number of mathematicians and
aftronomers, employed ten years in the examination of
their feveral formulae, and at laft gave the preference to
that of Alofia and Antoninus Lelius, who were bro¬
thers. Ten days were now cut off in the month of
O&ober, and the 4th of that month was reckoned the
15th. To prevent the feafons from receding in time
to come, he ordained that one day ftiould be added
every fourth or biffextile year as before ; and that the
1600th year of the Chriftian era, and every fourth
century thereafter, fliould be a biffextile or leap year.
One day therefore is to be intercalated in the years
2000, 2300, 2800, &c. but in the other centuries, as
1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, &c. it is to be fuppreffed,
and thefe are to be reckoned as common years. Even
this correction, however, is not abfolutely exact ; but
the error muft be very inconfiderable, and fcarce a-
mounting to a day and a half in 3000 years.
The commencement of the year has been deter-Commence,
mined by the date of feme memorable event or occur-h1611*
rence, fuch as the creation of the world, the univerfaiyear*
deluge, a conjunction of planets, the incarnation of
our Saviour, &c. and of courfe has been referred to
different points in the ecliptic. The Chaldean and
the
CHRONOLOGY.
105
the Egyptian years were dated from the autumnal
equinox. The ecclefiaftical year of the Jews began in
the fpring ; but, in civil affairs, they retained the epoch
of the Egyptian year. The ancient Chintfe reckoned
from the new moon neareft the middle of Aquarius j
but recording to fome recent accounts, the beginning
of their year was transferred (B. C. 1740) to the new
moon neareft to the winter folftice. This likewife is
the date of the Japanefe year. Diemfchid, or Gem-
fchid, king of Periia, obferved, on the day of his pu¬
blic entry into Perfepolis, that the fun entered into A-
ries. In commemoration of this fortunate event and
coincidence, he ordained the beginning of the year to
be removed from the autumnal to the vernal equinox.
This epoch was denominated Neurux, viz. new-day j
and is ftill celebrated with great pomp and feftivity.
(See Epochs.) The ancient Swedifh year commen¬
ced at the winter folftice, or rather at the time of the
fun’s appearance in the horizon, after an abfence of
about 40 days. The feaft of this epoch was folemnized
on the 20th day after the folftice. Some of the Gre¬
cian ftates computed from the vernal, fome from the
autumnal equinox, and others from the fummer tropic.
The year of Romulus commenced in March, and that
of Numa in January. The Turks and Arabs date the
year from the 16th of July : and the American In¬
dians reckon from the firft appearance of the new
moon of the vernal equinox. The church of Rome
has fixed new year’s day on the Sunday that corre-
fponds with the full moon of the fame feafon. The
Venetians, Florentines, and Pifans in Italy, and the
inhabitants of Treves in Germany, begin the year at
the vernal equinox. The ancient clergy reckoned
from the 25th of March 5 and this method was ob¬
ferved in Britain, until the introduftion of the new
ftyle (A. D. 1752) ; after which our year commenced
on the ift day of January.
Befides thefe natural divifions of time arifing imme¬
diately from the revolutions of the heavenly bodies,
there are others formed from fome of the lefs obvious
confequences of thefe revolutions, which are called cy¬
cles, from the Greek xt/xAaj, a circle. The moll re¬
markable of thefe are the following.
I. The cycle of the fun is a revolution of 28 years, in
which time the days of the months return again to the
fame days of the week j the fun’s place to the fame
figns and degrees of the ecliptic on the fame months
and days, fo as not to differ one degree in 100
years; and the leap years begin the fame courfe over
again with refpedt to the days of the week on which
the days of the month fell. The cycle of the moon,
commonly called the golden number, is a revolution
of 19 years j in which time, the conjundlions, oppo-
fitions, and other afpefls of the moon, are within an
hour and a half of being the fame as they were on the
fame days of the months 19 years before. The in-
di&ion is a revolution of 15 years, ufed only by the
Romans for indicating the times of certain payments
made by the fubjefls to the republic : It was eftablilh-
ed by Conftantine, A. D. 312.
ear f an year our Saviour’s birth, according to the
cycic° dn^ vu^8ar cra' vvas th6 9th year of the folar cycle, the
firft; year of the lunar cycle ; and the 312th year after
his birth was the firft year of the Roman indiclion.
Therefore, to find the year of the folar cycle, add 9 to
Vol. VI. Part I.
t8
Of cycles'
59
Golden
number.
3°
To find the
any given year of Chrift, and divide the fum by 28, the
quotient is the number of cycles elapfed fince his birth,
and the remainder is the cycle lor the given year : If
nothing remains, the cycle is 28. To find the lunar
cycle, add one to the given year of Chrift, and divide
the fum by 19 ; the quotient is the number of cycles
elapfed in the interval, and the remainder is the cycle
for the given year : If nothing remains, the cycle is 19.
Laftly, fubtradl 312 from the given year of Chrilt,
and divide the remainder by 15 j and what remains af¬
ter this divifioh is the indiftion for the given year : If
nothing remains, the indiftion is 15. 31
Although the above deficiency in the lunar cycle ofVariation
an hour and a half every 19 years be but fmall, yet in^nUm-"
time it becomes fo fenlible as to make a whole natural ^en>
day in 3x0 years. So that, although the cycle be of
ufe, when the golden numbers are rightly placed againft
the days of the month in the kalendar, as in the Com¬
mon Prayer Books, for finding the days of the mean
conjunftions or oppofitions of the fun and moon, and
confequently the time of Eafter; it will only ferve lor
310 years, old ftyle. For as the new and full moons
anticipate a day in that time, the golden numbers ought
to be placed one day earlier in the kalendar for the next
310 years to come. Thefe numbers were rightly pla¬
ced againft the days of new moon in the kalendar by
the council of Nice, A. D. 325 : but the anticipation,
which has been negledted ever fince, is now groyvn al-
moft into five days : And therefore all the golden
numbers ought now to be placed five days higher in
the kalendar for the old ftyle, than they were at the
time of the faid council 5 or fix days lower for the
new ftyle, becaufe at prefent it differs 11 days from the
old. ,,
In the firft of the following tables, the golden numbers To find the
under the months Hand againft the days of new' moon in golden
the left hand column, for the new ftyle ; adapted chiefly "umt)er*
to the fecond year after leap-year, as being the neareft
mean for all the four *, and will ferve till the year 1900.
Therefore, to find the day of new moon in any month
of a given year till that time, look for the golden num¬
ber of that year under the defired month, and againft
it you have the day of new moon in the left hand co¬
lumn. Thus, fuppofe it were required to find the day
of new moon in September 1789 ; the golden number
for that year is 4, which I look for under September,
and right againft it, in the left-hand column, you will
find 19, which is the day of new moon in that month.
N. B. If all the golden numbers, except 17 and 6,
were fet one day lower in the table, it would ferve from
the beginning of the year 1900 till the end of the year
2x99. The table at the end of this feiRion fhows the
golden number for 4000 years after the birth of Chrift,
by looking for the even hundreds of any given year at
the left-hand, and for the reft to make up that year at
the head of the table ; and where the columns meet,
you have the golden number (which is the fame both
in old and new ftyle) for the given year. Thus, fup¬
pofe the golden number was wanted for the year 1789,
look for 1700 at the left hand of the table, and fur 89
at the top of it: then guiding your eye downward
from 89 to overagainft 1700, you will find 4, which
is the golden number for that year.
But becaufe the lunar cycle of 19 years fometimes
includes five leap-years, and at other times only four,
O this
io6
is '
Pienyfian
period, or
eyt ie of
Eafter.
34.
Pom in real
letter.
CHRONOLOGY.
this table will fometimes vary a day from the truth in
leap-years after February. And it is impoflible to have
one more correct, unlefs vve extend it to four times ip
or 76 years j in which there are 19 leap-years without
a remainder. But even then to have it of perpetual
u!e. it mult be adapted to the old flyle 5 bccaufe, in
every centennial year not divihble by the regular
courfe of leap-years is interrupted in the new $ as was
the cafe in the year 1800.
1 he cycle r^f F.njler^ alfo called l\ie DionijJtnn period^
is a revolution of 532 years, found by multiplying the
folar cycle 28 by the lunar cycle 19. If the new moons
did not anticipate upon this cycle, Eader-day would
always be the Sunday next after the firft full moon
which follow, the 21 ft of March. But, on account of
the above anticipation, to which no proper regard was
had before the late alteration of the ftyle, the ecch-fiaf-
tic Eafter has feveral times been a week different from
the true Eafter within this laft century j which incon¬
venience is now remedied by making the table, which
ufed to find Eafter for ever, in the Common Prayer
Book, of no longer ufe than the lunar difference from
the new ftyle will admit of.
The earlieft Eafter poflible is the 22d of March, the
lateft the 25th of April. Within thefe limits are 35
days, and the number belonging to each of them is call¬
ed the number of dire&ion ; becaufe thereby the time of
Eafter is found for any given year.
The firft fi-ven letters of the alphabet are commonly
placed in the annual almanacks, to fhow on what days
of the week the days of the months fall throughout
the year. And becaufe one of thefe feven letters muft
receflarily ftand againft Sunday, it is printed in a ca¬
pital form, and called the dominical letter; the other fix
being inferted in fmall characters, to denote the other
fix days of the week. Now, fince a common Julian
year contains 365 days, if this number be divided by
7 (the number of days in a week) there will remain
one day. If there had been no remainder, it is plain
the year would conftantly begin on the fame day of the
week ; but fince one remains, it is plain that the year
muft begin and end on the fame day of the week ; and
therefore the next year will begin on the day foliow-
ing. Hence, w'hen January begins on Sunday, A is
the dominical or Sunday letter for that year ; Then,
becaufe the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday
will fall on the feventh day, to which is annexed the
feventh letter G, which therefore will be the domini¬
cal letter for all that year : and as the third year will
begin on Tuefday, the Sunday will fall on the fixth
day; therefore F will be the Sunday letter for that
year. Whence it is evident, that the Sunday letters
will go annually in a retrograde order thus, G, F, E,
D, C, B, A. And, in the courfe of leven years, if
they were all common ones, the lame days of the week
and dominical litters would return to the fame davs of
the mon'hs. But becaufe there are 366 days in a leap-
year, if this number be divided by 7, there will remain
two days over and above the 52 weeks of which the
year confifts. And therefore, if the leap-year begins
on Sunday, it will end on Monday ; and the next year
will begin on Tuefday, the firft Sunday whereof muft
fail on the fixth of January, to which is annexed the
letter b, and not G, as in common years. By this
means, the leap-year returning every fourth year, the
order of the dominical letters is interrupted ; and the
feries cannot return to its firft ftate till after four times
feven, or 28 years ; and then the fame days of the
months return in order to the fame days of the week
as before.
TABLE I.
TABLE
CHRONOLOGY
.35
Julian pe¬
riod.
~ 36
To find the
year of the
Julian pe*
riod.
107
TABLE II.
From the multiplication of the folar cycle of 28
years into the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the Roman
indiflion of 15 years, arifes the great Julian period,
confiding of 7980 years, which had its beginning 764
years before Strauchius’s fuppofed year of the creation
(for no later could all the three cycles begin together),
and it is not yet completed: And therefore it includes
all other cycles, periods, and eras. There is but one
year in the whole period that has the fame numbers for
the three cycles of which it is made up : And there¬
fore, if hiftorians had remarked in their writings the
cycles of each year, there had been no difpute about
the time of any action recorded by them.
The Dionyfian or vulgar era of Chrift’s birth was
about the end of the year of the Julian period 47T3 >
and confequently the firft year of his age, according to
that account, was the 4714th year of the faid period.
Therefore, if to the current year of Chrift we add
4713, the fum will be found to be the Julian period.
So the year 1789 will be found to be the 6$02d year
of that period. Or, to find the year of the Julian pe¬
riod anfwering to any given year before the firft year
of Chrift, fubtraft the number of that given year from
4714, and^the remainder will be the year of the Julian
period. Thus, the year 58j before the firft year of
Chrift (which was the 584th before his birth) was the
4x29th year of the faid period. Laftly, to find the
cycles of the fun, moon, and indiclion for any given
year of this period, divide the given year by 28, 19,
and 15 ; the three remainders will be the cycles fought,
and the quotients the number of cycles run finct the
beginning of the period. So in the above 4714th year
of the Julian period, the cycle of the fun was 10, the
cycle of the moon 2, and the cycle of inditftion 4 ;
the folar cycle having run through 168 courfes, the
lunar 248, and the indidlion 314.
The vulgar era of Chrift’s birth was never fettled till Year of
the year 527, when Dionyfius Exiguus, a Roman ab-
bot, fixed it to the end of the 4713th year of the Julian
period, which was four years too late ; for our Saviour
was born before the death of Herod, who fought to
kill him as foon as he heard of his birth. And accord¬
ing to the teftimony of Jofephus (£. xvii. c/i. 8.), there
was an eclipfe of the moon in the time of Herod’s laft
illnefs j which eclipfe appears by our aftronomical tables
to have been in the year of the Julian period 4710,
March 13. at three hours paft midnight, at Jerulalem.
Now, as our Saviour muft have been born tome months
before Herod’s death, fince in the interval he was car¬
ried into Egypt, the lateft time in which we can fix
O 2 the
ioB
3S
Eras or £
pochs.
39
Hiftoric
chronolog;
40
Of eciipfes
of the fun
and mooir.
C H R O N
the true era of his birth is about the end of the 4709th
year of the Julian period.
As there are certain fixed points in the heavens from
'vhich aftronomers begin their computations, fo there
are certain points of time from which hiftorians begin
to reckon ; and thefe points or roots of time are called
eras or epochs. The molt remarkable eras are, thofe
of the Creation, the Greek Olympiads, the building
of Rome, the era of Nabonaffar, the death of Alex¬
ander, the birth of Chrift, the Arabian Hegira, and
the Perfian Jefdegird : All which, together with fe-
veral others of lefs note, have their beginnings fixed
by chronologers to the years of the Julian period, to
the age of the world at thofe times, arid to the years
before and after the year of Chrift’s birth.
Having thus treated as fully as our limits will ad-
mit, of the various divifions of time, we mult now con-
fider the fecond part of chronology, viz. that which
more immediately relates to hiilory, and which has
already been obferved to have the four following foun¬
dations; 1. Aftronomical obfervations, particularly of
eciipfes. 2. The teltimonies of credible authors. 4. E-
pochs in hiltory univerfally allowed to be true. 4/An¬
cient medals, coins, monuments, and infcriptions. We
(hall confider thefe four principal parts in the order
they here ftand.
I. It is with great reafon that the eciipfes of the fun
and moon, and the afpe6ts of the other planets, have
been called public and celeftial chara£lers of the times,
as their calculations afford chronologers infallible proofs
of the precife epochs in which a great number of the
moft fignal events in hiftory have occurred. So that
in chronological matters we cannot make any great
piogrefs, if we are ignorant of the ufe of altronomic
tables, and the calculation of eciipfes. The ancients
regarded the latter as prognoftics of the fall of em-
piies, of the lofs of battles, of the death of monarchs,
&e. And it is to this fuperftition, to this wretched
ignorance, that we happily owe the vaft labour that
hiftorians have taken to record fo great a number of
them. The molt able chronologers have collefkd
them with ftill greater labour. Calvifius, for example,
founds his chronology on 144 eciipfes of the fun, and
127 of the moon, that he fays he had calculated. The
grand conjunftion of the two fuperior planets, Saturn
and Jupiter, which, according to Kepler, occurs once
in 8 .0 years in Hie fame point of the zodiac, and which
has happened only eight times fince the creation (the
laft time in the month of December 1603), may alfo
furnilh chronology with inconteftable proofs. The
fame may be faid of the tranfit of Venus over the fun,
which has been obferved in our days, and all the other
uncommon pofitions of the planets. But among thefe
celeftial and natural chara&ers of times, there are alfo
fome that are named civil or artificial, and which,
neverthelefs, depend on aftronomic calculation.
Such are the folar and lunar cycles; the Roman
indi&ionj the feaft of Eafter j the biffextile year j the
jubilees ; the fabbatic years ; the combats and Olym¬
pic games of the Greeks, and Hegira of the Maho¬
metans, &c. And to thefe may be added the periods,
eras, epochs, and years of different nations, ancient
and modern. We fhall only remark on this occafion,
O L O G Y.
that the period or era of the Jews commences with
the creation of the world j that of the ancient Romans
with the foundation of the city of Rome ; that of the
Greeks at the eftablilhment of the Olympic games j
that of Nabonaffar, with the advancement of the firlfc
king of Babylon to the throne ; the Yezdegerdio
years, with the laft king of the Perlians of that name j
the Hegira of the Turks, with the flight of Mahomet
from Mecca to Medina, &c. The year of the birth
of Chrift was the 4713th year of the Julian period,
according to the common method of reckoning. Aftro¬
nomical chronology teaches us to calculate the precife
year of the Julian period in which each of thefe epochs
happened.
If. 1 he teftimony of authors is the fecond principal Of the tef.
part of hiftoric chronology. Though no man what-tlmo!iy of
ever has a right to pretend to infallibility, or to be re-autho1'**
garded as a facred oracle, it would, however, be ma¬
king a very unjuft judgment of mankind, to treat them
all as dupes or impoftors j and it w’ould be an injury
offered to public integrity, were we to doubt the vera¬
city ol authors univerfally efteemed, and of fads that
are in themfelves highly worthy of belief. It would be
even a kind of infatuation to doubt that there have
been fuch cities as Athens, Sparta, Rome, Carthage,
&c. or that Xerxes reigned in Perfia, and Auguftus
in Rome : whether Plannibal ever was in Italy ; or
that the emperor Conftantine built Conftantinople, &c.
The unanimous teftimony of the moft refpediable hif¬
torians aviII not admit any doubt of thefe matters.
When an hirtorian is allowed to be completely able to
judge of an event, and to have no intent of deceiving
by his relation, his teftimony is unexceptionable. But to
avoid the danger of adopting error for truth, and to be
fatisfied of a fa6I that appears doubtful in hiftory, we
may make ufe of the four following rules, as they are
founded in reafon.
1. We ought to pay a particular regard to the tef-
timonies of thofe who wrote at the fame time the
events happened, and who have not been contraditfed
by any cotemporary author of known authority. Who
can doubt, for example, of the truth of the fafts re¬
lated by Admiral Anfon, in the hiftory of his voyage
round the world ? The admiral law all the fails there
mentioned with his own eyes, and publifhed his book
when two hundred companions of his voyage were ftill
living in London, and could have contradidled him im¬
mediately, if he had given any falfe or exaggerated
relations.
2. After the cotemporary authors, we fliould give
more credit to thofe who lived near the time-the events
happened than thofe who lived at a diftance.
3. Thofe doubtful hiftories, which are related by
authors that are but little known, can have no weight,
if they are at variance with reafbn, or eftabliftied *tral
dition.
4. We muft diftruft the truth of a hiftory that is re¬
lated by modern authors, when they do not agree
among themfelves in feveral cireumftances, nor with
ancient hiftorians, who are to be regarded as original
fources. We fhould efpecially doubt the truth of thofe
brilliant portraits, that are drawn at pleafure by fuch
as never knew the.perfons they are intended for, and
even made feveral centuries after their deceafe.
4
The
42
Epochs.
43
Medals,
&c.
C H R O N
The moft pure and moft fruitful fource of ancient
hiftory is doubtlefs to be found in the Holy Bible. Let
us here for a moment ceafe to regard it as divine, and
let us prefume to confider it as a common hiilory.
Now, when we regard the writers of the books of the
Old Tetlament, and confider them fometimes as au¬
thors, fometimes as ocular witneffes, and fometimes as
refpe&able hiftorians ; whether we refled on the lim-
plicity of the narration, and the air of truth that is
there conftantly vifible •, or, when we confider the care
that the people, the governments, and the learned
men of all ages, have taken to preferve the true text
of the Bible or that we have regard to the happy
conformity of the chronology of the holy fcriptures
with that of profane hiftory 5 or, if we obferve the ad¬
mirable harmony that is between thefe books and the
moft refpe&able hiftorians, as Jofephus and others:
and laftly, when we confider that the books of the ho¬
ly fcripture furniftr us alone with an accurate hiftory
of the world from the creation, through the line of pa¬
triarchs, judges, kings, and princes of the Hebrews ;
and that we may, by its aid, form an almoft entire fe-
ries of events down to the birth of Chrift, or the time
of Auguftus, which comprehends a fpace of about 4000
years, Ibme fmall interruptions excepted, and which
are eafily fupplied by profane hiftory 5 when all thefe
refleftions are juftly. made, we muft conftantly allow
that the fcriptures form a book which merits the firft
rank among all the fources of ancient hiftory. It has
been objedtd, that this book contains contradidions ;
but the moft able interpreters have reconciled thefe
feeming contradidions. It has been faid, that the
chronology of the Hebrew text and the Vulgate do
not agree with the chronology of the verfion of the
Septuagint j but the foundeft critics have fhown that
they may be made to agree. It has been obferVed,
moreover, that the Scriptures abound with miracles
and prodigies •, but they are miracles that have really
happened : and what ancient hiftory is there that is not
filled with miracles and other marvellous events ? And
do we for that rejed their authority ? Cannot the true
God be fuppufed to have performed thofe miracles
which Pagan hillorians have attributed to their falfe
divinities ? Muft we pay no regard to the writings of
Livy, becaufe his hiftory contains many fabulous rela-
tions ?
III. The epoch form the third principal part of chro¬
nology. Thefe are thofe fixed points in hiftory that have
never been contefted, and of which there can, in fad,
be no doubt. Chronologers fix on the events that are
to ferve as epochs, in a manner quite arbitrary •, but
this is of little confi quence, provided the dates of thefe
epochs agree, and that there is no contradidion in the
fads themfelves. When we come to treat exprefsly
on hiftory, we lhall mention, in our progrefs, all the
principal epochs.
IV. Medals, monuments, and infcriptions, form the
fourth and laft principal part of chronology. It is fcarce
more than 150 years fince clofe application has been
made to the ftudy of thefe ; and we owe to the celebrat¬
ed Spanheim the greateft obligations, for the progrefs
that is made in this method : his excellent work, De
prcejlantia et ufu numifmatum antiquorum, has Ihown the
great advantages of it j and it is evident that thefe
o L o G Y.
monuments are the moft authentic witneffes that can Lc
produced. It is by the aid of medals that M. Vaillant
has compofed his judicious hiftory of the kings of 0}-
ria, from the time of Alexander the Great to that of
Pompey T they have been, moreover, of the greattft
fervice in elucidating all ancient hiftory, efpecially
that of the Romans 5 and even fometimes that of the
middle age. Their ufe is more fully fpoken of in. the
article Medals. What we here fay of medals, is. to
be underftood equally, in its full force, of ancient in¬
fcriptions, and of all other authentic documents that
have come down to us.
Every reader, endowed with a juft ducernment,
will readily allow that thefe four parts of. chronology
afford clear lights, and are excellent guides to con-
duCl us through the thick darknefs of antiquity, ihat
impartiality, however, which dire&s us to give a
faithful relation of that which is true and falfe, of the
certainty and uncertainty ot all the fciences, obliges
us here freely to confefs, that thefe guides are not in¬
fallible, nor the proofs that they afford mathematical
demonftrations. In fadt, with regard to hiftory in
general, and ancient hiftory in particular, fomething
muft be always left to conjedlure and hiftoric laith. It
would be an offence againft common probity were
we to fuffer ourlelves to pafs over in filence thofe
objections which authors of the greateft reputation
have made againft the certainty of chronology. We
lhall extradt them from their own works ; and we
hope that there is no magiftrate, theologian, or pub¬
lic profeffor in Europe, who would be mean enough
to accufe us of a crime, for not unworthily difguifing
the truth.
1. The prodigious difference there is between the
Septuagint Bible and the Vulgate, in point of chrono¬
logy, occafions an embarraffment, which is the more
difficult to avoid, as we cannot pofitively lay on which
fide the error lies. The Greek Bible counts, for ex¬
ample, from the creation of the world to the birth of
Abraham, 1 500 years more than the Hebre w or La¬
tin Bibles, &c. 2. How difficult is it to afcert in the
years of the Judges of the Jewiffi nation, in the Binle ?
What darknefs is 1'pread over the. fucvtffion of the
kings of Judah and Ifrael ? The calculation of time is
there fo inaccurate, that the Scripture never marks if
they are current or complete years. - For we cannot
fuppofe that a patriarch, judge, or king, lived ex-
aClly 60, 90, IOO, or 969 years, without any odd
months or days. 3. The different names that the
Affyrians, Egyptians, Perfians, and Greeks, have gi¬
ven to the fame prince, have contributed not a little
to embarrafs all ancient chronology. Three or four
princes have borne the name of Affuerus, though they
had alfo other names. If we did not know that Na-
bucodonofor, Nabucodrofor, and Nabucolaffar, were
the fame name, or the name of the fame man, we
ffiould fcarcely believe it. Sargon is Sennacherib ;
Ozias is Azarias 5 Sedecias is Mathanias 5 Joaehas is
alfo called St Hum ; Afaraddon, which is pronounced
indifferently Efarhaddon and Afarhaddon, is called
Afenaphar by the Cuthaeans •, and by an oddity of
which we do not know the origin, Sardanapalus is cal¬
led by the Greeks Tenos Concoleros. 4. There re¬
main to us but few monuments of the firft monarchs of
the
IO9
no C H R O N
Before the world. Numberlels books have been loft, and
, Chrift. thofe which have come down to us are mutilated or al-
tered by tranlcribers. The Greeks began to write ve¬
ry late. Herodotus, their firft hiftorian, was of a cre¬
dulous difpofition, and believed all the fables that
were related by the' Egyptian priefts. The Greeks
were in general vain, partial, and held no nation in
efteem but their own. The Romans were ftill more
infatuated with notions of their own merit and gran¬
deur: their hiftorians were altogether as unjuft as was
their fenate, toward other nations that were frequently
far more refpe&able. 5. The eras, the years, the pe¬
riods, and epochs, were not the fame in each nation $
and they, moreover, began at different feafons of the
year. All this has thrown fo much obfcurity over
chronology, that it appears to be beyond all human
capacity totally to difperfe it.
Chriftianity itfelf had fubfifted near 1200 years, be¬
fore they knew precifely how many years had paffed
fince the birth of our Saviour. They faw clearly that
the vulgar era was defective, but it was a long time
before they could comprehend that it required four
whole years to make up the true period. Abbe De¬
nis the Little, who in the year 532 was the firft among
the Chriftians to form the era of that grand epoch,
and to count the years from that time, in order to
make their chronology altogether Chriftian, erred in
his calculation, and led all Europe into his error.
They count 132 contrary opinions of different authors
concerning the year in which the Mefliah appeared on
the earth. M. Vallemont names 64 of them, and all
celebrated Writers. Among all thefe authors, how¬
ever, there is none that reckon more than 7000, nor
lefs than 3700 years. But even this difference is enor¬
mous. The moft moderate fix the birth of Chrift in
the 4000th year of the world. The reafons, however,
on which they found their opinion, appear to be fufti-
ciently arbitrary.
Be thefe matters, however, as they may, the wif-
dom of Providence has fo difpofed all things, that there
remain fufficient lights to enable us nearly to conned
the feries of events : for in the firft 3000 years of the
world, where profane hiftory is defedive, we have the
chronology of the Bible to dired us ; and after that
period, where we find more obfcurity iw the chronolo¬
gy of the Holy Scriptures, we have, on the other
hand, greater lights from profane authors. It is at
this period that begins the time which Varro calls hi-
Jioric; as, fince the time of the Olympiads, the truth
of fueh events as have happened fhines clear in hiftory.
Chronology, therefore, draws its principal lights from
hiftory ; and, in return, ferves it as a guide. Refer¬
ring the reader, therefore, to the article History,
and the Chart thereto annexed, we fhall conclude the
preftnt article with
A Chronoi.ogicai Table of Remarkable Events,
Difcoveries, and Inventions, from the Creation to the
year 1804.
Bef. hiitt.
4008 The Creation of the world and Adam and Eve.
4007 The birth of Cain, the firft who was born of a
woman.
3017 Enoch, for his piety, is tranflated to heaven.
O L O G Y.
2352 The old world is deftroyed by a deluge which
continued 377 days
2247 The tower of Babel is built about this time by
Noah’s pofterity, upon which God miraculouf-
ly confounds their language, and thus difperfts
them into different nations.
2237 About this time, Noah is, with great probabili-
ty, fuppofed to have parted from his rebelli¬
ous offspring, and to have led a colony of fome
of the more tradable into the eaft, and there
either he or one of hisfucceffors to have found¬
ed the Chinefe monarchy.
2234 The celeftial obfervations are begun at Babylon,
the city which firft gave birth to learning and
the fciences.
2188 Mifraim, the fon of Ham, founds the kingdom
of Egypt, which lafted 1663 years, down to
the conqueft of Cambyfes, in 525 before Chrift.
2059 Ninus, the fon of Belus, founds the kingdom of
Affyria, which lafted above loco years, and
out of its ruins were formed the Aflyrians of
Babylon, thofe of Nineveh, and the kingdom
of the Medes.
1985 The covenant of God made with Abram, when
he leaves Haran, to go into Canaan, which be¬
gins the 430 years of fojourning. ,
1961 1 he cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are deftroyed
^ for their wickednefs by fire from heaven.
1836 1 he kingdom of Argos, in Greece, begins un¬
der Inachus.
1822 Memnon, the Egyptian, invents the letters.
1715 Prometheus firft ftruck fire from flints.
1635 Jofeph dies in Egypt.
I574 -Aaron born in Egypt; 1490, appointed by God
firft high prieft of the Ifraelites.
I57I Mofes, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and
adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter, who educates
him in ail the learning of the Egyptians.
1536 Cecrops brings a colony of Saites from Egypt
into Attica, and begins the kingdom of Athens
in Greece.
1335 Mofes performs a number of miracles in Egypt,
and departs from that kingdom, together with
600,000 Itraelites, befides children, which
completed the 430 years of fojourning. They
miraculoufly pafs through the Red Sea, and
come to the defert of Sinai, where Mofes re¬
ceives from God, and delivers to the people,
the Ten Commandments, and the other laws,
and fets up the Tabernacle, and in it the ark
of the covenant.
1346 Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and
begins the kingdom of Troy.
1313 The Ifraelites, after fojourning in the Wilder-
nefs forty years, are led under Jofliua into the
land of Canaan, where they fix themfelves,
after having fubdued the natives; and the pe¬
riod of the fabbatical year commences.
I5°3 The deluge of Deucalion.
1496 The council of Amphiayons eftabliffed at Ther¬
mopylae.
1493 Cadmus carried the Phenician letters into Greece
and built the citadel of Thebes.
1490 Sparta built by Lacedaemon.
T
CHRONOLOGY.
Before 148! The firft flip that appeared in Greece rvas
Chrift. brought from Egypt by Danaus, who arrived
—' at Rhodes, and brought with him his fifty
daughters.
1480 Troy built by D^rdanus.
1452 The Pentateuch, or five firft books of Mo£es,
are written in the land of Moab, where he
died the year following, aged 110.
1406 Iron is found in Greece, from an accidental
burning of the woods.
1344 The kingdom of Mycenae begins.
1325 Ifthmian games inftituted at Corinth.
The Egyptian canicular year began July 20th.
1307 The Olympic games inftituted by Pelops.
1300 The Lupercalia inftituted.
1294 The firft colony came from Italy to Sicily.
1264 The fecond colony came from Italy^to Sicily.
1252 The city of Tyre built.
1243 A colony of Arcadians conduced by Evander
into Italy.
1233 Carthage founded by the Tyrians.
1225 The Argonautic expedition.
1204 The rape of Helen by Paris? which gave rife to
the Trojan war, ending with the deftru&ion
of the city in 1184.
1176 Salamis in Cyprus built by Teucer.
1152 Afcanius builds Alba L^nga.
1130 The kingdom of Sicyon ended.
1124 Thebes built by the Boeotians.
1113 The mariner’s corapafs known in China.
1104 The expedition of the Heraclidae into Pelopon-
nefus ; the migration of the Dorians thither j
and the end of the kingdom of Mycenae.
H02 The kingdom of Sparta commenced.
1070 The kingdom of Athens ended.
1051 David befieged and took Jerufalem.
1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies.
1028 The Temple is folemnly dedicated by Solomon.
996 Solomon prepared a fleet on the Red Sea to fend
to Ophir.
986 Samos and Utica in Africa built.
979 The kingdom of Ifrael divided.
974 Jerufalem taken and plundered by Shilhak king
of Egypt.
911 The prophet Elijah flourifhed.
894 Money firft made of gold and filver at Argos.
884 Olympic games reftored by Iphitus and Ly-
curgus.
873 The art of fculpture in marble found out.
869 Scales and meafures invented by Phidon.
864 The city of Carthage, in Africa, enlarged by
Oueen Dido.
821 Nineveh taken by Arbaces.
814 The kingdom of Macedon begins.
801 The city of Capua in Campania built.
799 The kingdom of Lydia began.
786 The (hips called Triremes invented by the Co¬
rinthians.
779 The race of kings in Corinth ended.
776 The era of the Olympiads began.
760 The Ephori eftabliftted at Sparta.
758 Syracuie built by Archias of Corinth.
754 The government of Athens changed.
753 Era of the building of Rome in Italy by Romu¬
lus, firft king of the Romans.
747 The era of Nabonaffar commenced on the 26th Before
of February ; the firft day of Thoth; .
746 The government of Corinth changed into a re- v
public.
743 The firft war between the Meffenians and Spar-
tans.
742 Mycsenae reduced by the Spartans.
724 A colony of the MelTenians fettled at Rhegium
in Italy.
720 Samaria taken, after three years fiege, and the
kingdom of Ifrael finilhed by Salmanazer king
of Aflyria, who carries the ten tribes into cap¬
tivity.
The firft eclipfe of the moon on record.
713 Gela in Sicily built.
703 Corcyra, now Corfu, founded by the Corin¬
thians.
702 Ecbatan in Media built by Deioces.
685 The fecond Meflenian war under Ariftomenes.
670 Byzantium (now Conftantinople) built by a co¬
lony of Athenians.
666 The city of Alba deftroyed.
648 Cyrene in Africa founded.
634 Cyaxares belieges Nineveh, but is obliged to
raife the fiege by an incurfion of the Scythi¬
ans, who remained mafters of Afia for 28
years.
624 Draco publifhed his inhuman laws at Athens.
610 Pharaoh Necho attempted to make a canal from
the Nile to the Red Sea, but was not able to
accomplifh it.
607 By order of the fame monarch, fume Phenicians
failed from the Red Sea round Africa, and re¬
turned by the Mediterranean.
606 The firft captivity of the Jews by Nebuchad¬
nezzar. Nineveh deftroyed by Cyaxares.
600 Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt, confults
the priefts of Memphis, acquires the knowledge
of geometry, aftronomy, and philofophy ; re¬
turns to Greece, calculates eclipfes, gives ge¬
neral notions of the univerfe, and maintains
that an only Supreme Intelligence regulates
all its motions.
Maps, globes, and the figns of the zodiac, in¬
vented by Anaximander, the fcholarof Thales.
598 Jehoiakin, king of Judah, is carried away captive,
by Nebuchadnezzar, to Babylon.
394 Solon made Archon at Athens.
591 The Pythian games inftituted in Greece, and
tragedy firft a£led.
588 The firft irruption of the Gauls into Italy.
586 The city of Jerufalera taken after a fiege of 18
months.
582 The laft captivity of the Jews by Nebuchad¬
nezzar.
q8i The Ifthmian games reftored.
380 Money firft coined at Rome.
371 Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a fiege of
13 years.
366 The firft cenfus at Rome, when the number of
citizens was found to be 84,000.
362 The firft comedy at Athens afted upon a move-
able fcaffold.
339 Cyrus the firft king of Perfia.
338 The kingdom of Babylon finilhed j that city be-
ingv
H2 C H ft O N
Before ing taken by Cyrus, who, in 536, gives an edidl
, for the return of the Jews.
*—t'~ 534 The foundation of the temple laid by the Jews.
526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a
public library firft founded.
520 The fecond edi£l to rebuild Jerufalem.
515 The fecond temple at Jerufalem is finiflied under
Darius.
510 Hippias banithed from Athens.
509 J arquin, the feventh and laft king of the Ro¬
mans, is expelled, and Rome is governed by two
confuls, and other republican magiftrates, till
the battle of Pharfalia, being a fpace of 461
“years.
508 The firft alliance between the Romans and Car¬
thaginians.
507 The fecond cenfus at Rome, 130,000 citizens.
504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which
gave occafion to the Perfian invafion of Greece.
498 The firft didtator appointed at Rome.
497 The Saturnalia inftituted at Rome.
The number of citizens 150,700.
493 Tribunes created at Rome ; or, in 488.
490 The battle of Marathon, September 28.
486 ./Efchylus, the Greek poet, firft gains the prize
of tragedy.
483 Queftors created at Rome.
481 Xerxes, king of Perfia, begins his expedition a-
gainft Greece.
480 The defence of Thermopylae by Leonidas, and
the fea-fight at Salamis,
476 The number of Roman citizens reduced to
103,000.
469 The third Meffenian war.
466 The number of Roman citizens increafed to
124,214.
458 Ezra is fent from Babylon to Jerufalem, with the
captive Jews and the veffels of gold and filver,
See. being feventy weeks of years, or 490 years,
before the crucifixion of our Saviour.
456 The Ludi Seculares firft celebrated at Rome.
454 The Romans Pent to Athens for Solon’s laws.
451 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of
the twelve tables compiled and ratified.
449 The Decemvirs banilhed.
445 Military tribunes, with confular power, created
at Rome.
443 Cenfors created at Rome.
441 The battering ram invented by Artemones.
437 The Metonic cycle began July 15th.
431 The Peloponnefian war begun, and lafted 27
years.
430 The hiftory of the Old Teftament finifties about
this time.
A plague over all the known world.
Malachi the laft of the prophets.
405 The Athenians entirely defeated by Lyfander,
which occafions the lofs of the city, and ruin
of the Athenian power.
401 The retreat of the io,cco Greeks under Xeno¬
phon. The 30 tyrants expelled from Athens,
and democratic government reftored.
400 Socrates, the founder of moral philofophy among
the Greeks, believes the immortality of the foul,
a ftate of rewards and puniftiments j for which
O L O G Y.
and other fublime doflrines, he is put to death Before
by the Athenians, who foon after repent, and Chrift.
ereft to his memory a ftatue of brafs. J""'r v-*"
399 The feaft of Ledtifternium inftituted. Catapultse
invented by Dionyfius.
394 The Corinthian war begun.
390 Rome burnt by the Gauls.
387 The peace of i\ntalcidas between the Greeks and
Perlians.
The number of Roman citizens amounted to
I52’i83-
384 Dionyfius begins the Punic war.
379 The Boeotian war commences.
377 A general confpiracy of the Greek ftates againft
the Lacedemonians.
373 A great earthquake in Peloponnefus.
371 The Lacedemonians defeated by Epaminondas at
Leuftra.
367 Praetors eftablifbed in Rome. The Licinian law
palTed.
363 Epaminondas killed at the battle of Mantinea.
359 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved to be 23*
49' 10".
358 The Social war began,
357 Dionyfius expelled from Syracufe.
A tranfit of the moon over Mars obferved.
356 The Sacred war begun in Greece.
Birth of Alexander the Great.
345 Dionyfius II. expelled from Syracufe.
Commencement of the Syracufan era.
338 Philip of Macedon gains the battle of Chae-
ronsea, and thus attains to the fovereignty of
Greece.
335 Thebes taken and rafed by Alexander the
Great.
334 The Perfians defeated at Granicus, May 2 2.
333 They are again defeated at Iffus in Cilicia, Oc¬
tober.
332 Alexander takes Tyre, and marches to Jerufalem.
331 Alexandria built.
Darius entirely defeated at Arhela.
330 Alexander takes Babylon, and the principal cities
of the Perfian empire.
The Calippic period commences.
328 Alexander paffes Mount Caucafus, and marches
into India.
327 He defeats Porus, an Indian prince, and founds
feveral cities.
326 The famous fedition of Corcyra.
3 24 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon.
323 His family exterminated, and his dominions part¬
ed by his officers.
315 Rhodes almoft deftroyed by an inundation.
311 The Appian way, aquedtufts, &c. conftru&ed at
Rome.
308 The cities of Greece recovered their liberties for
a fliort ti me.
3°7 Antioeh, Seleucia, Laodicea, and other cities,
founded by Seleucus.
301 Antigofius defeated and killed at Ipfus.
299 The firft barbers came from Sicily to Rome.
294 The number of effe&ive men in Rome amounts to
270,000.
293 The firft fun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius
Curfor.
285
CHRONOLOGY.
285 Dionyfius of Alexandria began his aftronomical
era on Monday June 26. being the firft who
found the exa£l folar year to confift of 365
days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes.
The watch tower of Pharos at Alexandria built.
Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs
72 interpreters to tranflate the Old Teftament
into the Greek language, which is called the
Septuagint.
284 The foundation of the Achaean republic laid.
283 The college and library founded at Alexan¬
dria.
282 The Tarentine war begins.
280 Pyrrhus invades Italy.
279 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
278,222.
269 The firft coining of filver at Rome.
265 The number of Roman citizens augmented to
292,224.
264 The firft Punic war begins, and continues 23
years. The chronology of the Arundelian
marbles compofed.
A tranfit of Mercury over the bull’s horn ; the
planet being in 230 of 8 , and the fun in 290
30' T-
Provincial queftors eftablifhed at Rome.
The Romans firft concern themfelves in naval af¬
fairs, and defeat the Carthaginians at fea.
Regulus, the Roman conful, defeated and taken
prifoner by the Carthaginians under Xantip-
pus.
A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
297,897.
Another cenfus. The number of citizens 251,212.
246 The records of China deftroyed.
241 Conclufion of the firft Punic war.
Comedies firft afted at Rome.
Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, caufes his fon Han¬
nibal, at nine years old, to fwear eternal enmi¬
ty to the Romans.
The Tartars expelled from China.
Rome at peace with other nations. The temple
of Janus (hut.
Corfica and Sardinia fubdued by the Romans.
The firft divorce at Rome.
230 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Era-
tofthenes to be 230 51' 20".
224 The Coloflus at Rhodes overturned by an earth¬
quake.
The art of furgery introduced at Rome.
Commencement of the fecond Punic war.
Hannibal pafles the Alps, and invades Italy.
The Romans defeated at Cannae, May 2lft.
Syracufe befieged by Marcellus.
A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
227,107.
Afdrubal invades Italy 5 but is defeated and
killed.
Gold firft coined at Rome.
202 Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama.
201 Conclufion of the fecond Punic wrar.
194 Sparta and Hither Spain fubdued by the Ro¬
mans.
192 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
262
260
25J
252
247
240
237
236
235
231
219
218
216
214
209
208
206
243,704.
Vol. VI. Part I.
191 Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Thermo¬
pylae.
190 The firft Roman army enters Afia, and from the
fpoiis of Antiochus brings the Afiatic luxury
firft to Rome.
188 The Spartans obliged to renounce the inftitu-
tions of Lycurgus.
179 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
273>244*
.173 The Jewifti high-priefthood fold by Antiochus
Epiphanes.
170 Paper invented in China.
The temple of Jerufalem plundered by Antiochus.
169 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
21 2,805.
168 Macedon reduced to the form of a Roman pro¬
vince.
The firft library erefted at Rome.
165 The temple of Jerufalem purified by Judas Mac¬
cabeus.
164 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
327>°32*
162 Hipparchus began his aftronomical obfervations
at Rhodes.
161 Philofophers and rhetoricians banifhed from
Rome.
150 The third Punic war commenced.
146 Corinth deftroyed.
Carthage, the rival to Rome, is rafed to the
ground by the Romans.
A remarkable comet appeared in Greece.
143 Hipparchus began his new cycle of the moon,
confiding of 111,035 days.
141 The Numantine w?ar commenced.
135 The hiftory of the Apocrypha ends.
133 Numantia deftroyed by Scipio.
124 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
39°>736-.
105 The Cimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans.
102 The Teutones and Ambrones defeated by Ma¬
rius.
88 Rome befieged by the chiefs of the Marian fac¬
tion.
82 Sylla created perpetual di&ator at Rome.
69 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizen*
450,000.
66 Catiline’s confpiracy.
55 Julius Caefar makes his firft expedition into Bri¬
tain.
Craffus defeated and killed by the Parthians.
51 Gaul reduced to a Roman province.
50 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
320,000.
48 The battle of Pharfalia, between Caefar and
Pompey, Ln which the latter is defeated.
The Alexandrian library, confiding of 400,000
valuable books, burnt by accident.
45 The war of Africa, in which Cato kills himfelf.
The folar year introduced by Caefar.
44 Caefar, the greateft of the Roman conquerors,
after having fought 50 pitched battles, and
(lain 1,192,000 men, is killed in the fenate-
houfe by confpirators.
42 The republicans defeated at Philippi.
31 The battle of A&ium fought, in which Mark
P Antony
I 1.3
Before
Thrift.
—V—«'
CHRONOLOGY.
U4
Antony and Cleopatra are totally defeated by
O&avius, nephew to Julius Csefar.
Alexandria, in Egypt, is taken by Oftavius, upon
which Antony and Cleopatra put themfelves to
death, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman pro¬
vince.
A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
4,101,017.
Oftavius, by a decree of the fenate, obtains the
title of Auguftus Caefar, and an abfolute ex¬
emption from the laws, and is properly the firft
Roman emperor.
The Pantheon at Rome built.
Rome at the height of its glory.
The temple of Jerufalem rebuilt by Herod.
Agrippa conftrudled the magnificent aquedu&s at
Rome.
A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
4,233,000.
The temple of Janus is (hut by Auguftus, as an
emblem of univerfal peace j and
JESUS CHRIST is born, on Monday, December
2-S’
The vulgar Chriftian era commenced from Janu¬
ary 1. the Saviour of the world being then five
years of age.
Jefus Chrift difputes with the doftors in the tem¬
ple.
A cenfus at Rome, 4,370,000 citizens.
Mathematicians and magicians expelled from
Rome. '
Twelve cities in Afia deftroyed by an earth¬
quake.
Pilate made governor of Judea.
Jefus baptized in Jordan by John.
He is crucified at Jerufalem.
St Paul converted.
St Matthew writes his gofpel.
Pontius Pilate kills himfelf.
A conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars.
The name of Chriftians firft given at Antioch to
the followers of Chrift.
Claudius Caefar’s expedition into Britain.
St Mark writes his gofpel.
London is founded by the Romans; 368, furround-
ed by ditto with a wall, fome parts of which are
ftill obfervable.
CaraCtacus, the Britifh king, is carried in chains
to Rome.
The council of the Apoftles at Jerufalem.
St Luke writes his gofpel.
Rotterdam built.
The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers to
death.
      perfecutes the Druids in Britain.
Chriftianity introduced into Britain.
Boadicea, the Britilh queen, defeats the Romans 5
but is conquered foon after by Suetonius, gover¬
nor of Britain.
St Paul is fent in bonds to Rome—writes his epif-
tles between 51 and 66.
The ACts of the x^poftles written.
A great earthquake in Afia.
Rome fet on fire, and burned for fix days; upon
which began (under Nero) the firft perfecuticn After
againft the Chriftians. . Chrift.
65 Many prodigies feen about Jerufalem.
66 St Peter and St Paul put to death.
70 While the faCtious Jews are deftroying one ano¬
ther with mutual fury, Titus the Roman gene¬
ral takes Jerufalem, which is rafed to the ground,
and the plough made to pafs over it.
73 The philofophers baniftied from Rome by Vefpa-
fian.
79 The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum deftroy¬
ed by an eruption of Vefuvius.
80 The Capitol and Pantheon at Rome deftroyed by
fire.
83 The philofophers expelled Rome by Domitian.
85 Julius Agricola, governor of South Britain, to
proteCl the civilized Britons from the incur-
fions of the Caledonians, builds a line of forts
between the rivers Forth and Clyde ; defeats
the Caledonians under Galgacus on the Gram¬
pian hills $ and firft fails round Britain, which
he difcovers to Re an ifland.
86 The Capitoline games inftituted by Domitian.
88 The Secular games celebrated at Rome.
93 The empire of the Huns in Tartary deftroyed by
the Chinefe.
The Evangelift John banifiied to Patmos.
94 The fecond perfecution of the Chriftians, under
Domitian.
96 St John the Evangelift wrote his Revelation—his
Gofpel in 97.
103 Dacia reduced to a Roman province.
105 A great earthquake in Afia and Greece.
107 The third perfecution of the Chriftians, under
Trajan.
114 Armenia reduced to a Roman province.
A great earthquake in China.
115 Affyria fubdued by Trajan.
An infurreftion of the Jews, who murder 200,000
Greeks and Romans.
A violent earthquake at Antioch.
120 Nicomedia and other cities fwallowed up by an
earthquake.
121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all
the fouthern parts of Scotland ; upon which the
emperor Adrian builds a wall between New-
caftle and Carlifie ; but this alfo proving inef¬
fectual, Pollius Urbicus, the Roman general,
about the year 1345 repairs Agricola’s forts,
which he joins by a wall four yards thick.
130 Jerufalem rebuilt by Adrian.
132 I he fecond Jewiftr war commenced.
I35 Abe fecond Jewilh war ends, when they were all
baniftied Judea.
139 Juftin writes his firft apology for the Chriftians.
141 A number of herefies appear about this time.
146 1 he worfhip of Serapis introduced at Rome.
152 1 he emperor Antoninus Pius flops the perfecution
againft the Chriftians. ,
An inundation of the Tiber, and an earthquake
at Rhodes.
163 1 he fourth perfecution of the Chriftians, under
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
166 The Romans fent ambaffadors to China.
Before
Chrift.
3®
29
27
8
5
After I
Chrift,
*4
16
27
29
33
35
39
40
43
44
50
51
52
55
56
59
60
61
62
63
64
168
CHRONOLOGY.
After i68 A plague over the whole world.
Chrift. 188 The Capitol at Rome deftroyed by lightning.
" * 191 A great part of Rome deitroyed by fire.
203 The fifth perfecution of the Chriftians, under Se-
verus.
205 An earthquake in Wales.
209 Severus’s wall in Britain built.
218 Two comets appeared at Rome. The courfe of
the molt remarkable from eaft to weft.
222 About this time the Roman empire begins to de¬
cline. The barbarians begin their irruptions,
and the Goths have annual tribute not to moleft
the empire.
225 Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at
Rome.
236 The fixth perfecution of the Chriftians under
Maximin.
241 The Franks firft mentioned in hiftory.
250 The feventh perfecution, under Decius.
252 A dreadful peftilence broke out in Ethiopia, and
fpread over the whole world.
The eighth perfecution, under Gallus.
253 Europe ravaged by the Scythians and Goths.
258 The ninth perfecution, under Valerian.
260 Valerian is taken prifoner by Sapor king of Per-
fia, and flayed alive.
The Scythians ravaged the Roman empire.
The temple of Diana at Ephefus burnt.
261 A great plague throughout the Roman empire.
262 Earthquakes in Europe, Alia, and Africa, and
three days of darknefs.
273 The Romans took Palmyra.
274 Silk firft brought from India ; the manufa&ory
of it introduced into Europe by fome monks,
551 ; firft worn by the clergy in England,
N34-
276 Wine firft made in Britain. '
277 The Franks fettled in Gaul.
284 The Dioclefian era commenced Auguft 29th, or
September 17th.
287 Caraufius proclaimed emperor of Britain.
289 A great comet vifible in Mefopotamia for 29
days.
291 Two emperors and two Caefars march to defend
the four quarters of the empire.
297 Alexandria deftroyed by Dioclefian.
303 The tenth perfecution under Dioclefian.
306 Conftantine the Great begins nis reign.
308 Cardinals firft appointed.
312 Peftilence all over the Eaft.
Cycle of indi&ion began.
313 The tenth perfecution ends by an edi& of Con¬
ftantine, who favours the Chriftians, and gives
full liberty to their religion.
314 Three bilhops, or fathers, are fent from Britain
to affift at the council of Arles.
315 Crucifixion abolilhed.
321 Obfervation of Sunday enjoined.
323 The firft general council at Nice, when 318 fa¬
thers attended, againft Arius, the founder of
Arianifm, where was compofed the famous Ni-
cene Creed, which we attribute to them.
328 Conftantine removes the feat of empire from
Rome to Byzantium, which is thereafter called
Conftantinople.
330 A dreadful perfecution of the Chriftians in Perfia, After
which lafts 40 years. Chrift.
333 Conftantine orders all the heathen temples to be
deftroyed.
334 Three hundred thoufand Sarmatians revolted from
their mafters.
341 The gofpel propagated in Ethiopia by Frumen-
tius.
344 Neocsefarea ruined by an earthquake.
351 The heathens firft called Pagans.
358 A hundred and fifty cities in Afia and Greece
overturned by an earthquake.
360 The firft monaftery founded near Poidliers in
France, by Martin.
363 The Roman emperor Julian, furnamed the Apof-
tate, endeavours in vain to rebuild the temple
of Jerufalem.
364 The Roman empire is divided into the Eaftern
(Conftantinople the capital) and Weftern (of
which Rome continued to be the capital), each
being now under the government of different
emperors.
373 The Bible tranflated into the Gothic language.
376 The Goths fettled in Thrace.
379 The cycle of Theophilus commenced.
390 A fiery column feen in the air for 30 days.
400 Bells invented by Bithop Paulinus of Campania.
401 Europe overrun by the Goths, under Alaric.
404 Another irruption of the Goths.
The kingdom of Caledonia, or Scotland, revives
under Fergus.
406 Third irruption of the Geths.
The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, fpread into France
and Spain, by a conceflion of Honorius, empe¬
ror qf the Weft.
408 The Chriftian religion propagated in Perfia.
409 Rome taken and plundered by the Goths, Au¬
guft 24.
412 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain.
413 The kingdom of Burgundy begun in Alface.
415 The kingdom of Thouloufe founded by the Vifi-
goths.
417 The Alans extirpated by the Goths.
419 Many cities in Paleftine deftroyed by an earth¬
quake.
420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower
Rhine, under Pharamond. *
421 The Salique law promulgated.
426 The Romans, reduced to extremities at home,
withdraw their troops from Britain, and never
return : advifing the Britons to arm in their
own defence, and truft to their own valour.
432 The gofpel preached in Ireland by St Patrick.
444 All Europe ravaged by the Huns.
446 The Britons, now left to themfelves, are greatly
haraffed by the Scots and Pidts, upon which
they once more make their complaint to the
Romans (which they entitle, The Groans of the
Britons), but receive no afliftance from that
quarter.
447 Attila (furnamed the Scourge of God) with his
Huns ravage the Roman empire.
449 Vortigern,. king of the Briton®, invites the
Saxons into Britain, againft the Scots and
Pias.
P 2
452
116
After
Chrift.
CHRONOLOGY.
452
455
476
480
493
496
506
508
510
SH
Sit
517
5I9
529
534
536
54°
541
542
55°
55i
553
557
568
569
575
580
581
584
588
589
593
596
597
The city of Venice founded.
The Saxons having repulfed the Scots and Pi&s,
invite over more of their countrymen, and be¬
gin to eltablifh themfeives in Kent, under
Hengift.
The wertern empire is finiftied, 523 years after
the battle of Pharfalia ; upon the ruins of
which feveral new ftates arife in Italy and other
parts, confiding of Goths, Vandals, Huns, and
other barbarians, under whom literature is ex-
tinguilhed, and the works of the learned are
deftroyed.
A great earthquake at Conftantinople, which
lafted 40 days.
Italy reduced by Theodoric king of the Goths.
Clovis, king of France, baptized, and Chriftianity
begins in that kingdom.
The Jews talmud publifiied.
Prince Arthur begins to reign over the Bri¬
tons.
Paris made the capital of the French dominions.
Conftantinople befieged by Vitalianus, whole
fleet is burnt by a fpeculum of brafs made by
Proclus.
I he computing of time by the Chriftian era is in¬
troduced by Dionyfius the monk.
Five years drought and famine in Paleftine.
A bearded comet appears.
I he codex of Juftinian, the eaftern emperor, is
publifhed.
T he kingdom of the Vandals in Africa comes to
an end, after having continued 105 years.
The manufa&ure of filk introduced at Conftanti¬
nople by two Indian monks.
Antioch deftroyed by the Perfians.
Bafilius the laft conful ele&ed at Rome.
Antioch rebuilt.
An earthquake all over the world.
An earthquake in Paleftine and Syria.
The kingdom of Poland founded.
An earthquake in Greece, attended with a great
commotion in the fea.
The empire of the Goths in Italy deftroyed by
Narfes.
A great earthquake at Conftantinople.
Another violent earthquake at Conftantinonle.
Rome, &c. ^ ’
A terrible plague all over Europe, Afia, and A-
frica, which continues near 50 years.
The Lombards founded a kingdom in Italy.
The Turks firft mentioned in hiftory.
The exarchate of Ravenna begins.
The firft monarchy founded in Bavaria.
Antioch deftroyed by an earthquake.
Latin ceafed to be fpoken about this time in
Italy.
The origin of fiefs in France.
The city of Paris deftroyed by fire.
Rome overflowed by the Tiber.
1 he Gafcons eftablifh themfeives in the country
called by their name.
John of Conftantinople aflumes the title of univer-
fal biftiop.
Auguftine the monk comes into England with
forty monks.
599 A dreadful peftilence in Africa.
604 St Paul’s church in London founded.
60 j The ufe of bells introduced into churches.
606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the con-
ceffions of Phocas, emperor of the Eaft.
622 Mahomet, the falfe prophet, flies from Mecca to
Medina in Arabia, in the 44th year of his age,
and 10th of his miniftry, when he laid the
foundation of the Saracen empire, and from
whom the Mahometan princes to this day claim
their defcent. His followers compute their
time from this era, which in Arabic is called
ftegircty i. e. “ the Flight.”
628 An academy founded at Canterbury.
632 The era of Jefdegird commenced June 16th.
637 Jerufalem is taken by the Saracens, or followers
of Mahomet.
641 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by ditto, and the
grand library there burnt by order of Omar,
their caliph or prince.
643 The temple of Jerufalem converted into a Maho¬
metan mofque.
653 The Saracens now extend their conquefts on every
fide, and retaliate the barbarities of the Goths
and Vandals upon their pofterity.
They take Rhodes, and deftroy the famous Co-
lofius.
England invaded by the Danes.
660 Organs firft ufed in churches.
663 Glafs invented by a biftiop, and brought into Eng¬
land by a Benedidtine monk.
669 Sicily invaded, and Syracufe deftroyed by the Sa¬
racens.
683 The Britons, after a brave ftruggle of near 150
years, are totally expelled by the Saxons, and
drove into Wales and Cornwall.
The Saracens take Carthage, and expel the Ro¬
mans from Africa.
Cracow built, and firft prince of Poland eledl-
ed.
704 The firft province given to the Pope.
713 The Saracens conquer Spain.
714 France governed by Charles Martel.
718 1 he kingdom of the Afturias in Spain founded
by Pelagio.
719 Chriftianity promulgated in Germany.
726 The controverfy about images begins, and oc-
cafions many infurre&ions in the eaftern em¬
pire.
727 Tax of Peter’s pence begun by Ina king of Wef-
fex.
732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens near Tours.
735 In dilution of the office of Pope’s nuncio.
746 Three years peftilence in Europe and Afia.
748 The computing of years from the birth of Chrift
began to be ufed in biftory.
749 Phe race of Abbas become caliphs of the Sara¬
cens, and encourage learning.
The empire of the Saracens divided into three.
752 The exarchate of Ravenna abofiftied by Aftolphus
king of the Lombards.
755 Commencement of the Pope’s temporal domi¬
nion.
762 The city of Bagdad upon the Tigris is made the
capital for the caliphs of the houfe of Abbas.
762
698
700
After
Chrift.
CHRONOLOGY.
After 762 Burials, which formerly ufed to be in highways,
Chnft. permitted in towns.
— v—; 792 An academy founded in Paris.
794 The Huns extirpated by Charlemagne.
797 Seventeen days of unufual darknefs.
800 Charlemagne, king of France, begins the em¬
pire of Germany, afterwards called the Weft-
ern empire j gives the prefent names to the
winds and months j endeavours to reftore learn¬
ing in Europe ; but mankind are not yet dif-
pofed for it, being folely engroffed in military
enterprifes.
801 A great earthquake in France, Germany, and
Italy.
807 Jan. 31. Jupiter eclipfed by the moon. March
17. A large fpot feen on the fun for eight
days.
808 The firft defeent of the Normans on France..
825 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Beni-
mula to be 230 55'.
826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his fub-
jects for being a Chrillian.
The kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon founded.
832 Painters banifhed out of the eaftern empire.
836 The Flemings trade to Scotland for filh.
840 The Scots and Pifts have a decifive battle, m
which the former prevail, and both kingdoms
are united by Kenneth, which begins the fe-
cond period of the Scottilh hiftory.
842 Germany feparated from the empire of the
Franks.
856 An earthquake over the greateft part of the known
world.
861 Ruric the firft prince of Ruflia began to reign..
864 The Danes begin their ravages in England.
867 Chriftianity propagated in Bulgaria.
868 Egypt becomes independent on the caliphs of
Bagdad.
872 Bells and clocks firft ufed in Conftantinople.
873 France diftreffed by locufts and peftilence..
874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians.
Scotland invaded by the Danes.
87 5 A bearded comet appears in France.
878 Alfred the Great, after fubduing the Danifh in¬
vaders (againft whom he fought 56 battles by
fea and land), compofes his body of laws j di¬
vides England into counties, hundreds, ty-
things *, in 890 ere£ls county-courts, having
founded the univerfity of Oxford in 886.
880 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Alba-
tegni to be 23* 35'.
889 The Hungarians fettled near the Danube.
891 The firft land-tax in England.
895 The monaftery of Cluny founded.
905 A very remarkable comet appeared in China.
Rome taken by the Normans.
911 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Thebit
to be 230 33' 30".
912 The Normans eftablifh themfelves in Normandy.
913 The Danes become mafters of England.
915 The univerfity of Cambridge founded.
923 Fiefs eftablifhed in France.
925 Sigefroi elefted firft marquis of Brandenburg.
928 The marquifate of Mifnia eftablifhed.
117
937 The Saracen empire is divided by ufurpation in- After
to feven kingdoms. Chrift.
941 Arithmetic brought into Europe. '1 1 ^
961 Candia recovered from the Saracens.
967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens.
969 The race of Abbas extinguiftied in Egypt.
975 Pope Boniface VII. is depofed and baniftied for
his crimes.
977 Greece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the
Bulgarians for ten years..
The Bohemians fubdued by Otho.
979 Coronation oath firft ufed in England.
Juries firft inftituted in ditto.
985 The Danes under Sueno invade England and
Scotland.
987 The Carlovingian race in France ended.
991 The figures in arithmetic are brought into Eu¬
rope by the Saracens from Arabia 5 letters of
the alphabet were hitherto ufed.
993 A great eruption of Mount Veluvius.
995 England invaded by the Danes and Norwegians.
996 Otho III. makes the empire of Germany eledive.
999 Boleflaus the firft king of Poland.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Aboul
Wafi and Abu Hamed to be 230 35'.
1000 Paper made of cotton rags was in ufe j that of
linen rags in 1170J the manufadory introdu¬
ced into England at Deptford, 1588.
1002 The emperor Henry affumed the title of king of
the Romans.
1005 All the old churches are rebuilt about this time
in a new manner of arehitedure.
1006 A plague in Egypt for three years.
1007 A great eruption of Vefuvius.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Alba-
trunius to be 230 35'.
1014 Sueno the Dane becomes matter of England.
Sept. 28. Almoft all Flanders laid under water
by a ftorm.
1015 Children forbidden by law to be fold by their
parents in England.
1017 Rain of the colour of blood for three days in
Aquitain.
1022 A new fpecies of mufic invented by Aretin.
1035 Togrul-Beg, or Tangrolipix, the Turkifti fultan,
eftablifhes himfelf in Korafan.
The kingdoms of Caftile and Arragon began.
1040 The Danes, after feveral engagements with va¬
rious fuccefs, are about this time driven out of
Scotland, and never again return in a hoftile
manner.
Smyrna deftroyed by an earthquake.
1041 The Saxon line reftored under Edward the Con-
feflbr.
1043 The Turks become formidable and take poffeflion
of Perfia.
The Ruffians come from Scythia, and land in
Thrace.
1054 Leo IX. the firft pope that kept up an army.
1055 The Turks take Bagdad, and overturn the em¬
pire of the Saracens,
1057 Malcolm III. king of Scotland, kills the tyrant
Macbeth at Dunfinnan, and marries the prin-
cefs Margaret, fifter to Edgar Atheling.
1061
118
After I06l
Chrift.
' V 1065
1066
1070
I°75
CHRONOLOGY.
1076
I08o
1086
1090
1091
IO96
1098
1099
mo
1118
1119
1152
“S?
1141
II43
“44
II51
“54
1156
“63
1164
Surnames appointed to be taken in Scotland by a
parliament held in Forfar.
The Turks take Jerufalem from the Saracens.
The conquefi: of England by William (furnamed
the baftard) duke of Normandy, in the battle
of Haftings, where Harold is flain.
The feudal law introduced into England.
Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and the pope,
quarrel about the nomination of the German
bifhops. Henry, in penance, walks barefooted
to the pope towards the end of January.
Juflices of the peace fir ft appointed in England.
An earthquake in England.
Alia Minor, having been two years under the
power of Soliman, is from this time called
Turkey.
Doomfday-book began to be compiled by order
of William, from a furvey of all the eftates in
England, and finilhed in 1086.
The tower of London built by ditto, to curb his
Englifti fubje&s 5 numbers of whom fly to
Scotland, where they introduce the Saxon or
Englifh language, are protedled by Malcolm,
and have lands given them.
The order of Carthufians eftablifhed by Bruno.
The dynafty of Bathineens or Affaflins begins in
Irak, and continues for 117 years.
The Saracens in Spain, being hard prefled by
the Spaniards, call to their affiftance Jofeph
king of Morocco j by which the Moors get
pofleflion of all the Saracen dominions in Spain.
The firft crufade to the Holy Land is begun un¬
der feveral Chriftian princes, to drive the in¬
fidels from Jerufalem.
The order of St Benedift inftituted.
Jerufalem taken by the crufaders j Godfrey defi¬
ed king of it; and the order of knights of St
John inftituted.
Edgar Atheling, the laft of the Saxon princes,
dies in England, where he had been permitted
to refide as a fubjeft.
Learning revived at Cambridge.
Writing on paper made of cotton common about
this time.
The order of the Knights Templars inftituted,
to defend the Sepulchre at Jerufalem, and to
proteft Chriftian ftrangers.
Bohemia ere&ed into a kingdom.
The kingdom of Portugal began.
The pandefl of Juftinian found in the ruins of
Amalphi.
The factions of the Guelphs and Gibellines pre¬
vailed about this time.
The Koran tranflated into Latin.
The Peripatetic philofophy introduced into Ger¬
many.
The canon law eollefled by Gratian, a monk ©f
Bologna.
Chriftianity introduced into Finland.
The city of Mofcow in Ruffia founded.
The order of the Carmelites inftituted.
London bridge, confifting of 19 fmall arches,
firft built of ftone.
The Teutonic order of religious knights begins
in Germany.
1171 The dynafty of the Fatemites ended in Egypt j
the fovereigns of the country henceforth call¬
ed Sultans.
1172 Henry II. king of England (and firft of the
Plantagenets), takes pofleffion of Ireland j
which from that period has been governed by
an Englifti viceroy or lord-lieutenant.
1176 England is divided by Henry into fix circuits,
and juftice is difpenfed by itinerant judges.
1179 The univerfity of Padua founded.
1180 Glafs windows began to be ufed in private houfes
in England.
1181 The laws of England are digefted about this
time by Glanville.
1182 Pope Alexander III. compelled the kings of
England and France to hold the ftirrups of
his faddle when he mounted his horfe.
1183 Seven thoufand Albigenfes maflacred by the in¬
habitants of Berry.
1186 A conjun£Hon of all the planets at funrife Sep¬
tember 16, The fun in 30° ng. j Jupiter in
2° 3' :£=; Venus in 30 49' ; Saturn in 8° 6' j
Mercury in 40 io' j Mars, 90 8'; tail of the
Dragon, 180 23' ii.
1187 Jerufalem taken by Saladin.
1192 The battle of Afcalon, in Judea, in which Ri¬
chard, king of England, defeats Saladin’s ar¬
my, confifting of 300,000 combatants.
1194 Dieu et mon Droit, firft ufed as a motto by Ri¬
chard, on a viflory over the French.
1195 Denmark and Norway laid wafte by a dreadful
tempeft.
1198 Inftitution of the order of the Holy Trinity.
1200 Chimneys were not known in England.
Surnames now began to be ufed j firft among the
nobility.
.Univerfity of Salamanca in Spain founded.
1204 Conftantinople taken by the French and Vene¬
tians.
The inquifition eftabliftied.
The empire of Trebizond eftabliftied.
1208 London incorporated, and obtained their firft;
charter, for ele&ing their lord mayor and
other magiftrates, from King John.
The order of Fratres Minores eftabliftied.
The pope excommunicates King John.
1209 The works of Ariftotle imported from Conftan¬
tinople into Europe. '
The filk manufacture imported from Greece in¬
to Venice.
1210 The works of Ariftotle condemned to be burnt
at Paris.
The emperor Otho excommunicated by the
pope.
Violent perfecution of the Albigenfes.
1215 Magna Charta is figned by King John and the
barons of England.
Court of common pleas eftablilhed.
Orders of the Dominicans and Knights Hofpi-
- tallers founded.
The doCtrine of tranfubftantiation introdu¬
ced.
1216 King Alexander and the whole kingdom of
Scotland excommunicated by the pope’s le¬
gate.
After
Chrift.
3
1220
After 1220
Chrift.
1222
1223
1226
1227
1228
I23O
1231
I233
1238
1239
1241
I245
1250
12 c 1
1253
1256
1258
1260
1263
1264
1268
1269
1272
1273
1274
I279
1282
C H R O N
Aftronomy and geography brought into Europe
by the Moors.
A great earthquake in Germany.
A comet of extraordinary magnitude appeared
in Denmark.
A league formed againft the Albigenfes by the
French king and many prelates and lords.
The" Tartars under Jenghiz*khan emerge from
the northern parts of Alia, overrun all the
Saracen empire, and carry death and defla¬
tion wherever they march.
The univerfity of Thouloufe founded.
The kingdom of Denmark diftreffed by pefti-
lence.
The kingdoms of Leon and Caltile united.
Pruffia fubdued by the Teutonic knights.
Univerfity of Naples founded.
The Almageft of Ptolemy tranfiated into Latin.
The Inquifition, begun in 1204, is now trufted
to the Dominicans.
The houfes of London, and other cities in Eng¬
land, France, and Germany, ftill thatched with
ftraw.
The univerfity of Vienna founded.
A writing of this year’s date on paper made of
rags fiill extant.
The Hanfeacic league formed.
Tin mines difcovered in Germany.
A clear red ftar, like Mars, appears in Capricorn.
Painting revived in Florence by Cimabue.
Wales fubdued, and Magna Charta confirmed.
The famous aftronomical tables are compofed by
Alonfo king of Caltile.
The* order of the Auguftines eftablifhed.
The Tartars take Bagdad, which hnilhes the
empire of the Saracens.
The fe6t of Flagellantes appeared in Italy.
Acho king of Norway invades Scotland with
160 fail, and lands 20,000 men at the mouth
of the Clyde j but they are cut to pieces by
Alexander III. who recovers the weftern ifies.
The commons of England firft fummoned to par¬
liament about this time.
The Tartars invade China.
The Hamburgh company incorporated in Eng¬
land.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Cozah
Nafirodni to be 230 30'.
Weftminfter abbey rebuilt, and confecrated in the
prefence of Henry III.
The academy of Florence founded.
The empire of the prefent Auftrian family be¬
gins in Germany.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Cheou-
king in China to be 230 33' 39".
The firft commercial treaty betwixt England
and Flanders.
King Edward renounced his right to Normandy.
The mortmain aft pafied in England.
Lewellyn, prince of Wales, defeated and killed
by Edward I. who unites that principality to
England.
A great peftilence in Denmark.
8000 French murdered at the Sicilian vefpers.
Academy de la Crufca founded.
O L 04G
1284 Edward
Y.
II. born at Caernarvon, is the firft
prince of Wales. / ,
1285 Alexander III. king of Scotland, dies, and that
kingdom is difputed by twelve candidates,
who fubmit their claims to the arbitration of
Edward king of England j which lays the
foundation of a long and defolating war be¬
tween both nations.
1290 The univerfity of Lifbon founded.
1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks.” End of the
crufades.
1293 There is a regular fucceflion of Englilh parlia¬
ments from this year, being the 22d of Ed¬
ward I.
1294 Parliament eftablilhed in Paris.
1298 The prefent Turkifti empire begins in Bithynia
under Ottoman.
Silver-hafted knives, fpoons, and cups, a great
luxury.
Tallow-candles fo great a luxury, that fplinters
of wood were ufed for lights.
Wine fold by apothecaries as a cordial.
The Scots defeated by the Englilh at Falkirk.
1299 An earthquake in Germany
Speftacles invented by a monk of Pifa.
The year of jubilee inftituted by Boniface VIII.
1302 The mariner’s compafs invented, or improved,
by Giovia of Naples.
The univerfity of Avignon founded.
1307 The beginning of the Swifs cantons.
Coal firft ufed in England.
1308 The popes removed to Avignon in France for
70 years.
1310 Lincoln’s Inn lociety eftablilhed.
The knights of St John take poffeflion of the ifie
of Rhodes.
1314 The battle of Bannockburn between Edward II.
and Robert Bruce, which eftablilhes the latter
on the throne of Scotland.
The cardinals fet fire to the conclave and feparate. *
A vacancy in the papal chair for two years.
1315 Germany afflifted with famine and peftilence.
1319 The univerfity of Dublin founded.
1320 Gold firft coined in Chriftendom j 1344 ditto in
England.
An earthquake in England.
1323 A great eruption of Mount ./Etna.
1325 The firft treaty of commerce betwixt England
and Venice.
1330 Gunpowder invented by a monk of Cologne.
1332 The pope accufed of herefy.
1336 Two Brabant weavers fettled at York, which,
fays Edward III. may prove of great benefit
to us and our fubjefts.
1337 The firft comet whofe courfe is defcribed with
an aftronomical exaftnefs.
Europe infefted by locufts,
1340 Heralds college inftituted in England.
Copper money firft ufed in Scotland and Ireland.
1344 The firft creation to titles by patents ufed by
Edward III.
1345 Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which
gained him the battle of Creffy.
1347 The battle of Durham, in which David, king of
Scots, is taken prifoner.
,349
II9
After
Chrift.
120
After 1349
Chnft.
CHRONOLOGY.
The order of the Garter inftituted in England
u by Edward III. altered in 1557, ant^ confifts
of 26 knights.
1352 The Turks firft enter Europe.
1353 Alia and Africa defolated by locufls.
1354 The money in Scotland till now the fame as in
England.
*356 The battle of Poifliers, in which King John of
France and his fon are taken prifoners by Ed¬
ward the Black Prince.
1357 Coals firft brought to London.
I3i® Arms of England and France firft quartered by
Edward III.
Univerfity of Cologne founded.
Tamerlane began to reign in Perfia.
1362 The law pleadings in England changed from
French to Englifh in favour of Edward III.
to his people.
The military order of Janizaries eftablifhed a-
mong the Turks.
1365 The univerfities of Vienna and Geneva founded.
1369 John Wickliffe an Engliftiman begins to call in
queftion the doftrines of the church of Rome
about this time, whofe followers are called
Lollards.
1370 The office of grand vifier eftablifhed.
1377 Inundation of the fea in Flanders.
1378 Greenland difcovered by a Venetian.
1381 Bills of exchange firft ufed in England.
1384 The firft aft of navigation in England $ no goods
to be exported or imported by Englifhmen in
foreign bottoms.
1383 A company of linen weavers from the Nether¬
lands eftabliftied in London.
Windfor caftle built by Edward III.
J3^7 l°rcl high admiral of England infti¬
tuted.
1388 The battle of Otterburn between Hotfpur and
the earl of Douglas.
Bombs invented at Venloo.
1391 Cards invented in France for the king’s amufe-
ment.
1399 Weftminfter abbey rebuilt and enlarged. Weft-
minfler hall ditto.
Order of the Bath inftituted at the coronation
of Henry IV. renewed in 1725, confifting of
84 knights.
1402 Tamerlane defeats and takes prifoner Baiazet
the Turkifh fultan.
1405 The Canary iflands difcovered by Bathencourt a
Norman.
1410 Guildhall, London, built.
Painting in oil-colours invented at Bruges by
John Van-eyck.
1411 The univerfity of St Andrew’s in Scotland
founded.
1412 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe.
I4I5 The battle of Agincourt gained over the French
by Henry V. of England.
1420 The iftand of Madeira difcovered by the Portu-
guefe.
1421 The revenue of England amounted to cc.’jc*!.
1428 The fiege of Orleans, the firft blow to the En*g-
lifti power in France.
J 431 A great earthquake at Lifbon.
1432 Great inundations in Germany.
1427 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Ulug
Beg to be 23° 30' 17".
1440 Printing invented by L. Kofter at Haerlem in
Holland j brought into England by W. Cax-
ton, a mercer of London, 1471.
1446 The Vatican library founded at Rome.
The fea breaks in at Dort in Holland and drowns
100,000 people.
1453 Conftantinople taken by the Turks, which ends
the eaftern empire, 1123 years from its dedi¬
cation by Conftantine the Great, and 2206
years from the foundation of Rome.
1454 The univerfity of Glafgow in Scotland founded.
1457 dafs firft manufactured in England.
1460 Engraving and etching on copper invented.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Pur-
bachius and Regiomontanus to be 230 29'.
1473 The ftudy of the Greek language introduced in¬
to France.
1477 The univerfity of Aberdeen in Scotland founded.
1479 Union of the kingdoms of Arragon and Caftile.
1482 The coaft of Guinea difcovered by the Portu-
guefe.
A court of inquifition ere&ed in Seville.
1485 Richard III. king of England, and laft of the
Plantagenets, is defeated and killed at the
battle of Bofworth, by Henry (Tudor) VII.
which put an end to the civil wars between
the houfes of York and Lancafter, after a con-
teft of 30 years, and the lofs of 100,000 men.
1487 Henry eftablifties fifty yeomen of the guards, the
firft ftanding army.
1489 Maps and fea charts firft brought to England by
Barth. Columbus.
1490 William Groceyn introduces the ftudy of the
Greek language into England.
The Moors, hitherto a formidable enemy to the
native Spaniards, are entirely fubdued by Fer¬
dinand, and become fubje&s to that prince on
certain conditions, which are ill obferved by
the Spaniards, whofe clergy ufe the inquifition
in all its tortures j and in 1609, near one mil¬
lion of the Moors were driven from Spain to
the oppofite coaft of Africa, from whence they
originally came.
149^ America firft difcovered by Columbus, a Ge-
noefe in the fervice of Spain.
1 he Moors expelled from Granada, which they
had poflefled upwards of 800 years.
J495 The venereal difeafe introduced into Europe.
1496 The Jews and Moors baniftied out of Portugal.
1497 The Portuguefe firft fail to the Eaft Indies by
the Cape of Good Hope.
South America difcovered by Americus Vefpu-
fius, from whom unjuftly it has its name.
1499 North America difcovered, for Henry VII. by
Cabot, a Venetian.
1508 Maximilian divides the empire of Germany in¬
to fix circles, and adds four more in 1312.
Brazil difcovered by the Portuguefe. Florida
difcovered by John Cabot an Engliftiman.
Painting in chiaro-obfcuro difcovered.
A great plague in England.
IJ05 Shillings firft coined in England.
1507
After
Chrift.
After 1507 The ifland of Madagafcar difcovered by the Por-
Chrift. tuguefe.
v ' 1509 Gardening introduced into England from the
Netherlands, from whence vegetables were im¬
ported hitherto.
1510 The obliquity of the eliptic obferved by Werne-
nus to be 230 28' 30".
1513 The battle of Flowden, in which James IV.'
king of Scotland is killed, with the flower of
his nobility.
1514 Cannon bullets of ftone Hill in ufe.
I5T5 The Polyglot Bible printed at Alcala.
The kingdom of Navarre annexed to that of
Caftile by Ferdinand.
1516 The kingdom of Algiers feized by Barbarofla.
1517 Martin Luther began the reformation.
Egypt is conquered by the Turks.
The kingdom of the Mamelukes in Egypt over¬
thrown by the Turks.
1518 Difcovery of New Spain, and the Straits of Ma¬
gellan.
1521 Henry VIII. for his writings in favour of popery,
receives the title of Defender of the Faith
from his Holinefs.
1522 Rhodes taken by the Turks.
The fir ft voyage round the world performed by
a (hip of Magellan’s fquadron.
1526 The inquifition eftabliftied in Portugal.
Lutheranifm eftabliflred in Germany.
1527 Rome taken and plundered by the Imperial
army.
1528 Popery abolifhed in Sweden.
1529 The name of Proteftant takes its rife from the
reformers protefting againft the church of
Rome, at the diet of Spires in Germany.
J530' Union of the Proteftants at Smallcalde, Decem¬
ber 22d.
Secretary of State’s office eftabliflied in England.
1531 A- great earthquake at Liflbon,
1532 J he Court of Seffion inftituted in Scotland.
2533 Infurreftion of the Anabaptifts in Weftphalia.
1534 . The reformation takes place in England, under
Henry VIII.
Barbarofla feized on the kingdom of Tunis.
*535 The reformation introduced into Ireland.
The fociety of Jefuits formed.
4 539 The firft Englith edition of the Bible authorifed ;
the prefcnt tranflation finiftied in 1611.
About this time cannon began to be u(ed in
(hips.
Six hundred and forty-five religious houfes fup-
prefled in England and Wales.
*54° 1 variation of the compafs difcovered by Se-
baflian Cabot.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Coper¬
nicus to be 230 28' 8". f
Society of Jefuits eftablifhed, September 27.
f543 Silk (lockings firft worn by the French king ;
firft worn in England by Queen Eliz. 156j
the fteel frame for weaving invented by the
Rev. Mr Lee, of St John’s College, Cam-
bndge, 1589.
Pins firft. ufed in England, before which time
s the ladies ufed (kewers.
Iron cannon and mortars made in England.
•Vol. VI. Part I. S
CHRONOLOGY.
1544 Good lands let in England at one (hilling per acre.
1545 The famous council of Trent begins, and conti¬
nues 18 years.
1547 law in England eftabliffiing the intereft of
money at 10 per cent.
1548 The reformation gained ground in Poland.
1549 P'Ords lieutenants of counties inftituted in Encr.
land. °
I55° Horfe guards inftituted in England.
The bank of Venice eftabliftied about this time.
lS52 Rooks of geography and aftronomy deftroyed in
England, as being infefted with magic.
The book of Common Prayer eftablilhed in Eng¬
land by adl of parliament.
1554 ^ie kingdom of Aftracan conquered by the
Ruffians.
1555 The Ruffian company eftabliftied in England.
I5i8 Queen Elizabeth begins her reign.
1360 1 he reformation in Scotland completed by John
Knox.
1561 Livonia ceded to Poland.
*563 Knives firft made in England.
1563 Revolt of the Low Countries.
Malta attacked by the Turks.
1366 The 39 arlicles of the church of England efta¬
blifhed.
Queen Mary imprifoned in England.
Liberty of profeffing the reformed religion grant¬
ed to the Low Countries.
1369 Royal exchange firft built,
1571 The iftand of Cyprus taken by the Turks,
They are defeated at Lepanto.
1572 The great maflacre of Proteftants at Paris.
A new ftar in Caffiopeia obferved by Cornelius
Gemma. It appeared in November, and dif-
appeared in March.
1376 The profeffion of the Proteftant religion authori-
fed in France. This toleration followed by 3
civil war.
1378 The firft treaty of alliance betwixt England and
the States General, January 7.
J579 ^ Dutch (hake off the Spanifti yoke, and the
republic of Holland begins.
Englifh Eaft India company incorporated—efta¬
blifhed 1600.
 Turkey company incorporated.
1380 Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage round
the world, being the firft Englifh circumnavi¬
gator.
Parochial regifter firft appointed in England.
The kingdom of Portugal feized by Philip of
Spain.
1381 Copper firft ufed in France.
1382 Pope Gregory introduces the New Style in Italy;
the 3th of Oftober being counted the 13th."
i583 Tobacco firft brought from Virginia into Eng¬
land. &
T he firft propofal of fettling a colony in Ame¬
rica.
1387 Mary Queen of Scots is beheaded by order oj
Elizabeth, after 18 years imprifonment.
1388 The Spanifti Armada deftroyed bv Drake and
other Englifh admirals.
Henry IV. paffes the edift of Nantes, tolerating
the Proteftants.
a mss
121
After
Clm it.
CHRONOLOGY.
1588 Duelling with fmall fwords introduced into
England.
1589 C oaches firit introduced into England ; hackney
aft 1693 ; increased to icoo in 1770.
1590 Band of penfioners inftituted in England.
Telefcopes invented by Janfen, a fpeftacle-maker
in Germany.
1591 Trinity College, Dublin, founded,
i 593 A great plague in London.
1594 The Jefuits expelled from France.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Byrgius
to be 230 30'.
1595 The fame obferved by Tycho-Brahe to be 230
29' 25L
1596 A great earthquake at Japan.,
1597 Watches firft brought into England from Ger¬
many.
1598 The edift of Nantes by Henry IV. of France..
1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges.
1603 Queen Elizabeth (the laft of the Tudors) dies,
and nominates James VI. of Scotland as her
fucceffdr j which unites both kingdoms under
the name of Great Britain.
1605 The Gunpowder plot difcovered at Weft minder j
being a projeft to blow up the king and both
houfes of parliament.
1606 Oaths of allegiance firft adminiftered in Britain.
1608 Colonies fent from Britain to Virginia.
1609 The independency of the United States acknow¬
ledged by Spain.
1610 Galileo, of Florence,, firft difcovers the fatellites
about the planet Jupiter, by the telefcope, late¬
ly invented in Germany.,
Henry IV. is murdered at Paris, by Ravaillac, a
prieft.
Thermometers invented by Drebel, a Dutchman.
1611 Baronets firft created in Britain by James I.
May 22.
^kn earthquake in Conftantinople 5 200,000 per-
fons died there of the plague.
1612 The north-weft paffage to China attempted in
vain by the Britilh.
1.614 Napier of Marchefton, in Scotland, invents the
logarithms.
Sir Hugh Middleton brings the new river to
London from Ware.
1616 The firft permanent fettlement in Virginia.
1619 W. Harvey, an Englifhman, confirms the doc¬
trine of the circulation of the blood, which
had been firft broached by Servetus, a French
phyfician, in 1553.
3-620 The broad filk manufafture from raw filk, in¬
troduced into England.
Barbadoes difcovered by Sir William Courteen.
Navarre united to France.
Copper-money firft introduced in England.
1-621 New England planted by the Puritans.
I he two parties of Whigs and Tories formed in
Britain..
1622 The Palatinate reduced by the Imperialifts..
1623 The Knights of Nova Scotia inftituted.
1624 Maffacre of the Englifti at Amboyna.
3625 King James dies, and is fucceeded by his fon
Charles I. ^ ’
1625 The ifland of Barbadoes, the firft Britifh fettle¬
ment in the Weft Indies,, is planted.
1631 The trantit of Mercury over the fun’s difk, firft
oblerved by Gaffendi.
A great eruption of Vefuvius.
1632 The battle of Lutzen,, in which Guftavus Adol¬
phus, king of Sweden, and head of the Pro-
teftants in Germany, is killed.
1633 Galileo condemned by the inquifition at Rome.
Louifiana difcovered by the French.
1635 Province of Maryland planted by Lord Balti¬
more.
Regular ports eftablifhed from London to Scot¬
land, Ireland, &c.,
1636 A tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s dilk obfer¬
ved by CaRini.
1639 ^ tranfit of Venus over the fun’s difk, firft obfer¬
ved by Mr Horrox, November 24. O. S. 2 h.
15' P: M.
1640 King Charles difobliges his Scottifh fubje&s $ on
which their army, under General Lefley, en¬
ters England, and takes Newcaftle, being en¬
couraged by the malecontents in England.
The maflacre in Ireland, when 40,000 Englifli
Proteftants were killed.
The independency of Portugal recovered by John,
duke of Braganza.
1642 King Charles impeaches five refraflory members,.
which begins the civil wars in England.
1643, Excife on beer, ale, &c. firft impofed by parlia¬
ment..
Barometers invented by Torricelli.
1648 A new ftar obferved in the tail of the Whale by
Fabricius.
1649 Charles I. beheaded by Cromwell at Whitehall,.
January 30. aged 49.
Pendulums firft applied to clocks by Huygens.
1651 The feft called Quakers appeared in England.
1652 The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope
eftablifhed.
1653 Cromwell affumes the proteflorfhip.
The air-pump is invented by Otto Guericke of
Magdeburg.
I^55 The Englifh under Admiral Penn, take Jamaica
from the Spaniards.
One of Saturn’s fatellites obferved by Huygens..
1658 Cromwell dies, and is lucceeded in the protedtor-
fliip by his fon Richard.
1660 King Charles II. is reftored by Monk, com¬
mander of the army, after an exile of twelve
years in France and Holland.
The people of Denmark, being oppreffed by the
nobles, furrendered their privileges to Frederic
III.. who becomes abfolute.
1661 The obliquity of the ecliptic obfferved by Heve*
lius to be 23° 29' 7".
1662 The royal fociety eftablifhed at London by-
Charles II.
1663 Carolina planted: 1728, divided into two fe--
parate governments. ,
Pruftia declared independent of Poland.
1664 The New Netherlands in North America con¬
quered from the Swedes and Dutch by the
Englifli.
1665
CHRONOLOGY.
After 1665 The plague rages in London, and carries off
Chrift. 68,030 perfons.
Xhe magic lantern invented by Kircher.
1666 The great fire of London began Sept. 2. and
continued three days, in which were dtftroyed
13,000 houfes and 400 If reels.
Tea fir ft uled in England.
2667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the Eng-
lilb the New Netherlands, now known by the
names of Pennfylvania, New York, and New
Jerfey.
1668    ditto, Aix la-Chapelle.
St James’s Park planted and made a thorough¬
fare for public ufe by Charles II.
1669 The ifland of Candia taken by the Turks.
1670 The Englifh Hudfon’s Bay company incorpo¬
rated.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Men-
goli to be 230 28' 24".
1672 Louis XIV. ‘overruns great part of Holland,
when the Dutch open their fluices, being de¬
termined to drown their country, and retire to
their fetllements in the Eaft Indies.
African company eilablifhed.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Richer
to be 230 28' 54".
1677 The micrometer invented by Kircher.
1678 The peace of Nimeguen.
The habeas corpus a<R paffed.
A ftrange darknefs at noonday, Jan. 12.
1680 A great comet appeared, and from its nearnefs
to our earth alarmed the inhabitants. It con¬
tinued vifible from Nov. 3. to March 9.
William Penn, a Quaker, receives a charter for
planting Pennfylvania.
1683 India {lock fold from 360 to 500 per cent,
a685 Charles II. dies, aged 55, and is fucceeded by
his brother James II.
The duke of Monmouth, natural fon to Charles
II. raifes a rebellion, but is defeated at the
battle of Sedgmore, and beheaded.
The edidt of Nantes is revoked by Louis XIV.
and the Proteftants are greatly diffreffed.
1686 The Newtonian philofophy publifhed.
1687 The palace of Verfailles, near Paris, finifhed by
Louis XIV.
1688 The revolution in Great Britain begins Nov. 3.
King James abdicates, and retires to France,
December 23.
King William and Queen Mary, daughter and
fon-in-lavv to James, are proclaimed Februa-
.7 I3-
Vifcount Dundee Hands out for James in Scotland,
but is killed by General Mackay at the battle
of Killycrankie j upon which the Highlanders,
wearied with repeated misfortunes, difperfe.
Smyrna deftroyed by an earthquake.
2689 The land-tax paffed in England.
The toleration a6f paffed in ditto.
William Fuller, who pretended to prove the
prince of Wales fpurious, was voted by the
commons to be a notorious cheat, importer,
and falfe accufer.
Several bilhops are deprived ior not taking the
•oaths to Willianio
123
1689 Epifcopacy abolifhed in Scotland. After
1690 The battle of the Boyne gained by William Chrift.
againft James, in Ireland.   -r—
1691 The war in Ireland finifhed by th-'1 furrender of
Limeric to William.
J he obliquity of the ecliptic obrerved by Flaxn-
rtead to be 230 28' 32".
1692 1 he Englifh and Dutch fleets, commanded by
Admiral Ruffel, defeat the French Heel off La
Hogue.
The roaffacre of Glencoe in Scotland, Jan. 21.
O.S.
Earthquakes in England and Jamaica, Septem¬
ber 8.
Hanover made an e!e<rtorate of the empire.
1693 Bayonets at the end of loaded mufleets firft ufed
by the French againrt the confederates in the
battle of Turin.
Bank of England eftablifhed by King William.
The firft public lottery was drawn this year.
1694 Queen Mary dies at the age of 33, and William
reigns alone.
Stamp-duties inrtiluted in England.
1697 p^ace of Ryfwick.
1699 The Scot?' fettled a colony at the ifthmus of Da¬
rien in America, and called it Caledonia.
1790 Charles XII. of Sweden begins his reign.
1701 King James II. dies at St Germains, in the 68th
year of his age.
Pruftia eredfed into a kingdom.
Society for the propagation of the gofpel in fo¬
reign parts ertabliihtd.
1702 King William dies, aged 50, and is fucceeded by
Queen Anne, daughter to James II. who, with
the emperor and ftates general, renews the
war againft France and Spain.
The French fent colonies to the Mifliflippi.
1703 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Bian-
chini to be 230 28' 25".
1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards by Admiral
Rooke.
The battle of Blenheim won by the duke of
Marlborough and allies againft the French.
The Court of Exchequer inftituted in England.
1706 The treaty of union betwixt England and Scot¬
land, figned July 22.
The battle of Ramillies won by Marlborough
and the allies.
1707 The firft Britifh parliament.
The allies defeated at Almanza.
1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniards by General
Stanhope.
The battle of Oudenarde won by Marlborough
and the allies.
1709 Peter the Great, czar of Mofcovy, defeats Charles
XII. at Poltowa, who flies to Turkey.
The battle of Malplaquet won by Marlborough
and the allies.
171° Queen Anne changes the Whig miniftry for
others more favourable to the intereft of her
brother the late pretender.
The. cathedral church of St Paul, London, rebuilt
by Sir Chriftopher Wren in 37 years, at one
million expence, by a duty on coals.
The Englifh South-fea company began.
1712
124.
CHRONOLOGY.
I*] 12 Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun killed in a
duel in Hyde-park.
1713 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland,
Nova Scotia, New Britain, and Hudfon’s Bay
in Nortl], America, were yielded to Great Bri¬
tain ; Gibraltar and Minorca in Europe were
alfo confirmed to the laid crown by this treaty.
J7I4 Anne dies at the age of 50, and is fuc-
ceeded by George I.
Intereft reduced to five per cent.
17*5 Louis XIV. dies, and is fucceeded by his great-
grandfon Louis XV.
1 he rebellion in Scotland begins in September,
under the earl of Mar, in favour of the Pre¬
tender. The aftion of Sheriflfmuir, and the
furrender of Prelton, both in November, when
the rebels difperfe.
1 he obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Lou-
ville to be 230 28' 24".
1716 The Pretender married the princefs of Sobielka,
grand-daughter of John Sobiclki, late kinv of
Poland.
An a<51 paffed for feptennial parliaments.
1718 Sardinia erefted into a kingdom, and given to
the duke of Savoy.
5719 The Miffifiippi fcheme at its height in France.
Lomb’s filk-throwing machine, containing
26,586 wheels, eredled at Derby : takes up
one-eighth of a mile j one water-wheel moves
the reft ; and in twenty-four-hours it works
3 1 8>5q4>96° yards of organzine filk thread.
1720 The South-fea fcheme in England begun April
7. was at its height at the end of June, and
quite funk about September 29.
A great earthquake in China.
1724 An earthquake in Denmark.
3727 King George dies, in the 68th year of his age 5,
and is fucceeded by his only fon, George II.
Inoculation firft tried on criminals with fuccefs.
Ruftia, formerly a dukedom, is now eftablilhed as
an empire.
The aberration of the fixed ftars difcovered and
accounted for by Dr Bradley.
I732, Kouli Khan ufurps the Perfian throne, conquers
the Mogul empire, and returns with two hun¬
dred and thirty-one millions flerling.
Several public-fpirited gentlemen begin the fet-
tlement of Georgia in North America.
1733 1 he Jefuits expelled from Paraguay.
J739 Captain Porteeus having ordered his foldiers to
fire upon the populace at the execution of a
fmuggler, is himfelf hanged by the mob at
Edinburgh.
A tranfit of Mercury obferved by Caffini.
2737 A dreadful hurricane at the mouth of the Gan¬
ges, Odtober 10.
1738 Weftminfter bridge, confifting of 15 arches, be¬
gun ; finiftied in 1750 at the expence of
389,000!. defrayed by parliament.
The order of St Januarius eftabliftied at Naples.
*739 Tetters of marque iffued out in Britain againft
Spain, July 21. and war declared, 061. 23.
The empire of Indoftan ruined by Kouli Khan.
An intenfe froft in Britain.
S743 The battle of Dettingen won by the Englift and
aides in favour of the (jueen of Hungary,
1744 A dreadful plague in Sicily.
1744 War declared againft France.—Commodore An-
fi.n returns from hi:-> voyage round the world.
1745 1 he allies lo(e the battle of 1'ontenoy.
1 he rebellion breaks out in Scotland, and the
Pretender’s army defeated by the duke of
Cumberland at Cuilodtn, April 16. 1746.
1746 B rlti ih L inen Company eie61ed.
Lima dtftroyed by an earthquake.
1747 Kouli Khan murdered.
1748 The peace of Aix la-Chapelle, by which a refti-
tution of all places taken during the war was-
to be made on all fides.
1749 The intereft on the Britifh funds reduced to
three p; r cent.
Britifh herring-fifhery incorporated.
I he colony of Nova Scotia founded.
175° Earthquake in England.
1751 Frederic prince of Wrales, father to his prefent
majefty, died.
Antiquarian Society at London incorporated.
3752 1 he new ftile introduced into Great Britain j.
the 3d of September being counted the 14th.
1753 The Britifh Mufeum ere6Ied at Montague-houfe..
Society of arts, manufa6fures, and commerce,
inftituted in London.
3754 A dreadful eruption of Mount ^Etna.
A great earthquake at Conftantinople, Cairo,
&e. Sept. 2.
1755 Q.ulto in deftroyed by an earthquake.
April 28. ^
Lifbon deftroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1.
3756 146 Engliftimen aie confined in the Black Hole
at Calcutta in the Eaft Indies by order of the
Nabob, and 1 23 found dead next morning.
Marine fueiety eftablilhed at London.
1 he king of Pruflia commenced hoftilities in the
month of Auguft in Saxony. Defeats the Au-
ftrians at Lo.
Damien attempted to aflaflinate the French king.
1 he king of Pruflia invades Bohemia. Defeats,
the Auftrians at Reichenberg, April 21. and
at Prague, May 6. Repulfed by Count Daun
at Kolin, June 18.
The allies defeated by the French at Haften-
beck, July 26.
Convention of Clofter-Seven, Sept. 8.
1 he king of Pruflia defeats the French and Au-
ftnans at Rofbach, Nov. 5. The Pruflians de¬
feated near Breflaw, Nov. 22. The Auftrians-.
defeated at Lifla, Dec. 5.
Senegal taken by the Britifh, May 3. They
take Louifbourg, July 27.
The king of Pruflia defeats the Ruffians at Zorn-
dorf, Aug. 25. Is defeated by Count Daun
at Hoch-kirchen, 061. 14.
Goree taken by Commodore Keppel, Dec. 29.
Attempt to aflaffinate the king of Portugal,
e>759 General Wolfe is killed in the battle of Quebec,
^ which is gained by the Britifh.
The French defeated by Prince Ferdinand at
Bergen, April 13.
Guadaloupe taken by the Britiffi, May 1.
Kmg of Pruffia defeated by the Ruffians at Cu-
nerldorf, Aug. 12,
lU9
*757
*75%
Afier
Chrift.
C II R O N O L O G Y,
After 1759 The French fleet defeated by Admiral Hawke,
thrift. Nov. 20.
Baibec and Tripoli deftroyed by an earthquake,
Dec. 5.
1760 King George II. dies, 061. 25. in the 77th year
of hh age, ami is fucceeded by his prefent ma-
jefty, who, on the 22d September 1761, mar¬
ried the princefs Charlotte of Mecklenburgh
Strelitz.
Blackfriars bridge, confitling of 9 arches, begun ;
fiuiflied 1770, at the expence of 152,840!. to
be difchatged by a toll.
1761 A tranfit of Venus over the fun, June 6.
Earthquakes in Syria, 061. 13.
The king of Pruflia defeats the Aullrians at
Torgau, Nov. 3.
Pondicherry taken by Col. Coote, Jan 15.
Bdleifle furrendered to the Britifh, Feb. 4.
1762 War declared againft Spain.
Peter III. emperor of Ruflia, is depofed, impri-
foned, and murdered.
American philofophical fociety eftablifhed in
Philadelphia.
George Auguflus Frederic, prince of Wales, born,
Auguft. 1 2.
Martinico furrendered to the Britifli, Feb. 4.
Havannah furrendered to ditto, Aug. 12.
Manilla taken by ditto, 061:. 6.
1763 The definitive treaty of peace between Great
Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, con¬
cluded at Paris, February 10th ; which con¬
firms to Great Britain the extenfive province
of Canada, Eaft and Weft Florida, and part of
Louifiana, in North America ; alfo the iflands
of Grenada, St Vincent, Dominica, and Toba¬
go, in the Weft Indies.
The Jefuits expelled from France.
1764 The parliament granted lo,oool. to Mr Har-
rifon for his difcovery of the longitude by his
time-piece
Famine and peftilence in Italy.
An earthquake at Lifbon.
1765 His majefty’s royal charter paffed for incorpo¬
rating the fociety of artifts.
An a£I paffed annexing the fovereignty of the
ifland of Man to the crown of Great Britain.
1766 April 2xft, a fpot or macula of the fun, more
than thrice the bignefs of our earth, paffed the
fun’s centre.
The American flamp-a£t repealed, March 18.
A great earthquake at Conftantinople.
The Jefuits expelled from Bohemia and Den¬
mark.
1767 The Jefuits expelled from Spain, Venice, and
Genoa, April 2d.
Martinico almoft deftroyed by an earthquake.
The Proteftants tolerated in Poland, Nov. 2d.
1768 Academy of painting eftabliftied in London.
The Turks imprifon the Ruffian ambaffador, and
declare war againft that empire.
The Jefuits expelled from Naples, Malta, and
Parma.
*269 Paoli fled from Corfica, June 13. The ifland
then reduced by the French.
1.
1770 An earthquake at St Domingo.
1771 Dr Solander and Mr Banks, in his majefty’s fhip
the Endeavour, Lieut. Cook, return from a
voyage round the world, having made ftvcral
important difcoveries in the South Seas.
An emigration of 500,000 Tolirgouths from the
coafts of the Cafpian fta to the frontiers of
China.
1772 The king of Sweden changes the conftitutiom
from ariftocracy to a limited monarchy.
The Pretender marries a princefs of Germany,,
grand-daughter of Thomas late earl of Aylef-
bury.
The emperor of Germany, emprefs of Ruffia, and
the king of Pruffia, ftrip the king of Poland
of a great part of his dominions, w hich they di¬
vide among themfelves, in violation of the moft
folemn treaties.
1773 Captain Phipps is fent to explore the North Pole}
but having made 81 degrees, is in danger of
being locked up by the ice, and his attempt
to difcover a paffage in that quarter proves fruit-
lefs.
The Englifh Eaft India Company having, by
conqueft or treaty, acquired the extenfive pro¬
vinces of Bengal, Orixa, and Bahar, contain¬
ing 15 millions of inhabitants, great irregula¬
rities are committed by their fervants abroad }
upon which government interferes, and fends
out judges, &c. for the better adminiftration'
of juftice.
The war between the Ruffians and the Turks
proves difgraceful to the latter, who lofe the
iflands in the Archipelago, and by fea are
everywhere unfuccefsful.
The fociety of Jefuits fuppreffed by the pope’s
bull, Aug. 25.
1774 Peace is proclaimed between the Ruffians and
the Turks.
The Britilh parliament having paffed an a£l lay¬
ing a duty of 3d. per pound upon all teas im¬
ported into America, the colonifts, confider-
ing this as a grievance, deny the right of the
Britifh parliament to tax them.
The American colonies fend deputies to Phila¬
delphia, who affume the title of The Congrefs
of the Thirteen United Provinces, and all the
powers of government.
1775 The American war commences. A61ion at
Bunker’s Hill, June 7.
The Spaniards land near Algiers, and are de¬
feated, July 8.
1776 The congrefs declare the United States of A-
merica independent of the crown and parlia¬
ment of Great Britain.
The Americans receive a dreadful defeat at
Long Ifland, Aug. 27.
1777 Philadelphia taken by the Britifh, 061. 3.
General Burgoyne with his army furrenders to
the Americans.
1778 A moft extraordinary eruption of Vefuvius, Au¬
guft 8.
The fiege of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards,
July 8.
178s-•
125
After
Chiift.
126 C H R O N
After 1^80 Jan. 14th, 6h. A. M. the thermometer fufpend-
. Ch‘lft' . ed in the open air at Glafgow, flood at 46°
below o.
The Span!(h fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney,
Jan. 16th.
Charleflowg furrendered to theBritifti, May 12th.
A dreadful infurre&ion in London, and riots in
many other places of the kingdom.
A great number of BritHh flops taken by the
combined fleets of France and Spain.
Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Cam¬
den.
A dreadful hurricane in the Leeward i(lands,
Od. 9th.
An extraordinary ftorm of wind in England.
War declared againft the Dutch, Dec. 20.
1781 A terrible engagement between the Dutch and
Britifli fleets near the Dogger bank, Auguft
•5th-
Lord Cornwallis with his army furrenders to the
united forces of France and America, Od.
18th.
J782 Minorca furrendered to the Spaniards, February
4th.
The French fleet under De Graffe defeated and
almoft deftroyed by Admiral Rodney, April
12th.
The Spaniflr floating batteries before Gibraltar
entirely deftroyed, Sept. 12.
1783 Preliminaries of a general peace figned. Ame-
' rica declared independent, Jan. 20th.
A dreadful earthquake, attended with many
extraordinary circumftances, in Italy and Si¬
cily.
The fun obfcured by a kind of fog during the
whole futnmer.
A volcanic eruption in Iceland furpafling any
thing recorded in hiftory. The lava fpouted
up in three places to a great height in the air,
and continued flowing for two months ; during
which time it covered a traft of ground to a
great extent, and in fome places more than
100 feet deep.
A large meteor appears to the northward of
Shetland, and takes its direflion fouthivard,
with a velocity little inferior to that of the
earth in its annual courfe round the fun. Its
track obferved for more than 1000 miles.
Algiers bombarded by the Spaniards.
A great tumult at Philadelphia between the in¬
habitants and French foldiery.
An extraordinary aurora borealis feen at London.
Bednore taken by the Englifti.
Magazine at Bencoolen blown up.
Bottles made of the lava of volcanoes.
Byrne, the Irifti giant, eight feet four inches,
dies by intemperance.
Famine in the Carnatic.
Charles Guftavus prince of Sweden dies.
A father kills three of his children with the
thigh-bone of a horfe, after hearing a fermon
on the happinefs of thofe who die young.
Sir Eyre Coote defeats Hyder Ally.
Cremnitz in Hungary dellroyed by lightning.
Dartmouth Eaft Indiaman loft.
4
O L O G Y.
1783 Definitive treaties between Britain and France, After
Spain and America, concluded. Guilt.
The Eaft India houfe robbed. v—
Thanks to Generaf Elliot voted by the houfe of
commons.
Embargo on fait in Ireland taken off.
A foreft in Poland fuddenly difappears.
Ifland of Formofa deftroyed by an earthquake.
Gold and filver lace prohibited in Denmark.
A confpiracy againft the Grand Signior difco-
vered.
Grofvenor Indiaman loft.
Mangalore furrenders to the Britifli.
Five meteors or fire-balls feen at different places
in England.
Serious mutinies at Portfmouth, Jerfey, Guernr
fey, Dublin, &c,
A plague breaks out at Conftantinople.
Powder mills at Ewell blown up.
A man in Mofcow has 84 children alive out of
87 by three wives.
Queen Charlotte delivered of a princefs.
1784 General Cornwallis made conftable of the
Tower.
Sluices at Lillo opened by the Dutch.
Great earthquakes in Iceland, Grenoble, &e.
Fort Frederick at Grenada blown up.
Commodore Lindfay vifited by the king and
queen of Naples.
Pennfylvania in extreme diftrefs.
A general thankfgiving for peace with Ame¬
rica, &c.
Allan Ramfay, Efq. fon of the celebrated poet
of the fame name, dies at Dover,
St Auguftine in Florida declared a free port.
A gang of defperate robbers apprehended at
Glafgow.
A volcano difcOvered in the moon.
1785 Melancholy fate of two aeronauts.
A Angular calamity at Barbadoes, by the fink¬
ing of the furface in different places.
A new comet difcovered.
The queen of France is delivered of a fon.
A remarkable accident happens at the court of
king’s bench.
A dreadful inundation happens at Vienna in
Germany.
1786 The Halfewell Eaft Ihdiaman (truck on the
rocks of Purbeck, and about 100 of the crew
periflied, Jan. 6th.
Joiner’s works performed by a blind man in fuch
a mafterly manner as to aftonifti the ableft
judges, at Hermanftadt in Tranfilvania.
The king of Pruffia makes a bandfome provifion
during life for the widow and children of Co¬
lonel Vantrofcke, a deferving officer. April.
The weft tower of Hereford church, 125 feet
high, built in the I 2th century, fell down on
the evening of 17th April, but none of the
people then in the church-yard received any
injury.
M. Blanchard afcends in a balloon 96 miles in
as many minutes. Wrices a letter in the air,
dated April 18th, to the editors of the Paris
Journal.
1786
C H 11 O N O
After 1786 To the number of 639S boys and girls clothed,
Chriit. educated, and fupported by voluntary eontri-
—butions, affemble under the dome of St Paul’s
cathedral.
A fmall prayer-book compofed by Queen Eli¬
zabeth, and in her own hand-writing, fold in
London for 100 guineas, June 7th.
The prince of Wales orders his whole Hud to be
difpofcd of by audlion, to enable him to liqui¬
date his debts.
37^7 The king of Prufira eftablifhes a court of ho¬
nour for the purpofe of fuppreHing duelling.
A meeting of notables convened by the king
of France for reforming abufes relating to the
fubjeft of finance, January 10th.
Two {hips failed born Gravefend with- black
people on board, for a new fettlement at Sier¬
ra Leone, January 9th.
The king of Pol and has an interview with her
imperial raajefly at Kiow, March 7th.
Nine (hips failed for Botany Bay from Spithead
with convi£fs} 21ft.
A motion in parliament for repealing the left
and corporation a6b, 28th.
M. dr Calonne isdifmifled from office, April 10th.
Mr Haftings impeached'at the bar of the houfe
of lords, May 10th.
 petitions to be admitted to bail, 22d.
The fum of 161,000!. voted for the. liquidation
of the prince of Wales’s debts, 24th.
The Hart well Enll Indiaman loll off the ifland
of Bona Vifla, 24th.
Two fatellites belonging to Georgium Sidus dif-
covered by Dr Herfchel, June 7th.
I he Ruffian ambaffador at Conftantinople im-
prifoned, Auguft 16th.
The. Pruffian troops under the duke of Brunf-
wick take poffeffion of Utrecht, Sept. 17th.
Twenty-three fail of the line put into commif-
fion, and feventeen new admirals appointed,
Sept. 24th.
The Pruffians gain poffeflion of Amfterdam,
Oflober nth.
A moft remarkable aurora borealis appears, 13th.
Lord George Gordon apprehended and com¬
mitted to Newgate, December 7th.
3788 Died at Brvngwyn in Radnorffiire fix perfons
during the month of January, whofe united
ages made up 644 years.
A new copper coinage of halfpence begins to
circulate in Britain, July 19th.
William Brodie and George Smith tried for break¬
ing into the general excife office for Scotland,
and fentenced to be executed, September rfL
A dreadful hurricane at Martinico laid many pa-
riffies wafte, and deprived multitudes of their
exiftence, Auguft 14th.
The king of France abolifhed the torture, and
ordained that every accufed perfon (hall have
counfel immediately affigned him, Odlober
18th. He ordered alfo, that a majority of one
may acquit the accufed, while three are re¬
quired to condemn.
An iron barge built by John Wilkifon, Efq.
at Wilby wharf Shrew’{bury, was launched,
LOGY. 12
drawing only eight inches water, and moving After
very eafily on that element, November 7th. Chr.lt.
His Britannic majefty is feized with a fevere in- -v''-0"
difpofition, Oftober 17th.
A new comet in the conflellation of Urfa Ma¬
jor, difcovered by M. Meffier aftronomer at
Paris, November 26th.
1789 Coins bearing date 1057 were found beneath
the foundation of the old roarket-houfe at Farn-
ham.
Another fatelbte difcovered by Dr Herfchel be¬
longing to Saturn.
Earthquake at Comrie, November 3d.
Foundation ftone of that magnificent ftruflure,
the univerfity of Edinburgh, laid by the Right
Honourable Francis Lord Napier, grand maf-
ter-mafon of Scotland, November 16th.
Phipps (father and fon) hanged for forgery,
September 5th.
Revolution of France is begun and gradually
advanced.
General Wafhington makes a fplendid entrance
into the city of Philadelphia, where a fump-
tuous entertainment is provided for him by
the joyful citizens, April 22d.
An excellent and cheap dye invented in Germany.
Dr Withers fentenced to 12 months imprifon-
ment, to pay a fine of 50I. and to find fecu-
rity for five years, himfelf in 500I. and two
others in 2jol. each, for detaming the charac¬
ter of Mrs Fitzherbert, November 21 ft.
The fum of 261I. 3s. voted to Brook Wat fon,
Efq. to defray the expences of a new invent¬
ed method of cultivating hemp, December
141b.
1790 Exile of the duke de Orleans.
Bed of juftice inftituted in France.
Calamitous ftate of affairs in that country.
I he archbifhop of Touloufe difmiffed from of¬
fice.
A convention figned at the Efcurial between his
Britannic majefty and the king of Spain, Oc¬
tober 28th.
A memorial of the court of Spain delivered to
Mr Fitzherbert, June 13th.
M. Montmorin’s letter to the national affembly
of France.
Louis XVI. delivers a fpeech to the national
affembly.
A blackbird’s neft with four eggs found Decem¬
ber 25th, near Nuneham in Oxfordftiire.
1791 Serious riots at Paris.
The Tiers Etat conftitute themfelves a national
affembly.
Paris is furrounded by the military at the defire
of the king.
Prifons fet open by the mob, and a great famine
in Paris, whether real or artificial is involved
in obfcurity.
M. Necker is difmifled from office, and the Ba¬
ft ile demoliftied.
M. La Fayette appointed commander in chief
of the national guard.
M. Necker is recalled with every demonftration
ofjoy.
1791
I 2t
After
Ohrift.
1791
A moft horrid infurre£iion takes place on the
5th of O&ober.
The royal family comes from Verfailles to Paris.
The abolition of orders decreed by the aflembly.
The ifland of Corfica united to France.
1 he unpopular and oppreffive tax on fait aba-
lifhed.
M. Necker again refigns, about which time a
riot breaks out at Paris, and a ferious mutiny
in the harbour of Breft.
Foreign powers combine againft France.
The king of France flies, is apprehended, and
returns.
The city of Paris put under martial law.
The Netherlands revolt from Germany,
Peace is concluded between Auftria and Pruflia,
and between Pruflia and Sweden.
The grand vizier is difgraced, and dies.
A peace concluded between Ruflia and Conflan*
tinople.
A convention is entered into with Spain relative
to Nootka Sound.
War carried on in India with Tippoo Saib.
1 he Britifh parliament is diflblved, and the new
parliament is foon after opened by a fpeech
from the throne.
A bill is prefented in the Britifli parliament for
the relief of Proteftant Catholics.
The French conftitution fettled by the aflem¬
bly, and prefented to the king, September
3d-
Accepted of by the king, 13th.
1792 Walhington’s fpeech to both houfes of congrefs
Oaober 25th. h ’
A treaty between Britain and PruAia relative to
the. marriage of the duke of York with Fre¬
derica Charlotte.
Guftavus III. of Sweden is aflfaflmated by 4m-
karftrom. *
General Dillon is inhumanly murdered by his
own foldiers.
M. Rochambeau reflgns the command of the
French army in the north, and is fucceeded
by M. Luckner.
Horrible outrages are committed in Paris on the
20th June.
The French arms are vidorious in the Nether¬
lands.
A petition is prefented to the afTembly, praying
for the depofition of Louis XVI.
The palace is abandoned by the royal family of
France,, and attacked by the federates, at
which time the Swifs guards are maflacred.
k°fU1S J8 an^ and family impri-
War . proclaimed by the affembly of France
againfl the king of Hungary and Bohemia,
April 20th. ’
The king of the French writes a confidential
letter, to the king of Great Britain.
A manifefto againfl the French revolution by
tV (fmPeror °f Germany and the king of
Pruflia. 0
The. Funch national aflembly proceeds to the
trial of the king. He is condemned and exe¬
CHRONOLOGY.
*794
il9S
cuted, Jan. 21. after which M. Chauvelin is
difmifled from London.
Dumourier arrefls the commiflioners fent to
bring him to the bar of the convention, and
fends them as prifoners to the Auftrians. He
finally abandons the caufe of France as hope-
lefs and defperate. He is fucceeded by Ge¬
neral Dampier.
The Briflkitine party is denounced by the people
of Paris.
Marat, is committed to the Abbey, but foon re¬
leafed, and aflaflinated at laft by a female from
Normandy.
An expedition is undertaken againft Dunkirk,
which is rendered abortive.
General Cuftine, the queen, the deputies of the
Gironde, Manuel, Houchard, Bailly, Bar-
nave, Rabaut, the duke of Orleans and Ma¬
dame Roland, are condemned and executed.
Earl Moira makes an unfuccefsful defcent on
the coaft of France.
Toulon furrenders to the Britifh, but is retaken
by the French.
Earl Stanhope moves that the French republic
be acknowledged by Britain.
Mr Adam propofes to amend the criminal law
of Scotland, which gives rife to interefting
debates.
The firft reading of a bill for fufpending the Ha¬
beas Corpus ad is protefted againft, May 22.
Proteft againft the vote of thanks to Lord Hood,
June 1 7.
The king of Pruflia withdraws from the coali¬
tion.
A bill is brought into parliament for the aboli¬
tion of the flave-trade, and rejeded by the
lords.
General Fitzpatrick moves for an inquiry into
the reafons of M. la Fayette’s imprifonment.
A motion for peace with France is made by the
duke of Bedford and Mr Fox.
Thanks are voted by both houfes to Lord Howe,
Sir Charles Grey, and Sir John Jervis.
"1 hat valuable inflrument the telegraph is invent¬
ed by the French.
The bold eloquence of Billaud Varennes, and
Tallien, opens the eyes of France refpeding
the ambitious, views of that fanguinary mm£
fter Maximilian Robefpierre, who is condemn¬
ed and executed (28th June), with about 20
of his diabolical coadjutors.
General Clairfait is defeated, and Louvain and
Namur are taken by the French.
A treaty is entered into between Sweden and
Denmark, and neutral powers oblige Britain
to indemnify them for their Ioffes.
La Pique of 38 guns captured by Vice-admiral
Caldwell, Jan. 4.
Admiral Hothman captures two French fhlps,
r™ ..r and the Cenfeur of ^ gu^
Ca-ira of 80,
Match 16.
Warren Haftings acquitted of the ferious char¬
ges preferred againft him, by a majority of
the houle of peers, April 25.
The Boyne of 98 guns is blown up at Spithead,
bat
After
Chrift.
C H R O N
Taut not fo much damage done to adjacent vef-
fels as there was reafon to dread, all her guns
being loaded, May 4.
Captain Anthony James Pye Molloy difmifled
from the command of the Csefar of 74 guns,
for negleft of duty.
Some fliips of war belonging to the French taken
by the fleet under the command of Admiral
Bridport, 23d June.
Leopold brother to the emperor of Germany
died Auguft 10.
La Minerve of 42 guns captured by Captain
Towry, June 24.
The beautiful church of St Paul’s, Covent-gar¬
den, totally confumed by fire, Sept. 19.
A fhock of an earthquake felt through moft of
the town of Birmingham, Nov. 23.
1796 A Hone was thrown at his Britannic majefty’s
carriage on his way from Pall-mall to Buck-
ingham-houfe, which broke a window and
greatly alarmed Lady Harrington, Feb. I.
A reward of loool. was offered for the ap-
prehenfion of the criminal, but without ef-
feft.
Admiral Cornwallis is tried on board the Orion,
for adding contrary to orders received from the
admiralty, and acquitted, April 17.
Sir Sidney Smith taken by the French at Havre,
April.
L’Unite, a French frigate of 38 guns, taken by
Captain Cole, and La Virginie of 44 by Sir
Edward Pellew, April 13. and 20.
Crofsfield, for attempting to affaflinate his maje-
fty, was tried and acquitted, May 20.
Les Trois Coleurs of 10, and La Blonde of 16
guns,captured by Sir Edward Pellew, May 18. j
and La Tribune of 44 guns by Captain Mar¬
tin, fame month.
Two houfes fell down in dare-market, in the
ruins of which 17 perfons were unfortunately
buried, June 27.
The Amphion frigate of 32 guns blown up at
Plymouth, when about 260 lives were loft,
Sept. 22.
The emprefs Catharine II. of Ruflia died at her
palace of an apopleftic fit, Nov. 17.
1797 Part of a French fleet came to anchor in Bantry
bay, having on board an army of 25,000 men,
under the command of General Hoche; but
afterwards weighed and flood out to fea, Ja¬
nuary 2.
The fteeple of a church near Norwich fell down
while the bell was ringing for public worlhip,
Jan. 8.
La Mufette of 22, and Deux Amis of 14 guns,
captured by the Britifti and fent into Cork,
Jan. 14.
The city of Savannah nearly confumed to allies
by fire.
Sir John Jervis, with a fleet of 15 fail, engages
a Spanilh fleet of 27 fail of the line, which he
defeats, taking the Salvador del Mundo and
San Jofef of 112 guns each j the San Nicolas
of 80 and San Ylidro of 74 guns, February
14.
Vol. VI. Part I.
O L O GY.
The ifland of Trinidad furrenders to the Britilh
forces under the command of Sir Ralph Aber¬
crombie.
Alarming fymptoms of a mutiny appear among
the feamen of the Britifh fleet, May 7.
The nuptial ceremonies are folemnized between
the prince of Wirtemberg Stutgard and Char¬
lotte Augufta Matilda, eldeft daughter of his
Britannic majefty George III. May 18.
Lord Malmfbury appointed minifter plenipoten¬
tiary from the court of Britain to France for
negotiating a treaty of peace, July 1.
About 30 French war veflels of different dimen-
fions taken or deftroyed by the fquadron under
Sir J. B. Warren, between 17th July and 6th
of September.
A defperate engagement off Camperdown be¬
tween Admirals Duncan and De Winter, when
the latter is totally defeated by the former, with
the lois of 1 1 ftiips.
1798 Le Duguay Trouin, a French privateer, captured
by Captain Frazer of his majefty’s fliip Shan¬
non, Feb. 3.
A powder-mill belonging to Mr Harvey is blown
up, which demoliflies feveral adjacent build¬
ings, and kills three of the workmen, April
I 29
After
Chrift.
. 25-
L’Hercule a French fliip of 74 guns, captured
by the Mars, April 21.
Rebels in the Curragh of Kildare, Ireland, lay
down their arms, May 29.
Wexford rebels defeated with great lofs and
flaughter, June 10.
Propofals of the Irilh rebels rejedled by General
Lake, June 22.
The Princefs Amelia Eaft Indiaman accidentally
burnt on the coaft of Malabar, and 40 of her
crew perilhed, April 5.
An engagement at Caftlebar between General
Lake and a party of French landed in Ireland,
Auguft 27.
A dreadful engagement between the Britifli fleet
under the command of Sir Horatio Nelfon,
and the French fleet commanded by Admiral
Bruys, off the mouth of the Nile, when nine
fail of the line belonging to the French were
taken, three burnt, one funk, and four efcaped,
^ Aus-1‘
The yellow-fever, which carried off 3000 people
in New-York, in a few months, happily ceafed
to rage, Nov. 15.
3 799 A dreadful Ihock of an earthquake was felt at
Guernfey on the night of the 6lh.
A defperate battle fought between the Arch¬
duke Charles and General Jourdan at Stockafli,
March 25.
La Vigie of 14, and Anacreon privateer of 16
guns, taken by his Britannic majefty’s fliip
Champion, Captain Graham commander, Ju¬
ly 2.
Three frigates captured by the Centaur, J. Wood
commander, June 19.
Mantua furrenders to the Auftrians, June 30.
The Britifh forces deftined. to invade Holland
begin to difembark, 27th Auguft.
Seven
i5o
CHRONOLOGY.
Seven (hips of war, and 13 Indiamen and tranf-
ports, taken in the Nieuve Diep by Admiral
Mitchell, Auguft 27.
Seringapatam furrenders to the Britifh forces,
when Tippoo Sultan is {lain, 4th May.
A Spanilh frigate called Thetis, with a valuable
cargo on board, furrenders to Captain Young
of the Ethalion, 16th Odlober.
Britifh and Ruffian forces obliged to evacuate
Holland, November.
La Furet of 14 guns {trikes to the Viper cutter,
Lieutenant Pengelly commander, 26th De¬
cember.
1800 Three French privateers and one Spaniffi cap¬
tured by the Ariftocrat, Lieutenant Wray,
January.
A French letter of marque with 12 four pounders
and 30 men taken by a Britiffi long boat.
His Britannic majefty’s ffiip Repulfe of 64 guns
loft, and a number of the crew periftied, oth
March.
A convention between the ambaffadors of the
Ottoman Porte and General Defaix, figned at
El Arifch, 24th January, by which the French
troops were permitted to return to their own
country.
His Britannic majefty’s (hip Danae carried into
Breft by the mutineers on board, 27th March.
Genereux of 74 guns captured by the Nor¬
thumberland and Foudroyant, February 18.
A French privateer of 22 guns captured by the
Amethyft, Captain Cook commander, 31ft
March.
His Britannic majefty fhot at in the theatre,
May 16th, by a maniac of the name of Had-
field.
The Queen Charlotte of 100 guns is burnt off
Leghorn, and the gallant crew periffi, 17th
March.
The French ftiip of war Guillaume Tell of 86
guns and 1000 men furrenders to the Lion,
Penelope, and Foudroyant, March 30.
Le Cerbere of feven guns and 87 men taken by
a boat’s crew of 20 men, commanded by Lieu¬
tenant Coghlan.
A number of veffels with valuable cargoes cap¬
tured by La Girone French privateer, Au¬
guft.
Unfuccefsful expedition againft Ferrol, Auguft.
The French garrifon of La Valette furrendered
to the allied forces at Malta, 4th September.
His Britannic majefty’s (hip Marlborough of 74
guns, was completely wrecked off Belleifle,
4th November.
La Venus of 32 guns captured by the Indefati¬
gable and Fifgard, October 24.
A moft dreadful ftorm at London, which un¬
roofed many houfes, blew down others, tore
up numbers of trees by the roots, and by the
effects of which fome lives were loft, 9th
November.
1801 An embargo laid on all Ruffian, Daniffi, and
Swedifh veffels in the ports of Great Britain,
14th January.
After
Chrift.
The united parliament of Great Britain and Ire¬
land met for the firft time, January 22.
The Invincible of 74 guns ran aground on the
coaft of Norfolk, and was totally loft, when
about 400 fouls periftted, March.
A dreadful engagement off Copenhagen, be¬
tween the Daniffi line and the Britiffi fleet
under Admiral Parker ; in which 943 of the
Britiffi were killed and wounded, April 2.
Aboukir furrenders to the Britiffi under the com¬
mand of Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who receiv¬
ed a mortal wound on the 21ft March, of
which that great officer died on the 28th.
The French attacked at Rahmanieh, compelled
to retreat towards Cairo, and purfued by Ge¬
neral Hutchinfon, March 9.
General Hutchinfon takes 550 camels, and 600
French prifoners.
In an engagement between a French and Britiffi
fquadron in the bay of Algeziras, the Hanni¬
bal unfortunately fell into the hands of the
enemy by taking the ground. The Britiffi
fquadron rendered ufelefs two of 84, one of
74 guns, and a large frigate, July 5.
A ceffation of arms by fea and land between
Britain and the French republic, refulting from
the figning of preliminaries of peace by Lord
Hawkeffiury, and M. Otto, Odober 1.
Alexandria furrenders to General Hutchinfon
on the 2d September.
The Swiftfure captured by Admiral Gantheaume,
who treated the crew with the utmoft huma¬
nity and tendernefs.
1802 Jofeph Wall, governor of the ifland of Goree
in 1782, was executed for ordering a ferjeant
to receive 800 laffies, of which he died, Ja¬
nuary 28.
Mr Moore arrived with the definitive treaty of
peace figned at Amiens on the 27th March,
at four in the afternoon.
The flour mills at Bromley, the property of
Meffrs Metcalf and company, were burnt to
the ground, April 8.
A dreadful fire broke out (May 13.) in the town
of Bedford, which deftroyed 72 houfes, and
deprived about 700 perfons of their all.
Intercourfe forbidden at Wilmington, Delaware,
September 5, with Philadelphia and New York,
on account of the yellow lever.
A decifion obliging bookfellers to publiffi no
books without the name of the printer at the
beginning and end of them, was ratified, 2oth
Odflober.
General Andreofi, as ambaffador from France,
arrived at Calais 3d of November, where he
was received with difcharges of artillery.
Has an audience of his Britannic majefty,
17th.
Lord Whitworth prefented to Bonaparte his
letters of credence as minifter plenipotentiary
from his Britannic majefty, December 3.
1803 A /erious rebellion fuppreffed in China, occa-
fioned by the efforts of O-ng Fong, a daring
chief, at the head of 50,000 men.
One
After
Chrift.
1804
CHRONOLOGY.
131
One of the queens of the Rajah at Tanjore burns
herfelf on the funeral pile of her deceafed huf-
band, in fpite of the tears and intreaties of all
her relations.
A&ive tneafures taken in Dublin to fecure the
country againft invafion.
A {hip of 1200 tons call afhore.
Admiral Story with two captains declared dif-
graced, perjured, and infamous, degraded
from their polls, and banifhed the republic,
not to return on the pain of death, January
16.
After
Chrift,
A fplendid meteor feen at Perth, February 7.
Duke D’Enghien and other emigrants feized,
fent to France, and executed, March 15.
The French fleet under Admiral Linois engaged
and purfued by a fleet of Eaft Indiamen, com¬
manded by Captain Dance.
C H R
Chronome- CHRONOMETER, in general, denotes any in-
, ter‘ firument or machine ufed in meafuring time ; fuch are
y dials, clocks, watches, &c. See Dial, &c.
The term chronometer, however, is generally ufed
in a more limited fenfe, for a kind of clock fo contri¬
ved as to meafure a fmall portion of time with great ex-
aftnefs, even to the fixteenth part of a fecond 5 of fuch
a one there is a dcfcription in Defagulier’s experimental
philofophy, invented by the late ingenious Mr George
Graham ; which muft be allowed to be of great ufe for
meafuring fmall portions of time in aftronomical obfer-
vations, the time of the fall of bodies, the velocity of
running waters, &c. But long fpaces of time cannot
be meafured by it with fufficient exadlnefs, unlefs its
pendulum be made to vibrate in a cycloid ; becaufe
otherwife it is liable to err confiderably, as all clocks
are which have ftiort pendulums that fwing in large
arches of a circle.
There have been feveral machines contrived for mea¬
furing time, under the name of chronometers, upon
principles very different from thofe on which clocks and
watches are conftrufted.
Plate CXXXVII. Vol. V. fig. 1. reprefents an air-
chronometer, which is conftru&ed in the following man¬
ner : Provide a glafs tube of about an inch in diame¬
ter, and three or four feet long: the diameter of the
infide of this tube muft be precisely equal in every part:
at the bottom muft be a fmall hole, clofely covered with
a valve. In the tube place a pifton, E, fig. 2. which
is made to fit it exactly, and muft be oiled, that it may
move in the tube with the greateft freedom \ in this
pifton there is a cock that (huts quite clofe ; and from
the top of it there goes a cord F, which paffes through
the handle G. The cock of the pifton being elofed,
it is to be let down to the bottom of the tube, and be¬
ing then drawn up to the top, the air will then rufh in
by the valve at the bottom of the tube, and fupport the
pifton. You are then to turn the cock, fo as to make
a very fmall vent; and the air palling flowly through
that vent, the pifton will gradually defcend and ftiow
the hour, either by lines cut in the tube with a dia¬
mond, or marked with paint, or by fmall flips of pa¬
per painted\on the glafs. If this chronometer fhould
go too faft or too flow, it may be eafily regulated by
altering the pofition of the cock in the pifton, as it is
on that the whole depends.
If, inftead of marking the tube, you would have
the time {hown by a dial, it may be eafily effe£led by
placing an axis, to which the hand of the dial is fixed
dire&ly over the tube, and winding the firing to
C H R
which the pifton is joined round that axis; for then as Chronome-
the pifton defcends, the axis will gradually turn the . tcr'
hand, and ftiow the hour ; but it muft be obferved, that
as the defcent of the pifton is not conftantly regular, on
account of the decreafe of refiftance from the quantity
of the fubjacent air as the pifton defcends, the axis
therefore muft not be a regular cylinder, but conical
like the fufee of a watch, as in fig. 3. by which means
the motion of the hand of the dial will be conftant and
regular.
Fig. 4. reprefents a lamp-chronometer. It confifts
of a chamber lamp A, which is a cylindrical veflel
about three inches high, and one inch diameter, placed
in the Hand B. The infide of this veffel muft be every¬
where exactly of the fame diameter. To the Hand
B is fixed the handle C, which fupports the frame
DEFG, about 12 inches high, and four wide. This
frame is to be covered with oiled paper, and divided
into twelve equal parts by horizontal lines ; at the
end of which are wrote the, numbers for the hours,
from 1 to 12, and between the horizontal lines are
diagonals that are divided into halves, quarters, &c.
On the handle B, and clofe to the glafs, is fixed the
ftyle or gnomon H. Now, as the diftance of the ftyle
from the flame of the lamp is only half an inch, if the
diftance of the frame from the ftyle is only fix inches,
then, while the float that contains the light defcends by
the decreafe of the oil one inch, the ftiadow of the ftyle
on the frame will afcend 12 inches, that is, its whole
length, and {how by its progreflion the regular increafe
of the hours, with their feveral divifions. It is abfo-
lutely neceffary, however, that the oil ufed in this lamp
be always of the fame fort and quite pure, and that the
wick alfo be conftantly of the fame fize and fubftance,
as it is on thefe circumftances, and the uniform figure
of the veflel, that the regular progrefs of the ftiadow
depends.
Chronometer, among muficians, an inftrument
invented by Loulie, a French mufician, for the pur-
pofe of meafuring time by means of a pendulum. The
form of the inftrument, as defcribed by him, is that of
an Ionic pilafter, and is thus defcribed by Malcolm in
his Treatife of Mufic, p. The chronometer
confifts of a large ruler or board, fix feet or 72 inches
long, to be fet on end; it is divided into its inches,
and the numbers fet fo as to count upwards ; and at
every divifion there is a fmall round hole through
whofe centre the line of divifion runs. At the top of
this ruler, about an inch above the divifion 72, and
perpendicular to the ruler, is inferted a fmall piece of
R 2 wood,
ChryfaLs.
C H 11 [ i
Chronome- wood, in the upper fide of which there is a groove,
hollowed along from the end that (lands out to that
which is fixed in the ruler, and near each end of it a
hole is made : through thefe holes a pendulum cord is
drawn, which runs in the groove : at that end of the
cord which comes through the hole furtheft from the
ruler, the ball is hung : and at the other end there is
a fmall wooden pin, which can be put in any of the
holes of the ruler : when the pin is in the uppermofl hole
at 72, then the pendulum from the top to the centre
of the ball mull be exactly 72 inches ; and therefore,
whatever hole of the ruler it is put in, the pendulum
will be juft fo many inches as that figure at the hole
denotes. The manner of ufing the machine is this :
. 1 he compofer lengthens or (hortens his pendulum, till
one vibration be equal to the defigned length of his
bar, and then the pin (lands at a certain divifion,
which marks the length of the pendulum 5 and this
number being fet with the cliff at the beginning of
the fong, is a direction for others how to ufe the
chronometer in meafuring the time according to the
compofer’s defign: for with the number is fet the
note, crotchet, or minim, whofe value he would have
the vibration to be ; which in bri(k duple time is bed,
a minim or half bar ; or even a whole bar, when that
is but a minim ; and in flow time a crotchet. In
triple time, it would do well to be the third part or
half, or fourth part of a bar; and in the fimple triples
that are allegro, let it be a whole bar. And if, in
every time that is allegro, the vibration is applied to
a whole or half bar, practice will teach us to fubdi-
vide it juftly and equally. Obferve, that, to make
this machine of univerfal ufe, fome canonical meafure
of the divifions muft be agreed upon, that the figure
may give a certain dire&ion for the length of the pen¬
dulum.
CHROSTASIMA, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of
pellucid gems, comprehending all thofe which appear
of one fimple and permanent colour in all lights ; fuch
are the diamond, carbuncle, ruby, garnet, amethyft,
fapphire, beryl, emerald, and the topaz. See Dia¬
mond, Carbuncle, &c.
CHRYS A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Myfia,
on the finus Adramyttenus; extinft in Pliny’s time : it
had a temple of Apollo Smintheus, (Homer, Strabo).
The country of the fair Chryfeis, who gave firft rife to
the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles.
CHRYSALIS, or Aurelia, in Natural Hi/lory, a
ftate of reft and feeming infenfibility, which butterflies,
moths, and feveral other kinds of infers, muft pafs
through, before they arrive at their winged or mod:
perfect ftate.
In this ftate, no creatures afford fo beautiful a va¬
riety as the butterfly kinds, and they all pafs through
this middle ftate without one exception. The figure
of the aurelia or chryfalis generally approaches to that
of a cone; or at lead the hinder part of it is in this
fhape ; and the creature, while in this ftate, feems to
have neither legs nor wings, nor to have any power of
walking. It feems indeed to have hardly fo much as
life. It takes no nouriftnnent in this ftate, nor has it any
organs for taking any ; and indeed its pofterior part is
all that feems animated, this having a power of giving
itfelf fome motions. The external covering of the
chryfalis is cartilaginous, and confiderably large, and is
2
32 1 C H R
ufually fmooth and glofly i but fome few of them have Chryfalis,
a few hairs ; fome are alfo as hairy as the caterpillars —v*—-^
from which they are produced ; and others are rough,
and, as it were, (hagreened all over.
In all thefe there may be diftinguifhed two fides;
the one of which is the back, the other the belly, of
the animal. On the anterior part of the latter, there
may always be diftinguifhed certain little elevations
running in ridges, and refembling the fillets wound
about mummies: the part whence thefe have their ori¬
gin, is efteemed the head of the animal. The other
fide, or back, is fmootb, and of a rounded figure in
moft of the chryfalifes ; but fome have ridges on the
anterior part, and fides of this part; and thefe ufually
terminate in a point, and make an angular appearance
on the chryfalis.
From this difference is drawn the firft general dif-
tinffion of thefe bodies. They are by this divided in¬
to two clafles ; the round and the angular kinds- The
firft are, by the French naturalifts, called feves ; from
the common cuftom of calling the chryfalis of the filk-
worm, which is round, by this name.
There is fomething more regular in this diftincftion
than might at firft be conceived ; for the divifion is-
continued from the fly-ftate : the rounded chryfalifes
being almoft all produced by the phalence or moihs ;
and the angular ones by the papilioa, or day-flies.
There are feveral fubordinate diftindlions of thefe
kinds; but, in general, they are lefs different from one
another than the caterpillars from whence they are
produced.
The head of thofe of the firft clafs ufually termi¬
nates itfelf by two angular parts, which (land feparate
one from the other, and refemble a pair of horns. Orr
the back, eminences and marks are difcovered, which
imagination may form into eyes, nofe, chin, and other
parts of the human face.
There is a great variety and a great deal of beauty
in the figures and arrangement of the eminences and
fpots on the other parts of the body of the chryfalifes of
different kinds. It is a general obfervation, that thofe
chryfalifes which are terminated by a (ingle horn, af¬
ford day-butterflies of the kind of thofe which have
buttoned antennae, and whofe wings, in a ftate of reft,
cover the under part of their body, and which ufe all
their fix legs in walking, thofe of many other kinds
ufing only tour of them. Thofe chryfalifes which are
terminated by two angular bodies, and which are co¬
vered with a great number of fpines, and have the fi¬
gure of a human face on their back in the greateft
perfection, afford butterflies of the day kind; and of
that clafs the characters of which are, their walking
on four legs, and ufing the other two, that is, the an¬
terior part, in the manner of arms or hands. The
cnryfalifes which have two angular bodies on their
heads, but fhorter than thofe of the preceding, and
whofe back (hows but a faint (ketch of the human face,
and which have fewer fpines, and thofe lefs (harp,
always turn to that fort of butterfly, the upper wings
of which are divided into fegmen’ts, one of which is
fo long as to reprefent a tail, and whofe under wings
are folded over the upper part of the back. A careful
obfervation will eftablifli many more rules of this kind,
which are not fo perfeCt as to be free from all excep-
tions; yet are of great ufe, as they teach us in gene-
ra\
C H R
Chryfalls, ral wliat fort of fly we are to expeft from the chryfalis,
—of which we know not the caterpillar, and therefore
can only judge from appearances.
Thefe are the principal differences of the angular
chryfalifes $ the round ones alfo have their different
marks not lefs regular than thofe.
The greater number of the round chryfalifes have
the hinder part of their body of the figure of a cone j
but the upper end, which ought to be its circular plane
bafe, is ufually bent and rounded into a fort of knee :
this is ufually called the head of the chryfalis j but
there are alfo fome of this kind, the head of which is
terminated by a nearly plane furface : fome of the
creeping ten-legged caterpillars give chryfalifes of this
kind, which have each of them two eminences that
feem to bring them towards the angular kind.
Among the angular chryfalifes there are fome whofe
colours feem as worthy our obfervation as the fliapes
of the others. Many of them appear fuperbly clothed
in gold. Thefe elegant fpecies have obtained the
name of chryfalis and aureha, which are derived from
Greek and Latin words, iignifying gold 5 and from
thefe all other bodies of the fame kind have been cal¬
led by the fame names, though lefs, or not at all, en¬
titled to them. As fome kinds are thus gilded all
over, fo others are ornamented with this gay appear¬
ance in a more fparing manner, having only a few
fpots of it in different places on their back and belly.
Thefe obvious marks, however, are not to be de¬
pended upon as certain cbaraiffers of dirtinftion ; for
accidents in the formation of the chryfalis may alter
them ; and thofe which naturally would have been
gilded all over, may be fometimes only fo in part ;
and either thefe or the others may, by accident, be fo
formed, as to (how nothing of this kind at all, but be
only ot a dufky brown. Thofe, however, which have
neither lilver nor gold to recommend them to your
eyes, do not want other colours, and thofe beautifully
variegated. Some of them are all over of an elegant
green, as in the chryfalis of the fennel caterpillar j
others of an elegant yellow j and forne of a bright
greeniffi tinge, variegated with fpots of a Ihining
black ; we have a very beautiful inftance of this laft
kind in the chryfalis of the elegant cabbage-caterpillar.
The general colour of the chryfalis of the common
butterflies, however, is brown.
Some are alfo of a fine deep black j and of thefe
many are fo fmooth and glofly, that they are equal to
the fineft Indian japan. The common caterpillar of
the fig-tree gives an inftance of one of thefe moft
beautiful glofly ones ; the caterpillar of the vine af¬
fords another of thefe fine black chryfalifes.
The rounded chryfalifes do not afford any thing of
that variety of colouring fo remarkably beautiful in
the angular ones ; they are ufually of a dulky yellow,
in different (hades, and are often varioufly fpotted
with black ; but thefe, as well as all other chryfalifes
before they arrive at their fixed colour, pafs through
feveraf other temporary ones 5 fome being of a differ¬
ent colour when firft produced from the caterpillar,
from what they are a few days afterwards ; and fome
varying fo greatly, though only in degree, as not to
be diftinguifhable, even by the moft converfant eye,
from what they were when firfl: produced. The
c H R
green rough caterpillar of the cabbage has a chryfalis Chryfalis.
which is green at firft ; and from that gradually goes—y—J
through all the (hades of green to a faint yellow,
which is its lading colour ; and one of the oak cater¬
pillars yields a chryfalis beautifully fpotted with red at
its firft appearance ; but thefe fpots change to brown
for their fixed colour : the third day from their for¬
mation ufually fixes their lading colours ; and if they
are obferved to turn black in any part after this time,
it is a fign that they are dead or dying.
The feveral fpecies of infefts, as a fly, fpider, and
an ant, do not differ more evidently from one ano¬
ther in regard to appearance, than do a caterpillar,
its chryfalis, and a butterfly produced from it 5 yet
it is certain, that thtfe are all the produiff of the fame
individual egg ; and nothing is more certain, than
that the creature which was for a while a caterpillar,
is after a certain time, a chryfalis, and then a but¬
terfly. Thefe great changes produced in fo fudden a
manner, feem like the metamorphofes recorded in the
fables of the ancients ; and indeed it is not improbable
that thofe fables firft took their origin from fuch
changes.
The parts being diftinguiftiable in the chryfalis, we
eafily find the difference of the fpecies of the fly that
is to proceed from it. The naked eye (hows whether
it be one of thofe that have, or of thofe that have not,
a trunk ; and the afliftance of a microfcope (hows the
antennae fo diftin&ly, that we are able to difcern whe¬
ther it belongs to the day or night clafs $ and often to
what genus, if not the very fpecies : nay, in the plu-
mofe horned kinds, Ave may fee, by the antennte,
whether a male or female phalaena is to be produced
from the chryfalis ; the horns of the female being in
this date evidently narrower, and appearing lefs ele¬
vated above the common furface of the body, than
thofe of the male.
All thefe parts of the chryfalis, however, though
feen very diftimffly, are laid clofe to one another, and
feem to form only one mafs ; each of them is covered
with its own peculiar membrane in this (late, and all
are furrounded together by a common one ; and it is
only through thefe that we fee them ; or rather we
fee on thefe the figures of all the parts moulded within,
and therefore it requires attention to diftinguilh them.
The chryfalis is foft when firft produced, and is wet¬
ted on the front with a vifcous liquor ; its (kin, though
very tender at firft, dries and hardens by degrees ;
but this vifcous liquor, which furrounds the wings,
legs, &c. hardens almoft immediately ; and in con(e-
quence fattens all thofe limbs, &c. into a mafs, whicli
were before loofe from one another : this liquor, as
it hardens, lofes its tranfparence, and becomes brown ;
fo that it is only while it is yet moift that thefe parts
are to be feen diftindl.
It is evident, from the whole, that the chryfalis is
no other than a butterfly, the parts of which are hid
under certain membranes which fatten them together ;
and when the limbs are arrived at their due ftrength,
they become able to break through thefe membranes,
and then expand and arrange themfelves in their pro¬
per order.
The firft metamorphofis, therefore, differs nothing
from the fecond, except that the butterfly comes from,
the
1 *33 1
C H R
r 134 ]
Chryfalis. the body of the caterpillar in a weak ftate, with limbs
' unable to perform their offices, whereas it comes from
the chryfalis perfeft.
Hift. of In- M. Reaumur has given us many curious obferva-
fects, vol. i. tions on the ftrufture and ufes of the feveral cover-
p. 3 38. tjiat attend the varieties of the caterpillar kind in
this ftate.
The creatures in general remain wholly immove¬
able in this ftate, and feem to have no bufinefs in it
but a patient attendance on the time when they are
to become butterflies j and this is a change that can
happen to them, only as their parts, before extremely
foft and weak, are capable of hardening and becoming
firm by degrees, by the tranfpiration of that abundant
humidity which before kept them foft: and this is
proved by an experiment of M. Reaumur, who, inclo-
fing fome chryfalifes in a glafs tube, found, after fome
time, a fmall quantity of water at the bottom of it;
which could have come there no other way, but from
the body of the inclofed animal. This tranfpiration
depends greatly on the temperature of the air; it is
increafed by heat, and diminiffied by cold j but it has
alfo its peculiarities in regard to the feveral fpecies of
butterfly to which the chryfalis belongs.
According to thefe «bfervations, the time of the
duration of the animal in the chryfalis ftate muft be,
in different fpecies, very different j and there is in¬
deed this wide difference in the extremes, that fome
fpecies remain only eight days in this ftate, and others
eight months.
We know that the caterpillar changes its fkin four
or five times during its living in that ftate; and that
all thefe fldns are at firft produced with it from the
cgg> tying clofely over one another. It parts with,
or throws off, all thefe one by one, as the butterfly,
which is the real animal, all this time within, grows
more and more perfeft in the feveral firft changes.
When it throws off one, it appears in another fkin ex-
a&ly of the fame form ; but at its final change from
this appearance, that is, when it throws off the laft
fkin, as the creature within is now arrived at fuch a
degree of perfe&ion as to need no farther taking of
nouriftiment, there is no farther need of teeth, or any
of the other parts of a caterpillar. The creature, in
this laft change, proceeds in the very fame manner as
in all the former, the Ikin opening at the back, and
the animal making its way out in this fliape. If a ca¬
terpillar, when about to throw off this laft Ikin, be
thrown into fpirits of wine, and left there for a few
days, the membranes within will harden, and the
creature may be afterwards, carefully opened, and the
chryfalis taken out, in which the form of the tender
butterfly may be traced in all its lineaments, and its
eyes, legs, &c. evidently feen. It is not neceffary,
however, to feize upon this exaft time for proving
the exiftence of the chryfalis or butterfly in the cater¬
pillar : for if one of thefe animals be thrown into fpi-
rit of wine, or into vinegar, fome days before that
time, and left there for the flefli to harden, it may af¬
terwards be diffe&ed, and all the lineaments of the
butterfly traced out in it; the wings, legs, antennse, &c.
being as evident here, and as large, as in the chryfalis.
It is very plain from this, that the change of the
caterpillar into chryfalis is not the work of a moment;
but is carrying on for a long time before, even from
C H R
the very hatching of the creature from the egg. The Chryfalis,
parts of the butterfly, however, are not difpofed ex-
adtly in the fame manner while in the body of the ca¬
terpillar, as when left naked in the form of the chry¬
falis : for the wings arc proportionally longer and
narrower, being wound up into the form of a cord ;
and the antennae are rolled up on the head; the trunk
is alfo twilled up and laid upon the head; but this in
a very different manner from what it is in the perfedt
animal, and very different from that in which it lies
within the chryfalis; fo that the firft formation of the
butterfly in the caterpillar, by time arrives at a pro¬
per change of the difpofition of its parts, in order to
its being a chryfalis. The very eggs, hereafter to be
depofited by the butterfly, are alfo to be found, not
only in the chryfalis, but in the caterpillar itfelf, ar¬
ranged in their natural, regular order, They are in¬
deed in this ftate very fmall and tranfparent; but af¬
ter the change into the chryfalis, they have their pro¬
per colour.
As foon as the feveral parts of the butterfly, there¬
fore, are arrived at a ftate proper for being expofed
to the more open air, they are thrown out from the
body of the caterpillar furrounded only with their
membranes; and as foon as they are arrived after
this at a proper degree of ftrength and folidity, they
labour to break through thefe thinner coverings, and
to appear in their proper and natural form. The
time of their duration in this ftate of chryfalis is very
uncertain, fome remaining in it only a few days,
others feveral months, and fome almoft a year in ap¬
pearance. But there is a fallacy in this that many are
not aware of. It is natural to think, that as foon as
the creature has inclofed itfelf in its fliell, be-that of
what matter it will, it undergoes its change into the
chryfalis ftate. And this is the cafe with the gene¬
rality : yet there are fome which are eight or nine
months in the fhell before they become chryfalifes, fo
that their duration in the real, chryfalis ftate is much
Shorter than it naturally appears to be. M. Reaumur
carefully watched the auriculated caterpillar of the
oak in its feveral changes, and particularly from its
chryfalis, which is of this laft kind, into the fly ; and
has given an account of the method of this, as" an in-
ftance of the general courfe of nature in thefe opera¬
tions.
The membranes which envelope the creature in
this chryfalis ftate are at firft: tough and firm, and im¬
mediately touch the feveral parts of the inclofed ani¬
mal ; but by degrees, as thefe parts harden, they be¬
come covered, fome with hairs, and others with fcales.
Thefe, as they continue to grow, by degrees fall off
the feveral particular membranes which covep the
parts on which they are placed, to a greater diftance,
and by degrees loofen them from the limbs. This is
one reafon why thofe membranes dry and become
brittle.
1 he middle of the upper part of the CORSELET is
ufually marked with a line which runs in a longitudi¬
nal diredtion ; and this part is always more elevated
than the reft, even in the conic kinds, which are no
otherwife angular. .This line is in fome very bold and
plain in others, it is fo faint as not to be diftinguiffi-
able without glaffes ; but it is always in the midft of that
line that the fhell begins to open. The motion of the
head
C H R
Chryfalis. butterfly backwards firft occafions this
——v—**' crack j and a few repetitions of the fame motion open
it the whole length of the line.
The clearing itfelf, however, entirely is a work
of more time in this cafe, than is the pafling of the
chryfalis out of the body of the caterpillar. In that
cafe there is a crack fufficiently large in the fldn of the
back, and the whole chryfalis being loofe comes out
at once. But in this cafe, every particular limb, and
part of the body, has its feparate cafej and thefe are
almoft inconceiveably thin and tender, yet it is necef-
fary that every part be drawn out of them before it
appear naked to the open air. As foon as all this is
effe&ed, and the animal is at full liberty, it either con¬
tinues fome time upon the remains of its covering, or
creeps a little way diftant from it, and there refts.
The wings are what we principally admire in this crea¬
ture. Thefe are at this time fo extremely folded up,
and placed in fo narrow a compafs, that the creature
feems to have none at all ; but they by degrees ex¬
pand and unfold themfelves ; and finally, in a quarter
of an hour, or half an hour at the utmoft, they appear
at their full fize, and in all their beauty. The man¬
ner of this fudden unfolding of the wings is this : the
fmall figure they make when the creature firlt comes
out of its membranes, does not prevent the obferving
that they are at that time confiderably thick. This is
owing to its being a large wing folded up in the niceft
manner, and with folds fo arranged as to be by no
means fenfible to the eye, for the wing is never feen
to unfold •, but, when obferved in the moft accurate
manner, feems to grow under the eye to this extent.
When the creature is firft produced from the (hell, it
is everywhere moift and tender j even its wings have
no ftrength or ftiffhefs till they expand themfelves;,
but they then dry by degrees, and, with the other
parts, become rigid and firm. But if any accident
prevents the wings from expanding at their proper
time, that is, as foon as the creature is out of its Ihell,
they never afterwards are able to extend themfelves j
but the creature continues to wear them in their con-
trafled and wholly ufelefs ftate ; and very often, when
the wings are in part extended before fuch an accident
happens, it flops them in a partial extenfion, and the
creature mull be contented to pafs its whole life with
them in that manner.
M. Reaumur has proved, that heat and cold make
great differences in the time of hatching the butterfly
from its chryfalis ftate: and this he particularly tried
with great accuracy and attention, by putting them in
veffels in warm rooms, and in ice-houfes; and it feem-
ed wholly owing to the haftening or retarding the eva¬
poration of the abundant humidity of the animal in the
chryfalis ftate, that it fooner or later appeared in the
butterfly form. He varnifhed over fome chryfalifes,
in order to try what would be the effe£l of thus wholly
preventing their tranfpiration ; and the confequence
was, that the butterfly came forth from thefe two
months later than their natural time. Thus was the
duration of the animal in this ftate lengthened j that is,
its exiftence was lengthened : but without any advan¬
tage to the creature, fince it was in the time of its
ftate of inaftion, and probably of infenfibilitv.
Though this was of no confequence, M. Reaumur
deduces a hint from it that feetns to be of fome ufe.
C H R
He obferves, that hefi’s eggs, of which we make fo chryfan-
many ufes, and eat in fo many forms, are properly a themum
fort of chryfalis of the animal; their germ, after they II
are impregnated by the cock, containing the young Chryfos°'
animal alive; and waiting only a due degree of warmth < ' ,
to be hatched, and appear in its proper form. Eggs
tranfpire notwithftanding the hardnefs of their {hells;
and when they have been long kept, there is a road
found near one of their ends, between the ftiell and
the internal membrane, which is a mark of their being
ftale, and is the effedl of an evaporation of part of
their humidity : and the fame varnifti which had been
ufed to the chryfalis, being tried on eggs, rvas found to
preferve them for two years, as frelh as if laid but the
fame day, and fuch as the niceft palate could not di-
ftinguifti from thofe that w’ere fo. See Eggs.
It is not yet known how much farther this ufeful
fpeculation might be carried, and whether it might
not be of great ufe even to human life, to invent fome-
thing that ftiould aft in the manner of this varnifti, by
being rubbed over the body, as the athletes did of old,
and the favages of the Weft Indies do at this time,
without knowing Avhy. But to return to the infefts
Avhich are the fubjefts of this article; their third ftate,
that in whicli they are winged, is always very ftiort,
and feems deftined for no other aftion but the propa¬
gation of the fpecies. See Entomology Index.
CHRYSANTHEMUM, Corn-Marygold : A
genus of the polygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants. See Botany Index.
CHRYSES, the prieft of Apollo, father of Afty-
nome, called from him Chryfeis. When Lyrneffus was
taken, and the fpoils divided among the conquerors,
Chryfeis fell to the (hare of Agamemnon. Chryfes
upon this went to the Grecian camp to folicit his
daughter’s reftoration; and when his prayers Avere
fruitlefs, he implored the aid of Apollo, Avho vifited
the Greeks Avith a plague, and obliged them to reftore
Chryfeis.
CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philofopher, born at So¬
los in Cilicia, Avas difciple to Cleanthus, Zeno’s fuc-
ceffor. He Avrote many books, feveral of which re¬
lated to logic. None of the philofophers fpoke in
ftronger terms of the fatal neceffity of every thing, nor
more pompoufly of the liberty of man, than the Stoics,
Chryfippus in particular. He Avas fo confiderable
among them, as to eftablifti it into a proverb, that if it
had not been for Chryfippus, the porch had never been.
Yet the Stoics complained, as Cicero relates, that he
had collefted fo many arguments in favour of the feep-
tical hypothefis, that he could not anfwer them him-
felf; and thus had furnifhed Carneades, their antago-
nift, with weapons againft them. There is an apoph¬
thegm of this philofopher preferved, which does him
honour. Being told that fome perfons fpoke ill of him,
“ It is no matter (faid he), I will live fo that they
(hall not be believed.”
CHRYSIS, or Golden-fly. See Entomology
Index.
CHRYSITRIX. See Botany Index.
CHRYvbOBOLANUS, Cocoa Plum. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CHRYSOCOMA, Goldy-locks. See Botany
Index.
CHRYSOGONUM, See Botany Index.
CHRYSOLARUS,
[ >35 ]
C H R [I
Chryfolarus CHRYSOLARUS, EmANUEL, one of thofe learn-
, jj ed men in the 14th century who brought the Greek
literature into the weft. He was a man of rank j and
«•— defcended from an ancient family, faid to have removed
with Conftantine from Rome to Byzantium. He was
fent info Europe by the emperor of the eaft to im¬
plore the afliflance of Chriftian princes. He after¬
wards taught at Florence, Venice, Pavia, and Rome ;
and died at Conijantinople, in 1415, aged 47. He
wrote a Greek grammar, and fome other fmall pieces.
CHRYSOLITE, or Yellowish-green Topaz ;
a precious ftone of a grafs-green colour, found in the
Eaft Indies, Brazil, Bohemia, Saxony, Spain, in Au¬
vergne and Bourbon in France, and in Derbyfhire in
England. Some are likewife found with volcanic la¬
vas, as in the Vivarais, where fome large lumps have
been feen of 20 or 30 pounds weight; but it is re¬
markable, that fome of thefe chryfolites are partly de-
compofed into an argillaceous fubftance. All chry¬
folites, however, are far from being of the fame kind.
The oriental is the fame with the peridot, and differs
only by its green hue from the fapphires, topazes, and
rubies of the fame denomination- This becomes elec¬
tric by being rubbed ; has a prifmatic form of fix, or
fometimes of five, ftriated faces ; and does not lofe its
colour or tranfparency in the fire, which the common
chryfolite often does ; becoming either opaque, or
melting entirely in.a ftrong heat. The inftant it melts,
it emits a phofphoric light like the bafis of alum and
gypfeous fpar : with borax it produces a thin colour-
lefs glafs. Its fpecific gravity is between 3.600 and
3.700 ; according to Briffon it is 2.7821, or 2.6923 5
and that of the Spanifti chryfolite 3.0980.
1 he fubftance of this precious ftone. is lamellated in
the direction of the axis of its primitive form 5 but the
chryfolite from Saxony is foliated in a perpendicular
direction to the fame axis. The chryfolite of the an¬
cients was the fame gem which is now called topaz,, and
the name, of itfelf, indicates that it ought to be fo. 
Pliny fays that the colour of the chryfolite is yellow
like gold.
Chb TS0L1TE-Pajle, a kind of glafs made in imita¬
tion of natural chryfolite, by mixing two ounces of
prepared cryftal with ten ounces of red lead, adding 12
grains of crocus martis made with vinegar ; and then
baking the whole for 24 hours, or longer, in a well
luted cucurbit.
CHRYSOMELA, a genus of infetffs belonging to
the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
CHrr\ SOPHYLLUM, or Bully-tree. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CHRYSOPLENIUM. See Botany Index.
CHRYSOPRASUS, or Chrysoprasius, the 10th
of the precious ftones mentioned in the Revelation, as
forming the foundation of the heavenly Jerufalem.
The chryfoprafius is by mintralogrfts reckoned to be a
variety of the chrvfolite. and by Cronftedt called the
yellowifh green and cloudy topaz. He conjectures that it
may perhaps be the fub' ance which ferves as a matrix
to the chryfolite ; as thofe that he had feen were like
the clear-veined quartz, called in Sweden milk cry ft aL
which is the firft degree of cryftallization.
The chryfoprafus, according to M. Magellan, is of
a green colour, deeper than the chryfolite, but with a
yellowilh tinge inclining to blue like the green leek.
36 ]
C H R
M. Achard fays that it is never found cryftallized,
and that it is femi-tranfparent. By others it is rec¬
koned among the quartz, and its colour is fuppofed to ^
be owing to the mixture of cobalt, as it gives a fine
blue glafs when melted with borax, or with fixed al¬
kali. M. Achard, however, found the glafs of a deep
yellow when the fufion was made with borax j and
that it really contains fome calx of copper inftead of
cobalt. M. Dutens fays, that fome gold has been
found in this kind of ftone ; but this laft belongs in
all probability,' fays M. Magellan, to another clafs of
fubftances, viz. the vitreous fpars.
To the latter belongs moft probably the aventurine,
whofe colour is generally a yellow brown red ; though
fometimes it inclines more to the yellow, or greenifti,
than to the red. Thefe ftones are not quite tranfpa-
rent : fome indeed fhine with fuch a brilliancy, as to
render them of confiderable value, but they are very
rare. The common aventurine is but an artificial glafs
of various colours, with which powder of gold has
been mixed ; and thefe imitated aventurines fo fre¬
quently excel the native ones in fplendcur, that the
efteem of the latter is now much lowered. With re¬
gard to the chryfoprafus, its name, from TTgas-ey, fliows
it to be of a greenifti blue colour, like the leaves of a
leek j it only differs from the chryfolite in its bluilh
hue.
CHR\ SOSTOM, St John, a celebrated patri¬
arch of Conftantinople, and one of the moft admired
fathers of the Chriftian church, was born of a noble
family at Antioch, about the year 347. He ftudied
rhetoric: under Libavius, and philofophy under Andra-
gathus, after which he (pent fome time in folitude in
the mountains near Antioch ; but the aufterities he en¬
dured having impaired his health, he returned to An¬
tioch, where he was ordained deacon by Meletius.
Flavian, Meletius’s fucceffor, railed him to the office
o. prefbyter five years after : when he diftinguiftied
himfelf fo greatly by his eloquence, that he obtained
the furname of Golden Mouth. Neftarius patriarch of
Conftantinople dying in 397, St Chryfoftom, whofe
fame was fpread throughout the whole empire, was
chofen in his room by the unanimous confent of both
the clergy and the people. The emperor Arcadius
confirmed this eledlion, and caufed him to leave An¬
tioch privately, where the people were very unwilling
to part with him. He was ordained bifliop on the
26th of February 398 ; when he obtained an order
from the emperor againft the Eunomians and Monta-
nifts j reformed the abufes which fubfifted amongft his
clergy 5 retrenched a great part of the expences in
which his predeceflors had lived, in order to enable
him to feed the poor and build hofpitals, and preached
with the utmoft zeal againft the pride, luxury, and
avarice of the great. But his pious liberty of fpeech
procured him many powerful enemies. He differed
with Theophilus of Alexandria, who got him depofed
and banifhed ; but he was foon recalled. After this,
declaiming againft the dedication of a ftatue ere&ed to
the emprefs, (he banifhed him into Cucufus in Arme¬
nia, a moft barren inhofpitable place j afterwards, as
they were removing him from Petyus, the foldiers
treated him fo roughly, that he died by the way, A. D.
407. The beft edition of his works is that publifhed
at Pans in 1718, by Montfau^on,
CHRYSTAL,
Chryfo¬
ftom.
C H U [ 137 ] C H U
Clin dal
0
Church
CHRYSTAL. See Crystal.
CHUB, or Chubb, in Ichthyology. See Cyprinus,
Ichthyology Index.
^ The reforts of this filh are eafily found, for they
are generally holes overthadovved by trees, and this filh
will be feen floating in fuch almoft on the furface of
the water in a hot day in great numbers. They are
but a poor fifh for the table, and are very full of bones ;
but they entertain the angler very much, and are of
the number of thofe that are eafily taken.
CHUBB, Thomas a noted polemical writer,
born at Eaft Harnham, a village near Salifbury, in
1679. He was put apprentice to a glover at Salif-
bury, and afterwards entered into partnerlhip with a
tallow chandler. Being a man of ftrong natural parts,
he employed all his leifure in reading ; and though a
ftranger to the learned languages, became tolerably
verfed in geography, mathematics, and other branches
of fcience. His favourite ftudy was divinity } and he
formed a little fociety for the purpofe of debating up¬
on religious fubjefts, about the time that the Trini¬
tarian controverfy was fo warmly agitated between
Clarke and Waterland. This fubjefl, therefore, fall¬
ing under the cognizance of Chubb’s theological af-
fembly, he at their requeft drew up and arranged his
fentiments on it, in a kind of differtation ; which was
afterwards publiihed under the title of The Supremacy
of the Father ajferted, &c. In this piece Mr Chubb
(bowed great talents in reafoning, and acquired fo
much reputation, that the late Sir Jofeph Jekyll, ma-
fter of the rolls, took him into his family to enjoy his
converfation : but though he is faid to have been
tempted to remain with him by the offer of a genteel
allowance, he did not continue with him many years ;
but chofe to return to his friends at Salifbury. He pub-
lifhed afterwards a 410 volume of trafts, which Mr
Pope informs his friend Gay, he “ read through with
admiration of the writer, though not always with ap¬
probation of his dofbrine.” He died a Angle man in
the 68th year of his age, and left behind him two vols.
«f pollhumous trafts, in which he appears to have
had little or no belief in revelation. But however li¬
centious his way of thinking may be deemed, nothing
irregular or immoral has been fairly imputed to him in
his life and aftions.
CHUDLEIGH, Lady Mary, was born in 1656,
and married to Sir George Chudleigh, Baronet, by
whom (lie had feveral children : her poems and eflays
have been much admired for delicacy of ftyle. She
died in 1710 j and is faid to have written feveral dra¬
matic pieces, which, though not printed, are preferved
in the family.
CHUPMESSAHITES, a feft among the Maho¬
metans, who believe that Jefus Chrift is God, and the
true Mefliah, the Redeemer of the world j but without
rendering him any public or declared worfhip. The
word in the Turkifh language fignifies Proteftor of the
Chrijiianu Recaut fays that there is abundance of thefe
Chupmeflahites among the people offafhion in Turkey,
and feme even in the feraglio.
CHURCH, has different fignifications, according
to the different fubjefts to which it is applied.
I. It is underftood of the colleflive body of CHirif-
tians, or all thofe over tire fate of the whole earth
who profefs to believe in jChrift, and acknowledge him
Vol. VI. Part I. ,
to be the Saviour of mankind. This is what the an- cWel?.
cient writers call the catholic ox univerfalchurch. Some- y——
times the word church is confidered in a more exten-
five fenfe, and divided into feveral branches; as the
church militant, is the affembly of the faithful on the
earth ; the church triumphant, that of the faithful al¬
ready in glory ; to which the Papifts add the church
patient; which, according to their dodtrines, is that of
the faithful in purgatory.
2. Church is applied to any particular congregatioa
of Chriftians, who affociate together and concur in the
participation of all the inflitutions of Jefus Chrift, with
their proper paftors and minifters. Thus we read of
the church of Antioch, the church of Alexandria, the
church of Thelfalonica, and the like.
3. Chuich denotes a particular fedf of Chriftians
diftinguilhtd by particular dodfrines and ceremonies.
In this fenfe, we fpeak of the Romifh church, the
Greek church, the Reformed church, the church of
England, &c.
The Latin or Weftern church, comprehends all the
churches of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the north,
and all other countries whither the Romans carried
their language. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands
of Germany, and of the North, have been feparated
from hence ever fince the time of Henry VIII.; and
conftitute what we call the Reformed Church, and what
the Romanifts call the Weftern fchifm.
The Greek or Eaftern church, comprehends the
churches of all the countries anciently fubjedt to the
Greek or eaftern empire, and through which their lan¬
guage was carried j that is, all the (pace extended from
Greece to Mefopotamia and Perfia, and thence int®
Egypt. This church has been divided from the Roman
ever fince the time of the emperor Phocas.
The Gallican church, denotes the church of France,
under the government and diredlion of their refpedtiv®
bifliops and paftors. This church has always enjoyed
certain franchifes and immunities ; not as grants from
popes, but as derived to her from her firft original,
and which (he has taken care never to relinquilhv
Thefe liberties depend upon two maxims \ the firft,
that the pope has no authority or right to command
or order any thing, either in general or in particular,
in which the temporalties and civil rights of the king¬
dom are concerned 5 the fecond, that, notwithftanding
the pope’s fupremacy is owned in cafes purely fpiritual,
yet in France his power is limited and regular by the
decrees and canons of ancient councils received in that
realm.
4. The word church is tifed to fignify the body of
ecclefiaftics, or the clergy, in contradiftinftion to the
laity. See CLERGY.
5. Church is ufed for the place where a particular
congregation or fociety of Chriftians aflemble for the
celebration of divine fervice. In this fenfe churches
are varioufly denominated, according to their rank, de¬
gree, difeipline, &c. as Metropolitan church, Patri¬
archal church, Cathedral church, Parochial church,
Collegiate church, &c. See METROPOLIS, PATRI¬
ARCH, &c.
In ecclefiaftical writers we meet with grand churchy
for the chief church of a place ; particularly in the
Greek liturgy, for the church of St Sophia at Con-
ftantinople, the fee of the patriarch, founded by Con-
S ftantine9
C H U [ I
Churches, ftantine, and c'onfecrated under Juftinian. It was at
v "T that time fo magnificent, that Jullinian is Taid to have
cried out in the confecration thereof, Ewx>)<ri* m, HoMpov •,
1 have outdone thee, Solomon. The dome, which is iaid
to have been the firft that was built, is 330 feet diame¬
ter.
The firff church publicly built by the Cbriftians,
fome authors maintain to be that of St Saviour at
Home founded by Conftantine ; others contend, that
feveral churches abroad, called by the name of St Veter
Vwus, were built in honour of that apoftle during his
lifetime.
Church, with regard to architecture, Daviler de¬
fines a large oblong edifice, in form of a fhip, with
- nave, choir, aifies, chapel, belfry, &c. See each part
v under its proper head.
CHURCH, Simple, is that which has only a nave and a
choir.
CHURCH with Aijles, that which has a row of porti¬
coes, in form of vaulted galleries, with chapels in its
circumference.
CHURCH in a Greek crofs, that where the length of
the traverfe part is equal to that of the nave ; fo called
becaufe molt of the Greek churches are built in this
form.
CHURCH in a Latin crofs, that whofe nave is longer
than the crofs part, as in moft of the Gothic churches.
CHURCH in Rotunda, that whofe plan is a perfect cir¬
cle, in imitation of the Pantheon.
For the form of the ancient Greek churches, when
they had all their parts, it was as follows: firft was a
porch, or portico, called the vaunt-nave, Tr^avasej ; this
was adorned with columns on the outfide, and on the
infide furrounded with a wall ; in the middle whereof
was a door, through which they palled into a fecond
portico. The firft of thefe porticoes was deftined for
the energumeni, and penitents in the firft ftage of
their repentance 5 the fecond was much longer, defti-
ned for penitents of the fecond clafs, and the catechu¬
mens, and hence called vusg&jj, ferula, becaufe thofe
placed in it began to be fubjedt to the difcipline of the
church. Thefe two porticoes took up about one
third of the fpace of the church. From the fecond
portico they paffed into the nave, »«e5, which took up
near another third of the church. In the middle, or
at one fide of the nave, was the ambo, where the dea¬
cons and priefts read the gofpel and preached. The
nave was deftined for the reception of the people, who
here aflifted at prayers.
Near the entrance of this was the baptiftery or font.
Beyond the nave was the choir, fet with feats,
and round : the firft feat on the right, next the fandlu-
ary, being for the chantor, or cltoragus.
From the choir they afcended by fteps to the fanc-
tuary, which was entered at three doors. The fanc-
tuary had three upfides in its length j a great one in
the middle, under which was the altar, crowned with
a baldachin, fupported by four columns. Under each
of the fmall upfides, was a kind of table or cupboard,
in manner of a beaufet.
Though, of the Greek churches now remaining, few
have all the parts above defcribed, moft of them having
been reduced to ruins or converted into mofques.
HIGH Church was a denomination originally given
to thole othenvife called Nonjurorsi who refufed to ac-
3& ] c it u
knowledge the title of William III. to the crown of churchej.
Great Britain, under a notion that James II. though Churchill,
excluded, was ftill their rightful fovertign. This ap-
pellation was given them, becaufe they entertained
high notions of the dignity and power of the church,
and the extent of its prerogatives and jurifdiftion. And
thofe, on the contrary, were called low-church-men,
who difapproved of the fucceflion and obftinacy of the
nonjurors, djftinguifhing themfelves by their moderation
towards dilfenters, and were lefs ardent in extending the
limits of church authority. The denomination of
high-church-men is now more generally applied to all
who form pompous and ambitious conceptions of the
authority and jurifdiclion of the church, and who
would raife it to an abfolute independence on all hu¬
man power.
Church-Ale. See Whitsun-Ale.
Church Reeves, the fame with CHURCH-Wardens.
ChuRCH-ScoI, or Churcheffet, a payment or contri¬
bution, by the Latin writers frequently called primitice
feminum; being, at firft, a certain meafure of wheat,
paid to the prieft on St Martin’s day, as the firft fruits
of harveft. This was enjoined by the laws of King
Malcolm IV. and Canute, c. 10. But after this.
Church fcot came to fignify a referve of corn-rent paid
to the fecular priefts, or to the religious ; and fome-
times was taken in fo general a fenfe as to include
poultry, or any other provifion that was paid in kind to
the religious. See Tithe.
CHURCH-Wardens (ecclefts guardianif, in the Eng-
lifh ecclefiaftical polity, are the guardians or keepers
of the church, and reprefentatives of the body of the
parilh. I hey are fometimes appointed by the mini-
iter, fometimes by the parifti, fometimes by both toge¬
ther, as cuftom dire6ts. They are'taken, in favour of
the church, to be, for fome purpofes, a kind of corpo¬
ration at the common law ; that is, they are enabled,
by that name, to have a property in goods and chat¬
tels, and to bring actions for them, for the ufe and
profit of the parifh. Yet they may not wafte the
church goods, but may be removed by the parifti, and
then called to account by aflions at common law : but
there is no method of calling them to account but by
firft removing them; for none can . legally dp it but.
thofe who are put in their place. * As to lands, or other
real property, as the church, churchyard,. &c. they
have no fort of intereft therein ; but if any damage is
done thereto, the parfon only or vicar ihall have the
adlion. Their office alfo is to repair the. church, and
make rates and levies for that purpofe : but thefe ara
recoverable only in the ecclefiaftical courts. They
are. alfo joined with the overfeers in the care and
maintenance of the' poor. rI hey are to levy a (hilling
forfeiture on all fuch- as do not repair to church on
Sundays and holidays; and are empowered to keep
all perfons orderly while there ; to which end it has
been held that a church-warden may juftify the pul¬
ling off a man’s hat, without being guilty of either an
affault or a trefpafs. There are alfo a multitude of
other petty parochial powers committed to their charge
by divers afts of parliament.
CHURCHILL, Sir Winston, the father of the
great duke of Marlborough, w'as defcended from an
ancient and honourable family in Dorfetftiire. He
was born at Wotton Glanville in that county in 1610 ;
and
\
-c H U [ I
Churchill. SniJ edacat^d at St^John’s college at Oxford. He en-
gaged in the caufe of his unfortunate fovereign Cha. I.
for which he fuffered feverely in his fortune ; and
having married, while young, Elizabeth, the daughter
of Sir John Drake of Afhe in Devonfhire, fhe was for¬
ced to feek a refuge in her father’s houfe, when Mr
Churchill’s misfortunes left him none that he could call
his own*, and there molt of his children were born.
After the reftoration, he was elected a burgefs to ferve
in parliament for the borough of Weymouth ; and, in
1669, his majefly was pleafed to confer on him the
honour of knighthood. The next year he was made
one of the commiffioners of claims in Ireland ; and
upon his return from thence, was conftituted one of
the clerks comptrollers of the green cloth : but writ¬
ing a kind of political effay upon the Hiftory of
England, which gave great offence to the parliament,
he was, in 1678, difmiffed from his port. He was,
however, foon rellored to it again ; and lived to fee
his eldeft furviving fon raifed to the peerage, and the
reft of his children in a fair way to promotion. He
died in 1688.
Churchill, Jo/in, duke of Marlborough, and
prince of the holy Roman empire, a moft renowned
general and ftatefman, was born at Aftie in Devon-
ftiire in 1650. He was eldeft fon of Sir Winfton
Churchill who carried him to court while very young,
and where he was particularly favoured by James
duke of York, afterwards King James II. when only
twelve years of age. In 1666, he was made an enfign
of the guards during the firft Dutch war; and after¬
wards improved himfelf greatly in the military art at
Tangier. In 1672, Mr Churchill attended the duke
of Monmouth, who commanded a body of auxiliaries
in the French fervice, and was foon after made a cap¬
tain in the duke’s own regiment. At the fiege of Ni-
meguen, which happened in that campaign, he diftin-
guifhed himfelf fo much that he was taken notice of
by the celebrated Marfhal Turenne, who beftowed on
him the name of the handfoms Eng/iJJjman.—In 1673,
he was at the fiege of Maeftricht, where he gained
fuch applaufe, that the king of France made him a
public acknowledgement of his fervice ; and the duke
of Monmouth, who had the dire6tion of the attack,
told King Charles II. that he owed his life to Mr
Churchill’s bravery. In 1681, he married Sarah, daugh¬
ter and co-heirefs (with her fifter the countefs of
Tyrconnel) of Richard Jennings, Efq. of Sandrich, in
Hertfordihire. The duke of York recommended him
in a very particular manner to the king ; who, in
1682, created him baron of Eyemouth in the county
'of Berwick, in Scotland, and made him colonel of the
third troop of guards. A little after King James’s ac-
ceflion, he was created Baron Churchill of Sandrich in
the county of Hertford, and made brigadier-general
of his majefty’s army in the weft ; where, when the
duke of Monmouth came to furprife the king’s army
while the earl of Feverlham and the majority of the
officers were in their beds, he kept the enemy in
play, till the king’s forces had formed themfelves, and
thereby faved the whole army. When James fhowed
an. intention of eftablilhing the Catholic religion in
Britain, Lord Churchill, notwithftanding the great ob¬
ligations he owed him, thought it his duty to abandon
the royal caufe; but even then did not leave him
] v C H U
\vithout acquainting him by letter with the reafon of Churchill,
his fo doing. Lord Churchill was gracioufly received
by the prince ot Orange ; and was by him employed
firft to re-affemble the troop of guards at London,
and afterwards to reduce fome lately raifed regiments,
and to new-model the army; for which purpofe he
was inverted with the rank and title of lieutenant ge¬
neral. In 1689, he was fworn one of the privy coun¬
cil, and one of the gentlemen of the king’s bed-cham¬
ber; and on the 9th of April following, was raifed
to the dignity of earl of Marlborough in the county ef
Wilts. He affifted at the coronation of their majefties ;
and was foon after made commander in chief of the
Englifti forces fent over to Holland ; and here he firft
laid the foundation of that fame which w-as afterwards
fpread over all Europe. In 1690, he was made ge¬
neral of the forces lent to Ireland; where he made
the ftrong garrifons of Cork and Kinfale prifoners of
w'ar. The year following, King William fhowed the
good opinion he had of his conduft, by fending him
to Flanders to put all things in readinefs, and to draw
the army together before his arrival. In 1692, he
was difmiffed from all his employments ; and, not
long after, was with fome other peers committed to
the Tower on an accufation of high treafon ; which,
however, was afterwards found to be a falfe and ma¬
licious report, the authors of which were punifhed.
Marlborough was foon reftored to favour, and in 1698
was appointed governor to the earl of Gloucefter ;
with this extraordinary compliment from King William,
“ My lord, make him but what you are, and my ne¬
phew will Jbe all I wifh to fee him.” The fame day
he was again fworn one of the privy council ; and in
July following was declared one of the lords juftices of
England, for the adminiftration of the government, in
which great truft he was three times fuccejffively in the
king’s abfence. In 1701 he was appointed general of
the foot, commander in chief of the Engliffi forces,
and ambaffador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at
the Hague. Upon the acceffion of Queen Anne to
the throne, he was ele&ed into the order of the Gar¬
ter, declared captain-general of all her majefty’s forces,
and fent ambaffador extraordinary and plenipotentiary
to Holland. After feveral conferences about a war,
he put himfelf at the head of the army, where all the
other generals had orders to obey him. His exploits
in the field have been taken notice of under the arti¬
cle Britain, N° 344—370 : we ihall therefore only
take notice in this place of the rewards and honours
conferred upon him for thefe exploits. After his firft
campaign he was created marquis of Blandford and
duke of Marlborough, with a penfion of 5000I. out
of the port office, to devolve, for ever upon thofe en¬
joying the title of duke of Marlborough. In 1703,
he met Charles III. late emperor, going to Spain, who
prefented him with a fword fet with diamonds. In
1704, having forced the enemy’s lines at Schellenbercr.
he received a letter of thanks from the emperor Leo¬
pold, written with his own hand ; an honour feldom
done to any but fovereign princes. After the battle
of Blenheim, he received congratulatory letters from
moft of the potentates in Europe, particularly from the
ftates-general, and from the emperor, who defired
him to accept of the dignity of a prince of the empire,
which with the queen’s leave was conferred upon him
S 2 hy
C H U [i
Churchill. By the title of Prince of Mi/denheim in the province of
*■" "V Suabia. After the campaign was ended, he vifited
the court of Pruflia, where he laid fuch fchemes as
fuipended the difputes with the Dutch about King
William’s eftate j which wife conduft caufed the whole
confederacy to acknowledge that he had done the
greateft fervice poffible to the common caufe. Upon
his return to England, the queen, to perpetuate his
memory, granted the intfreft of the crown in the
honour and manor of Woodftock and hundred of
Wotton to him and his heirs for ever. In 1705
he made a tour to Vienna, upon the invitation of the
emperor Jofeph ; who highly careffed him, and made
him a grant of the lordfhip of Mildenheim. After
" the campaign of 1708, the fpeaker of the houfe of
commons was fent to Bruflels on purpofe to compli¬
ment him ; and on his return to England he was again
complimented in the houfe of lords by Lord Chancellor
Cowper. All his fervices, however, and all the ho¬
nours conferred upon him, were not fufficient to pre-
ferve him from being difgraced. After the change of
the mini^ry in 1710, his intereft daily declined j and
in 1712, on the firft day of the new year, he was re¬
moved from all his places. Finding all arts ufed to
render him obnoxious in his native country, he vifited
his principality of Mildenheim, and feveral towns in
Germany *, after which he returned to England, and
arrived there on the day of the queen’s death. After
being welcomed by the nobility and foreign minifters,
he attended on King George I. in his public entry
through London, who appointed him captain-general,
colonel of the firft regiment of foot-guards, one of the
commiftioners for the government of Chelfea hofpital,
and mafter-general of the ordnance. Some years be¬
fore his death, he retired from public bufinefs. He
died at Windfor-lodge in 1722, aged 73 ; leaving be¬
hind him a very numerous pofterity, allied to the no-
bleft and greateft families in thefe kingdoms. Upon
his demife all parties united in doing honour, or rather
juftice, to his merit, and his corpfe was interred the
pth of Augtift following, with all the folemnity due
to a perfun who had deferved fo highly of his country,
in Weftminfter-abbey. The noble pile near Wood¬
ftock, which bears the name of Blenheim-houfe, may
be juftly ftyled his monument; but without pretending
, to the gift of prophecy, one may venture to foretel,
that his glory wfill long furvive that ftru&ure ; and
that fo long as our hiftories remain, or indeed the
hiftories of Europe, his memory will live and be the
boaft of Britain, which by his labours was raifed to be
the firft of nations, as during the age in which he lived
he was defervedly efteemed the. firft of men.* If he had
foibles, as thefe are infeparable from human nature,
they were fo hidden by the glare of his virtues as to be
fcarcely perceived, or were willingly forgotten. A
certain parafite, who thought to pleafe Lord Boling-
broke by ridiculing the avarice of the duke, was ftopt
fhort by his lordihip ; who faid, “ He was fo very
great a man, that I forgot he had that vice.”
Out of a variety of anecdotes and teftimonies con¬
cerning this illuftrious perfonage, collefted in the new
edition of the Biographia Britannica, the following fe-
leftion may ferve to illuftrate more particularly his dif-
pofition and manners.
One of the firft things which he did, when Very
40 ] e h tr
young, was to purchafe a box to put his money in j Churchill,
an indication this of the economical, not to fay ava- '-"-y——■
ricious, temper that accompanied him through life.
Dr Jofeph Warton relates, that, on the evening of an
important battle, the duke was heard to chide his fer-
vant for having been fo extravagant as to light four
candles in his tent when Prince Eugene came to confer
with him. Mr Tyers, on the other hand, men¬
tioned a circumftance, which, if well founded, re¬
dounds to his grace’s generofity ; though in a differ¬
ent refpeft it is much to his difcredit : It is, that
during the rebellion in 1715, he fent 10,0001. to the
earl of Mar. We confider the ftory only as a tradi¬
tional report, which has not in itfelf any great degree
of probability 5 and therefore we are by no means con¬
vinced of its truth. The late Mr Richardfon junior,
the painter, hath recorded a pleafing inftance of the
duke’s calmnefs of difpofition; for which, indeed, he
was always remarkable. “ The duke of Marlborough
(fays the writer), riding out once with Commiffary
Marriot, near the commiffary’s houfe in the country,
it began to rain, and the duke called for his cloak ;
Marriot having his put on by his fervant immediately.
The duke’s fervant not bringing the cloak, he called
for it again ; but the man was ftill puzzling about the
ftraps and buckles. At laft, it raining now very hard,
the duke called again, and alked him, “ what he was
about that he did not bring his cloak ?” ‘ You muft
flay (grumbles the fellow), if it rains cats and dogs,
till I can get at it.’ The duke only turned to Marriot
and faid, “ I would not be of that fellow’s temper.”
The duke of Marlborough (adds Mr Richardton) did
by nature and conftitution, what Seneca judged by
philofophy ought to be done, ^uid eft quare ego fervi
mei htlarius refponfum, et contumaciorem vultum, fagel-
lis et compedibus expiem ?
Dr Swift, in one of his letters to Stella, relates the
following particulars concerning the duke of Marl¬
borough. “ I was early this morning with Secretary
St John, and gave him a memorial to get the queen’s
letter for the firft-fruits, who has promifed to do it in
a very few days. He told me ‘ he had been with the
duke of Marlborough, who was lamenting his former
wrong fteps in joining with the Whigs, and faid he
was worn out with age, fatigue, and misfortunes.’ I
fwear it pitied me j and I really think they will not do
well in too much mortifying that man, although in¬
deed it is his own fault. He is covetous as hell, and
ambitious as the prince of it ; he would fain have been
general for life, and has broken all endeavours for
peace, to keep his greatnefs and get money. He told
the queen ‘ he was neither covetous nor ambitious.’
She faid, ‘ if the could conveniently have turned about,
fhe uTould have laughed, and could hardly forbear it in
his face.’ He fell in with all the abominable meafures
of the late miniftry, becaufe they gratified him for
their own defigns. Yet he has been a fuccefsful gene¬
ral, and I hope he will continue his command.”
Various chara6lers have been drawn of the duke of.
Marlborough j moft of which we fhall omit, as either
already fufficiently known, or as not meriting particu¬
lar notice. That which is given of him by Dr Swift,
in his “ Hi ftory of the four laft years of the queen,”
has all the malignity and meannefs of a party pam¬
phlet. It is even fo foolilh as to infinuate, that the
duke’s-
C H U [ 141 ] C H U
Churchill, duke’s military accomplifhments were problematical,
' and that he was deflitute of perfonal courage. Mr
Macpberfon’s chara£ter of his grace is very elaborate¬
ly compofed, and difplays no fmall degree of ability
and penetration ; though it is not, perhaps, entire¬
ly free from prejudice. The hiftorian eonfiders it
as a fa&, that Lord Churchill, at the time of the
revolution, had a defign of placing his unfortunate
matter King James II. a prifoner in the hands of his
rival the prince of Orange. But this ftory mutt be
regarded as wholly unworthy of credit. It is found¬
ed upon fuggeftions and informations fo groundlefs
and even rididulous, that it cannot deferve a formal
refutation. On the other hand, Mr Macpherfon has
donejufticeto the duke of Marlborough’s profecution
of the war in Flanders, and hath fhown that he con-
duffed it upon the principles of found wifdom and good
policy.
There are two teftimonies to the honour of the
duke’s memory, by two celebrated noble writers, which
cannot be patted over. One is by Lord Bolingbroke,
in his letters on the Study and Ufe of Hiftory.
Speaking of the contternation raifed among the allies
of the grand confederacy by the death of King Wil¬
liam, and of the joy which that event gave to the
French, his lordlhip obferves, that “ a (hurt time
flrowed how vain the fears of fome and the hopes of
others were. By his death, the duke of Marlborough
was raifed to the head of the army, and indeed of the
confederacy : where he, a new, a private man, a fub-
jeff, acquired, by merit and by management, a more
deciding influence than high birth, confirmed autho¬
rity, and even the crown of Great Britain, had given
to King William. Not only all the parts of that vaft
machine, the grand alliance, were kept more compafl
and entire, but a more rapid and vigorous motion w’as
given to the whole : and inftead of languittiing out
difattrous campaigns, we faw every fcene of the war
full of affion. All thofe wherein he appeared, and
many of thofe wherein he was not then an after, but
abettor however of their aftion, were crowned with
the moft triumphant fuccefs. I take, with pleafure,
this opportunity of doing juftice to that great man,
whofe faults I knew, whofe virtues I admired ; and
whofe memory, as the greateft general, and as the
greatett minitter, that our country, or perhaps any
other, has produced, I honour.”
The other teftimony to the duke’s accomplifliments
is by the earl of Chefterfield, in his Letters to his Son.
“ Of all the men (fays his lordfhip) that ever I knew
in my life (and I knew him extremely well), the late
duke of Marlborough pottfetted the graces in the high-
eft degree, not to fay engrofled them : and indeed he
got the moft by them ; for I will venture (contrary
to the cuftom of profound hiftorians, who always af-
fign deep caufes for great events) to aferibe the better
half of the duke of Marlborough’s greatnefs and riches
to thofe graces. He was eminently illiterate $ wrote
bad Englifti, and fpelled it ftill worfe. He had no
Ihare of what is commonly called parts ; that is, he had
no brightnefs, nothing ftiining in his genius. He had
had, moft undoubtedly, an excellent good plain under-
ftanding, with found judgment. But thefe alone would
probably have raifed him but fomething higher than
they found him, which was page to King James II.’s
queen. There the graces protefted and promoted Churchill,
him : for while he was an enfign of the guards, the -■ v—■ ■■■<
duehefs of Cleveland, then favourite miftreis to King
Charles II. ftruck by thofe very graces, gave him
5000I.; with which he immediately bought an an¬
nuity for his life of 500I. of my grandfather Halifax j
which was the foundation of his fubfequent fortune.
His figure was beautiful $ but his manner was irrefift-
ible by either man or woman. It was by this engaging
graceful manner that he was enabled, during all his
wars, to conneft the various and jarring powers of the
grand alliance, and to carry them on to the main ob-
jeft of the war, notwithftanding their private and fe-
parate views, jealoufies, and wrongbeadednefs. What¬
ever court he went to (and he was often obliged to go
himfelf to fome tefty and refraftory ones,) he as con-
ftantly prevailed, and brought them into bis meafures.
The penfionary Heinfius, a venerable old minifter,
grown gray in bufinefs, and who had governed the re¬
public of the United Provinces for more than 40 years,
was abfolutely governed by the duke of Marlborough,
as that republic feels to this day. He was always cool j
and nobody ever obferved the leaft variation in his
countenance: he could refufe more gracefully than
other people could grant j and th«fe who went away
from him the moft diflatisfied as to the fubftance of
their bufinefs, were yet perfonally charmed with him,
and in fome degree comforted by his manner. With
all his gentlenefs and gracefulnefs, no man living was
more confcious of his lituation, nor maintained his dig¬
nity better.”
A perufal of the above paffage will convince us of
the frivolous turn of the earl of Chefterfield’s mind.
His lordfhip, in his zeal to exalt the duke of Marl¬
borough’s external accomplilhments, either forgets or
depreciates the far greater talents of which he was
pottfettfed. There is an obfervation upon the fubjeft in
the Britifh Biography, with which we entirely concur.
“ That the duke of Marlborough (fays the writer)
was eminently diftinguifhed for the gracefulnefs of his
manners, cannot be queftioned $ but the earl of Chef¬
terfield appears to have attributed too much to their
influence, when he aferibes—the better half of the
duke of Marlborough’s greatnefs and riches to thofe
graces. That the uncommon gracefulnefs of his man¬
ners facilitated his advancement, and contributed to
the fuccefs of his negociations, may readily be admit¬
ted ; but furely it muft have been to much higher
qualities that he owed the efteem of King William and
of Prince Eugene, his reputation throughout all Eu¬
rope, and his many viftories and conquefts. It was
not by a polite exterior that he obtained his laurels at
Schellenberg, at Oudenarde, at Ramillies, and at
Blenheim.”
How much the duke of Marlborough has been ce¬
lebrated by our poets, is well known by Addifon’s
“ Campaign and by Philips’s “ Blenheim.” Mr Ad-
difon, in his Rofamond, has properly aflumed another
and voluntary occafion of paying a fine compliment to
his grace’s military exploits, and the glory by which
they would be followed. Upon the duke’s removal
from his places, an ode was inferibed to him by Mr So- -
merville, animated with all the zeal of whiggilh enthu-
fiafm, and containing fome palfages that are truly
poetical. Another ode, not much inferior in fpirit, ,
wax -
c H U { t 42 1 C H tT
hill. Tvas aJJreiTed to his grace, on occafion of his embark-
ing for Offend in the year 1712.
The duke of Marlborough’s Scots title of Earon
Eyemouth, being to heirs male, died with himfelf; but
his Englifli title going to his daughters and their heirs-
fnale, went into the Spencer family, who retain their
own furname of Spencer.
Chi/rchill, Charles, a celebrated fatirift, the fon
of Mr Charles Churchill, curate and lecturer of St
dohn’s, Weftminfter, was educated at Weftminfter
fchool, and received fome applaufe for his abilities from
his tutors in that famous feminary. His capacity,
however, was greater than his application, fo that he
acquired the charafier of a boy that could do good if
. he would. As the flighted; accounts of perfons fo
noted are agreeable, it may not be amifs to obferve,
that having one day got an exercife to make, and
from idlenefs or attention having failed to bring it
at the time appointed, his mafter thought proper to
chaffife him with fome feverity, and even reproached
his ffupidity : what the fear of ffripes could not effefr,
the fear of fhame foon produced, and he brought his
exercife the next day, finifhed in fuch a manner, that
he received the public thanks of all the maffers. Still,
however, his progrefs in the learned languages was
but flow ; nor is it to be Xvondered at, if we confider
how difficult, it was for a ffrong imagination, fuch as
he was pofleffed of, to conform and walk tamely for¬
ward in the trammels of a fchool education •, minds
like his are ever darting afide after new purfuits •, de-
firous of embracing a multiplicity of amufing obje£fs;
eager to come at an end, without the painful invelfi-
gation of the means. In fhcrt, for want of proper
fkill in thefe languages, he was rejected from Oxford,
xvhither his father had fent him -, and probably this
might have given occafion to the frequent inve£Hves
we find in his works againd that mod refpe&able uni-
verfity. Upon his return from thence, he again ap¬
plied to his dudies in Wedminfter fchool, where, at 17
years of age, he contra&ed an intimacy with a lady,
to whom he was married, and their mutual regard for
each other continued for fe.veral years. At the ufual
uge of going into orders, Mr Churchill u'as ordained
t>y the late bilhop of London, and obtained a fmall
curacy in Wales of 30I. a-year. Thither he carried
his wife; they took a fmall houfe *, and he paffed
through the duties of his dation with afliduity and
cheerfulnefs. Happy had it been for him had he
continued there to enjoy the fruits of piety, peace,
and fimplicity of manners. He was beloved and
cdeemed by his pariffiioners; and though his fermons
were rather above, the level of his audience, they were
commended and followed. But endeavouring to ad¬
vance his fortune, by keeping a cyder cellar, it in¬
volved him in difficulties which obliged him to leave
Wales and come to London. .His father dying ffion
after, he depped into the church in which he had of¬
ficiated j and in order to improve his income, which
Scarcely produced tool, a-year, he taught young la¬
dies to read and write Englifli at a boarding fchool
kept by Mrs Dennis, where he behaved with that de¬
cency and decorum which became his profeffion. His
method of living, however, bearing no proportion to
* his income, he contradled feveral debts in the city ;
•which being unable to pay, a jail, the terror of indi¬
4
gent genius, feemed ready to complete his misfortunes;
but from this date of wretchednefs he was relieved
by the benevolence of Mr Lloyd, father to the poet
of that name. Meanwhile, Mr Lloyd, the fon, wrote
a poetical epiflle called the Aftor, which being read
and approved by the public, gave the author a didin-
guiffied place among the writers of his age. This
induced Mr Churchill to write the Rofciad. It fird
came out without the author’s name ; but the judnefs
of the remarks, and the feverity of the fatire, loon
excited public curiofity. Though he never dilowned
his having written that piece, and even openly gloried
in it; yet the public, unwilling to give lb much me¬
rit to one alone, albribed it to a combination of wits ;
nor were Meffrs Lloyd, Thornton, or Culman, left
unnamed upon this occafion. This mifplaced praife
foon induced Mr Churchill to throw off the malk, and
the fecond edition appeared with his name at full
length. As the Rofciad was the fird of this poet’s
performances, fo many are of opinion that it is the
bed. In it we find a very clofe and minute difeuffitm
of the particular merit of each performer; their de¬
fers pointed out with candour, and their merits
praifed without adulation. ff his poem, however,
feems to be one of thofe few works which are injured
by fucceeding editions ; when he became popular,
his judgment became intoxicated with applaufe ; and
we find, in the later editions, men blamed whofe me¬
rit was incontellable, and others praifed that were at
that time in no degree of edeem with the judicious.
His next performance was his Apology to the Critical
Reviewers. ff'his work is not without its peculiar
merit ; and as it was written againd a fet of critics
whom the world was willing enough to blame, the
•public read it with their ufual indulgence. In this
performance he fliowed a particular bappinefs of
throwing his thoughts, if we may fo exprels it, into
poetical paragraphs ; fo that the fentence fwells to the
break or conclufion, as we find in profe.
But while his writings amufed the town, his afHons
difgulted it. He now quitted his wife, with whom
he had cohabited many years ; and refigning his gown
and all clerical fumftions, commenced a complete man
of the town, got drunk, frequented dews; and, giddy
with falfe praife, tnought his talents a fufficient atone¬
ment for all his follies. In fome meafure to palliate
the abfurdities of his condufl, he now undertook a
poem called Night, written upon a general fubjeft in¬
deed, but upon falfe principles ; namely, that what¬
ever our follies are, we fhould never-attempt to con¬
ceal them. This, and Mr Churchill’s other poems,
bf jug ffiowri to Dr .Tohnfon, and his opinion being alk-
ed, be allowed them but little merit ; which being
told to the author, he refolved to requite this private
opinion with a public one. In his next poem, there¬
fore, oi the Ghq/l, he has drawn this gentleman under
the a racier of Pompofo ; and thole who difliked
Dr-John fon allowed it to have merit. Dr Johnlon’s
only reply to Churchill’s abufe was, “ that he thought
him a (hallow fellow in the beginning, and could fay
nothing worfe of him dill.” The poems of Night
and the Ghod had not the rapid fale the author ex¬
pelled ; but his Prophecy of Famine foon made ample
amends for the late paroxyfm in his fame. In this
piece, written in the fpirit of the famous North Bri-
ton»
Chu
C H U [i
I,,, rchiu ton, he exerted his virulent pen againft. the whole
|| Scottilh nation, adopting the prejudices of the mob,
Inhuming, and dignifying fcurrility by the aid of a poetic imagi-
* nation. It had a rapid and extenfive fale, as prophe-
fitd by Mr Wilkes; who faid before its publication
that he was fure it muft take, as it was at once perfo-
nal, poetical, and political. After its appearance, it
was afferted by his admirers, that Mr Churchill was a
better poet than Pope. This exaggerated adulation,
as it had before corrupted his morals, began now to
impair his mind feveral fucceeding pieces were pub-
lilhed, which, being written without effort, are read
without pleafure. His Gotham, Independence, The
Times, feem merely to have been written by a man
who defired to avail himfelf of the avidity of the pub¬
lic curiofity in his favour, and are rather aimed at the
pockets than the hearts of his readers. Mr Churchill
died in 1764, of a miliary fever, with which he was
feized at Boulogne in France, whither he had gone on
a vifit to Mr Wilkes. After his death his poems were
colle£fed and printed together in two volumes 8vo.
CHURCHING of women, after childbirth,
took its rife from the Jewifh rite of purification. In
the Greek church it was limited to the 40th day after
delivery ; but in the weftern parts of Europe no cer¬
tain time was obferved. There is an office in the li¬
turgy for this purpofe.
CHURCHYARD, a piece of ground adjoining to
a church, fet apart for the interment or burial of the
dead.—In the church of Rome they are bleffed or
confecrated with great folemnity. If a churchyard,
which has been thus confecrated, ffiall afterwards be
polluted by any indecent adlion, or profaned by the
burial of an infidel, a heretic, an excommunicated or un¬
baptized perfon, it muft be reconciled; and the cere¬
mony of the reconciliation is performed with the fame
folemnity as that of the bleffing or confecration.
Churchyard, Thomas, a poet who flourifhed in
the reigns of Henry VIII. Edward Vp Queen Mary,
and Queen Elizabeth, was born at Shrewfbury ; and
inherited a fortune which he foon exhaufted in a fruit-
lefs attendance on the court, by which he only gained
the favour of being retained a domeftic in the family
of Lord Surrey : when, by his lordftvip’s encourage¬
ment, he commenced poet. Upon his patron’s death,
he betook himfelf to arms ; was in many engagments;
was frequently wounded, and was twice made prifoner.
He publiffied 12 pieces, which he afterwards printed
together in one volume, under the title of Churchyard's
Chips ; and alfo the tragedy of Thomas Moubray duke
of Norfolk. He died in 1570.
CHURLE, Ceorle, or Carl, in the Saxon times,
fignified a tenant at will, who held of the thanes or
nobles on condition of rent and fervice. They were of
two forts ; one rented the eftate like our farmers ; the
other tilled and manured the demefnes, and were called
ploughmen. See CEORLE.'
CHURNING, in country affairs, the operation of
making butter by agitating milk in a well known vef-
fel called a churn. For accelerating this operation, a
Correfpondent in the Bath Society papers recommends
a little diftilled vinegar to be poured into the churn ;
and the butter will be produced in an hour afterwards.
He acknowledges, however, that his experiments have
not as yet afcertained the exaft quantity of the acid
43 ] e h y
which is neceffary to the proper effe£t, nor the precife cimming
time of its being mixed with the cream. But he ap- ||
prehends a table fpoonful or two to a gallon of cream Chytri.
will be fufficient; nor would he recommend it to be
applied till the cream has undergone fome confiderable
agitation. His firft trial was after the firft churning
had been going forward half a day : whether he ob¬
ferved the fame rule afterwards he does not fay; but
all his trials proved fuccefsful, the butter being uni¬
formly obtained in about an hour after the mixture.
See Agriculture and Chemistry Index.
CHUS, Ghufch, (Bible). It is a tradition of an
ancient ftanding, that the Chus of the Scriptures de¬
notes Ethiopia, and Chufchi an Ethiopian: the Septua-
gint and Vulgate conftantly tranflate it fo ; and in
this they are followed by moil interpreters, and by Jo-
fephus and Jerome. And yet what Bochart urges to
the contrary is of no inconfiderable weight, from Eze¬
kiel xxix. 10. in which the two oppofite extremes of
Egypt are defigned ; and therefore Chus, which is op-
polite to Syene, muft be Arabia: but this is more
llrongly pointed out by Xenophon, by whom Ethiopia
is faid to be the fouth boundary of Cyrus’s empire :
and Herodotus diftinguilhes between the Ethiopians of
Afia and Africa, conjoining the former with the Ara¬
bians.
CHYLE, in the animal economy, a milky fluid fe-
creted from the aliments by means of digeftion. Sec
Anatomy and Chemistry Index.
CHYLIFICATION, the formation of the chyle,
or the adft whereby the food is changed into chyle.
The chyle has by fome authors been thought to have
a great refemblance in its nature and chemical analyfifc
to milk. The fubje£t, howTever, hath as yeTbeen but
little inquired into. See the article MiLIfy.
CHYME, or Chymus, in the common fignification
of the word, denotes every kind of humour which is
incraffated by concoffion ; under which notion it com¬
prehends all the humours fit or unfit for preferving and
nourilhing the body, whether good or bad* It fre¬
quently imports the fineft parts of the chyle, when fe-
parated from the faeces, and contained in the la&eal
n d thoracic du£l.
CHYMISTRY. See Chemistry. '
CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to fuch na-
turalifts as have employed their time in inveltigating
the properties of plants from their tafte and fmell.
CHYMOSIS, in Medicine, the a61 of making or
preparing chyme. The word comes from x,vp»s, fuc-
cus, of ypu. /undo, “ I pour out.” Chymolis, accord¬
ing to fume, is the fecund of the concoctions made iri
the body ; being a repeated preparation of the moft
impure and grofs parts of the chyle, which being re¬
jected by the iaCIeals, is imbibed by the meferaics,
and thence carried to the liver, to be there elaborated,
purified, and fubtilized afreffi. It is of this, according
to Rogers, that the animal fpirits are formed.
Chymosis is alfo a diftortion of the eye lids, arifing
from an inflammation ; alfo an inflammation of the tu¬
nica cornea in the eye.
CHYTLA, in antiquity, a liquor made of wine
and oil, and fometimes ufed in divination.
CHYTRI, among the Athenians, a feftival in ho¬
nour of Bacchus and Mercury, kept on the 13th of
the month Anthefterion.
CHYTRI UM
c ib r i
Cliytrium CHYTRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a place in
I! Ionia, in which formerly flood Clazomene ; the Cia-
/ibdelo- zomenians, through fear of the Perfians, removing
_ “ from the continent to an adjacent ifland (Paufanias).
Alexander reduced the ifland, by a mole or caufeway,
to a peninfula.
CHYTRUS, in Ancient Geography, an inland town
of Cyprus, to the north of Citium j famous for its ex¬
cellent honey.
Cl ANUS sinus, in Ancient Geography, a bay of
Bithynia, named from the town and river Cius.
CIBALiE, or Cibauis, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Pannonia Inferior, on an eminence, near the
lake Hiulka, to the north-weft of Sirmium j the coun¬
try of the emperor Gratian, where he was brought up
to rope-making: a place rendered famous for the fur-
prifal and defeat of Licinius by Conftantine.
CIBBER, Colley, a celebrated comedian, drama¬
tic writer, and poet laureat to the king, was born at
London in 1671. His father Caius Gabriel Cibber,
was a native of Holftein, and a Ikilful ftatuary, who
executed the baffo relievo on the pedeftal of the mo¬
nument, and the two admired figures of lunatics over
the piers of the gate to Bethlehem Hofpital in Moor-
fields. Colley, who derived his Chriftian name from
the furname of his mother’s family, was intended for
the church, but betook himfelf to the ftage, for which
he conceived an early inclination j and he was fome
time before he acquired any degree of notice, or even
a competent falary. His firft effay in writing, was the
comedy of Love's laji Shift, a£led in 1695, which met
with fuccefs ; as did his own performance of the cha-
ra£ter of the fop in it. From that time, as he fays
himfelf, “ My mufe and my fpoufe were fo equally
prolific, that the one was feldom the mother of a child,
but in the fame year the other made me the father of
a play. I think we had a dozen of each fort between
us $ of both wdiich kinds fome died in their infancy,
and near an equal number of each were alive when we
quitted the theatre.” The Care/efs Hujhand, aded in
1704, met with great applaufe, and is reckoned his
beft play : but none was of more importance to him
than the Nonjuror, a&ed in 1717, and levelled againft
the Jacobites. Ihis laid the foundation of the mifun-
<lerftanding between him and Mr Pope, raifed him to
be the hero of the Dunciad, and made him poet-laureat
in 1730. He then quitted the ftage, except a few oc-
cafional performances j and died in 1757. Cibber
neither fucceeded in writing nor in ading tragedy ; and
his odes were not thought to partake of the genius or
fpirit he (bowed in his comedies.
His fon Theophilus, alfo a comic ador after him, was
born during a great ftorm in 1703 ; and after pafling
a# °f extravagance, diftrefs, and perplexity, pe-
rifhed in another ftorm in I75^> *n paffage be¬
tween Dublin and England. Theophilus married the
fifter of i homas Auguftine Arne, the famous mufical
compofer 5 who became a celebrated tragic adrefs,
and Wiiofe honour was facrificed to her hufband’s ex¬
travagance.
CIBDELOPLACI A, an old term in Nature/ Hif-
tory; applied to <pars debafed by a very large admix¬
ture of earth : they are opaque, formed of thin crufts,
covering vegetables and other bodies, by way of in-
cruftations.
44 1 C I c
Oi this genus we have the following fpecies : 1. A Cibdela.
grayi(h white one, with a rough furface. 2. A whi- placia
tifti brown one : both thefe are friable. 3. A hard, . U
pale brown kind, which is the ofteocolla of the (hops., C‘c'ely'
4. The whitilh-gray kind, with a fmooth.furface : this * ~
is the unicornu foffil and ceratites of authors. 3. The
whitifti brown coralloid kind.
CIEDELOSTRACIA, an old term in Natural
Hijlory, including earthy fpars, deftitute of tranfpa-
rency, formed into thin plates, and ufually found coat¬
ing over the fides of fiifures, and other cavities of
(tones with congeries of them to great extent, and of
plain or botryoid furfaces.
Of thefe there are ufually reckoned feven kinds :
the firft the hard, brownifh-white cibdeloftracium,
found in Germany : the fecond is the hard, whitifti
cibdeloftracium, with thin crufts, and a fmoother fur¬
face, found alfo in the Harts-foreft in Germany : the
third is the hard, pale-brown cibdeloftracium, with
numerous very thin crufts, found in fubterranean ca¬
verns in many parts of England as well as Germany :
the fourth is the white, light, and friable cibdeloftra¬
cium, found alfo in Germany, but very rarely in any
part of England : the fifth is the light, hard, pale-
brown cibdeloftracium, with a fmooth furface, found
in almoft all parts of the world : the fixth is the whi¬
tifti, friable, cruftaceous cibdeloftracium, with a rough¬
er furface, frequent in Germany and England j and
the feventh is the brownifti-white friable cibdeloftra¬
cium, with a dufky furface, found in feveral parts of
Ireland as well as Germany.
CIBORIA, in antiquity, the large hulks of Egypt-
tian beans, which are faid to have been fo large as te
ferve for drinking-cups: whence they had their name
aborium, fignifying a cup, in the Egyptian language.
CIBOR1UM, in ecclefiaftical writers, the covering
for the altar. This covering is fupported by four high
columns, and forms a kind of tent for the eucharift, in
the Romifti churches. Some authors call it turris gef-
tatona, and others pyxis ; but the pyxis is properly the
box in which the eucharift is preferved.
CIBUS FERIALIS, in antiquity, an entertainment
peculiar to a funeral j for which purpofe, beans, parf-
ley, lettuce, bread, eggs, lentils, and fait, were in ufe.
CICADA, the Frog-hopper or Flea-locust, a
genus of infers belonging to the order of hemiptera.
See Entomology Index.
CICATRICULA, among natural hiftorians, de¬
notes a fmall whitifti fpeck in the yolk of an egg, fup-
pofed to be the firft rudiments of the future chick.
CICAIRIX, in Surgery, a little feam or elevation
of callous flefli riling on the (kin, and remaining there
after the healing of a wound or ulcer. It is commonly
called a fear.
CICAI RIZANTS, in Pharmacy, medicines which
affift nature to form a cicatrix. Such are Armenian
bole, powder of tutty, &e.
Cicatrizants are other wife called cfcharotics, epulotics,
incarnatives, agglutinants, &c.
Cl CCA, in Botany, a genus of the tetrandria order,
belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants. The male
calyx is tetraphyllous; there is no corolla : the female
calyx triphyllous j no corolla ; four ftiles > the capfule
quadricoccous or four-berried.
CICELY, in Botany, the Englilh name of a fpecies
of
C I C [I
of chaerophyllum. See Ch^erophyllum, Botany
Index.
CICER, or Chick-Pea. See Botany Index.
CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated Ro¬
man orator, was born in the year of Rome 647, about
I05 years before Chrift. His father Marcus Tullius,
who was of the equeftrian order, took great Care of his
education, which was direded particularly with a view
to the bar. Young Tully, at his firft appearance in
public, declaimed with fuch vehemence againft Sylla’s
party, that it became expedient for him to retire into
Greece ; where he heard the Athenian orators and
philofophers, and greatly improved both in eloquence
and knowledge. Here he met with T. Pomponius, who
had been his fchool-fellow ; and who, from his love to
Athens, and fpending a great part of his days in it,
obtained the furname of Atticus ; and here they revived
and confirmed that noted friendfliip which fubfifted be¬
tween them through life with fo celebrated a conftancy
and affection. From Athens he pafled into Afia j and
after an excurfion of two years came back again into
Italy.
Cicero had now arrived at Rome j and, after one
year more fpent at the bar, obtained, in the next place,
the dignity of queftor. Among the caufes which he
pleaded before his quetlorfhip, was that of the famous
comedian Rofcius, whom a fmgular merit in his art
had recommended to the familiarity and friendfhip of
the greateft men in Rome. The queftors were the
general receivers or treafurers of the republic, and
were fent annually into the provinces diftributed to
them, as they always were, by lot* The ifland of
Sicily happened to fall to Cicero’s (hare $ and that
part of it, for it was confiderable enough to be di¬
vided into two provinces, which was called Lilybceum.
This office he received, not as a gift, but a truft ; and
he acquitted himfelf fo well in it, that he gained the
love and admiration of all the Sicilians. Before he
left Sicily, he made the tour of the ifland, to fee every
thing that was curious, and efpecially the city of Sy-
racufe ; where he difcovered the tomb of Archimedes
to the magiftrates who were fhowing him the curiofi-
tiesof the place, but who, to his furprife, knew nothing
of any fuch tomb.
We have no account of the precife time of Cicero’s
marriage with lerentia j but it is fuppofed to have
been celebrated immediately after his return from his
travels to Italy, when he was about 30 years old. He
was now difen gaged from his queftorfhip in Sicily, by
which firft ftep, in the legal gradation and afcent of
public honours, he gained an immediate right to the
fenate, and an a&ual admiffion into it during life*
and fettled again in Rome, where he employed him¬
felf conftantly in defending the perfons and properties
of its citizens, and was indeed a general patron. Five
years were almoft elapfed fince Cicero’s ele&ion to the
queftorfhip, which was the proper interval prefcribed
by law before he could hold the next office of gedile j
to which he was now, in his 37th year, eleaed by the’
unanimous fuffrages of all the tribes, and preferably to
all his competitors. After Cicero’s eleaion to the
aedilefhip, but before his entrance upon the office, he
undertook the famed profecution of C. Verres, the late
pr*t°r of Sicily, who was charged with many flagrant
acts^of injuftice, rapine, and cruelty, during his tri-
45 ] C I C
ennial government of that ifiand. This was one of the
moft memorable tranfaclions of his life, for which he
was greatly and juftly celebrated by antiquity, and for
which he will, in all ages, be admired and efteemed by
the friends of mankind. The refult was, that, by his
diligence and addrefs, he fo confounded Hortenfius,
though the reigning orator at the, bar, and ufually
flyled the king of the forum, that he had nothing to fay
for his client. Verres, defpairing of all defence, fub-
mitted immediately, without expelling the fentence,
to a voluntary exile ; where he lived many years, for¬
gotten and deferted by all his friends. He is faid to
have been relieved in this miferable fituation by the
generofity of Cicero *, yet was profcribed and murder¬
ed after all by Mark Antony, for the fake of thofe fine
ftatues and Corinthian vtffels of which he had plunder¬
ed the Sicilians.
After the ufual interval of two years from the time
of his being chofen aedile, Cicero offered himfelf a can¬
didate for the prstorlhip j and, in three different af-
femblies convened for the choice of praetors, two of
which were diffolved without effect, he was declared
every time the firft praetor by the fuffrages of all the
centuries. He was now in the career of his fortunes,
and in fight, as it were, of the confullhip, the grand
object of his ambition ; and therefore, when his pra£-
torthip was at an end, he would not accept any foreign
province, the ufual reward of that magiftracy, and
the chief fruit which the generality propofed from it.
He had no particular love for money, nor genius for
arms j fo that thofe governments had no charms for
him : the glory which he purfued was to fliine in the
eyes of the city as the guardian of its laws, and to
teach the magiftrates how to execute, and the citizens
how to obey, them.
Being now in his 43d year, the proper age required
by law, he declared himfelf a candidate for the con-
fulthip along with fix competitors, L. Sulpicius Gal-
ba, L. Sergius Catilina, C. Antonius, L. Caflius Lon¬
ginus, £). Cornificius, and C. Licinius Sacerdos. The
two firft were patricians j the two next plebeians, yet
noble j the two laft the fons of fathers who had firft
imported the public honours into their families : Ci¬
cero was the only new man, as he was called, among
them, or one of the tqueftrian rank. Thefe were the
competitors j and in this competition the pra&ice of
bribing was carried on as openly and as fhamefully by
Antonius and Catiline as it ufually is at our ele&ions
in Britain. However, as the eledlion approached,
Cicero’s intereft appeared to be fuperior to that of all
the candidates: for the nobles themfelves, though al¬
ways envious and defirous to deprefs him, yet out of
regard to the dangers which threatened the city from
many quarters, and feemed ready to burft out into a
flame, began to think him the only man qualified to
preferve the republic, and break the cabals of the def-
perate by the vigour and prudence of his adminiftra-
tion. The method of chooling confuls was not by an
open vote, but by a kind of ballot, or little tickets of
wood diftributed to the citizens, with the names of
the feveral candidates infcribed upon each j but in Ci¬
cero’s cafe the people were not content with this fecret
and filent way 5 but before they came to any fcrutiny,
loudly and univerfaRy proclaimed Cicero the firft con-
ful, fo that, as he himfelf fays, “ he was not chofexi
T by
C I C [ 146 ] C I c
by the votes of particular citizens, but the common
fuffrage of the city } nor declared by the voice of the
crier, but- of the whole Roman people.”
Cicero had no fooner entered upon his office than
he had occafion to exert himfelf againft P. Servilius
Rullus, one of the new tribunes, who had been alarm¬
ing the fenate with the promulgation of an agrarian
law j the purpofe of which was to create a decemvi-
rate, or ten commiffioners, with abfolute power for
five years over all the revenues of the republic, to dif-
tribute them at pleafure to the citizens, &c. Thefe
laws ufed to be greedily received by the populace,
and were propofed therefore by factious magiftrates
as oft as they had any point to carry with the multi¬
tude againft the public good ; fo that Cicero’s firft bu-
finefs was to quiet the apprehenfions of the city, and
to baffle, if poffible, the intrigues of the tribune. Ac¬
cordingly, in an artful and elegant fpeech from the
roftra, he gave fuch a turn to the inclination of the
people, that they reje£ted this law with as much eager-
nefs as they had ever received one. But the grand
affair of all, which conftituted the glory of his conful-
fhip, and has tranfmitted his name with fuch luftre to
pofterity, was the flcill he {bowed, and the unwearied
pains he took, in fuppreffing that horrid confpiracy
which was formed by Catiline and his accomplices for
the fubverfion of the commonwealth. For this great
fervice he was honoured with the glorious title of pater
patrice, “ the father of his country,” which he retain¬
ed for a long time after.
Cicero’s adminiftration was now at an end ; but he
had no fooner quitted his office, than he began to feel
the weight of that envy which is the certain fruit of
illuftrious merit. He was now, therefore, the com¬
mon mark, not only of all the fa&ious, againft whom
he had declared perpetual war, but of another party
not lefs dangerous, the envious too, whofe united
fpleen never left him from this moment till they had
driven him out of that city which he had fo lately pre-
ferved. Cicero, upon the expiration of his conful-
Ihip, took care to fend a particular account of his
whole adminiftration to Pompey, who was finifhing
the Mithridatic war in Afia, in hopes to prevent any
wrong impreffions there from the calumnies of his
enemies, and to draw from him fome public declara¬
tion in praife of what he had been doing. But Pom¬
pey being informed by Metellus and Caefar of the ill
humour that was riling againft: Cicero in Rome, an-
fwered him with great coldnefs, and inftead of pay¬
ing him any compliment, took no notice at all of
what had paffed in the affair of Catiline, upon which
Cicero expoftulates with him in a letter which is ftill
extant.
About this time Cicero bought a houfe of M. Craffus
on the Palatine-hill, adjoining to that in which he had
always lived with his father, and which he is now fup-
pofed to have given up to his brother Quintius. The
houfe coft him near 30,000!. and feems to have
been one of the nobleft in Rome. It was built about
30 years before by the famous tribune M. Livius Diu-
fus; on which occafion we are told, that when the ar-
ehiteft promifed to build it for him in fuch a manner
that none of his neighbours Ihould overlook him ;
4‘ But if you have any Ikill (replied Drufus), contrive
it rather fo, that all the world may fee what I am
3
doing.” The purchafe of fo expenfive a houfe raifed
fome cenfure on his vanity } and efpecially as it wTas
made with borrowed money. This circumftance he
himfelf does not diffemble, but fays merrily upon it,
that “ he was now plunged fo deeply in debt, as to be
ready for a plot, only that the confpirators would not
truft him.”
The rnoft remarkable event that happened in this
year, which was the 45th of Cicero’s life, was the
pollution of the myfteries of the bona dea by P. Clo-
dius, which, by an unhappy train of confequences,
involved Cicero in a great and unexpected calamity.
Clodius had an intrigue with Caefar’s wife Pom-
peia, who, according to annual cuftom, was now ce¬
lebrating in her houfe thofe awful facrifices of the
goddefs, to which no male creature ever was admitted,
and where every thing mafculine was fo fcrupulouily
excluded, that even pictures of that fort were covered
during the ceremony. It flattered Clodius’s imagina¬
tion greatly to gain accefs to his miftrefs in the midft
of her holy miniftry j and with this view he dreffed
himfelf in a woman’s habit, that by the benefit of
his fraooth face, and the introduction of one of the
maids, he might pafs without difcovery *, but by fome
miftake between him and his guide, he loft his way
when he came within the houfe, and fell unluckily
among the other female fervants. Here he was detect¬
ed by his voice, and the fervants alarmed the whole
company by their fhrieks, to the great amazement of
the matrons, who threw a veil over their facred myf¬
teries, while Clodius found means to efcape. The
ftory was prefentiy fpread abroad, and raifed a general
fcandal and horror throughout the city. The whole
defence which Clodius made when, by order of the fe¬
nate, he was brought to trial, was to prove himfelf
abfent at the time of the faCt, for which purpofe he
produced two men to fwear that he was then at Inter-
amna, about two or three days journey from the city.
But Cicero being called upon to give his teftimony, de-
pofed, that Clodius had been with him that very morn¬
ing at his houfe in Rome. Irritated by this, Clodius
formed a fcheme of revenge. This was to get bimfelf
chofen tribune, and in that office to drive Cicero out
of the city, by the publication of a law, which, by
fome ftratagem or other, he hoped to obtrude upon
the people. But as all patricians were incapable of the
tribunate, by its original inftitution, fo his firft ftep
was to make himfelf a plebeian, by the pretence of an
adoption into a plebeian houfe, which could not yet
be done without the fuffrage of the people. The firft:
triumvirate was now formed, which was nothing elfe in
reality but a traitorous confpiracy of three of the moft
powerful citizens of Rome, to extort from their coun¬
try by violence what they could not obtain by law.
Pompey’s chief motive was to get his a£ts confirmed
‘by Caefar in his confullhip, which was now coming on }
Csefar, by giving way to Pompey’s glory, to advance
his own ; and Craffus, to gain that afcendence by the
authority of Pompey and Caefar, which he could not
fuftain alone. Cicero might have made what terms he
pleafed with the triumvirate, and been admitted even
a partner of their power, and a fourth in their league y
but he would not enter into any engagements with the
three whofe union he and all the friends of the republic
abhorred. Clodius, in the mean time, had been puffi-.
Cicero.
C I C [I
Cicero, ing on the bufinefs of his adoption, which at laft he ef-
—fedled, and began- foon after to threaten Cicero with
all the terrors of his tribunate, to which he was now
advanced without any oppofition. Both Caefar and
Pompey fecretly favoured his fcheme j not that they
intended to ruin Cicero, but only to keep him under
the la(h •, and if they could not draw him into their
meafures, or make him at leart keep quiet, to let Clo-
dius loofe upon him. Caefar, in particular, Wanted
to diftrefs him fo far as to force him to a dependence
on himfelf j for which end, while be was privately en¬
couraging Clodius to purfue him, he was propofing ex¬
pedients to Cicero for his fecurity. But though his
fortunes feemed now to be in a tottering condition,
and his enemies to gain ground daily upon him, yet
he was unwilling to owe the obligation of his fafety to
any man, far lefs to Ceefar, whofe defigns he always
fufpe&ed, and whofe fchemes he never approved. This
ftiffnefs in Cicero fo exafperated Caefar, that he refolved
immediately to affift Clodius with all his power to op-
prefs him 5 while Pompey was all the time giving him
the ftrongeft affurances that there was no danger, and
that he would fooner be killed himfelf than fuffer him
to be hurt.
Clodius, in the mean time, was obliging the people
with feveral new laws, contrived chiefly for their ad¬
vantage j the defign of all which was only to intro¬
duce, with a better grace, the ground-plot of the plan,
the banifhment of Cicero. In fliort, having caufed a
law to be enafted, importing, that any who had con¬
demned a Roman citizen, unheard, (hould himfelf be
banifhed, he foon after impeached Cicero upon it. It
was in vain that this great man went up and down
the city foliciting his caufe in the habit of a fuppliant,
and attended by many of the firft young noblemen
whom he had taught the rules of eloquence ; thofe
powers of fpeaking which had fo often been fuccefs-
ful in defending the caufe of others, feemed totally to
forfake his own : h* was baniflied by the votes of the
people 400 miles from Italy j his houfes were ordered
to be demolifhed, and his goods fet up to fale. It can¬
not be denied, that in this great calamity he did not
behave himfelf with that firmnefs which might reafon-
ably be expe&ed from one who had borne fo glorious a
part in the republic, confcious of his integrity, and
fullering in the caufe of his country ; for his letters are
generally filled with fuch lamentable expreflions of
grief and defpair, that his belt friends, and even his
wife, were forced fometimes to admonilh him to roufe
his courage, and remember his former character, At-
ticus was conftantly putting him in mind of it; and
fent him word of a report that was brought to Rome
by one of Caflius’s freed-men, that his affli&ion had
difordered his fenfes. He was now indeed attacked
in his weakefl: part j the only place in which he was
vulnerable. To have been as great in affli&ion as he
was in profperity, would have been a perfe&ion not
given to man $ yet his very weaknefs flowed from a
lource which rendered him the more amiable in all the
other parts of his life j and the fame tendernefs of dif-
pofition which made him love his friends, his children,
and his country, more paflionately than other men,
made him feel the lofs of them more fenfibly. When
he had been gone a little more than two months, a mo¬
tion was made in the fenate by one of the tribunes,
47 ] C I c
who was his friend, to recal him, and repeal the laws
of Clodius, to which the whole houfe readily agreed.
Many obftrudlions, as may be eafily imagined, were
given to it by the Clodian faction •, but ibis made the
fenate only more refolute to effedt it. They pafled a
vote, therefore, that no other bufinefs {hould be done
till Cicero’s return was carried ; which at laft it was,
and in fo fplendid and triumphant a manner, that he
had reafon, he fays, to fear, left people {hould imagine
that he himfelf had contrived his late flight for the fake
of fo glorious a reft oration.
Cicero, now in his 50th year, was reftored to his
former dignity, and foon after to his former fortunes ;
fatisfadlion being made to him for the ruin of hiseftates
and houfes, which laft were again built up by himfelf
with more magnificence than before. But he had do-
meftic grievances about this time which touched him
very nearly, and which, as he fignifies obfcurely to
Atticus, were of too delicate a nature to be expreffed
in a letter : they arofe chiefly from the petulant hu¬
mour of his wife, which began to give him frequent oc-
cafions of chagrin, and, by a feries of repeated provoca¬
tions, confirmed in him that fettled difguft which at laft
ended in a divorce.
In the 56th year of his age, he was made procon-
ful of Cilicia, and his adminiftration there gained
him great honour. About this time the expedfation
of a breach between Caefar and Pompey engaged the
general attention. Craffus had been deftroyed with
his army fome years before in the war with the Par*-
thians ; and Julia, the daughter of Caefar, whom Pom¬
pey married, and who, while {he lived, was the ce¬
ment of their union, was alfo dead in child-bed. Cae¬
far had put an end to the Gallic war, and reduced
the whole province to the Roman yoke j but though
his commiflion was near expiring, he feemed to have
no thoughts of giving it up and returning to the con¬
dition of a private fubjedt. He pretended that he
could not poflibly be fafe if he parted with his army,
efpecially while Pompey held the province of Spain
prolonged to him for five years. This difpofition to
a breach Cicero foon learned from his friends, as he
was returning from his province of Cilicia. But as he
forefaw the confequences of a war more clearly and
fully than any of them, fo his firft refolution was to
apply all his endeavours and authority to the mediation
of a peace 5 though, in the event of a breach, he was
determined within himfelf to follow Pompey. He
clearly forefaw, what he declared without fcruple to
his friends, that which fide foerer got the better, the
war muft neceffarily end in a tyranny. The only dif¬
ference, he taid, was, that if their enemies conquered,
they {hould be profcribed j if their friends, they would
be {laves.
He no fooner arrived at the city, however, than
he fell, as he tells us, into the very flame of civil dif-
cord, and found the war in effeft proclaimed ; for the
fenate had juft voted a decree, that Cgefar {hould dif-
band his army by a certain day, or be declared an
enemy j and Caefar’s fudden march towards Rome
effe&ually confirmed it. In the midft of all this hurry
and confufion, Caefar was extremely folicitous about
Cicero ; not fo much to gain him, for that was not to
be expe&ed, as to prevail with him to ftand neuter.
He wrote to him feveral times to that eifedf, and
T 2 employed
I
C I C [148] , c I c
Cicero, employed all their common friends to prefs him with
letters on that fubject; all which was done j but in
vain, for Cicero was impatient to be gone to Pompey.
In the mean time, thefe letters give us a moft fen-
fible proof of the high efteem and credit in which Ci¬
cero flourifhed at this time in Rome j when in a con-
teft for empire, which force alone was to decide, we
lee the chiefs on both fides fo folicitous to gain a man
9 to their party, who had no peculiar {kill in arms or
talents for war. Purfuing, however, the refult of all
his deliberations, he embarked at length to follow
Pompey, who had been obliged to quit Italy fome
time before, and was then at Dyrrhaehium j and ar¬
rived fafely in his camp with his fon, his brother, and
his nephew, committing the fortunes of the whole
family to the iffue of that caufe. After the battle of
Pharfalia, in which Pompey was defeated, Cicero re¬
turned into Italy, and was afterwards received into
great favour by Caefar, who was now declared dila¬
tor the fecond time, and Mark Antony his mailer of
horfe. We may eafily imagine, what we find indeed
from his letters, that he was not a little difconeerted
at the thoughts of an interview with Csefar, and the
indignity of offering himfelf to a conqueror againft
whom he had been in arms ; for though upon many
accounts he had reafon to expeft a kind reception
from Casfar, yet he hardly thought his life, he fays,
worth begging, fince what was given by a mailer
might always be taken away again at pleafure. But
at their meeting he had no occafion to fay or do any
thing that was below his dignity *, for Caefar no fooner
law him than he alighted, ran to embrace him, and
walked with him alone, converfing very familiarly, for
feveral furlongs.
Cicero was now in his 61 ft year, and forced at laft
to part with his wife Terentia, whofe humour and
condudl had been long uneafy to him. She was a
woman of an imperious and turbulent fpirit, and
though he had borne her perverfenefs in the vigour of
health, and flouriftiing Hate of his fortunes ; yet,, in
declining life, foured by a continual fucceflion of mor¬
tifications from abroad, the want of eafe and quiet at
home was no longer tolerable to him. But he was
immediately oppreffed by a new and moft cruel af-
flibtion, the death of his beloved daughter Tullia, who
died in child-bed foon after her divorce from her
third hulband Dolabella. She was about 32 years
old at the time of her death ; and, by the few hints
which are left of her charaifter, appears to have been
an excellent and admirable woman. She was moft
affe&ionately and pioufly obfervant of her father,
and, to the ufual graces of her {ex, having added the
more folid accomplifhments of knowledge and polite
letters, was qualified to be the companion and delight
of his age; and was juftly efteemed not only as one
of the beft, but the moft learned of the Roman ladies*
His affliflion for the death of this daughter was fo
great, that to fhun all company as much as he could,
he removed to Atticus’s houfe, where he lived chiefly
in his library, turning over every book he could meet
with on the fubjeft of moderating grief. But finding
his refidence here too public, and a greater refort to
him than he could bear, he retired to Afturia, one of
his feats near Antium ; a little ifland |on the Latian
ftvore, at the mouth of a river of the fame name, cover¬
ed with wood and groves cut into ftiady walks j a' cicfrra
fcene of all others the fitteft to indulge melancholy, and v
where he could give a free courfe to his grief. “ Here
(fays he to Atticus) I live without the fpeech of man j
every morning early I hide myfelf in the tbickeft of
the wood, and never come out till the evening. Next
to yourfelf, nothing is fo dear to me as this iblitude j
and my whole converfation is with my books.” In¬
deed bis whole time was employed in little elfe than
reading and writing during Caefar’s adminiftration,
which he could never cheerfully fubmit to ; and it was
within this period that he drew up one of the gravefi:
of thofe philofophical pieces which are ftill extant in
his works.
Upon the death of Coefar, Oftavius his nephew arfd
heir coming into Italy, was prefented to Cicero by
Hirtius and Panfa, with the ftrongeft profeffions on
the part of the young man that he would be governed
entirely by his direftion. Indeed Cicero thought it
neceffary to cherifh and encourage Oftavius, if for no¬
thing elfe, yet to keep him at a diftance from Antony j.
but could not yet be perfuaded to enter heartily into
his affairs. He fufpe&ed his youth and want of expe¬
rience ; and that he had not ftrength enough to deal
with Antony j and, above all, that he had no good dif-
pofition towards the confpirators. He thought it im-
poflible he fliould ever be a friend to them j and was
perfuaded rather, that if ever he got the upper hand, #
his uncle’s afts would be more violently enforced, and
his death more cruelly revenged, than by Antony him¬
felf. And when Cicero did at laft confent to unite
himfelf to Otftavius’s interefts, it was with no other
view but to arm him with a power fufficient to opprefs
Antony ; yet fo checked and limited, that he- fliould
not be able to opprefs the republic.
In the midft of all this political buftle, he was ftill pro-
fecuting his ftudies with his ufual application ; and, be-
fides, fome philofophical pieces, now finifhed his book of
offices, or the duties of man, for the ufe of his fon : A
work admired by all fucceeding ages as the moft per-
fe<ft fyftem of Heathen morality, and the nobleft effort
and fpecimen of what reafon could do in guiding mer>
through life with innocence and happinefs. How¬
ever, he paid a conftant attention to public affairs;
miffed no opportunities, but did every thing that hu¬
man prudence could do for the recovery of the repub¬
lic : for all that vigour with which it was making this
laft effort for itfelf, was entirely owing to his counfrls
and authority. This appears from thofe memorable
philippics which from time to time he publifhed againft
Antony, as well as from other monuments of antiquity.
But all was in vain ; for though Antony’s army was
entirely defeated at the fiege of Modena, which made
many people imagine that the war was at an end, and
the liberty of Rome eftablifhed ; yet the death of the
confuls Panfa and Hirtius in that a<ftion gave the fatal
blow to all Cicero’s fchemes, and was the immediate
caufe of the ruin of the republic.
O&avius having fubdued the fenate to his mind.,
marched towards Gaul to meet Anthony and Lepi-
dus;, wlm had already paffed the Alps, and brought
their armies into Italy, in order to have a perfonai
interview with him ; which had been privately con¬
certed for fettling the terms of a triple league, and
dividing the power and provinces of Italy among
themfelves.
C I C [ 149 ] C I c
Cicero, tliemfefves. The place appointed for this interview
—was a fmall ifland about two miles from Bononia, form¬
ed by the river Rhenus which runs near that city.
Here they met, and fpent three days in a clofe con¬
ference to adjuft the plan of their accommodation
and the laft thing they adjufted was the lift of a pro-
fcription which they were determined to make of
their enemies. This, as the writers tell us, occafioned
much difficulty and warm contefts among them, till
each in his turn confented to facrifice fome of his beft
friends to the revenge and refentment of his col¬
leagues. Cicero was at his Tufculan villa, when he
firfl received the news of the profcription, and of his
being included in it. It was the defign of the trium¬
virate to keep it a fecret, if portable, to the moment
of execution, in order to furprife thofe whom they
had deftined to deftruflion, before they were aware of
their danger, or had time to make their tfcape. But
fome of Cicero’s friends found means to give him early
notice of it j upon which he fet forward to the fea-fide,
with a defign to tranfport himfelf out of the reach of
his enemies. There, finding a veflel ready, he imme¬
diately embarked ; but the winds being adverfe, and
the fea uneafy to him, after he had failed about two
leagues along the coaft, he was obliged to land, and
fpend the night on ffiore. From whence he was forced,
by the importunity of his fervants, on board again j
I but was foon afterwards obliged to land at a country-
feat of his a mile from the fhore, weary of life, and de¬
claring he was refolved to die in that country which he
had fo often faved. Here he flept foundly for fome
time, till his fervants once more forced him away in a
litter towards the ftiip, having heard that he was purfued
by Antony’s aflaffins. They had fcarcely departed
when the aflaffins arrived at his houfe; and, perceiving
him to have fled, purfued him immediately towards the
fea, and overtook him in a wood that was near the (bore.
Their leader was one Popilius Lenas, a tribune of the
army, whofe life Cicero had formerly defended and
faved. As foon as the foldiers appeared, the fervants
prepared to defend their mafter’s life at the hazard of
their own j but Cicero commanded them to fet him
down and make no refiftance. They foon cut off his
head and his hands, returning with them to Rome as
the moft agreeable prefent to their cruel employer.
Antony, who was then at Rome, received them with
extreme joy, rewarding the murderer with a large fum
of money, and ordered the head to be fixed upon the
roftra between the two hands ; a fad fpe&acle to the
city, and what drew tears from every eye, to fee thofe
mangled members which ufed to exert themfelves fo
glorioufly from that place in defence of the lives, the
fortunes, and the liberties of the Roman people, fo la¬
mentably expofed to the fcorn of fycophants and trai¬
tors. The deaths of the reft, fays an hiftorian of that
age, caufed only a private and particular forrow •, but
Cicero’s an univerfal one. It was a triumph over the
republic itfelf; and feemed to confirm and eftablilh the
perpetual flavery of Rome.
A- modern writer*, however, is of /opinion, that
* n’t Tra- “ pofterity has been too much feduced by the name of
1 Vol ^,C* ^'‘cero’ and better citizens were facrificed to the
I jo°z U jealoufy of the triumvirs without exciting fo much in¬
dignation. If we take an impartial furvey of Cicero’s
conduft and principles, avowed in his own epiftolary
correfpondence, and trace him through all the laby- Cicero,
rinths of his contradiftory letters, we fhall find more
to blame than to admire 5 and difcover, that the delire
of advancing his fortunes, and making himfelf a name,
were, from his outfet in life, the only objects he had
in view. The good of his country, and the di£Iates
of ftern Heady virtue, were not, in Brutus and Cato,
the conftant fprings of his a&ions. The misfortunes
that befel him after his confulftiip, developed his cha¬
racter, and Ihowed him in his true colours ; from that
time to his death, pufillanimity, irrefolution, and un¬
worthy repining, tainted his judgment, and perplexed
every ftep he wilhed to take. He flattered Pofnpey
and cringed to Caefar, Avhile in his private letters he
abufed them both alternately. He acknowledges in a
letter to his friend, the time-ferving Atlicus, that, al¬
though he was at prefent determined to fupport the
caufe of Rome and liberty, and to bear misfortune like
a philofopher, there was one thing which would gain
him over to the triumvirs, and that was their procu¬
ring for him the vacant augurlhip ; fo pitiful was the
bribe to which he would have facrificed his honour,
his opinion, and the commonwealth. By his wavering
imprudent conduft, he contributed greatly towards
its deftrudtion. After reproaching the confpirators
for leaving him out of the fecret, and loading them
with the moft flattering compliments on their delivering
Rome from Caffar’s tyranny, he calls Cafca an ojfajjin,
to pay, his court to the boy Gtftavius, by whom he was
completely duped. His praifes of this triumvir are in
the higheft ftrain of panegyric. Mark Antony well
knew, that the virulent abufe which Cicero was con¬
tinually pouring out againft him, was not an effufion
of patriotic zeal or virtuous indignation, but merely
the ebullitions of perfonal hatred. He therefore caufed
Cicero to be killed, as an angry man that has been
ftung, ftamps on a venomous animal that comes within
reach of his foot. The cloak he threw over the body
of Brutus, and the fpeecb he pronounced at the fight
of that hero when dead, differ widely from the treat¬
ment he gave the remains of Cicero j and Ihow, that he
made a diftin&ion between a Roman who oppofed him
from political motives, and one whofe enmity arofe
from private pique.
Cicero’s death happened on the 7th of December, in
the 64th year of his age, about ten days from the fettle-
ment of the firft triumvirate ; and with him expired the
fhort empire of eloquence among the Romans. As an
orator he is thus cbara&erized by Dr Blair : “ In all his
orations his art is confpicuous. He begins commonly
with a regular exordium, and with much addrefs pre-
poffeffes the hearers, and ftudies to gain their affe£Uons.
His method is clear, and his arguments are arranged
with exa<ft propriety. In a fuperior clearnefs of me¬
thod, he has an advantage over Demofthenes. Every
thing appears in its proper place. He never tries to
move till be has attempted to convince ; and in moving
particularly the fofter paffions, he is highly foccefsful.
No one ever knew the force of words better than Cice¬
ro. He rolls them along with the greateft beauty and
magnificence ; and in the ftru&ure of his fentences is
eminently curious and exa<R. He is always full and
flowing, never abrupt. He amplifies every thing ; yet
though his manner is generally diffufe, it is often hap¬
pily varied and accommodated to the fubjeff. When
an
c I C [ 150 ] C I L
•fticero an important public object roufed his mind, and de¬
ll manded indignation and force, he departs confiderably
Cicuta. from that i00fe an(j declamatory manner to which he
at other times is addided, and becomes very forcible
and vehement. This great orator, however, is not with¬
out his defeds. In mofl of his orations there is too
much art, even carried to a degree of oftentation. He
feems often defirous of obtaining admiration rather than
of operating convidion. He is fometimes, therefore,
fhowy rather than folid, and diffufe where he ought to
have been urgent. His fentences are always round and
fonorous. They cannot be accufed of monotony, fince
they poffefs variety of cadence j but from too great a
fondnefs for magnificence, he is on fome occafions defi¬
cient in ftrength. Though the fervices which he had
performed to his country were very confiderable, yet he
is too much his own panegyrift. Ancient manners,
which impofed fewer reftraints on the fide of decorum,
may in fome degree excufe, but cannot entirely juftify,
his vanity.”
CICHORIUM, Succory. See Botany Index.
CICINDELA, the Sparkler, in Zoology, a genus
of infeds belonging to the order of coleoptera. See
Entomology Index.
C1CISBEO, an-Italian term, which in its etymolo¬
gy fignifies a whifperer; a term bellowed in Italy both
on lovers, and thofe who to outward appearance ad
as fuch, waiting on married ladies with as much at¬
tention and refped as if they were their lovers. This
Italian cuflom has been fpoken of very reproachfully
by fome writers : Mr Baretti has taken great pains to
vindicate it. He afcribes it to a fpirit of gallantry, de¬
rived from the ages of chivalry, and much heightened
and refined by the revival of the Platonic philofophy in
Italy, about the thirteenth century j and by the verfes
of Petrarch in compliment to the beautiful Laura, and
his numerous imitators.
CICLUT, or Cicluch, a ftrong frontier town of
Dalmatia, fituated on the river Narentha, in E. Long.
18. 22. N. Lat. 43. 29. It is furrounded with walls
built in the ancient manner, and was taken by the Ve¬
netians from the Turks in 1694.
CICONES, a people of Thrace near the Hebrus.
Ulyffes at his return from Troy conquered them, and
plundered their chief city Ifmarus. They tore to pieces
Orpheus for his obfcene indulgencies.
CICUTA, properly fignifies a hollow intercepted
between two knots, of the flalks or reeds of which
the ancient fhepherds ufed to make their pipes. It is
now, however, generally ufed to fignify the water-hem¬
lock, and alfo the common fort; but Linnaeus has de-
fcribed the latter under the old name of Conium.
See that article.
There are three fpecies of water-hemlock ; the virofa,
the bulbifera, and the maculata. Of thefe the firft is
the only one remarkable, and that for the poifonous
qualities of its roots, which have been often known to
deflroy children who ate them for parfnips.
Cicuta is alfo ufed, chiefly among the ancients,
for the juice or liquor expreffed from the above plant,
being the common poifon wherewith the ftate crimi¬
nals at Athens were put to death : Though fome have
fuggefted, that the poifonous draught to which the
Athenians doomed their criminals was an infpiffated
juice compounded of the juice of cicuta and fome other Cicuta
corrofive herbs. ||
Socrates drank the cicuta.—Plato, in his dialogue Cilicia,
on the immortality of the foul, obferves, thatThe
executioner advifed Socrates not to talk, for fear of
caufing the cicuta to operate too flowly.” M. Petit,
in his Obfervaiiones Mifcellctnece, remarks, that this
advice was not given by the executioner out of hu¬
manity, but to fave the cicuta ; for he was only allow¬
ed fo much poifon per ann. which, if he exceeded, he
was to furnilh at his own expence. This conftruilion
is confirmed by a paffage in Plutarch : the executioner
who adminiftered the cicuta to Phocion, not having
enough, Phocion gave him money to buy more j ob-
ferving by the way, “ that it was odd enough, that at
Athens a man muft pay for every thing, even for his
own death.”
CID, Roderigo Dias le, a Caftilian officer, who
was very fuccefsful againft the Moors, under Ferdi¬
nand II. king of Caftile j but whofe name would hard¬
ly have been remembered, if Corneille had not made
his paflion for Chimene the fubjedt of an admired tra¬
gedy, founded on a Ample but affedting incident. The
Cid is defperately in love with Chimene, daughter
of the count de Gomes j but he is at variance with
the count, and being challenged by him, kills him
in a duel. The conflidt between love and honour in
the breaft of Chimene, who at length pardons and
marries the Cid, forms the beauty of the piece. He
died in 1098.
CID ARIS, in antiquity, the mitre ufed by the Jew-
ifh high-priefts. The Rabbins fay, that the bonnet
ufed by priefts in general was made of a piece of linen
cloth 16 yards long, which covered their heads like a
helmet or turban 5 and they allow no other difference
between the high-prieft’s bonnet and that of other
priefts, than that the one is flatter, and more in the
form of a turban j whereas that worn by ordinary
priefts rofe fomething more in a point.
CIGNANI, Carlo, an Italian painter, was born at
Bologna in 1628 : and was the difciple of Albani. He
was efteemed by Pope Clement XL who nominated
him prince of the academy of Bologna, and loaded him
with favours. Cignani died at Forli in 1719. The
cupola of la Madona del Fuoco at Forli, in which he
reprefented Paradife, is an admirable work. His prin¬
cipal pi£tures are at Rome, Bologna, and Forli.
CIGOLI, or Civoli, the painter. See Civoli.
CILIA, the Eye-lashes. See Anatomy Index.
CILIATED LEAE, among botanical writers, one
furrounded with parallel filaments fomewhat like the
hairs of the eyelids.
CILICIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia, lying be¬
tween the 36th and 40th degree of north latitude :
bounded on the eaft by Syria, or rather by Mount
Amanus, which feparates it from that kingdom ; by
Pamphylia on the weft j by Ifauria, Cappadocia, and
Armenia Minor, on the north $ and by the Mediter¬
ranean fea on the fouth. It is fo furrounded by fteep
and craggy mountains, chiefly Taurus and Amanus,
that it may be defended by a handful of refolute men
againft a numerous army, there being but three nar¬
row pafies leading into it, commonly called Pylft Ci-
liciee, or the gates of Cilicia ; one on the fide of Cap¬
padocia,
c I L [ 151 I C I M
Cilicia, padocia, called the Pafs of Mount Taurus; and the
\ other two called the Pafs of Mount Amanus, and the
Pafs of Syria. The whole country was divided by the
ancients into Cilicia Afpera, and Cilicia Campeftris j
the former called by the Greeks Trachcea or Stony^
from its abounding fo with ftones ; and to this day the
whole province is called by the Turks, Tas Wileieth,
or the Stony Province.
According to Jofephus, Cilicia was firft peopled by
Tarfhilh the fon of Javan, and his defcendants, whence
the whole country was named Tarfus. The ancient
inhabitants were in procefs of time driven out by a
colony of Phoenicians, who under the conduit of Ci-
liX) fir ft fettled in the ifland of Cyprus, and from
thence paffed into the country which, from their leader,
they called Cilicia. Afterwards feveral other colo¬
nies from different nations fettled in this kingdom,
particularly from Syria and Greece ; whence the Cili-
cians in fome places ufed the Greek tongue, in others
the Syriac ; but the former greatly corrupted by the
Perfian, the predominant language of the country be¬
ing a dialeil of that tongue. We find no mention of
the kings of Cilicia after their fettlement in that coun¬
try, till the time of Cyrus, to whom they voluntarily
fubmitted, continuing fubjeft to the Perfians till the
overthrow of that empire ; but governed to the time
of Artaxerxes Mneraon, by kings of their own na¬
tion. After the downfal of the Perfian empire, Cili¬
cia became a province of that of Macedon ; and, on
the death of Alexander, fell to the (hare of Seleucus,
and continued under his defcendants till it was reduced
to a Roman province by Pompey. As a proconfular
province, it was firft governed by Appius Claudius
Pulcher, and after him by Cicero, %vho reduced feve¬
ral ftrong holds on Mount Amanus, in which fome Ci-
licians had fortified themfelves, and held out againft
his predeceffor. It was on this occafion that the di-
vifion, formerly mentioned, into Trachaea and Cam¬
peftris, took place. The latter became a Roman pro¬
vince ; but the former was governed by kings appoint¬
ed by the Romans, till the reign of Vefpafian, when
the family of Tracondementus being extinct, this part
alfo made a province of the empire, and the whole di¬
vided into Cilicia Prima, Cilicia Secunda, and Ifauria j
the firft took in all Cilicia Campeftris, the fecond the
coaft of Cilicia Trachsea, and the laft the inland parts
of the fame divifion. It is now a province of Afiatic
Turkey ; and is called Caramania, having been the laft
province of the Caramanian kingdom which held out
againft the Ottoman race.
That part of Cilicia called by the ancients Cilicia
Campejlris, was, if we believe Ammianus Marcellinus,
one of the moft fruitful countries of Afia j but the
weftern part equally barren, though famous, even to
this day, for an excellent breed of horfes, of which
600 are yearly fent to Conftantinople for the fpecial
ufe of the Grand Signior. The air in the inland parts
is reckoned wholefome ; but that on the fea-coaft very
dangerous, efpecial'y to ftrangers.
The rivers of any note are the Pyramus, which rifes
on the north fide of Mount Taurus, and empties itfelf
into the Mediterranean between Iffus and Magaraffus ;
and the Cydnus, which fprings from the Antitaurus,
paffes through Tarfus, and difembogues itfelf into the
Mediterranean. Ihis laft is famous for the rapidity of
its ftream, and the coldnefs of its waters, which proved Cilicia
very dangerous to Alexander the Great. |j
The Cilicians, if we believe the Greek and Roman Cirobri*
hiftorians, were a rough unpoliftied race of people, un- w-‘v—,“l
fair in their dealings, cruel, and liars even to a proverb.
In the Roman times they became greatly addi£ted to
piracy. They firft began, in the time of the Mithri-
datic war, to infeft the neighbouring provinces along
with the Pamphylians j and, being emboldened with
fuccefs, they foon ventured as far as the coafts of
Greece and Italy, where they took a vaft number of
Haves, whom they fold to the Cypriots and the kings
of Egypt and Syria. They rvere, however, at laft de¬
feated and entirely fuppreffed by Pompey the Great.
See (Hijlory of') Rome.
Cilicia Terra, in the natural hiftory of the anci¬
ents, a bituminous fubflance, improperly called an earth,
which, by boiling, became tough like bird-lime, and
avas ufed infiead of that fubftance to cover the flocks
of the vines for preferving them from the w-orms.
It probably ferved in this office in a fort of double ca¬
pacity, driving away thefe animals by its naufeous
fmell, and entangling them if they chanced to get
amongft it.
CILICIUM, in Hebrew antiquity, a fort of habit
made of coarfe fluff, formerly in ufe among the Jews
in times of mourning and diftrefs. It is the fame with
what the Septuagint and Hebrew verfions called fack-
cloth.
CILLEY, an ancient and famous town of Germa¬
ny, in the circle of Auftria, and in Stiria. It is
the capital of a country of the fame name, and is fi-
tuated on the river Saan, in E. Long. 15. 15. N. Lat.
46. 31.
CILURNUM, (Notitia) J a town of Britain :
thought to be Collerton, or Collerford, in Northum¬
berland $ but Wahvic, or Scilicefter, according to
Camden.
CIMA, or Sima, in ArchiteElure, the fame with
Cymatium, or Ogee.
CIAMBUE, Giovani, a renowned painter, born
at Florence in 1240, and the firft who revived the art
of painting in Italy. He painted, according to the
cuftom of thofe times, in frefco and in diftemper;
colours in oil not being then found out. He excelled
in architecture as well as in painting j and was con¬
cerned in the fabric of SanCta Maria del Fior at Flo¬
rence, during which employment he died at the age of
60, and left many difciples.
CIMBRI, an ancient Celtic nation, inhabiting the
northern parts of Germany. They are faid to have
been defcended from the Afiatic Cimmerians, and to
have taken the name of Cimbri when they changed
their old habitations. When they firft became re¬
markable, they inhabited chiefly the peninfula, now
called Jutland, and by the ancients Cimbrica Cherfo-
nefus. About 113 years before Chrift, they left their
peninfula with their wives and children ; and joining
the Teutones, a neighbouring nation, took their jour¬
ney fouthward in queft of a better country. They
firft fell upon the Boii, a Gaulifti nation, fituated near
the Hercynian foreft. Here they were repulfed, and
obliged to move nearer the Roman provinces. The
republic being then alarmed at the approach of fuch
multitudes of barbarians, fent an army againft them
under
C I M [ i
Cimbri. under the conful Papirius Carbo. On the approach of
the Roman army, the Cimbri made propofals of peace.
The conful pretended to accept of it $ but having
thrown them into a difadvantageous fituation, trea-
cheroufly attacked their camp. His perfidy was reward¬
ed as it deferred ; the Cimbri ran to arms, and not
only repulfed the Romans, but, attacking them in their
turn, utterly defeated them, and obliged the (battered
remains of their forces to conceal themfelves in the
neighbouring forefts. After this victory the Cimbri
entered Tranfalpine Gaul, which they quickly filled
with (laughter and defolation. Here they continued
five or fix years, when another Roman army under the
conful Silanus marched againft them. This general
met with no better fuccefs than Carbo had done. His
army was routed at the firft onfet j in confequence of
which, all Narbonne Gaul was expofed at once to the
ravages of thefe barbarians.
About 105 years before Chrifl, the Cimbri began
to threaten the Roman empire itfelf with de(lru<Rion.
The Gauls marched from all parts with a defign to join
them, and to invade Italy. The Roman army was eom-
1 manded by the proconful Caepio, and the conful Mal-
lius ; but as thefe two commanders could not agree,
they were advifed to feparate, and divide their forces.
This advice proved the ruin of the whole army. The
Cimbri immediately fell upon a ftrong detachment of
the confular army commanded by M. Aurelius Scaurus,
which they cut off to a man, and made Scaurus him-
felf prifoner. Mallius being greatly intimidated by
this defeat, defired a reconciliation with Caepio, but
was haughtily refufed. He moved nearer the conful,
however, with his army, that the enemy might not be
defeated without his having a (hare in the aflion. The
Cimbri, by this movement, imagining the commanders
had made up their quarrel, fent ambaffadors to Mallius
with propofals of peace. As they could not help go¬
ing through Caepio’s camp, he ordered them to be
brought before him ; but finding they were empower¬
ed to treat only wdth Mallius, he could fcarce be re-
ftrained from putting them to death. His troops, how¬
ever, forced him to confer with Mallius about the pro-
pofals fent by the barbarians : but as Caepio went to
the conful’s tent againft his will, fo he oppofed him in
every things contradicted with great obftinacy, and
infulted him in the groffeft manner. The deputies on
their return acquainted their countrymen that the mif-
underftanding between the Roman commanders (till
fubfifted ; upon ’which the Cimbri attacked the camp
of Caspio, and the Gauls that of Mallius. Both were
forced, and the Romans (laughtered without mercy.
Eighty thoufand citizens and allies of Rome, with
40,000 fervants and futlers, periftied on that fatal day.
In {hurt, of the two Roman armies only 10 men, with
the two generals, efcaped to carry the news of fo dread¬
ful a defeat. The conquerors deftroyed all the fpoil, pur-
fuant to a vow they had made before the battle. The
gold and filver they threw into the Rhone, drowned
the horfes they had taken, and put to death all the pri-
foners.
The Romans were thrown into the utmoft confter-
nation on the new!s of fo terrible an overthrow. They
faw themfelves threatened with a deluge of Cimbri
and Gauls, numerous enough to overrun the whole
country. They did not, however, defpair. A new
;2 ] . C I M
army was raifed with incredible expedition *, no citi- cinibri.
zen whatever who was fit to bear arms being exempt- —y—*
ed. On this occafion alfo, fencing-mafters were firft
introduced into the Roman camp; by which means the
foldiers were foon rendered in a manner invincible.
Marius, who was at that time in high reputation on
account of his victories in Africa, was chofen com¬
mander, and waited for the Cimbri in Tranfalpine
Gaul : but they had refolved to enter Italy by two
different ways ; the Cimbri over the eailern, and the
Teutones and other allies over the weftern Alps. The
Roman general, therefore, marched to oppufe the lat¬
ter, and defeated the Ambrones and Teutones with
great (laughter *. The Cimbri, in the mean time, * See 4m.
entered Italy, and (truck the whole country with ter-and
ror. Catullus and Sylla attempted to oppofe them j Teutonet,
but their foldiers were fo intimidated by the fierce
countenances and terrible appearance of thefe barba¬
rians, that nothing could prevent their flying before
them. The city of Rome was now totally defence-
lefs; and, had the Cimbri only marched brilkly for¬
wards they had undoubtedly become mailers of it ;
but they waited in expectation of being joined by iheir
allies the Ambrones and Teutones, not having heard
of their defeat by Marius, till the fenate had time to
recal him to the defence of his country. By their or¬
der he joined his army to that of Catullus and Sylla ;
and upon that union was declared commander in chief.
The Roman army confided of 52,300 men. The ca¬
valry of the Cimbri were no more than 15,000, but
their foot feemed innumerable ; for, being drawn up
in a fquare, they are faid to have covered 30 furlongs.
The Cimbri attacked the Romans with the utmoft
fury ; but, being unaccuftomed to bear the heats of
Italy, they foon began to lofe their ftrength, and were
eafily overcome. But they had put it out of their
power to fly ; for, that they might keep their ranks
the better, they had, like true barbarians, tied them¬
felves together with cords fattened to their belts, fo
that the Romans made a moft terrible havoc of them.
The battle was therefore foon over, and the whole
day employed only in the moft terrible butchery. An
hundred and twenty thoufand were killed on the field
of battle, and 60,000 taken prifoners. The victorious
Romans then marched to the enemy’s camp, where
they had a new battle to fight with the women, whom
they found more fierce than even their hufbands bad
been. From their carts and waggons, which formed
a kind of fortification, they difcharged (bowers of darts
and arrows on friends and foes without diftinCtion.
They firft fuffocated their children in their arms,
and then put an end to their own lives. The greatefi:
part of them hanged themfelves on trees. One was
found hanging at a cart with two of her children at
her heels. Many of the men, for want of trees and
(takes, tied firings in running knots about their necks,
and fattened them to the tails of their horfes, and the
horns and feet of their oxen, in order to ftrangle them¬
felves that way ; and thus the whole multitude was de-
ftroved.
The country of the Cimbri, which, after this ter¬
rible cataftrophe, was left a mere defert, was again
peopled by the Scythians; who being driven by Pom-
pey out of that vaft fpace between the Euxine and the
Cafpian fea, inarched towards the north and weft of
Europe,
c I M [ 153 ] C I M
Cimbn Europe, fubduing all the nations they met with in their
|) way. They conquered Ruffia, Saxony, Weftphalia,
Cimolia. and other countries as far as Finland, Norway, and
Sweden. It is pretended that Wodin their leader, tra-
verfed fo many countries, and endeavoured to fubdue
them, only with a view to excite the people againft
the Romans; and that the fpirit of animotity which
he had excited operated fo powerfully after his death,
that the northern nations combined to attack it, and
never ceafed their incurfions till it was totally fub-
verted.
CIMEX, or Bug, in Zoo/ogy, a genus of infers
belonging to the order of hemiptera. See Entomo¬
logy Index.
The methods of expelling houfe bugs are various, as
oil of turpentine, the fmoke of corn-mint, of narrow¬
leaved wild crefs, of herb-robert, of the reddith agaric,
of muftard, Guinea pepper, peats, or turf, &c. See
alfo Bug and Cimicifuga.
CIMICIFUGA. See Botany Index.
The cimicifuga foetida has obtained the name of
cimicifuga, or bugbane, both in Siberia and Tartary,
from its property of driving away thofe infedts; and
the botanifts of thofe parts of Europe which are infeft-
ed with them have long defired to naturalife it in their
feveral countries. Gmelin mentions that in Siberia
the natives alfo ufe it as an evacuant in dropfy, and
that its effe£s are violently emetic and drallic.
CIMMERII, anciently a people near the Palus
Maeotis. They invaded Afia Minor 1 284 years be¬
fore Chrift, and feized upon the kingdom of Cyaxa-
res. After they had been mailers of the country for
28 years, they were driven back by Alvates king of
Lydia. The name alfo of another nation on the weft-
ern coall of Italy. The country which they inhabit¬
ed was fuppofed to be fo gloomy, that to'exprefs a
great obfcurity, the exprefllon of Cimmerian darhnefs
has proverbially been ufed ; and Homer, according to
Plutarch, drew his images of hell and Pluto from the
gloomy and difmal country where they dwelt.
CIMMERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town at
the mouth of the Palus Maeotis; from which the Bof*
phorus Cimmerius is named; that flrait which joins the
Euxine and the Palus Maeotis. Cimmerii was the name
of the people (Homer) : and here flood the Promon-
torium Cimmerium (Ptolemy) ; and hence probably
the modern appellation Crim.
Cimmerium, in Ancient Geography, a place near
Baiae, in Campania, where formerly flood the cave of
the fibyl. The people were called Cimmerii, who liv¬
ing in fubterraneous habitations, from which they if-
fued in the night to commit robberies and other a<Rs
of violence, never faw the light of the fun (Homer).
To give a natural account of this fable, Feflus fays,
there was a valley furrounded with a pretty high ridge,
which precluded the morning and evening fun.
CIMOLIA TERRA, in Natural Hi/lory, a name ap¬
plied by the ancients to an earth, at one time much
employed in medicine ; but which later ages have fup¬
pofed to be no other than our tobacco-pipe day and
fullers earth.
The cimolia terra of the ancients was found in fe-
yeral of the iflands of the Archipelago, particularly
in the ifiand of Cimolus, from whence it has its name.
It was ufed with great fucctfs iij the ervfipelas, in.
Vol. VI. Part I.
flammations, and the like, being applied by way of
cataplafra to the part. They alfo ufed, as we do,
what we call cimolia, or fullers earth, for the cleanfing
of clothes. This earth of the ancients, though fo long
difregarded, and by many fuppofed to be loft, is yet
very plentiful in Argentiere (the ancient Cimolus),
Sphanto, and many of thofe id nds. It is a marl of
a lax and crumbly texture, and a pure bright white
colour, very foft to the touch. It adheres firmly to
the tongue, and, if thrown into water, raifes a little
hiding and ebullition, and moulders to a fine powder.
It makes a confiderable effervefcence with acids, and
fuffers no change of colour in the fire. Thefe are the
charafters of what the ancients called limply terra ci¬
molia ; but betides this, they had from the fame place
another earth which they called by the fame general
name, but diftinguilhed by the epithet purple, purpu-
refeens. This they deferibed to be fattith, cold to the
touch, of a mixed purple colour, and nearly as hard as
a (tone. And this was evidently the lubftance we call
Jleatites, or the foap-rock, common in Cornwall, and al¬
fo in the illand of Argentiere, or Cimolus.
CIMOLIA Alba, the officinal name of the earth of
which we now make tobacco-pipes. Its diftinguifliing
charaflers are, that it is a denfe, compadt, heavy earth,
of a dull white colour, and very clofe texture ; it will
not eafily break between the fingers, and {lightly ftains
the Ikin in handling. It adheres firmly to the tongue ;
melts very flowly in the mouth, and is not readily'dif-
fufible in water. It is found in many places. That
of the ifle of Wight is much efteemed for its colour.
Great plenty of it is found near Pole in Dorfetdiire,
and near Wedenfbury in Staffordftrire.
Cimolia Nigra, is of a dark lead colour, hard, dry,
and heavy : of a fmooth compadl texture, and not vif-
cid : it does not colour the hands; crumbles when dry ;
adheres to the tongue ; diffufes llowly in water ; and
is not a died upon by acids. It burns perfectly white,
and acquires a confiderable hardnefs. The chief pits
for this clay are near Northampton, v. here it is ufed in
the manufadlure of tobacco-pipes. It is alfo mixed
with the critche clay of Derbylhire, in the proportion
of one part to three, in the manufadlure ot the hard
reddiffi brown ware.
CIMOLUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the Cy¬
clades, now called Argentiere.
_ CIMON, an Athenian, fon of Miltiades and He-
gifipyle. He was famous for his debaucheries in bis
youth, and the reformation of his morals when arrived
to years of diferetion. He behaved with great cou¬
rage at the battle of Salamis, and rendered himfelf po¬
pular by his munificence and valour. He defeated
the Perfian fleet, took 200 ffiips, and totally routed
their land army, the very fame day, A. U. C. 284.
The money that he had obtained by his vi&ories was not
applied for his own private ufe, but with it he fortified
and embelliffied the city. He fume time after loft all
his popularity, and was banilhed by the Athenians, who
declared war againft the Lacedaemonians. He was re¬
called from his exile, and at his return he made a re¬
conciliation between Lacedaemon and his countrymen.
He was afterwards appointed to carry on the war a*
gainft Perfia in Egypt and Cyprus, with a fleet of 200
fliip-q and on the coaft of Afia he gave battle to the
enemy, and totally ruined their fleet, A. U. C. 304.
^ He
C I N
Chnon He died as he was befieging the town of Citium in
li Cyprus He may be called the laft of the Greeks
Cincho.iR. wj10pe jpjrj- an(] boldnefs defeated the armies of the
barbarians. He was fueh an inveterate enemy to the
Perfian power, that he formed a plan of totally de-
flroving it •, and in his wars he had fo reduced the
Perfians, that they promifed in a treaty not to pafs
the Chelidonian iflands with their Heel, or to approach
• within a day’s journey of the Grecian feas. See At-
TIC A.
CINALOA, a province of Mexico in South A-
merica, abounding in corn, cattle, and cotton ; and
rendered extremely pifturefque by a number of beau¬
tiful cafcades of clear water that fall down from the
mountains. It lies on the eaflern coaft of the lea of
California, and has a town of the fame name, fituated
in N. Lat. 26°.
CINARA, the Artichoke. See Cynara, Bo¬
tany Index.
CINCHONA. See Botany Index,
According to fome, the Peruvians learned the ufe
of the bark of this tree by obferving certain animals
affected with intermittents inftinftively led to it; while
others fay, that a* Peruvian having an ague, was cured
by happening to drink of a pool which, from fume
trees having fallen into it, tailed of cinchona ; and its
ufe in gangrene is laid to have originated from its cur¬
ing one in an aguilh patient. About the year 1640,
the lady of the Spanilh viceroy, the Comitiffa dfel Cin-
chon, was cured by the bark, which has therefore been
called Cortex or Pu/vis Comitifj're Cinchona-^ Chinachi-
rin, or Chinchina, Kinakina or Kinkina, ^uinuquina or
Quinquina; and from the interell which the cardinal
de Lugo and the Jefuit fathers took in its didribution,
it has been called Cortex or Pu/vis Cardmalis de Lugo,
Jefuiticus, Patrum, <b'c.
On its firll introdu6lion into Europe, it was repro¬
bated by many eminent phyficians; and at different pe¬
riods long after, it was confidered a dangerous remedy ;
but its character, in procefs of time, became very uni-
verfally eltablilhed. For a number of years, the bark
which is rolled up into (hort thick quills, with a rough
coat, and a bright cinnamon colour in the infide,
which broke brittle, and was found, had an aromatic
flavour, a bitterifh aftringent tafte, with a degree of
aromatic warmth, was efleemed the bell ; though fome
efteemed the large pieces as of equal goodntf-. Dur¬
ing the time of the late war, in the year 1779, the
Hulfar frigate took a Spanifb Ihip, loaded principally
with Peruvian bark, which was much larger, thicker,
and of a deeper reddifh colour than the bark in com¬
mon ufe. Soon after it was brought to London, it was
tried in St Bartholomew’s hofpital, and in other hofpi-
tals about town, and was faid to be more efficacious
than the quill bark. This put pra6litioners upon exa¬
mining into the hiffiory of the bark, on trxing txneri-
ments with it, and of making comparative trials of its
effe£ls with thofe of the bark in common ufe on pa-
tit nts labouring under intermittent complaints. In
July 1782, Dr William Saunders publiffied an account
of this red bark, in which he fays that the fmall quill
bark ufed in England is either the bark of young
trees, or of the twigs or branches of the old ones ;
and that the large bark, called the red bark from the
deep colour, is the bark of the trunk of the old trees ;
C I N
and he mentions a Mr Arnot, who himfelf gathered CincWia.
the Lark from the trees in Peru ; and Monf. Conda- y—j
mine, who gives an account of the tree in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris in the
year 1738 ; who both fay, that taking the bark from
an old tree effe&ually kills it ; but that molt of the
young trees which are barked recover, and continue
healthy ; and that for thefe reafons the Spaniards now
barked the younger trees for foreign markets, though
they Hill imported into Spain fome of the bark of the
old trees, which they efteemed to be much more effi¬
cacious than what was got from the young. From
thefe accounts Dr Saunders concludes, that the large
red bark brought to London in the year 1779 was of
the fame kind as that ufed by Sydenham and Morton,
as it anfwers to the defeription of the bark ufed in
their time, which is given by Dale and other writers
on the materia medica, who were their contemporaries.
Dr Saunders fays, that it is not only ftronger and
more refinous, but likewife more efficacious and certain
in its effect, than the common bark, and had cured
many agues after the other had failed.
A fpecies of cinchona has alfo been difeovered in
the Weft India iflands, particularly in Jamaica. It is
accurately deferibed by Dr Wright, under the title
of Cinchona Jamaicen/isy in a paper publiflied in the
Philofophical Tranfadtions. In Jamaica it is called
the feajide beech, and grows from 20 to 40 feet high.
The white, furrowed, thick outer bark is not ufed;
the dark brown inner bark has the common flavour,
with a mixed kind of a tafte, at firft of horfe radiftt
and ginger, becoming at laft bitter and aftringent. It
feems to give out more extradlive matter than the cin¬
chona officinalis. Some of it was imported from St
Lucia, in confequence of its having been ufed with ad¬
vantage in the army and navy during the laft war; and
it has lately been treated o>f at confiderable length by
Dr Kentilh, under the title of St Lucia bark. The
frefli bark is found to be confiderably emetic and ca¬
thartic, which properties it is faid to lofe on drying.
The pale and the red are chiefly in ufe in Britain.
The pale is brought to us in pieces of different fizes,
either flat or quilled, and the powder is rather of a
lighter colour than that of cinnamon. The red is ge¬
nerally in much larger, thicker, flattifh pieces, but
fometimes alfo in the form of quills, and its powder is
reddiffi like that of Armenian bole. As already ob<-
ferved, it is much more refinou-., and poffeffes the fen-
fible qualities of the cinchona in a much higher degree
than the other forts ; and the more nearly the other
kinds referable the red bark, the better they are now
.confidered. The red bark is heavy, firm, found, and
dry; friable between the teeth ; does not feparate into
fibres; and breaks, not ftiivery, but fliort, clofe, and
fmooth. It has three layers ; the outer is thin, rug¬
ged, of a reddifh brown colour, but frequently cover¬
ed with moffy matter; the middle is thicker, more
compact, darker coloured, very refinous, brittle, and
yie'ds firft to the peftle ; the inmoft is more woody,
fibrous, and of a brighter red.
The Peruvian bark yields its virtues both to cold
and boiling water; but the decoction is thicker, gives
out its tafte more readily, and forms an ink with a
chalybeate more fuddenly than the frefh cold infufion.
This infufion, however, contains at leaft as much ex-
tra&ive
[ 154 ]
C I N
Cinchona, tractive matter, but more in a ftate of folution ; and its
*—'V“—^ colour, on ftanding tome time with the chalybeate, be¬
comes darker, while that of the decoftion becomes
more faint. When they are of a certain age, the ad¬
dition of a chalybeate renders them green j and when
this is the cafe, they are found to be in a date of fer¬
mentation, and effete. Mild or cauftic alkalies, or
lime, precipitate the extractive matter, which in the
cafe of the cauftic alkali is redilfolved by a farther ad¬
dition of the alkali. Lime-water precipitates lefs from
a frelh infufion than from a frefh decodtion ; and in the
precipitate of this laft fome mild earth is perceptible.
The infufion is by age reduced to the fame ftate with
the frelh decodtion, and then they depofite nearly an
equal quantity of mild earth and extradtive matter •, fo
that lime-water, as well as a chalybeate, may be ufed
as a left of the relative ftrength, and perilhable nature
of the different preparations, and of different barks.
Accordingly cold infufions are found by experiments
to be lefs perifhable than decodlions ; infufions and de-
codtions of the red bark than thofe of the pale j thofe
of the red bark, however, are found by length of time
to feparate more mild earth with the lime-water, and
more extradtive matter. Lime-water, as precipitating
the extradtive matter, appears an equally improper and
difagreeable menllruum.
Water is found to fufpend the refin by means of
much It Is gum than has been fuppofed. Alcohol
extradts a-bitternefs, but no aftringency, from a re-
fiduum of 20 afftifions of cold water ; and water extradts
aftringency, but no bitternefs from the refiduum of as
many affufions of alcohol. The refiduum in both is
infipid.
From many ingenious experiments made on the Pe¬
ruvian bark by Dr Irvine, which are now publilhed in
a differtation which gained the prize medal given by
the Harveian Society of Edinburgh for 1783, the
power of different menftrua, as adting upon Peruvian
bark, is afcertained with greater accuracy than had be¬
fore been done; and it appears, that with refpedt to
comparative power, the fluids after mentioned adt in
the order in which they are placed.
Dulcified fpirit of vitriol.
Cauftic ley.
French brandy.
Rheniftr wine.
Soft water.
Vinegar and water.
Dulcified fpirit of nitre.
Mild volatile alkali.
Alcohol.
Mild vegetable alkali.
Lime-water.
The antifeptic powers of vinegar and bark united
are double the fum of thofe taken feparately. The
aftringent power of the bark is increafed by fulphuric
acid ; and the bitter tafte is deftroyed by it.
The officinal preparations of the bark are, x. The
powder : of this, the firft parcel that paffcs the fieve
being the moft refinous and brittle layer, is the ftrong-
eft. 2. The extradt: the watery and fpirituous ex-
tradl conjoined form the moft proper preparations of
this kind. 3. I he refin : this cannot perhaps be ob¬
tained feparate from the gummy part, nor would it be
C I N
defirable. 4. Spirituous tindlure: this is beft made cinchona,
with proof-fpirit. j. The decodtion : this preparation, ——y—'
though frequently employed, is yet in many refpedts
inferior even to a fimple watery infufion.
The beft form is that of powder, in which the
conftituent parts are in the moft effedtual proportion.
The cold infufion, which can be made in a few mi¬
nutes by agitation, the fpirituous tindhire } and the
extradt, are likewife proper in this refpedt. For co¬
vering the tafte, different patients require different ve¬
hicles } liquorice, aromatics, acids, port wine, fmall
beer, porter, milk, butter-milk, &c. are frequently em¬
ployed } and thofe who diflike the tafte of the bark it-
felf, vary in their accounts to which the preference is
due } or it may be given in form of eledtuary with cur¬
rant jelly, or with brandy or rum.
Pradtitioners have differed much with regard to the
mode of operation of the Peruvian bark. Some have
afcribed its virtues entirely to a ftimulant power. But
while the ftrongeft and moft permanent itimuli have
by no means the fame effedl with bark in the cure of
difeafes, the bark itfelf (hows hardly any ftimulant
power, either from its adlion on the ftomach, or on
other fenfible parts to which it is applied. From its
adlion on dead animal fibres, there can be no doubt of
its being a powerful aftringent; and from its good ef-
fedls in certain cafes of difeafe, there is reafon to pre-
fume that it is a ftill more powerful tonic. To this
tonic power fome think that its adlion as an antifeptie
is to. be entirely attributed } but that, independently
of this, it has a very powerful tffedl in rtfifting the
feptic procefs to which animal fubftances are naturally
fubjedled, appears beyond all difpute, from its effedts
in refilling putrefadlion, not only in dead animal fo-
lids, but even in animal fluids, when entirely detached
from the living body.
But although it be admited that the Peruvian bark
adls powerfully as an aftringent, as a tonic, and as an
antifeptic } yet thefe principles will by no means ex¬
plain all the effedls derived from it in the cure of dif-
eafes. And accordingly, from no artificial combina¬
tion in which thefe powers are combined, or in which
they exift even to a higher degree, can the good con-
fequences refulting from Peruvian bark be obtained.
Many pradlitioners, therefore, are difpofed to view it
as a fpecific. If by a fpecific we mean an infallible re¬
medy, it cannot indeed be confidered as entitled to
that appellation } but in as far as it is a very powerful
remedy, of the operation of which no fatisfadlory ex¬
planation has yet been given, it may with great pro¬
priety be denominated a fpecific. But whatever its
mode of operation may be, there can be no doubt that
it is daily employed with fuccefs in a great variety of
different difeafes.
It was firft introduced, as has already been faid, for
the cure of intermittent fevers } and in thefe, when
properly exhibited, it rarely fails of fuccefs. Prafti-
tioners, however, have differed with regard to the beft
mode ot exhibition ; fame prefer giving it juft before
the fit, fome during the fit, others immediately after
it. Some again, order it in the quantity of an ounce,
between the fits } the dofe being the more frequent
and larger according to the frequency of the fits } and
this mode of exhibition, although it may perhaps
fometimes lead to the employment of more bark than
U 2
1 155 ]
is
c I N r 156 J C I N
Cinchona. IS neceflary, we confider as upon the whole preferable,
——y _ from being beft luited to moft ftomachs. The requifite
quantity is very different in different cafes j and in
many vernal intermittents it feems even hardly necef-
fary.
It often pukes or purges, and fometimes oppreffes
the ftomach. Thefe, or any other effects that may
take place, are to be counteracted by remedies parti¬
cularly appropriated to them. Thus, vomiting is of¬
ten reftraintd by exhibiting it in wine \ loofenefs, by
combining it with opium 5 and oppreflion at ftomach,
by the addition of an aromatic. But unlefs for ob¬
viating particular occurrences, it is more fuccefsful
when exhibited in its Ample ttate than with any addi¬
tion ; and there feems to be little ground for believing
that its powers are increafed by crude fal ammoniac,
or any other additions which have frequently been
made.
It is now given, from the very commencement of
the difeafe, without previous evacuations, which, with
the delay of the bark, or under dofes of it, by retard¬
ing the cure, often feem to induce abdominal inflam¬
mation, fchirrus, jaundice, hedtie, dropfy, &c. fymp-
toms formerly imputed to the premature or intempe¬
rate ufe of the bark, but which are beft obviated by its
early and large ufe. It is to be continued not only till
the paroxyfms ceafe, but till the natural appetite,
ftrength, and complexion, return. Its ufe is then to
be gradually left off, and repeated at proper intervals
to lecure againft a relapfe j to which, however unac¬
countable, independently of the recovery of vigour,
there often feems to be a peculiar difpofition, and
efpecially when the wind blows from the eaft. Al¬
though, however, moft evacuants conjoined with the
Peruvian bark in intermittents are rather prejudicial
than otherwife, yet it is of advantage, previous to its
ufe, to empty the alimentary canal, particularly the
flomach j and on this account good effects are often
obtained from premifing an emetic.
It is a medicine which feems not only fuited to both
formed and latent intermittents, but to that ftate of fi¬
bre on which all rigidly periodical difeafes feem to de¬
pend ; as periodical pain, inflammation, hemorrhagy,
fpafm, cough, lofs of external fenfe, &c.
Bark is now ufed by feme in all continued fevers :
at the fame time attention is paid to keep the bowels
clean, and to promote when neceflary the evacuation of
redundant bile ; always, however, fu as to weaken as
little as poflible. '
In confluent fmall-pox, it promotes languid eruption
and fuppuratiun, diminifhes the fever through the
whole courfe of it, and prevents or corrects putrefcence
and gangrene.
In gangrenous fore throats it is much ufed, as it is
externally and internally in every fpecies of gangrene.
In contagious dyfentery, after due evacuation, it
has been uled by the mouth, and by injeffion with and
without opium.
In all thofe hemorrhagies called pajjive, and which
it is allowed all hemorrhagies are very apt to become,
and likewife in other increafed difeharges, it is much
ufed ; and in certain undefined cafes of haemoptyfis,
fome allege that it is remarkably effe&ual when joined
with an abforbent.
It is ufed for obviating the difpofition to nervous and
1
convulfive difeafes $ and fome have great confidence in Cii chona
it joined with fulphuric acid, in cafes of phthifis, |j
fcrophula, ill-conditioned ulcers, rickets, feurvy, and fiineas.
in itates of convalefcence. *
In thefe cafes in general, notwithftanding the ufe
of the acid, it is proper to conjoin it with a milk diet.
In dropfy, not depending on any particular local
affection, it is often alternated or conjoined with diu¬
retics, or other evacuants j and by its early exhibition
after the water is once drawn off, or even begins to
be freely difeharged, a frefti accumulation is prevented,
and a radical cure obtained. In obftinate venereal
cates, particularly thofe which appear under the form
of pains in the bones, the Peruvian bark is often fuc-
celsfully fubjoined to mercury, or even given in con¬
junction with it.
CII\CIJmNA 1 US, the Roman diCIator, was taken
from the plough, to be advanced to the dignity of
conful, in which office he jeftored public tranquillity,
and then returned to his rural employments. Being
called toith a fecund time to be dictator, he conquered,
the enemies of Rome, and refufing all rewards, reti¬
red again to his tarm, after he had been dictator only
16 days. I he fame circumftance occurred once more
in the 80th year of his age.. He died 376 years be¬
fore Chrift.
Order of ClNCINNATUS, or the Cincinnati, a fociety
which was eftablilhed in America foon after the
peace, and confifts of the generals and officers of the
army and navy of the United States. This inftitu-
tion,. caked after the name of the Roman dictator
mentioned in the preceding article, was intended to
perpetuate the memory of the revolution, the friend-
flu p of the officers, and the union of the flatesj and
alio to raife a fund for the relief of poor widows and
orphans, whofe hufbands and fathers had fallen during
the war, and for their defendants. The fociety was
fubdividtd into ftate focieties, which were to meet on
the 4th of July, and with other bufint fs depute a num¬
ber ot their members to convene annually in general
meetings. The members of the inftitution were to be
diltinguiftied by wearing a medal, emblematical of the
defign of the fociety j and the honours and advantages
were to be hereditary in the eldeft male heirs, and in
default of male ifiue, in the collateral male heirs. Ho¬
norary members were to be admitted, but without the
hereditary advantages of the fociety $ and provided *
their number (hould never exceed the ratio of one to
four of the officers or their defeendants. Though the
apparent defig ns of this fociety were harmlefs and
honourable, it did not efcape popular jealoufy. Views
of a deeper, nature were imputed to the framers, and
the inftitution was jenfured and oppofed as giving
birth to a military nobility, of a dangerous ariftocratic
power, which might ultimately prove ruinous to the
liberties of the new empire. But the principal ground'
of apprehenfion was the fuppofed right of inheritance
cnnneCled with this honour to render it hereditary ^
which, however, has been given up and totally dif-
claimed by the fociety.
CINC1URE, in ylrchiteSlure, a ring, lift, or orlo,
at the top and bottom of the fhaft of a column, fe-
parating the fhaft at one end from the bafe, and at the
other from the capital.
CINEAb, a iheffalian, uiinifter and friend to Pyr¬
rhus-
C I N [ 1
Cineas rhus king of Epirus. He was fent to Rome by kis
II mafter to fue for a peace, which he, however, could
Cinnabar. no^ 0btajn> pje told Pyrrhus that the Roman fenate
' "¥ was a venerable affembly of kings •, and obferved, that
to fight with them was to fight againit another Hy¬
dra. He was of fuch a retentive memory, that the day
after his arrival at Rome he could call every fenator and
knight by his name.
• C1NERITIOUS, an appellation given to different
fubftances, on account of their refembling alhes either
in colour or confidence *, hence it is that the cortical
part of the brain has fometimes got this epithet.
CINNA, L. Corn, a Roman who oppreffed the
republic with his cruelties. He was banifhed by Oc¬
tavius for attempting to make the fugitive Haves free.
He joined himfelf with Marius, and with him at the
head of the Haves he defeated his enemies and made
himfelf conful even to a fourth time. He maffacred fo
many citizens at Rome, that his name became odious,
and one of his officers aflaflinated him at Ancona, as he
was preparing war againft Sylla.
ClNNA, C. Helvius, a poet intimate with Csefar.
He went to attend the obfequies of Caefar, and being
miftaken by the populace for the other Cinna, he was
torn to pieces.— Alfo a grandfon of Pompey’s. He
confpired againft Auguftus, who pardoned him, and
made him one of his moft intimate friends. He was
conful A. U. C. 758, and made Auguftus his heir.
CINNABAR, in Natural Hi/iory, is either native or
factitious.
The native cinnabar is an ore of quickfilver, mode¬
rately compaCt, very heavy, and of an elegant ftriated
red colour. See Mineralogy Index.
FaSiitious cinnabar is a mixture of mercury and ful-
phur fublimed, and thus reduced into a fine red glebe.
The beft is of a high colour, and full of fibres like
needles. See CHEMISTRY Index.
The chief ufe of cinnabar is for painting. Although
the body is eompofed of fulphur, which is of a light
colour, and mercury, which is white as filver, it is ne-
verthelefs of an exceeding ftrong red colour. Lumps
of it are of a deep brown red without brilliancy $
but when the too great intenfity of its colour is di-
minifhed by bruifing and dividing it into fmall parts,
(which is a method generally ufed to Itffm the in¬
tenfity of all colours), the red of the cinnabar be¬
comes more and more exalted, flame-coloured, and ex¬
ceedingly vivid and brilliant $ in this ftate it is called
vermilion.
Cinnabar is often employed as an internal medicine.
Hoffman greatly recommends it as a fedative and an-
tifpafmodic, and Stahl makes it an ingredient in his
temperant powder. Other intelligent phyficians deny
that cinnabar taken internally has any medicinal qua¬
lity. Their opinion is grounded on the infolubility of
this fubftance in any raenftruum. This queftion con¬
cerning its internal utility cannot be decided without
further refearches and experiments ; but cinnabar is
certainly ufed with fuccefs to procure a mercurial fu¬
migation, when that method of cure is proper in vene¬
real difeafes. For this purpofe it is burnt in an open
fire on red-hot coals, by which the mercury is difenga-
ged and forms vapours, which, being applied to the
body of the deceafed perfon, penetrate through the
57 3 c I N
pores of the fkin, and produce effcfts fimilar to thofe of Cinnabar
mercury adminiftered by fridlion. ||
CINNAMON, the bark of two fpecies of laurus. ^n<lue"
The true cinnamon is from the laurus cinnamomum $ . * r
and the bafe cinnamon, which is often fold for the
true, is from the laurus caflia. See Laurus, Botany
Index.
ClNNAMON-Water, is made by diftilling the bark
firft infufed in alcohol, brandy, or white-wine.
Clove CINNAMON, is the bark of a tree growing in
B.azil, which is often fubftituted for real cloves.
White CINNAMON, called alfo Winter's bark, is the
bark of a tree frequent in the ifles of St Domingo,-
Guadaloupe, &c. of a fharp biting tafte like pepper.
Some ufe it inftead of nutmeg j and in medicine it is
efteemed a ftomachic and antifcorbutic. See Ca*^
NElla.
CINNAMUS, a Greek hiftorian, wrote a hiftory
of the eaftern empire during the reigns of John and
Manuel Commenes, from in8 to 1143. ftyl« is
reckoned the beft of the modern Greek authors. He
died after 11 83.
CINNERETH, Cinereth, Chinnereth, (Mofes) *
or Gennefareth, in Ancient Geography, a lake of the
Lower Galilee, called the Sea of Galilee, (Matthew) ;
of Tiberius, (John). Its name Gennefareth is from a
fmall cognominal diftrict upon it. In breadth 40 fla-
dia, in length 140. The water frefti and fit to drink,
and abounding in filh.
CINQUEFOIL, in Botany. See Potentilla.
CINQUE-Ports, five havens that lie on the eaft
part of England, towards France j thus called by way
of eminence on account of their fuperior importance,
as having been thought by our kings to merit a parti¬
cular regard for their prefervation againft invalion.
Hence they have a particular policy, and are governed
by a keeper with the title of Lord-warden of the
Cinque-ports.
Camden tells us, that William the Conqueror firft
appointed a warden of the Cinque-ports; but King
John firft granted them their privileges, and that up¬
on condition they ftiould provide 80 ftiips at their
own charge for 40 days, as often as the king Ihould
have occafion in the wars, he being then ftraitened for
a navy to recover Normandy.
The five ports are Haftings, Romney, Hythe,
Dover, and Sandwich.—Thorn tells us, that Ha¬
ftings provided 21 velfels, and in each vefiel 21 men.
To this port belong Seaford, Pevenfey, Hedney, Win-
chelfea, Rye, Hamine, Wakefbourn, Creneth, and
Forthclipe.—Romney provided five ftiips, and in each
24 men. To this belonged Bromhal, Lyde, Ofwar-
ftone, Dangemares, and Romenhal.—Hythe furnilhed
feven fhips, and in each 21 feamen. To this belongs
Weftmeath.—Dover the fame number as Haftings. To
this belongs Folkfton, Feverfham, and Marge.—Laft-
ly, Sandwich furniftied the fame with Hythe. To
this belong Fordiwic, Reculver, Serre, and Deal.
The privileges granted to them in confequence of
thefe fervices were very great. Amongft others, they
were each of them to fend two barons to reprefent
them in parliament; their deputies were to bear the
canopy over the king’s head at the time of his coro¬
nation, and to dine at the uppermoft table in the
greaS -
C I P f 15S ] C I P
great hall on his right hand j to be exempted from fub-
fidies and other aids •, their heirs to be free from per-
fonal wardlhip, notwithftanding any tenure to be
impleaded in their own towns, and not elfewhere j not
to be liable to tolls, &c.
The Cinque-ports give the following titles : Ra¬
ftings, a barony to the ancient family of Huntington :
Romney, to the Marlhams : Dover, new barony, to a
branch of the York family j formerly a dukedom (now
extinct) to the Queenfberry family : Sandwich, an
earldom to a branch of the Montagues.
C1NTRA, a cape and mountain of Portugal, in the
province of Eftremadura, ufually called the Rock of Lif-
bon. It lies on the north fid£ of the entrance of the
river Tajo j and there is a town of the fame name litu-
ated thereon. W. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 59. O.
CINUS, or Cynus, a famous civilian of Piftoia in
the 14th century. His commentary on the Code was
finilhed in 1313 ; he alfo wrote on fome parts of the
Digeft. He was no lef* famous for his Italian poems,
and is ranked among thofe who firft gave graces to the
Tufcan lyric poetry.
CINYRA, in the Jewilh antiquities, a mufical in-
ftrument. This, and the Hebrew crV/nor, which is ge¬
nerally tranflated cither a, /yra, or pfallenum, are the
lame. It was made of wood, and was played on in the
temple of Jerufalem. Jofephus fays that the cimjra of
the temple had ten firings, and that it was touched
with a bow. In another place he fays that Solomon
made a great number of them with a precious kind of
metal called eleflrum, wherein he contradicts the Scrip¬
tures, which inform us that Solomon’s cinnors were
made of wood.
CINYRAS, in fabulous hiftory, a king of Cyprus,
fon of Paphus. He married Cenchreis, by whom he
had a daughter called Myrrha. Myrrha fell in love
with her father, and in the abfence of her mother fhe
introduced herfelf into his bed by means of her nurfe.
Cinyras had by her a fon called Adonis ; and when he
knew the inceft he had, committed, he attempted to
ftab his daughter, who efcaped his purfuit and fled to
Arabia, where, after fhe had brought forth, fhe was
changed into a tree which ftill bears her name. .Ciny¬
ras, according to fome, ftabbed himfelf.
CION, or Cyon, in Gardening, a young fhoot,
fprout, or fprig, put forth by a tree. Grafting is per¬
formed by the application of the cion of one plant up¬
on the flock of another. To produce a flock of cions
for grafting, planting, &c. the gardeners fometimes
cutoff the bodies of trees a little above the ground,
and only leave a flump or root Handing : the redun¬
dant fap will not fail next fpring to put forth a great
niimber of fhoots. In drefling dwarf-trees, a great many
cions are to be cut off.
CIOTAT, a fea-port town of Provence in France ^
famous for Mufcadine wine. It is feated on the bay of
Laquea, between Marfeilles and Toulon ; and the har¬
bour is defended by a ftrong fort. E. Long. 5. go.
N. Lat. 43. 10.
CIPHER, or Cypher, one of the Arabic charac¬
ters or figures ufed in computation, formed thus, o.
See Arithmetic.
Cipher is alfo a kind of enigmatic chara£ler com-
pofed of feveral letters interwoven, which are general¬
ly the initial letters of the perfons names for whom
4
the ciphers are intended. Thefe are frequently ufed Cipher,
on feals, coaches, and other moveables.—Anciently, —v—»
merchants and tradefmen were not allowed to bear
arms : in lieu thereof, they bore their ciphers, or the
initial letters of their names, artfully interwoven about
a crofs, of which we have divers inltances on tombs,
&c. See Device.
CIPHER, denotes likewife certain fecret charadlers
difgutfed and varied, ufed in writing letters that con¬
tain fome fecret, not to be underitood but by thofe be¬
tween whom the cipher is agreed on.
De la Guilletiere, in his Lacedaemon ancient and mo¬
dern, endeavours to make the ancient Spartans the in¬
ventors of the art of writing in cipher. Their fcylala,
according to him, was the firft iketch of this myfteri-
ous art: thefe fcytalae were two rollers of wood, of
equal length and thicknefs j one of them kept by the
ephori, the other by the general of the army fent on
any expedition againft the enemy. Whenfoever thofe
magillrates would lend any fecret orders to the general,
they took a flip of parchment, and rolled it very juftly
about the fey tala which they had referved, and in this
ftate wrote their intentions, which appeared perfedl and
confiftent while the parchment continued on the roll :
when taken off, the writing was maimed, and without
connexion, but was eafily retrieved by the general, up¬
on his applying it to his fey tala.
Polybius fays, that AE.neas Ta&itus, 2000 years ago,
colle£ted together 20 different manners of writing fo
as not to be underftood by any but thofe in the fecret j
part whereof were invented by himfelf, and part ufed
before his time.—Trithemius, Cap. Porta, Vigenere,
and P. Niceron, have written exprefsly on the iubjtdl
of ciphers.
As the writing of cipher is become an art, fo is the
reading or unravelling thereof, called deciphering.—The
rules of deciphering are different in different languages.
By obferving the following, you will foon make out
any common cipher written in Englifli.
1. Ooferve the letters or characters that moft fre¬
quently occur, and fet them down for the fix vowels,
including y, and of thefe the moft frequent will gene¬
rally be e, and the leaft frequent u.
2. The vowels that moft frequently come together
are ea and ou.
3. The confonant moft common at the end of words
is j, and the next frequent r and t.
. .4. When two fimilar characters come together, they
are moft likely to be the confonants^ /, or s, or the
vowels e or 0.
.5. The letter that precedes or follows two fimilar
cbaraClers is either a vowel, or /, m, n, or r.
6. In deciphering, begin with the words that confift
of a fingle letter, which will be either o, /, 0, or &.
7. Then take the words of two letters, one of which
will be a vowel. Of thefe words the moft frequent are,
an, to, be, by,, of, on, or, no,Jo, as, at, if, in, is, it, he,
me, my, us, we, am.
8. In word-* of three letters there are moft common¬
ly two confonants. Of thefe words the moft frequent
are, the, and, not, but, yet, for, tho"1 ,-how, why, all, you,
fhe, his, her, our, who, may, can, did, was, are, has, had,
let, one, two, fix, ten, skfe.—Some of thefe, or thofe of
two letters, will be found in every fentence.
9. The moft common words of four letters are, this,
that.
c I P [I
r. that, then, thus, with, when, from, here, fame, mojl, none,
m~ they, them, whom, mine, your,felf, muji, will, have, been,
were, four, five, nine, &e.
10. The moft ufaal words of five letters, are, their,
theje, thofe, which, where, while, fince, there, Jhall, might,
Could, would, ought, three, feven, eight, &c.
11. Words of two or more fyllables frequently begin
with double confonants, or with a prepofition ; that is,
a vowel joined with one or more confonants. The moft
common double confonants are bl, br, dr, f,fr, gl, gr,
ph, pi, pr,Jh,Jb,fp,Jl, th, tr, wh, wr, &c. and the moft
common prepofitions are com, con, de, dis, ex, im, in,
int, mis, per, pre, pro, re,fub,fup, un, &c.
12. The double confonants molt frequent at the end
of long words, are ck, Id, If mn, nd, ng, rl, rm, rn, rp,
rt, frn, f, xt, &c. and the moft common terminations
are ed, en, er, es, et, ing, ly,fon,fion, lion, able, ence, ent,
ment,full, lefs, nefs, &c.
On Plate CXLIV, in Vol. V. fig, hj. is given an
example of a cipher wrote in arbitrary chara&ers as is
commonly praftifed. It will be eafily deciphered by
obferving the rules : but when the characters are all
placed clofe together, as in the example fig. 8. and as
they always fhould be, the deciphering is much more
difficult.
To decipher a writing of this fort, you muft firft
look for thofe characters that moft frequently occur,
and fet them down for vowels as before. Then ob-
ferve the fimilar characters that come together ; but
you muft remember that two fuch characters may
here belong to two words. You are next to remember
the combinations of two or three characters that are
moft frequent *, which will be fume of the words in
the feventh and eighth of the foregoing rules; and by
obferving the other rules, you will infallibly difcover,
with time and attention, any cipher wrote on thefe
principles.
When the words are wrote all clofe together, if
the key to the cipher were to be changed every word,
according to a regular method agreed on between the
parties, as might be done by either of the methods
mentioned in N° II. below, with very little additional
trouble, the writing would then be extremely difficult
to decipher. The longer any letter written in cipher
is, the more eafy it is to decipher, as then the repe¬
titions of the characters and combinations are the more
frequent.
_ The following are the contents of the two foregoing
ciphers, in which we have inverted the order of the
ivords and letters, that they who are defirous of trying
their talent at deciphering, mav not, inadvertently,
read the explanation before the cipher.
enil eno ton dna shtnom elohw eerht, suoidifrep
dna leurc o noituac & ecnedurp fo klat Uivv uoy : on,
rotiart, tcelgen & ecnereffidni si ti. yltrohs rettel a em
dnes ot snaem emof dnif'rehtie, traeh eht morf semoc
ti taht ees em tel &, erom ecaf ym ees ot erab reven ro.
evlewt fo ruoh eht ta thgin siht, ledatic eht fo etag
eht erofeb elbmeffa lliw sdneirf ruo 11a. ruoh eht ot
laufcnup eb : deraperp Hew emoc dna, ytrebil ruoy
niager ot, ylevarb eid ro. thgin eht si siht, su sekam
rehtie taht, etiuq su seodnu ro.
59 1 C I P
vioufly agree in what manner the cards fhall be firft: cipher.
placed, and then how they {hall be ffiuffled. Thus fup-   y—J
pofe the cards are to be firft placed in the order as here¬
after follows, and then (huffled by taking off 3 from the
top, putting the next 2 over them, and the following 3
under them *, and fo alternately. Therefore the par-* By flmf-
ty who fends the cipher firft writes the contents of itflinS the
on a feparate paper, and then copies the firft 32 letterscar<ls,n th‘3
on the cards, by writing one letter on every card ; he [herew’ill
then fhuffles them in the manner defcribed, and writes remain on-
the fecond 32 letters : he ffiuffles them a fecond time,1)' 2 t0 Put
and Avrites the third 32 letters, and fo of the reft. An}111'*61 at
example will make this plain. Suppofe the letter to be aft*
as follows.
I am in full march to relieve you ; within' three days
I Jhall be with you. If the ene\my in the mean time
Jhould make an a[]iiu\lt, remember what you owe to your
countr\y, to your family, and yourfelf Live with ho\nour,
or die with glory.
Order of the cards before
the 1 ft ftiuffle.
i a d u y i
a l e u l
m l m 0 i u
1 s u m l
n h l e 0
Ace fpades
Ten diamonds
Eight hearts
King fpades
Nine clubs
Seven diamonds f b m r i
Nine diamonds u a a c t n
Ace clubs l w k r y i
Knave hearts l s e e a e
Seven fpades mi a r m w
Ten clubs a i t h e r
Ten hearts r r h 0 f
Queen fpades c h e e i
Eight diamonds h a h y w
Eight clubs t y 0 o 0 l
Seven hearts 0 y a o h 0
Queen clubs r o n u y h
Nine fpades e u i y f y
King hearts / e l e u 0
Queen diamonds i d s 0 e
Eight fpades e i n w s 0
Knave clubs v f a n t g
Seven clubs e t s l y
Ace hearts y r e b r
Nine hearts 0 l n w o t
Ace diamonds u h s t is3 d
Knave fpades w l m a l
Ten fpades i e y t r r
King diamonds t t 1 b u r
Queen hearts h h m m u
King clubs i n a t h
Knave diamnods n e u r a
Contrivances for communicating intelligence by Cipher.
I. By means of a pack of cards. The parties muft pre-
The perfon that receives thefe cards firft places them
in the order agreed on, and tranfcribes the firft letter
on every card. He then ffiuffles them, according to
order, and tranfcribes the fecond letter on each card.
He ffluffles them a fecond time, and tranfcribes the
third letter, and fo of the reft.
If the cards were to be ffiuffled the fecond time by
threes and fours, the third time by twos'and tours, &c.
it would make the cipher ftill more difficult to dilco-
ver:
C I P [ 160 1 C I R
Cipher, ver : thougli as all ciphers depend on the combination
v——' of letters, there are fcarce any that may not be decipher¬
ed with time and pains; as we lhall ihow further on.
Thofe ciphers are the beft that are by their nature moll
free from fufpicion of being ciphers $ as for example,
if the letters were there written with fympathetic ink,
the cards might then pafs for a common pack.
II. By a dial. On a piece of fquare pafteboard
ABCD, fig. 3. 4. draw the circle EFGH, and divide
it into 26 equal parts, in each of which muft be writ¬
ten one of the letters of the alphabet.
On the infide of this there muft be another circle of
pafteboard, ILMN, moveable round the centre O, and
the extremity of this muft be divided into the fame
number of equal parts as the other. On this alfo muft
be written the letters of the alphabet, which, however,
need not be difpofed in the fame order. The perfon with
whom you correfpond muft have a fimilar dial, and at the
beginning of your letter you muft put any two letters
that anfwer to each other when you have fixed the dial.
Exam. Suppofe you would write as follows : “ If
you will come over to us, you (hall have a penfion, and
you may ftill make a (ham oppofition.” You begin
with the letters Ma, which (how how the dial is fixed :
then for If you, you write un juc, and fo for the reft,
as you fee at fig. 6.
The fame intention may be anfwered by a ruler, the
upper part of which is fixed, and the lower part made
to Hide ; but in this cafe the upper part muft contain
two alphabets in fuceeflion, that fome letter of that part
may conftantly correfpond to one in the lower part.
The divifions (landing direflly over each other in a
ftraight line will be much more obvious than' in the
circumference of a circle. Or two ftraight piecys of
pafteboard regularly divided, the one containing a (in¬
gle, and the other a double alphabet, would anfwer ex-
aftly the fame purpofe. In this cafe a blank fpace may
be left at each end of the (ingle alphabet, and one or
two weights being placed on both the pieces will keep
them fteady.
III. The correfponditig/paces. Take two pieces of
pafteboard or ftiff paper, through which you muft cut
long fquares, at different diftances, as you will fee in
the following example. One of thefe pieces you keep
yourfelf, and the other you give to your correfpondent.
When you would fend him any fecret intelligence, you
lay the pafteboard upon a paper of the fame fize, and
in the fpaces cut out, you write what you would have
underftood by him only, and then fill up the interme¬
diate fpaces with fomewhat that makes with thofe words
a different fenfe.
jT lhall bej much obliged to you, as reading [ alone j
.engages my attention |at| prefent, if you will lend me
any one of the jeightj volumes of the Spectator. I
hope you will excufe jthisj freedom, but for a winter’s
[evening] I ]dontf know a better entertainment. If I
jfaiT| to return it foon, never truft me for the time
(to come.]
A paper of this fort may be placed four different
ways, either by putting the bottom at the top, or by
turning it over j and by thefe means the fuperfluous
words may be the more eafily adapted to the fenfe of Cipher
the others. ||
This is a very eligible cipher, as it is free from fu- ^‘rcaffi».
fpicion, but it will only do for (hurt meffages ; for if
the fpaces be frequent, it will be very difficult to make
the concealed and obvious meanings agree together ;
and if the fenfe be not clear, the writing will be liable
to fufpicion.
IV. The tmtjical cipher. The conftruftion of this
cipher is limilar to that of N° II. The circle EFGH
(%* 3*) *s to b® divided into twenty-fix equal parts j
in each part there muft be written one of the letters
of the alphabet, and on the anterior circle ILMN,
moveable round the centre O, there is to be the fame
number of divifions : the circumference of the inner-
circle muft be ruled in the manner of a mufic paper ;
and in each divilion there is to be placed a note, dif¬
fering either in figure or pofition. Laftly, within the
mufical lines place the three keys, and on the outer
circle, the figures that are commonly ufed to denote
the time.
Then provide yourfelf with a ruled paper, and place
one of the keys, as fuppofe that of ge re fol, againft the
time two-fourths at the beginning of the paper, which
will inform your correfpondent how to fix his circle.
You then copy the notes that anfwer to the feveral let¬
ters of the words you intend to write, in the manner
expreffed at fig. 5.
A cipher of this fort may be made more difficult to
difcover by frequently changing the key, and that will
not in the leal! embarrafs the reader. You may like-
wife add the mark $ or h to the note that begins a
word, which will make it more eafy to read, and at
the fame time give the mufic a more natural afpe<ff.
This cipher is preferable to that of N° II. above, as it
may be inclofed in a letter about common affairs, and
pafs unfufpefled.
CIPUS, in antiquity, a low column, with an infcrip-
tion, erected on the high roads, or other places, to (how
the way to travellers j to ferve as a boundary j to mark
the grave of a deceafed perfon, &c.
CIR, St, a village of France, two miles from Ver-
failles, which was remarkable for.a nunnery founded
by Louis XIV. The nuns were obliged to take care
of the education of 250 girls, who could prove their
families to have been noble from the 4th generation on
the father’s fide. 1 hey could not enter before hj, nor
after 12 years of age; and they continued till they
were 20 years and three months old. The houfe was
formerly a moft magnificent ftru&ure.
CIRC/EA, Enchanter’s Night-shade. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CIRCASSIA, a large country of Alia, fituated be*
tween 45 and 50 degrees of north latitude, and be¬
tween 40 and 30 of eaft longitude. It is bounded by
Ruffia on the north ; by Aftracan and the Cafpian fea
on the eaft ; by Georgia and Dagiftan on the fouth ;
and by the river Don, the Palus Mseotis, and the Black
fea, on the weft. Ihis country has long been cele¬
brated for the extraordinary beauty of its women ; and
here it was that the practice of inoculating for the
fmallpox fir ft began. Terki, the principal city, is
feated in a very fpacious plain, very fwampy, towards
the fea-fide, in 430 23' north latitude : it is about
three werfts in compafs, well fortified with ramparts
and
C I R [ 161 ] C I R
^ Circaffia. an^ baftions in the modern ftyle, well ftored with
—v—1 cannon, and has always a confiderable garrifon in it,
under the command of a governor. The Cireaffian
prince who refides here, is allowed 5CO Ruffians for
his guard, but none of his own fubjefts are permitted
to dwell within any part of the fortifications. Ever
fince the reduction of thofe parts to the obedience of
Ruffxa, they have put in all places of ftrength, not on¬
ly Ruffian garrifons and governors, but magiftrates and
priefts for the exercife of the Chriftian religion j yet
the Circaffian Tartars are governed by their own prin¬
ces, lords, and judges; but thefe adminifter juftice in
the name of the emperor, and in matters of importance,
not without the prefence of the Ruffian governors, be¬
ing all obliged to take the oath of allegiance to his im¬
perial majefty. The apparel of the men of Circaffia is
much the fame with that of the Nagayans, only their
caps are fomething larger ; and their cloaks being like-
wife of coarfe cloth or ftieep Ikins, are fattened only at
the neck with a ftring, and as they are not large e-
siough to cover the whole body, they turn them round
according to the wind and weather. The men here
are much better favoured than thofe of Nagaya, and
the women extremely well ffiaped, with exceeding fine
features, fmooth clear complexions, and beautiful
black eyes, which, with their black hair hanging in
two treffes, one on each fide the face, give them a moft
lovely appearance. They wear a black coif on their
heads, covered with a fine white cloth tied under the
chin,. During the fummer they all wear only a fmock
of divers colours, and that open fo low before, that one
may fee below their navels : this, with their beautiful
faces always uncovered (contrary to the cuftom of moft
of the other provinces in thefe parts), their good hu¬
mour and lively freedom in converfation, altogether
render them very attrafting: notwithftanding which
they have the reputation of being very chafte, though
they feldom want opportunity ; for according to the
accounts of a late traveller, it is an eftabliftied point of
good manners among them, that as fbon as any perfon
comes in to fpeak to the wife, the hufband goes out of
the houfe : but whether this continency of theirs pro¬
ceeds from their own generofity, to recompenfe their
hulhands for the confidence they put in them, or has
its foundation only in fame, he pretends not to deter¬
mine. Their language they have in common with the
other neighbouring Tartars, although the chief people
among them are alfo not ignorant of the Ruffian. Their
religion is Paganifm ; for notwithftanding they ufe cir-
curacifion among them, they have neither prieft, alco-
ran, nor molque, like other Mahometans. Every bo¬
dy here offers his own facrifice at pleafure ; for which,
however, they have certain days, eftabliihed rather by
cuftom than any pofitive command : their moft folemn
lacrifice is offered at the death of their neareft friends
upon which occafion both men and women meet in the
field to be prefent at the offering, which is a he-goat ;
and having killed, they flay it, and ftretch the {kin with
the head and horns on, upon a crofs at the top of a '
long pole, placed commonly in a quickfet hedge (to
keep the cattle from it) ; and near the place the facri¬
fice is offered by boiling and roafting the fleffi, which
they afterwards eat. When the feaft is over, the
men rife, and having paid their adoration to the fkm,
and muttered over certain prayers, the women with-
Vot. VI. Part I.
draw, and the men conclude the ceremony Avith drink-
ing a great quantity of fpirits ; and this generally ends
in a quarrel before they part. The face of the coun¬
try is pleaiantly diverfified with mountains, valleys,
woods, lakes, and rivers; and, though not much cul¬
tivated, is far from being unfruitful. In fummer the
inhabitants quit the towns, and encamp in the fields
like the neighbouring Tartars, occafionally fhifting
their ftations along with their flocks and herds. Be-
fides game, in which the country greatly abounds, the
Circaffian eat beef and mutton ; but that which they
prefer to all others is the flefti of a young horfe. Their
bread confifts of thin cakes of barley meal, baked upon
the hearth, Avhich they always eat neAv ; and their ufiual
drink is water or mare’s milk, from the latter of which
they diftil a fpirit, as do moft of the Tartar nations.
They allot no fixed hours for the refrethments of the
table or fleep, Avhich they indulge irregularly, as incli¬
nation or convenience didates. When the men make
excurfions into an enemy’s country, they pafs feveral
days and nights fucceflively without fleeping ; but, at
their return, devote as much time to repofe as the
fpace in which they had before withheld from that gra¬
tification. When they eat, they fit crofs-legged on
the floor, the fkin of fome animal ferving them inftead
of a carpet. In removing from one part of the coun¬
try to another, the Avomen and children are carried in
waggons, Avhich are a kind of travelling houfes, and
drawn by oxen or camels ; they never ufe horfes for
draught. .Their breed of the latter, however, is rec¬
koned exceeding good; and they are accuftomed to
fwim almoft any river on horfeback. The women and
children fmoke tobacco as Avell as the men ; and this is
the moft acceptable commodity which a traveller can
carry Avith him into the Tartar countries. There are
here no public inns, which indeed are unneceffary ;
for fo great is the hofpitality of the people, that they
Avill contend Avith each other Avho (hall entertain any
ftranger that happens to come among them.-—The
principal branch of their traffic is their own children,
efpecially their daughters, Avhom they fell for the ufe
of the feraglios in Turkey and Perfia, Avhere they fre¬
quently marry to great advantage, and make the for¬
tune of their families. The merchants, Avho come
from Conftantinople to purchafe thofe girls, are gene¬
rally Jews, vyho, as well as the mothers, are faid to
be extremely careful of preferving the charity of the
young Avomen, knowing the value that is fet by the
I urks upon the marks of virginity. The greater part
of the Circaffians are Chriftians of the Greek church •
hut there are alfo both Mahometans and Pagans among
them.
CIRCE, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of Sol and
Perfeis, celebrated for her knowledge of magic and \re-
nomou* herbs. She was After to JEr.es king of Colchis,
and to P :fiphae the wife of Minos. She married a Sar-
matian prince of Colchis, Avhom (he murdered to obtain
the Idngdum. She was expelled by her fubjefts, and
carried by her father upon the coafts of Italy in
an ifland called JEaea. Ulyffes, at his return from the
Trojan war, vifittd her coafts, and all his compa¬
nions, who ran headlong into pleafure and voluptuouf-
nefs, were changed by Circe’s potions into filthv fwine.
Ulyffes, who was fortified againft all enchantments by
an herb called moly, which he had received from Mer-
X cury,
Circaftia,
Ciice.
——
C I R [ 162 ] C I R
Circe cury, went to Circe, and demanded fvvord in hand the
II reftoration of his companions to their former ftate. She
Circle, complied, and loaded,, the hero with pleafures and ho-
v nours. In this voluptuous retreat Ulyfles had by
Circe one fon called Telegonus, or two, according to
Hefiod, called Agrius and Latinus. For one whole
year Ulyffes forgot his glory in Circe’s arms. At his
departure the nymph advifed him to defcend to hell
and to confult the manes of Tirefias concerning the
fates that attended him. Circe Ihowed herfelf cruel to
Scylla her rival, and to Picus.
CIRCENSIAN games, a general term under which
was comprehended all combats exhibited in the Roman
circus, in imitation of the Olympic games in Greece.
Moft of the feafts of the Romans were accompanied
with Circenfian games j and the magiftrates, and other
officers of the republic, frequently prefented the people
with them, in order to procure their favour. The
grand games were held five days, commencing on the
13th of September. See Circus.
CIRCLE, in Geometry, a plane figure comprehend¬
ed by a fingle curve line, called its circumference, to
which right lines drawn from a point in the middle,
called the centre, are equal to each other. See Geo¬
metry.
CIRCLES of the sphere, are fuch as cut the mundane
fphere, and have their periphery either on its move-
able furface, or in another immoveable, conterminous,
and equidiftant furface. See SPHERE. Hence arife
two kinds of circles, moveable and immoveable. The
firft, thofe whofe peripheries are in the moveable fur¬
face, and which therefore revolve with its diurnal mo¬
tion ; as, the meridians, &c. The latter having their
periphery in the immoveable furface, do not revolve $
as the ecliptic, equator, and its parallels, &c. See
Geography.
_ Circles of Altitude, otherwife called almucuntars, are
circles parallel to the horizon, having their common
pole in the zenith, and ftill diminilhing as they ap¬
proach the zenith. See Almucantar.
Diurnal CIRCLES, are immoveable circles, fuppofed
to be defcribed by the feven ftars, and other points of
the heavens, in their diurnal rotation round the earth ;
or rather, in the rotation of the earth round its axis.
The diurnal circles are all unequal: the equator is the
biggeft.
Horary CIRCLES, in Dialing, are the lines W'hich
ffiow the hours on dials; though thefe be not drawn
circular, but nearly ftraight. See Dialing.
CIRCLES of Latitude, or Secondaries of the Ecliptic,
are great circles parallel to the plane of the ecliptic,
paffing through the poles thereof, and through every
liar and planet. They are fo called, becaufe they
ferve to meafure the latitude of the ftars, which is no¬
thing but an arch of one of thefe circles intercepted
between the ftar and the ecliptic. See Latitude.
CIRCLES of Longitude, are feveral leffer circles, pa¬
rallel to the ecliptic ; ftill diminilhing, in proportion
as they recede from it. On the arches of thefe circles,
the longitude of the ftars is reckoned.
CIRCLE, of perpetual Apparition, one of the lefler cir¬
cles, parallel to the equator, defcribed by any point
of the fphere touching the northern point of the ho¬
rizon, and carried about with the diurnal motion. All
the ftars included within this circle never fet, but are Circle,
ever vifible above the horizon. ,s
CIRCLE of perpetual Occultation, is another circle at a
like diftance from the equator, and contains all thofe
ftars which never appear in our hemifphere. The ftars
fituated between thefe circles alternately rife and fet at
certain times.
Polar CIRCLES, are immoveable circles, parallel to
the equator,^nd at a diftance from the poles equal to
the greateft declination of the ecliptic. That next the
northern pole is called the arctic j and that next to
the fouthern one the ANTARCTIC.
Fairy CIRCLE. See FAIRT-Circle.
Druidical CIRCLES, in Britiffi topography, a name
given to certain ancient inclofures formed by rude
ftones circularly arranged, in the manner reprefented
on Plate CXLV. Thefe, it is now generally agreed,
were temples, and many writers think alfo, places of
folemn alfemblies for councils or elections, and feats of
judgment. Mr Borlafe is of this opinion. “ Inftead,
therefore (fays he), of detaining the reader with a
difpute, whether they were places of worffiip or coun¬
cil, it may with great probability be afferted, that they
were ufed for both purpofes ; and having for the moft
part been firft dedicated to religion, naturally became
afterwards the curiae and fora of the fame communi¬
ty.” Thefe temples, though generally circular, oc-
cafionally differ as well in figure as magnitude : with
relation to the firft, the moft Ample were compofed of
one circle: Stonehenge confifted of two circles and
two ovals, refpeftively concentric, whilft that at Bot-
talch near St Juft in Cornwall is formed by four inter¬
fering circles. And the great temple at Avebury in
Wiltffiire, it is faid, defcribed the figure of a feraph
or fiery flying ferpent, reprefented by circles ahd right
lines. Some befides circles have avenues of ftone pil¬
lars, Moft, if not all of them, have pillars or altars
within their penetralia or centre. In the article of
magnitude and number of ftones, there is the greateft:
variety, fome circles being only twelve feet diameter,
and formed only of twelve ftones, whilft others, fuch
as Stonehenge and Avebury, contained, the firft 140,
the fecond 652, and occupied many acres of ground.
All thefe different numbers, meafures, and arrange¬
ments had their pretended reference j either to the
aftronomical divifions of the year, or fome myfteries of
the druidical leligion. Mr Borlafe, however, fuppofes,
that thofe very fmall circles, fometimes formed of a low
bank of earth, fometimes of ftones ereft, and frequent¬
ly of loofe fmall ftones thrown together in a circular
form, inclofing an area of about three yards diameter,
without any larger circle round them, were originally
places of burial.
Circle, in Logic, or Logical CIRCLE, is when the
fame terms are proved in orbem by the fame terms 5 and
the parts of the fyllogifm alternately by each other,
both direftly and indireftly.
CIRCLES of the Empire, fuch provinces and principali¬
ties of the German empire as have a right to be prefent
at diets. Maximilian I. divided the empire into fix,
and fome years after into ten circles. This laft divi-
fion was confirmed by Charles V. The circles, as
they Hand in the Imperial Matricola, are as follow:
Auftria, Burgundy, the Lower Rhine, Bavaria, Up-
Pe*
C I R r 163 ] C I R
Circle, per Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Upper Rhine, Weft-
;irconcel- p^glia^ and the Lower Saxony,
_ll0"e>- , CIRCONCELLIONES, a fpecies of fanatics, fo
called becaufe they were continually rambling round
the houfes in the country. They took their rife among
the Donatifts in the reign of the emperor Conftantine.
It is incredible what ravages and cruelties thefe vaga¬
bonds committed in Africa through a long feries of
years. They were illiterate favage peafants, who un-
derftood only the Punic language. Intoxicated with
a barbarous zeal, they renounced agriculture, pro-
feffed continence, and affumed the title of “ Vindica¬
tors of juftice, and protestors of the oppreft.” To ac-
complifh their miflion, they enfranchifed flaves, fcour-
ed the roads, forced matters to alight from their cha¬
riots, and run before their flaves, who they obliged
to mount in their place j and difcharged debtors, kill¬
ing the creditors if they refufed to cancel the bonds.
But the chief objects of their cruelty were the Catholics,
and efpecially thofe who had renounced Donatifm. At
firft they ufed no fwords, becaufe God had forbidden
the ufe of one to Peter ; but they were armed with
clubs, which they called the clubs of Ifrael, and which
they handled in fuch a manner as to break a man’s
bones without killing him immediately, fo that he lan-
guiflied a long time and then died. When they took
away a man’s life at once, they looked upon it as a fa¬
vour. They became lefs fcrupulous afterwards, and
made ufe of all forts of arms. Their (bout was Praife
be to God. Thefe words in their mouths were the fig-
nal of daughter, more terrible than the roaring of a
lion. They had invented an unheard-of punifliment j
which was to cover with lime diluted with vinegar
the eyes of thofe unhappy wretches whom they had
cruflied with blows, and covered with wounds, and
to abandon them in that condition. Never was a
ftronger proof what horrors fuperftition can beget in
minds deftitute of knowledge and humanity. Thefe
brutes, who had made a vow of chaftity, gave them-
felves up to wine and all ‘forts of impurities, running
about with women and young girls as drunk as them-
ielves, whom they called facred virgins, and who of¬
ten carried proofs of their incontinence. Their chiefs
took the name of Chiefs of the Saints. After having
glutted themfelves with blood, they turned their rage
upon themfelves, and fought death with the fame fury
with which they gave it to others. Some fcrambled
up to the tops of rocks, and caft themfelves down
headlong in multitudes; others burned themfelves, or
threw themfelves into the fea. Thofe who propofed
to acquire the title of martyrs, publifhed it long be¬
fore, upon which they were feafted and fattened
like oxen for the daughter ; after thefe preparations
they fet out to be deftroyed. Sometimes they gave
money to thofe whom they met, and threatened to
murder them if they did not make them martyrs.
Theodoret gives an account of a flout young man,
who meeting with a troop of thefe fanatics, confent-
ed to kill them, provided he might bind them firft ;
and having by this means put it out of their power
to defend themfelves, whipped them as long as he
was able, and then left them tied in that manner.
Thcr bifhops pretended to balance them, but in reali¬
ty made ufe of them to intimidate fuch as might be
tempted to forfake their feft j they even honoured
them as faints. They were not, however, able to go- c
vern thofe furious monfters, and more than once
found themfelves under a neceflity of abandoning them,
and even of imploring the afliftance of the fecular
power againft them. The counts Urfacius and Tau-
rinus were employed to quell them j they deftroyed
a great number of them, of whom the Donatifts made
as many martyrs. Urfacius, who was a good Ca¬
tholic and a religious man, having loft his life in
an engagement with the barbarians, the Donatifts
did not fail to triumph in his death, as an effedl of
the vengeance of heaven. Africa was the theatre of
thefe bloody fcenes during a great part of Conftan-
tine’s life.
CIRCUIT, in Law, fignifies a longer courfe of
proceedings than is needful to recover the thing fued
for.
Circuit, alfo fignifies the journey or progrefs
which the judges take twice every year, through the
feveral counties of England and Wales, to hold courts
and adminifter juftice, where recourfe cannot be had
to the king’s courts atWeftminfterj hence England
is divided into fix circuits, viz. the Home circuit •, Nor¬
folk circuit; Midland circuit ; Oxford circuit j Weft-
ern circuit ; and Northern circuit. In Wales there
are but two circuits, North and South Wales : two
judges are afligned by the king’s commiflion to every
circuit.
In Scotland, the judges of the fupreme criminal
court, or court of jufticiary, are divided into three
feparate courts, confiding of two judges each ; and
the kingdom into as many diftri&s. In certain bo¬
roughs of every diftridf, each of thefe courts by rota¬
tion is obliged to hold two courts in the year, in fpring
and autumn ; which are called circuit-courts.
EleSlrical CIRCUIT, denotes the courfe of the ele&ric
fluid from the charged furface of an eledlric body, to
the oppofite furface into which the difcharge is made.
Some of the firft electricians apprehend, that the
fame particles of the eleftric fluid, which were thrown
on one fide of the charged glafs, aftually made the
whole circuit of the intervening conductors, and ar¬
rived at the oppofite fide 5 whereas Dr Franklin’s
theory only requires, that the redundancy of electric
matter on the charged furface (hould pafs into the bo¬
dies forming that part of the circuit which is con¬
tiguous to it, driving forward that part of the fluid
which they naturally poflefs ; and that the deficiency
of the exhaufted furface ftiould be fupplied by the
neighbouring conduftors, which form the laft part of
the circuit. On this fuppofition, a vibrating motion
is fucceflively communicated through the whole length
of the circuit. This circuit is always formed of the
beft conductors, let the length of it be ever fo great.
Many attempts were made, both in France and Eng¬
land, at an early period in the hiftory of eleftricity,
to afcertain the diftance to which the eleCtric (hock
might be carried, and the velocity of its motion. The
French philofophers, at different times, made it to
pafs through a circuit of 900 toifes, and of 2000
toifes, or about two Englifh miles and a half-, and
they difcharged the Leyden phial through a bafon of
water, the furface of which was about an acre. And
M. Mounier found, that, in pafling through an iron
wire of 950 toifes in length, it did not fpend a quar-
X 2 ter
Circuit
c I R [i^4
ter of a fecond j and that its motion was inftantaneous
II through a wire of 1319 feet. In 1747, Dr Watfon,
■ nc”^ 1QH' and other Engliih philofophers, after many experiments
of a fimilar kind, conveyed the ele6tric matter through
a circuit of four miles j and they concluded from this
and another trial,, that its velocity is inllantaneous.
CIRCULAR, in a general fenfe, any thing that is
defcribed, or moved in a round, as the circumference
of a circle, or furface of a globe.
CIRCULAR Numbers, called fp/ierica/ones, accord¬
ing to fome, are fuch whofe powers terminate in the
roots themfelves. Thus, for inftance, 5 and 6, all whofe
powers do end in 5 and 6, as the fquare of 5 is 2j j
the fquare of 6 is 36, &c.
CIRCULAR Sailing, is the method of failing by the
arch of a great circle. See Navigation.
CIRCULATION, the aft of moving round, or in
a circle $ thus we fay, the circulation of the blood,
&tc.
CIRCULATION of the Blood, the natural motion of
the blood in a living animal, whereby that fluid is
alternately carried from the heart into all parts of
the body, by the arteries, from whence it is brought
back to the heart again by the veins. See ANATOMY
Index.
In a foetus, the apparatus for the circulation of the
blood is fomewhat different from that in adults. The
feptum, which feparates the two auricles of the heart,
is pierced through with an aperture, called the/w-fl-
men ovale; and the trunk of the pulmonary artery, a
little after it has left the heart, fends out a tube into
the defcending aorta, called the communicating canal.
I he foetus being born, the foramen ovale clofes by de¬
grees, and the canal of communication dries up, and
becomes a Ample ligament.
As to the velocity of the circulating blood, and the
time wherein the circulation is completed, feveral
computations have been made. By Dr KeiPs account,
the blood is driven out of the heart into the aorta with
a velocity which would carry it twenty-five feet in a
minute j but this velocity is continually abated in the
progrefs of the bloody in the numerous feftions or
branches of the arteries ; fo that before it arrives at
the extremities of the body, its motion is greatly di-
miniftied. The fpace of time wherein the whole mafs
of blood ordinarily circulates is varioufly determined.
Some Rate it thus : Suppofing the heart to make two
thoufand pulfes in an hour, and that at every pulfe
there is expelled an ounce of blood ; as the whole mafs
of blood is hot ordinarily computed to exceed twenty-
four pounds, it muft be circulated feven or eight times
over in the fpace of an hour.
The curious, in microfcopic obfervations, have found
an eafy method of feeing the circulation of the blood
in the bodies of animals: for thefe inquiries it is ne-
ceffary to choofe fuch animals as are fmall, and eafily
manageable, and which are either wholly or in part
tranfparent. The obfervations made by this means
are preferable to any others we can have recourfe to,
fince* in diffeftions, the animal is in a ftate of pain,
or dying; whereas in animals fmall enough to be thus
viewed, all is left in its ufual courfe, and we fee what
nature does in her own undifturbed method. In thtfe
creatures alfo, after viewing, as long as we pleafe, the
natural ftate and current of the blood, we may, by
1
] c 1 R
preffure, and feveral other, ways, impede its courfe ; Circulatioa.
and by putting various mixtures into the creature’s y-
water, induce a morbid ftate, and finally fee the crea¬
ture die, either by means of this or by any other mea-
thod ; and we may thus accurately obferve all the
changes it undergoes, and fee what occafions the trem¬
bling pulfe, &c. of dying people.
The current of the blood in fmall animals, that is,
its pafling on through the veffels, either to or from
the heart, is very eafily feen by the microfcope ; but
its circulation, that is, its running to the extremities
of the parts, and thence returning, is more difficult j
becaufe the veffels where this fhould be feen are fo ex¬
tremely minute, as not eafily to come under obferva-
tion. .The larger arteries are eafily diftinguifhed from
the. veins by the motion of the blood through them,
which in the veins is always fmooth and regular^
but in the arteries, by feveral propulfions after the
manner of pulfation. But this difference is not to be
found in the more minute veffels, in all which, as well
arteries as veins, the motion of the blood is even and
regular.
The tranfparent membrane, or web between the
toes of a frog’s hinder foot, is a very proper objeft
to obferve the circulation of the blood in. The tails,
or fins of fifties are alfo very fine objefts 5 and when
the fifh is very fmall, thefe are manageable, and af¬
ford a view of a great number of veins and arteries,
with a very quick and beautiful fucceflion of blood-
through them. Lhe tail of a flounder may be very
conveniently placed before the double microfcope on
a plate of glafs j and its body being fupported by
fomething of equal height, the fifti will lie ftill, and
the circulation may be feen very agreeably. In the
minuteft veffels thus examined, the blood always ap¬
pears pale or colourlefs, but in the large ones it is
manifeftly red. The arteries ufually branch out ex¬
tremely before they join the veins to carry the blood
back to the heart y but this is not always the cafe y
for Mr Leuwenhoeck has obferved, that on each fide
of the little griftles which give a ftiffnefs to the tail
of a flounder, there may be feen a very open
communication of the veins and arteries; the blood
running towards the extremities through arteries, and
returning back again through veins, which were evi¬
dently, a continuation of thofe arteries, and of the
fame diameter with them. The whole fifti, on the tail
of which this, examination was made, was not more
than half an inch in length ; it is eafy to conceive,
therefore, how fmall the tail muft be ; and yet in it
there were 68 veffels which carried and returned the
blood; and yet thefe veffels were far from being
the moft minute of all. How inconceivably nume¬
rous then muft the circulations in the whole human
body be ? Mr Leuwenhoeck is of opinion, that a
thoufand different circulations are continually carried
on in every part of a man’s body in the breadth of a
finger nail.
T. he tail of a newt or water-lizard affords alfo a ve¬
ry entertaining profpeft of the circulation of the blood
through almoft numberlefs fmall veffels ; but no ob¬
jefts (hows it fo agreeably as one of thefe animals,
while fo young as not to be above an inch long ; for
then the whole body is fo very tranfparent, that the
circulation may be feen in every part of it, as well as.
r in
Circumci-
fion.
C I R [i
Circulation in the tail *, and, in thefe objects, nothing is more
beautiful than the courfe of the blood into the toes and
back again, where it may be traced all the way with
great eafe. Near the head there are alfo found three
fmall fins which afford a very delightful profpedt ;
thefe are all divided like the leaves of polypody $ and
in every one of the branches of thefe, the blood may
be very accurately traced, running to the end through
the artery, and there returning back again by a vein
of the fame fize, and laid in the fame direction ; and
as the veflels are very numerous and large in this part,
and the third or fourth magnifier may be ufed, there
are fometimes feen thirty or forty channels of running
blood at once j and this the more as the globules of
blood in the newt are large, and fewer in number,
in proportion to the quantity of ferum than in any
other animal: and their figure, as they are protruded
through the veffels, changes in a very furprifing man¬
ner. The impetus occafioning the circulation is great
enough in feme animals to raife the blood fix, feven, or
eight feet high from the blood-veffel it fprings out at,
which, however, is far exceeded by that of the fap of a
vine in bleeding time, which will fometimes rife 40
feet high. ,
Circulation of the fap of Plants. See Plants
and Sap.
CIRCULATION of the Spirits, or Nervous Fluid. See
Anatomy Index.
Circulation, in Chemifry, is an operation whereby
the fame vapour, raifed by fire, falls back, to be re¬
turned and diftilled feveral times.
Circulation of Money. See Commerce and Mo¬
ney.
Subterranean CIRCULATION. See Springs.
CIRCULUS, in Chemiflry, an iron inftrument in
form of a ring, which being heated red hot, and ap¬
plied to the neck of retorts and other glafs velfels till
they grow hot, a few drops of cold water thrown upon
them, or a cold blaft, will make the necks fly regularly
and evenly oft".
Another method of doing this is, to tie a thread,
firft dipt in oil of turpentine, round the place where
you would have it break ; and then fetting fire to the
thread, and afterwards fprinkling the place with cold
water, the glafs will crack exatftly where the thread
was tied.
CIRCUMAMBIENT, an appellation given to a
thing that furrounds another on all fides j chiefly ufed
in fpeaking of the air.
CIRCUMCELLIONES. See Circoncellio-
nes.
CIRCUMCISION, the a£t of cutting off the pre¬
puce a ceremony in the Jewifti and Mahometan reli¬
gions, wherein they cut off the forelkin of their males,
who are to profefs the one or the other law.
Circumcifion commenced in the time of Abraham •,
and was the feal of a covenant ftipulated between God
and him. It was in the year of the world 2178 that
Ab' aham, by divine appointment, circumcifed himfelf
and all the males of his family ; from which time
it became an hereditary pradtice among his defeend-
ants.
The ceremony, however, was not confined to the
Jews. Herodotus and Philo Judseus obferve, that it
obtained alfo among the Egyptians and Ethiopians,
65 1
C I R
Herodotus fays, that the cuftom was very ancient among circumei-
each people; fo that there was no determining which lion.
of them borrowed it from the other. The fame hifto- "'"v  '*
rian relates, that the inhabitants of Colchis alfo ufed
circumcifion j whence he concludes, that they were
originally Egyptians. He adds, that the Phenicians
and Syrians were like wife circumcifed *, that they bor¬
rowed the pradtice from the Egyptians j and, laftly,
that a little before the time when he wrote, circumci¬
fion had paffed from Colchis to the people inhabiting
near Thermodon and Parthenius.
Marlham is of opinion, that the Hebrews borrowed
circumcifion from the Egyptians j and that God was
not the firft author thereof, citing Diodorus Siculus
and Herodotus as evidences on his fide. This latter
propofition feems diredtly contrary to the teftimony
of Mofes, who affures us (Gen. xvii.), that Abraham,
though 99 years of age, was not circumcifed till he
had the exprefs command of God for it. But as to the
former pofition of Marlham, it will admit of more de¬
bate. The arguments on both fides may be feen in one
view in Spencer de Legibus Hebrceorum, 1. 2. c. 4.
Be this as it will, it is certain the pradiice of cir¬
cumcifion among the Hebrews differed very confider-
ably from that of the Egyptians. Among the firft it
was a ceremony of religion, and was performed on the
eighth day after the birth of the child. Among the
latter, a point of mere decency and cleanlinefs j and,
as fome will have it, of phyfical neceflity j and was not
performed till the 13th year, and then on girls as well
as boys^.
Among the Jews, the time for performing this rite
was the eighth day, that is, fix full days, after the
child was born. The law of Mofes ordained nothing
with refpedt to the perfon by whom, the inftrument
with which, or the manner how, the ceremony was to
be performed *, the inftrument was generally a knife
of ftone.s The child is ufually circumcifed at home,
where the father or godfather holds him in his arms,
while the operator takes hold of the prepuce with one
hand, and with the other cuts it off; a third perfon
holds a porringer, with fand in- it, to catch the blood ;
then the operator applies his mouth to the part, and,
having fucked the blood, fpits it into a bowl of wine,
and throws a ftyptie powder upon the wound. This
ceremony was ufually accompanied with great rejoi¬
cings and feafting; and it was at this time that the
child was named in prefence of the company. The
Jews invented feveral fuperftitious cuftoms at this cere¬
mony, fuch as placing, three ftools, one for the circum-
cifor, the fecond for the perfon who holds the child,
and the third for Elijah, who, they fay, aflifts invifibly
at the ceremony, &c-
The Jews diftinguiftied their profelytes into two
forts, according as they became circumcifed or not :
thofe who fubmitted to this rite were looked upon
as children of Abraham, and obliged to keep the
laws of Mofes ; the uncircumcifed were only bound
to obferve the precepts of Noah, and were called AW-
chidee.
The Turks never circumcife till the feventh or eighth
year, as having no notion of its being neceffary to fal-
vation. The Perfians circumcife their boys at 13, and
their girls from 9 to 15. Thofe of Madagafcar cut
the flelh at three feveral times,, and the moft zealous
of:
Plate
CXLV.
C I It [
Circumci- of the relations prefent catches hold of the preputium
fion and fvvallows it.
Circumcifion is prattifed on women by cutting off
the forelkin of the clitoris, which bears a near refem-
blance and analogy to the preputium of the male pe¬
nis. We are told that the Egyptian captive women
were circumcifed ; and alfo the fubjefts of Prefter
John.
Circumcision is alfo the name of a feaft, celebrated
on the firft of January, in commemoration of the cir¬
cumcifion of our Saviour.
CIRCUMDUCTION, in Scots Law. When par¬
ties in a fuit are allowed a proof of alledgeances ; af¬
ter the time limited by the judge for taking the proof
is elapfed, either party may apply for circumdudion
of the time of proving j the effed of which is, that no
proof can afterwards be brought, and the caufe muft be
determined as it flood when circumdudion was obtain¬
ed.
CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general fenfe, denotes
the line or lines bounding a plane figure. However,
it is generally ufed in a more limited fenfe for the
curve line which bounds a circle, and otherwife called
a periphery ; the boundary of a right-lined figure being
exprefled by the term perimeter.
CIRCUMFERENTOR, an inftrument ufed by
furveyors for taking angles.
It confifts of a brafs index and circle, all of a piece.
The index is commonly about 14 inches long, and an
inch and a half broad j the diameter of the circle is
about feven inches. On this circle is made a chart,
whofe meridian line anfwers to the middle of the
breadth of the index, and is divided into 360 degrees.
There is a brafs ring foldered on the circumference of
the circle, on which fcrews another ring, with a flat
glafs in it, fo as to form a kind of box for the needle,
fufpended on the pivot in the centre of the circle.
There are alfo two fights to fcrew on, and fli^e up and
down the index, as alfo a fpangle and focket fcrewed
on the back fide of the circle for putting the head of
the ftaff in.
How to ohferve the Quantity of an angle by the Cir¬
cumferentor. Let it be required to find the quantity
of the angle EKG j firft place your inftrument at K,
with the flower-de-luce of the chart towards you $ then
direct your fights to E, and obferve what degrees are
cut by the fouth end of the needle, which let be 296 j
then, turning the inftrument about, direft your fights
to G, noting then alfo what degrees are cut by the
fouth end of the needle, which fuppofe 247. This
done, always fubtraft the lefler from the greater, as
in this example, 247 from 296, the remainder is
49 degrees, which is the true quantity of the angle
EKG. 6
A circumferentor was made by Mr Jones of Hol-
born on an improved conftruftion. From a very fimple
contrivance, it is rendered fufficient to take angles with
the accuracy of a common theodolite j and by it angles
of altitude and depreflion may be obferved as readily as
Ibid. horizontal ones. The improvement chiefly confifts
in an arm or index (G), fo applied to the centre of
the compafs box, and within it, that, at the time of
obferving, by only flipping a pin (p) out, the circle of
degrees alone may move round, and leave the index
3
Ibid.
166 ] C I R
(G) fixed. This index will remain ftationary, from Circumfcr.
its being attached to the focket that fcrews on the head entor
of the ftaffs. On the end of this index, next the de¬
grees in the box, there is graduated a nonius fcale, by
which the circle oi 360 degrees is fubdivided into five
minutes or lefs if defired. To take angles of alti¬
tudes or depreflions, the inftrument is turned down on
its ball and focket into a perpendicular pofition, and
adjufted to its level by a plumb line (7), that is hung
on a pin at the back of the box, and made to coincide
with a mark made thereon. Then by looking through
the fmall fight holes (s) purpofely made, the angles
are fhown on the circles of degrees by the nonius as be¬
fore. Ihe arms (AA) of the inftrument flip oflf (at
BB), and the whole packs into a cafe but 5I- inches
fquare and 3 deep.
CIRCUMFLEX, in Grammar, an accent ferving
to note, or diftinguilh, a fyllable of an intermediate
found between acute and grave j and generally fome-
what long.—The Greeks had three accents, the acute,
the grave, and the circumflex ; formed thus, ', ',
In Latin, Englifh, French, &c. the circumflex is
made thus a.—The acute raifes the voice, and the
grave falls or lowers it: the circumflex is a kind of
undulation, or wavering of the voice, between the two.
It is feldom ufed among the moderns, unlefs to Ihow
the omiflion of a letter which made the fyllable long
and open j a thing much more frequent in the French
than among us: thus they write pate for pajle ; tete
for tejle ; fumes for fufmes, &c. They alfo ufe the
circumflex in the participles } fome of their authors
writing, conneu, peu, others connu, pu, &c. Father
Buffier is at a lofs for the reafon of the circumflex on
this occafion.
The form of the Greek circumflex was anciently the
fame with that of ours, viz. a $ being a compofition of
the other two accents a in one.—But the copyifts
changing the form of the charaders, and introducing
the running hand, changed alfo the form of the cir¬
cumflex accent; and inftead of making a juft angle,
rounded it off, adding a dafti, through too much haftej
and thus formed an j, laid horizontally, which produ¬
ced this figure % inftead of this a.
CIRCUMGYRAL ION, denotes the whirling mo¬
tion of any body round a centre ; fuch is that of the
planets round the fun.
CIRCUMLOCUTION, an ambages, or tour of
words, ufed either when a proper term is not at hand,
to exprefs a thing naturally and immediately by j or
when one choofes not to do it, out of refpeft, or for
fome other reafon. The word comes from circumloauor
“ I fpeak about.” y ’
Circumlocution, in oratory, is the avoiding of
fomething difagreeable or inconvenient to be expreffed
in diredl terms ; by intimating the fenfe thereof in a
kind of paraphrafe, fo conceived as to foften or break
the force thereof.
Thus Cicero, unable to deny that Clodius was flain
by Milo, owns it, with this circumlocution, “ Milo’s
“ Servants being prevented from aflifting their mafter,
“ who was reported to be killed by Clodius j they, in
his abfence, and without his privity, or confent, did
“ what every body would expea from their own fer-
“ vants on fuch an occafion.”
CIRCUMPOLAR
C I II [ 167 ] C I R
Circumpo¬
lar ftars
II
Circus.
CIRCUMPOLAR stars, an appellation given to
thofe ftars, which, by reafon of their vicinity to the
polo, move round it without fetting.
CIRCUMPOTATIO, in antiquity, a funeral feaft
provided in honour of the dead. This was very fre¬
quent among the ancient Romans, as well as among
the Athenians. Solon at Athens, and the decemviri
at Rome, endeavoured to reform this cuftom, thinking
it abfurd that mirth and drunkennefs ftiould mingle
with forrow and grief.
CIRCUMSCRIBED, in Geometry, is faid of a fi¬
gure which is drawn round another figure, fo that all
its fides or plane* touch the infcribed figure.
CIRCUMSCRIPTION, in NaturalPhilofophy, the
termination, bounds, or limits, of any natural body.
CIRCUMSTANCE, a particularity, which, though
not eflential to any a&ion, yet doth fome way affeft
it.
CIRCUMSTANTIAL evidence, in Law, or the
do&rine of prefumption, takes place next to pofitive
proof: circumftances which either neceffarily or ufual-
ly attend fafts of a particular nature, that cannot be
demonftratively evinced, are called prefumptions, and
are only to be relied on till the contrary be a&ually
proved.
CIRCUMSTANTIBUS, in Law, a term ufed for
fupplying and making up the number of jurors, (in cafe
any impannelled appear not, or appearing are challenged
by any party), by adding to them fo many of the per-
fons prefent as will make up the number, in cafe they
are properly qualified.
CIRCUMVALLATION, or Line of Circumval-
LATION, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with a
parapet, thrown up quite round the befieger’s camp,
by way of fecurity againft any army that may at¬
tempt to relieve the place, as well as to prevent de-
fertion.
CIRCUMVOLUI ION, in jlrchiteBure, denotes
the torus of the fpiral line of the Ionic order.
CIRCUS, in antiquity, a large building, either
round or oval, ufed for the exhibiting of (hows to the
people. Some derive the word from Circe, to whom
Tertullian attributes the invention. Cafliodorus fays,
Circus comes a circuitu. The Romans, Servius ob-
ferves, at firft had no other circus but that made by
the Tiber on one fide, and a palifade of naked fwords
on the other. Hence, according to Ifidore, came the
term ludi circenfes, quaji circum enfes. But Scaliger ri¬
dicules that etymology.
The Roman circus was a large oblong edifice, arch¬
ed at one end, encompaffed with porticoes, and fur-
niftied with rows of feats, placed afcending over each
other. In the middle was a kind of foot-bank, or emi¬
nence, with obeliflcs, ftatues, and polls at each end.
This ferved them for the courfes of their bigce and qua-
drigce. There were no lefs than ten circufes at Rome :
The largeft was built by the elder Tarquin, called
Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine
mounts. It was fo called, either becaufe of its vaft
circumference, or becaufe the great games were cele¬
brated in it; or again, becaufe it was confecrated to
the great gods, viz. to Vertumnus, Neptune, Jupiter,
Juno, Minerva, and the Dii Penates of Rome. Dio-
nyfius Halicarnaflenfis fays that it was three ftadia and
a half in length, and four jugera broad 5 and thefe
meafures, according to Pliny, allowing to the Roman Circus,
ftadia 625 Roman feet, each of which is twelve inches, Girencefter.
will give for the length, 2187 Roman feet, or fome- »
what more than three Englilh furlongs : and as to the
breadth, allowing for each of the jugera 240 Roman
feet, it will be 960 Roman feet. It was beautified
and enlarged by the Roman emperors, fo as to feat
250,000 fpe&ators. The moft magnificent circufes
were thofe of Auguftus and Nero. There are ftill
fome remains of the circufes at Rome, at Nifmes, and
other places. The Romans were exceffively fond of
the games exhibited in the circus : witnefs that verfe
in Juvenal,
—  Atque duas tantum res anxius optat,
Panem et circenfes.  
The Games of the CIRCUS, which fome call the CVr-
cenjian Games, were combats celebrated in the circus, in
honour of Confus the god of councils 5 and thence alfo
called Confualia. They were alfo called Roman Games,
Ludi Romani, either on account of their antiquity, as
being coeval with the Roman people, or becaufe efta-
blilhed by the Romans; and the games held there, the
great games, ludi magni, becaufe celebrated with more
expence and magnificence than others j and becaufe
held in honour of the great god Neptune, who was
their Confus.—Thofe who fay they were inftituted in
honour of the fun, confound the pornpa circenjis, or
proceflion of the circus, with the games.
The games of the circus were inftituted by Evan-
der, and re-eftabliflied by Romulus : the pomp, or
proceflion, was only a part of the games, making the
prelude thereof, and confiding of a fimple cavalcade of
chariots. Till the time of the elder Tarquin, they
were held in an ifland of the Tiber 5 and were called
Roman Games: after that prince had built the circus,
they took their name therefrom, as being conftantly
held there. There were fix kinds of exercifes in the
circus: the firft was wreftling, and fighting with
fwords, with ftaves, and with pikes ; the fecond was
racing 5 the third, faltatio, leaping; the fourth, dif-
ci, quoits, arrows, and ceftus ; all which were on
foot : the fifth was horfe-courfing; the fixth, courfes
of chariots, whether with two horfes or with four.
In this laft exercife, the combatants were at firft di¬
vided into two fquadrons orquadrilsj then into fourj
each bearing the names of the colours they wore ; fac-
tio alba, rujfea, &c. At firft there were only white and
red ; then green and blue were added. Domitian ad¬
ded two more colours, but they did not continue.
It was Oenomaus who firft invented this method of di-
ftinguifhing the quadrils by colours. The green was
for thofe who reprefented the earth 3 the blue for the
fea, &c.
CIRENCESTER, an ancient town of Gloucefter-
flhire in England. It was ftrongly fortified with walls
and a caftle in the time of the Romans. The ruins
of the wralls and ftreets are, or were lately, to be feen
in the adjacent meadows, where many Roman coins,
chequered pavements, and infcriptions on marble, have
been found. Two of the Roman confular ways crofs
each other at this town. The foffe-way, which comes
from Scotland, pafles through this county and town
to Totnefs in Devonlhire. The other, called Irmin-
flreet} comes from Gloucefter, and runs along to South¬
ampton =
c i r r 168 ] cis
amplon. Not many years ago they difcovered, by
digging in a meadow near the town, an ancient build¬
ing under ground, 50 feet long, 40 broad, and 4 high,
and fupported by 100 brick, pillars, curioufly inlaid
with ftones of various colours, fuppofed to have been
a Roman bath. Cirencefter has now but one church,
in the windows of which are the remains of very va¬
luable painted glafs. The town is governed by two
high conftables, and 14 wards-men, who govern feven
diftinft wards; and it fends two members to parlia¬
ment. It has a free-fchool, a charity'fchool, with fe-
veral alms-houfes j and is feated on the river Churn,
36 miles north-eaft of Briftol, and 88 weft by north of
London. W. Long. o. 2. N. Lat. 51. 42.
CIRENZA, a city of Naples, capital of the Bafi-
licate, with an archbifhop’s fee. It was formerly a
confiderable place, but is now of fmall confequence.
It is fituated on the river Brandano, at the foot of the
Apennine mountains, in E. Long. 16. 44. N. Lat.
40. 48.
CIRO-ferri, an excellent Italian painter and ar-
chitedl, was born at Rome in 1614, and was the dif-
ciple of Peter de Cortona, whofe defigns he imita¬
ted with fuch exadlnefs, that it is difficult to diftin-
guiffi them. He was efteemed by Pope Alexan¬
der VII. and his three fucceffors, and died at Rome
in 1689.
CIRRUS, or Cirrhus, in Botany, a clafper or
tendril; that fine fpiral firing or fibre put out from the
fbotftalks, by which fome plants, as the ivy and vine,
fatten themfelves to walls, pales, or trees for fupport.
The term is fynonymous to the capreolus, clavicula,
and viticulus of other botanifts j and is ranked by Lin¬
naeus among the fulcra, or parts of plants that ferve
for protection, fupport, and defence.
Tendrils are fometimes placed oppofite to the leaves,
as in the vine •, fometimes at the fide of the footftalk
of the leaf, as in the paffion flower j and fometimes, as
in winged pea, pi/um ochrus, they are emitted from the
leaves themfelves. With refpeft to compofition, they
are either Ample, that is, compofed of one fibre or
chord, as in the vetch ; or compound, that is, con-
fift of two, three, or more, as in the everlafling pea.
Bitter fweet, folanum dulcamara, bignonia, and ivy,
fend forth tendrils which plant themfelves like roots in
the adjacent walls, or the bark of the neighbouring
trees. Clafpers, fays the ingenious Dr Grew, are like
trunk-roots, a mean betwixt a root and a trunk, but a
compound of both, as may be gathered from their cir¬
cumvolutions, in which they mutually attend and de-
ttend. In the mounting of the trunk, continues the
fame author, clafpers ferve for fupport. Thus, in
vines, the branches being very long, fragile, and {len¬
der, would be liable to frequent breaking, unlefs, by
means of their clafpers, they were mutually contained
together ; fo that the whole care is divided betwixt the
gardener and nature : the former with his ligaments
of leather, fecures the main branches ; and nature, ivith
thofe of her own providing, fecures the lefs. Their
aptitude to this end is feen in their convolutions, a
motion not proper to any other part; and alfo in their
toughnefs, which is fo much the more remarkable, as
they are flenderer than the branches from which they
proceed. In the trailing of the trunk, tendrils ferve
for ftabilement and {hade : thus, in cucumbers the
trunk and branches being long and fragile, would be
driven to and fro by the winds, to the great preju¬
dice both of themfelves and their tender fruits, were
they not, by thefe ligaments, held faft together, and
preferved in affociation and good fellowffiip. The fame
clafpers ferve likewife for ffiade, fo that a natural ar¬
bour is formed by the branches of the cucumber, in the
fame manner as an artificial one is made by tangling
together the branches of trees ; for the branches, by the
linking of the clafpers, being couched together, the
tender fruits lie under the umbrage of a bower made
of their own leaves. Moft of the pea-bloom flowers
have twining clafpers, that is, which wind to the right
and back again.
CIRRI, in Ichthyology, certain oblong and foft
appendages, not unlike little worms, hanging from
the under jaws or mouths of fome fiffies ; thefe cirri,
commonly tranflated beards, afford marks to diftin-
guiffi the different fpecies of the fiffies on which they
are found.
CIRT A, in Ancient Geography, the metropolis and
royal refidence, not far from the river Ampfaga, in the
inland parts of Numidia Propria. A colony, furna-
med Colonia Sittianqrum, very rich, when in the hands
of Syphax. The colony was led by one P. Sittius,
under the aufpices of Caefar, and was furnamed Julia.
Now called Conjlantina, in Algiers. E. Long. 7. o.
N. Lat. 35. 30.
CISALPINE, any thing on this fide the Alps.
The Romans divided Gaul and the country now called
Lombardy, into Cifalpine and Tranfalpine. That which
was Cifalpine with regard to the Romans, is Tranfalpine
with regard to us.
CISLEU, in Hebrew chronology, the ninth month
of their ecclefiaftical, and third of their civil, year, an-
fwering nearly to our November.
CISPADANA Gallia, in ^Ancient Geography $ 3
diflrid of Italy, to the fouth of the Po, occupied by the
Gauls in the time of the kings of Rome, feparated from
Liguria on the weft, as is thought by the Iria, running
from fouth to north into the Po; bounded on the fouth
by the Apennine, and on the eaft by the Adriatic.
The term is formed analogically, there being much
mention in Cicero, lacitus, Suetonius, and ancient
inferiptions, made of the Tranfpadani; which and Cif-
padani are terms ufed with refped to Rome. Ptolemy
calls the Cifpadana peculiarly Gallia Togata, extending
between the Po and Apennine, to the Sapis and Ru¬
bicon.
CISSA, or Cissum, in Ancient Geogt'aphy, a town
of the Hither Spain, in Lufitania, on the eaft fide of
the Iberus (thought to be Guiffuna^, where the Car¬
thaginians were firft defeated by Scipio. Another
Cift'a of Thrace, fituated on the river Atgos Potamus,
which Scylax feems to call Crejfa, or Crijfa; fo that
the reading is doubtful.
CISSAMPELOS. See Botany Index. There are
two fpecies of this genus, the pareira and caapeba, both
natives of the warmeft parts of America. The root
of the fecond, applied externally, is faid to be an an¬
tidote againft the bites of venomous ferpents. The
plant being infufed in water, quickly fills the liquor
with a mucilaginous fubftance, which is as thick as
jelly i
Cirri
Ciftampe.
los.
C I T [I
Ciffampe- j^Hy ; whence the name of free-zing-ivytJi, by which
los this genus of plants has been diftinguiftied by the Bra¬
il zilians.
.itadincfca. CISSOID, in Geometry, a curve of the fecond or¬
der, fird invented by Diodes, whence it is called///e
cijjbid of Diodes. See Fluxions.
CISSUS, the Wild Grape. See Botany Index.
CIS L ERCIANS, in Church-hiflory, a religious or¬
der founded in the nth century by St Robert a Be-
nedidine. They became fo powerful, that they go¬
verned almoft all Europe, both in fpirituals and tem¬
porals. Cardinal de Vitri defcribing their obfervan-
ces, fays, they neither wore Ikins nor Hurts, nor ever
ate flefh, except in ficknefs ; and abftained from filh,
e88s> raiik, and cheefe : they lay upon draw-beds, in
tunics and cowls \ they rofe at midnight to prayers }
they fpent the day in labour, reading, and prayer,
and in all their exercifes obferved a continual filence.
The habit of the Ciftercian monks is a white robe,
in the nature of a caflock, with a black fcapulary
and hood, and is girt with a wooden girdle. The
nuns wear a white tunic, and a black fcapulary and
girdle.
CISTERN, denotes a fubterraneous refervoir of rain¬
water j or a veffel ferving as a receptacle for rain
or other water, for the neceffary ufes of a family. There
are likewife lead-cifterns, jar-citlerns, &c.
Authors mention a cidern at Condantinople, the
vaults of which are fupported by two rows of pillars,
212 in each row, each pillar being two feet in diameter.
They are planted circularly, and in radii tending to
that of the centre.
Anciently there were ciderns all over the country in
Paledine. There Were fome likewife in cities and pri¬
vate houfes. As the cities for the mod part were
built on mountains, and the rains fell regularly in Ju¬
dea at two feafons in the year only, in fpring and au¬
tumn, people were obliged to keep water in ciderns
in the country for the ufe of their cattle, and in cities
for the conveniency of the inhabitants. There are dill
ciderns of very large dimenfions to be leen in Paledine,
fome whereof are 150 paces long, and 54 wide.’
There is one to be feen at Ramah of 32 paces in
length, and 28 in breadth. Wells and ciderns, fprings
and fountains, are generally confounded in feripture-
language.
CISTUS, the Rock rose. See Botany Index.
Cl 1 ADEL, a place fortified with five or fix ba-
dions, built on a convenient ground near a city, that
it may command it in cafe of a rebellion.
CITADELLA, the capital town in the ifland of
Minorca, in the Mediterranean, with a new harbour.
This, with the whole ifland, was taken by General
Stanhope and the confederate fleet in 1708, and ceded
to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713 j
but it was taken by the French, after a brave defence,
in 1756, and redored by the peace. In 1782, it was
taken by the Spaniards, and confirmed to them at the
fubfequent peace. It is 27 miles wed of Port-Mahon.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 39. c8.
Cl I ADINESC A, in NaturalHi/iory, a name given
by fome writers to the Florentine marbh-, which is fup-
pofed to reprefent towns, palaces, ruins, rivers, &c.
Ihefe delineations are merely accidental, and are 00m-
sionly much aflifled by the imagination, though the
Vol. VL Part I.
69 ]
C I T
natural lines of a done may fometimes luckily enough Citadlnefca
reprefent the ruins of fome ancient building, or the (]
courfe of a river. In England there is a kind of fep- ‘ hr.nus. ^
taria, or ludus Helmontii, which has fometimes prettv v
beautiful, though very irregular, delineations of this
kind. The Florentine marble, as we fee it wrought up
in the ornaments of cabinets, &c. owes a great deal to
the fkill of the workmen, who always pick out the
proper pieces from the mafs, and difpofe them in the
work fo as to reprefent what they pleafe.
CITATION, in ecclefiadical courts, is the fame
with fumrnons in civil courts. See Summons.
Citation, is alfo a quotation of fome law authority,
or pafiage of a book.
Cl I H/ERON, in Ancient Geography, a mountain
and forth of Boeotia, celebrated both in fable and long.
To the wed it ran obliquely, a little above the Sinus
Criflseus, taking its rite contiguous to the mountains
of Megara and Attica 5 then levelled into plains, it
terminates at Thebes, famous for the fate of Pentheus
and Aftaeon $ the former torn by the Bacchse, the
latter by his dogs 5 as alfo for the orgia, or revels of
Bacchus.
CITHARA, in antiquity, a mufical indrument, the
precife drufture of which is not known j fome think
it refembled the Greek delta A ; and others the fliape
of a half-moon. At fird it had only three drings, but
the number was at different times increafed to 8, to 9,
and laflly to 24. It was ufed in entertainments and
private houfes, and played upon with a plt&rum or
quill, like the lyre.
CITH AREXYLON, Fiddle wood. See Bo¬
tany Index.
Cl 1IUM, Cetium, or Cittium, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town of Cyprus, fituated in the fouth of the
ifland, famous for the birth of Zeno, author of the feft
called Stoics ; didant two hundred dadia to the wed of
Salamis (Diodorus Siculus). A colony of Phoenicians,
called Chetim: And hence it is that not only Cy¬
prus, but the other iflands and many maritime places,
are called Chetim by the Hebrews; now called
Chiti.
Cl TIZEN, a native or inhabitant of a city, vefled
with the freedom and liberties of it.
A citizen of Rome was didinguilhed from a flran-
ger, becaufe he belonged to no certain commonwealth
fubjeft to the Romans. A citizen is either by birth or
eleftion ; and fons may derive the right from their fa¬
thers. To make a good Roman citizen, it was necef-
fary to be an inhabitant of Rome, to be inrolled in one
of the tribes, and to be capable of dignities. Tbofe to
whom were granted the rights and privileges of Roman
citizens were only honorary citizens. It was not law¬
ful to fcourge a citizen of Rome.
CITRINUS, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a pe¬
culiar fpecies of fprig crydal, which is ©f a beautiful
yellow. Many of the common crydals, when in the
neighbourhood of lead mines, are liable to be acci¬
dentally tinged yellow', by an admixture of the parti¬
cles of that metal j and all thefe, w hether finer or
coarfer, have been too frequently confounded together
under the name citrine ; but Dr Hill has afeertained
this to be a peculiar fpecies of cryflal different from
all the others in form as well as in colour ; and didin-
guifhed by the n?jne of ellipomacrofylum lucidvm fla-
Y vefeens.
c
I T
[ 170 ] 0 I T
Citrinus vefcens, pyratnide brevi. It is never found colourlefs
|| like the other cryftals, but has great variety of tinges,
Clt£| from that of the deeper ochres to a pale lemon colour.
v—' Xt is very plentiful in the Weft Indies, and is fome-
times found in Bohemia. Our jewellers have learned
from the French and Italians, who are very fond of it,
to call it citrine; and often cut ftones for rings out of
it, particularly out of the pyramid, which is always finer
than the column \ and thefe, after they have palled
through two or three hands, are generally miftaken for
topazes.
CITRON-tree. See Citrus, Botany Index.
CITRON Water, a well-known ftrong water or cordial,
which may be thus made : Take of fine thin lemon-
peel, 18 ounces j of orange-peel, 9 ounces j perfeft
nutmegs, 4 ounces j the fineft and belt alcohol 2
gallons and a half., Digeft in balneo mariae for
one night : draw off with a flow fire ; then add as
much water as will juft make the matter milky (which
will be about 7 quarts or 2 gallons ; and laftly, add 2
pounds of fine lugar. Ti his compofition may be im¬
proved by frelh elder flowers, bung in a cloth in the
head of the ftill, fprinkled with ambergris in powder,
or its effrnce.
ClTRON-Wood, the wood of an American tree, call-
ed by the natives candle-wood, becaufe, being cut
into fplinters it burns like a candle. The tree is fre¬
quent in the Leeward illands, and grows to a conft-
derable fize : the leaves are like thole of the bay-tree,
but of a finer green the flower is fweet, and much
like thofe of the orange ; the fruit fucceeding thefe is
black, and of the fize of a pepper-corn. The trunk
is fo like the yellow faunders in colour, that there was
once an opinion that it was the fame tree, and much
of it was imported into Europe, and fold as fuch ; but
they were foon found to be different \ the faunders be-
ing of a fweet feent, and but moderately heavy and
relinous : but the citron-wood conliderably heavy,
very oily, and of a ftrong fmell. It is of no known
ufe in medicine j. but is uftd in France and Germany
by the turners, being a fine firm-grained wood, and
taking a fine polith, and with age becoming of a very
beautiful brown.
CITRUS, the Citron-tree. See Botany Index.
This genus includes the citron, the lemon, the lime,
the orange, of which there are different varieties, the
Ihaddock, and the forbidden fruit.
CITIERN, a mulical inftrument much refembling
the guitar, for which it has been frequently miftaken.
Anciently it was called the cijlrum, and till lately was
held in great contempt both in France and Britain.
The practice on it being very eafy, it was formerly
the amufement and recreation of lewd women and
their vifitorq infomuch, that in many of the old Eng-
lifh dramatic writers, it is made the fymbol of a wo¬
man that lived by proftitution. It was alfo the com¬
mon amufement of waiting tuftomers in barbers fhops,
as being the moft eafy of all inftruments to play on,
and therefore it was thought that almoft every body
could make ufe of it..
Cl 1 Y, according to Cowel, is a town corporate
which hath a bifhop and cathedral church ; and is call¬
ed civitas, oppidum, and urbs: civitas, in regard it is
governed by juftice and order of magiftracy ; oppi¬
dum, becaufe it contains a great number of inhabi¬
tants j and urbs becaufe it is in due form furrounded city,
with walls. 1 T . 1
Kingdoms have been fald to contain as many cities
as they have feats of arehbiftiops and bifliops ; but, ac¬
cording to Blount, city is a word that hath obtained
fince the conqueft ; for, in the time of the Saxons,,
there were no cities, but all the great towns were
called burghs, and even London was then called Lon-
donburgh, as the capital of Scotland is called Edinburgh..
And long after the conqueft the word city is ufed pru-
mifeuoufly with the burgh, as in the charter of Leice-
fter, where it is both called civitas and burgus ; which
{hows that thofe writers were miftaken who tell us
every city was, or is, a bilhop’s fee. And though the
word ezhy fignifies with us fuch a town corporate as hath
ufually a bifhop and a cathedral church, yet it is not
always fo.
As to the ancient ftate of cities and villages, whilft.
the feudal policy prevailed, they held of fome great
lord on whom they depended for prote&ion, and were
fubjetft to his arbitrary jurifdi£tion. The inhabitants
were deprived of the natural and moft unalienable
rights of humanity. They could not difpofe of the
effects which their own indultry had acquired, either
by a latter will or by any deed executed during their
life. They had no right to appoint guardians for their
children during their minority. They were not per¬
mitted to marry without purchafing the confent of the
lord on which they depended. If once they had com¬
menced a law-fuit, they durft not terminate it by an
accommodation, becaufe that would have deprived the
lord, in whofe court they pleaded, of the perquilites
due to him on pafling his lenience. Services of vari- Robertforis
ous kinds no lefs difgraceful than oppreffive were ex- Charles V.
afted from them without mercy or moderation. The
fpirit of induftry was checked in fome cities by abfurd
regulations, and in others by unreafonable exaflions;
nor would the narrow and oppreflive maxims of a mili¬
tary ariftocracy have permitted it ever to rife to any
degree of height or vigour.
The freedom of cities was firft eftablilhed in Italy,
owing principally to the introdu&ion of commerce..
As loon as they began to turn their attention towards
this objeeft, and to conceive fome idea of the advan¬
tages they might derive from it, they became impa¬
tient to (hake off the yoke of their infolent lords, and
to eftabhlh among themfelves fuch a free and equal
government as would render property fecure and in¬
duftry flourilhing. The German emperors, efpecially
thofe of the Franconian and Suabian lines, as the feat
of their government was far diftant from Italy, poffeffcd:
a feeble and imperfect jurifdittion in that country..
Their perpetual quarrels, either with the popes or their
own turbulent vaffals, diverted their attention from the
interior police of Italy, and gave eonftant employment
for their arms.. Ihefe circumflances induced fome of
the Italian cities towards the beginning of the 11th
centurv, to affome new privileges*, to unite together
more clofely, and to form themftlves into bodies poli¬
tic, under the government of laws eftablilhed by com¬
mon confent. The rights which many cities acquired
by bold or fortunate ufurpations, others purchafed from
the emperors, who deemed themfelves gainers when
they received large fums for immunities which they
were no longer able to withhold ; and fome cities ob¬
tained
C I T [ 1
City. tained them gratuitoufly from the facility or generofi-
—V—' ty of the princes on whom they depended. The great
increafe of wealth which the cruiades brought into
Italy, occafioned a new kind of fermentation and ac¬
tivity in the minds of the people, and excited fuch a
general paffion for liberty and independence, that, be¬
fore the conclufion of the laft cruiade, all the confider-
able cities in that country had either purchafed or had
extorted large immunities from the emperors.
This innovation was not long known in Italy before
it made its way into France. Louis the Grofs, in or¬
der to create fome power that might counterbalance
thofe potent vaflals who controlled or gave law to the
crown, firft adopted the plan of conferring new privi¬
leges on the towns fituated within his own domain.
Thefe privileges were called charters of community, by
which he enfranchifed the inhabitants, abolilhed all
marks of fervitude, and formed them into corporations
or bodies politic, to be governed by a council and ma-
giftrates of their own nomination. Thefe magiftrates
had the right of adminiftering juftice within their own
precin&s j of levying taxes ; of embodying and train¬
ing to arms the militia of the town, which took the
field when required by the fovereign under the com¬
mand of officers appointed by the community. The
great barons imitated the example of their monarch,
and granted like immunities to the towns within their
territories. They had wafted fuch great fums in their
expeditions to the Holy Land, that they were eager to
lay hold on this new expedient for railing money by the
fale of thofe charters of liberty. Though the conftitu-
tion of communities was as repugnant to their maxims
of policy as it was adverfe to their power, they difre-
garded remote confequences in order to obtain prefent
relief. In lefs than two centuries, fervitude was abo-
lilhed in molt of the cities of France, and they became
free corporations, inftead of dependent villages without
jurifdiflion or privileges. Much about the fame period
the great cities of Germany began to acquire like im¬
munities, and laid the foundations of their prefent li¬
berty and independence. The practice fpread quickly
over Europe, and was adopted in Spain, England,
Scotland, and all the other feudal kingdoms.
The Spanilh hiftorians are almoft entirely filent con¬
cerning the origin and progrefs of communities in that
kingdom ; fo that it is impoffible to fix with any degree
of certainty, the time and manner of theiir firft intro¬
duction there. It appears, however, from Mariana,
that in the year 1350 eighteen cities had obtained
a feat in the Cortes of Caftile. In Arragon, cities feem
early to have acquired extenfive immunities, together
with a ftiare in the legiflature. In the year 1 j 18, the
citizens of Saragoffa had not only obtained political li¬
berty, but they were declared to be of equal rank with
the nobles of the fecond clafs 5 and many other immu¬
nities, unknown to perfons in their rank of life in other
parts of Europe, were conferred upon them. In Eng¬
land, the eftabliftiment of communities or corporations
was pofterior to the conqueft. The praClice was bor¬
rowed from France, and the privileges granted by the
crown were perfe&ly fimilar to thofe above enumerated.
It is not improbable, that fome of the towns in England
were formed into corporations under the Saxon kings ;
and that the charters granted by the kings of the Nor¬
man race were not charters of enfranchifements from a
71 ] CIV
ftate of flavery, but a confirmation of privileges which city
they had already enjoyed*. The EngJifti cities, how- ||'
ever, were very conliderable in the 12th century. A ^lvic
clear proof of this occurs in the hiftory juft referred Crown- .
to. Fitz-Stephen, a contemporary author, gives a de- * see Lord
fcription of the city of London in the reign of Hen- Lyttlet n's
ry II. and the terms in which he fpeaks of its trade, Hijiory of
its wealth, and the number of its inhabitants, would ^
fuggeft no inadequate idea of its ftate at prefent, when ^ \\n.
it is the greateft and moft opulent city in Europe.
But all ideas of grandeur and magnificence are merely
comparative. It appears from Peter of Blois, arch¬
deacon of London, who flouriftied in the fame reign,
and who had good opportunity of being informed, that
this city, of which Fitz-Stephen gives fuch a pompous
account, contained no more than 40,000 inhabitants.
I he other cities were ftuall in proportion, and in no
condition to extort any extenfive privileges. That
the conftitution of the boroughs of Scotland in many
cireumftances refembles that of the towns of France
and England, is manifeft from the Leges Burgorum an¬
nexed to the Regiam Majejiatem.
CIVET, a kind of perfume which bears the name
of the animal it is taken from, and to which it is pecu¬
liar. See Viverra.
Good civet is of a clear, yellowifh, or brownifh co¬
lour ; not fluid nor hard, but about the confiftence of
butter or honey, and uniform throughout ; of a very
ftrong fmell, quite offenfive when undiluted, but agree¬
able when only a fmall portion of civet is mixed with
a large one of other lubftances. It unites eafily with
oils both exprefled and diftilled, but not at all with
water or alcohol j nor can it be rendered mifcible
with water by the mediation of fugar. The yolk of
an egg feems to difpofe it to unite with water j but in
a very little while the civet feparates from the liquor,
and falls to the bottom, though it does not prove of
fuch a refinous tenacity as when treated with fugar and
alcohol. It communicates, however, fome ftiare of
its fmell both to watery and fpirituous liquors : hence
a fmall portion of it is often added in odoriferous tinc¬
tures, and fufpended in the ft ill head during the diftil-
lation of odoriferous waters and fpirits. It is rarely
if ever employed for medicinal purpofes. The Italians
make it an ingredient in perfumed oils, and thus ob¬
tain the whole of its fcent $ for oils wholly diflolve the
fubftance of it. It is very rare, however, to meet with
civet unadulterated. The fubftances ufually mixed with
it are lard and butter, which agreeing with it in its
general properties, render all criteria for diftinguifliing
the adulteration impoffible. A great trade of civet is
carried on at Calicut, Baffora, and other parts of the
Indies, and in Africa, where the animal that produces
the perfume is found. Live civet-cats are to be feen
alfo in France and Holland. The French keep them
only as a rarity; but the Dutch, who keep a great num¬
ber, draw the civet from them for fale. It is moftly
ufed by confeftioners and perfumers.
ClVET-Cat, the Englifh name of the animal which
produces the civet. See Viverka, Mammalia In¬
dex.
CIVIC CROWN, was a crown given by the ancient
Romans to any foldier who had faved the life of a citi¬
zen in an engagement.
The civic crown was reckoned more honourable
' Y 2 than
C I V
Civic than any other crown, though compofed of no better
Crown materials than oak boughs. Plutarch, in the life of
Civil Law Coriolanus, accounts as follows for ufing on
this oecafion the branches of this tree before all others:
' becaufe, fays, he, the oaken wreath being facred to
Jupiter, the great guardian of their city, they thought
it the moft proper ornament for him who had pre-
* Lib- xvi. ferved the life of a citizen. Pliny *, fpeaking of the
■‘0' honour and privileges conferred on thofe who had
merited this crown, fays, “ They who had once ob¬
tained it, might wear it always.” When they appeared
at the public fpedtacles, the fenate and people rofe to
do them honour, and they took their feats on thefe
occafions among the fenators. They were not only
perfonally excufed from all troublefome offices, but
procured the fame immunity for their father and grand¬
father by the father’s fide.
CIVIDAD de-las-Palmas, the capital town of
the ifland of Canary, with a bifhop’s fee, and a good
harbour. The houfes are well built, two ftories high,
and fiat-roofed. The cathedral is a very handfome
ftru&ure *, and the inhabitants are gay and rich. The
air is temperate, and free from extremes of heat and
cold. It is defended by a fmall caftle feated on a hill.
W. Long. 14. 35. N. Lat. 28. o.
CiVIDAD Real, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, and
capital of La Mancha. The inhabitants are noted for
d re fling leather extremely well for gloves. W. Long.
4. 15. N. Lat. 39. 2.
CiVIDAD Roderigo, a ftrong and confiderable town
of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with a bifhop’s fee.
It is feated in a fertile country, on the river Agueda,
in W. Long. 6. 52. N. Lat. 40. 38.
ClVIDAD-di-Fnu/i, a fmall but ancient town of Italy,
in Friuli, and in the territory of Venice*, feated on the
river Natifona. E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 46. 15.
CIVIL, in a general fenfe, fomething that regards
the policy, public good, or peace, of the citizens or
fubje&s of the iiate j in which fenfe we fay, civil go¬
vernment, civil law, civil right, civil war, &c.
Civil, in a popular fenfe, is applied to a complai-
fant and humane behaviour in the ordinary intercourfe
of life. See Civility.
Civil, in a legal fenfe, is alfo applied to the ordi¬
nary procedure in an a61ion, relating to fome pecuniary
matter or intereft *, in which fenfe it is oppofed to cri¬
minal.
CIVIL Death, any thing that cuts off a man from
civil fociety *, as a condemnation to the galleys, perpe¬
tual banifhment, condemnation to death, outlawry, and
excom mun ication.
CIVIL Law, is properly the peculiar law of each ftate,
country, or city: but what we ufually mean by the
civil law, is a body of laws compofed out of the befl
Roman and Grecian laws, compiled from the laws of
nature and nations ; and, for the mod part, received
and obferved, throughout all the Roman dominions for
above 1200 years. See Law Index.
It was firft brought over into England by Theobald
a Norman abbot, who was elefted to the fee of Can¬
terbury in 1138; and he appointed a profeflor, viz.
Roger furnamed Vicarius, in the univerfity of Oxford,
to teach it to the people of this country. Never-
thelefs, it gained ground very flowly. King Ste¬
phen iffued a proclamation, prohibiting the ftudy of
c 1 v
it. And though the clergy were attached to it, the civil Law
laity rather wiflied to p eferve the old conftitution. |1
However, the zeal and influence of the clergy pre- W21--
vailed *, and the civil law acquired great reputation '
from the reign of King Stephen to the reign of King
Edward the III. both inclufive. Many tranferipts of Ju-
ftinian’s Inllitute are to be found in the writings of our
ancient authors, particularly of Bra6fon and Fieta j
and Judge Blackflone obferves, that the common law
would have been loft and overrun by the civil, had it
not been for the incident of fixing the court of common
pleas in one certain Ipot, and the forming the proleflion
of the municipal law into an aggregate body.
It is allowed that the civil law contains all the prin¬
ciples of natural equity ; and that nothing can be bet¬
ter calculated to form good fenfe and found judgment.
Hence, though in feveral countries it has no other au¬
thority but that of reafon and juftice, it is everywhere
referred to for authority. It is not received at this
day in any nation without fome alterations ; and fome-
times the feudal law is mixed with it, or general and
particular cuftoms ; and often ordinances and ftatutes
cut off a great part of it.
In Turkey, the Bafilics are only ufed. In Italy,
the canon law and cuftoms have excluded a good part
of it. In Venice, cuftom hath almoft an abfolute go¬
vernment. In the Milanefe, the feudal law and par¬
ticular cuftoms bear fway. In Naples and Sicily, the
confutations and laws of the Lombards are faid to
prevail. In Germany and Holland, the civil law is
efteemed to be the municipal law ; but yet many parts
of it are there grown obfolete ; and others are altered,
either by the canon law or a different ufage. In
Friefland, it is obferved with more ftriftnefs j but in
the northern parts of Germany, the jus Saxonicum,
Lubecenfe, or Culmenfe, is preferred before it. In
Denmark and Sweden, it hath fcarce any authority at
all. In France, only a part of it is received, and that
part is in fome places as a cuflomary law ; and in thofe
provinces neareft to Italy it is received as a municipal
written law. In criminal caufes, the civil law is more
regarded in France j but the manner of trial is regula¬
ted by ordinances and edicts. In Spain and Portugal,
the civil law is connedfed with the jus regium and cu¬
ftom. In Scotland, the ftatutes of the federunt, part
of the regiam majeftatem, and their cuftoms, controul
the civil law.
In England, it is ufed in the ecclefiaftical courts, in
the high court of admiralty, in the court of chivalry,
in the two umverfities, and in the courts of equity j
yet in all thefe it is reftrained and direfted by the com¬
mon law.
CIVIL Society. See Law Index.
' ClVIL State, in the Britifh polity, one of the gene¬
ral divifions of the Laity, comprehending all orders of
men, from the higheft nobleman to the meaneft peafant,
that are not included under the Military or Mari¬
time ftates; though it may fometimes include indivi¬
duals of thefe as well as of the Clergy j fince a noble¬
man, a knight, a gentleman, or a peafant, may become
either a divine, a foldier, or a feaman. The divifion
of this ftate is into Nobility and Commonalty. See
thefe articles.
Civil War, a war between people of the fame ftate,,
or the citizens of the fame city.
[ 172 1
Civil.
CIV [ 173 ] CIV
Civil Year ClVIL 7ear, is the legal year, or annual account of
II time, which every government appoints to be ufed
Civnity. wii hin its own dominions j and is fo called in contra-
"v diftin&ion to the natural year, which is meafured ex-
afllv by the revolution of the heavenly bodies.
CIVILIAN, in general, denotes fomething belong¬
ing to the civil law ; but more efpecially the do6lors
and p 'te(f>r« thereof are called civi/ians.
CIVILITY, a term ufed in common life as fyno-
nymous with complaifance or good-breeding.
Civility i^ juftly inculcated by didaftic writers as a
duty of no flight confideration. Without civility, or
good-breeding, a court would be the feat of violence
and defolation. There, all the paffions are in fermen¬
tation ; becaufe all purfue what but few can obtain j
there, if enemies did not embrace, they would dab $
there, fmiles are often put on to conceal tears ; there,
mutual fervices are profeffed, while mutual injuries are
intended ; and there, the guile of the ferpent fimulates
the gentlenefs of the dove. To what a degree mull:
good breeding adorn the beauty of truth, when it can
th us foften the deformity of falfehood ? On this fubjeft
we have the following elegant obfervations in Knox’s
EtTays, N° 91;.
“ However juft the complaints of the mifery of
life, yet great occafions for the difplay of beneficence
and liberality do not often occur. But there is an
hourly neceffity for the little kind offices of mutual ci¬
vility. At the fame time that they give pleafure to
others, they add to our own happimfs and improvement.
Habitual a&s of kindnefs have a powerful efteft in
foftening the heart. An intercomfe with polifhed and
humane company tends to improve the difpofition, be¬
caufe it requires a conformity of manners. And it is
certain, that a fenfe of decorum, and of a proper ex¬
ternal behaviour, will reftrain thofe whofe natural tem¬
per would otherwife break out in acrimonious and
petulant converfation. Even the affeftation of philan¬
thropy will in time contribute to realife it. The plea¬
fure refulting from an aft of kindnefs naturally excites
a wilh to repeat it ; and indeed the general efteem
which the chara&er of benevolence procures, is fuffi-
cient to induce thofe to wilh for it who only a£f from
the mean motives of felf-intereft.
“ As we are placed in a world where natural evil
abounds, we ought to render it fupportable to each
other as far as human endeavours can avail. All that
can add a fweet ingredient to the bitter cup muft be
infufed. Amid the multitude of thorns, every flower
that will grow muft be cultivated with care. But nei¬
ther pomp nor power are of themfelves able to alleviate
the load of life. The heart requires to be foot bed by
fympalhv. A thoufand little attentions from all around
us are neceffary to render our days agreeable. The
appearance of negleft in any of thofe with whom we
are conne&ed, chills our bofom with chagrin, or kindles
the fire of refentment. Nothing therefore feems fo
likely to enfure happinefs as our mutual endeavours to
promote it. Our fingle endeavours, originating and
terminating in ourfelves, are ufually unfuccefsful. Pro¬
vidence has taken care to fecure that intercourfe which
is neceffary to the exiftence of fociety, by rendering it
the greateft fweetener of human life.
By reciprocal attentions we are enabled to become
l
beneficent without expence. A fmile, an affable ad- civility
drefs, a look of approbation, are often capable of giv- (j
ing a greater pleafure than pecuniary benefits can be-Cm^a ^ur_
flow. The mere participation of the fludies and amufe- .
ments of others, at the fame time that it gratifies our¬
felves, is often an aft of real humanity 5 becaufe others
would not enjoy them without companions. A friendly
vifit in a folitary hour, is often a greater aft of kind¬
nefs than a valuable prefent.
“ It Is really matter of furprife, that thofe who are
diftinguiftied by rank and opulence fhould ever be un¬
popular in their neighbourhood. They muft know the
value of popularity ; and furely nothing is more eafily
obtained by a fuperior. Their notice confers honour,
and the afpiring heart of man is always delighted with
diftinftion. A gracious look from them diffufes hap¬
pinefs on the lower ranks. But it ufually happens,
that an overgrown rich man is not the favourite of a
neighbouring country *, and it is unfortunate, that
pride or inadvertence often prevent men from afting
the godlike part of making others happy, even when
they might do it without inconvenience to themfelves.”
CIVITA-DI Penna, an ancient town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Abruzzo,
with a biftiop’s fee. It is fituated near the river Sali-
no, 25 miles north-eaft of Aquila. E. Long. 13.3.
N. Lat. 42. 25.
ClVlTA Cajiellana, a town of Italy, in St Peter’s
patrimony, feated on a river, which, feven miles from
thence, falls into the Tiber. E. Long. 13. 5* N. Lat.
42. 15.
ClVJTA Turchrno, a place in Italy, about two miles
north of the town of Corneto in the patrimony of
St Peter. It is a hill of an oblong form, the fummit
of which is almoft one continued plain. From the
quantity of medals, intaglios, fragments of kifcrip-
tions, &c. that are occafionally found here, this is be¬
lieved to be the very fpot where the ancient and
powerful city of Tarquinii once flood. At prefent it
is only one continued field of corn. On the fouth-
eaft fide of it runs the ridge of a hill which unites it
to Corneto. This ridge is at leaf! three or four miles
in length, and almoft entirely covered with artificial
hillocks, called by the inhabitants monti-rojji. About
twelve of thefe hillocks have at different times been
opened •, and in every one of them have been found
feveral fubterranean apartments cut out of the lolid
rock. Thefe apartments are of various forms and di-
menfions 5 fome confift of a large outer room, and a
fmall one within ; others of a fmall room, at the firft
entrance, and a large one within 5 others are fup-
ported by a column of the folid rock left in the centre,
with openings on every part. The entrance to them
all is by a door about five feet high, by two and a
half broad. Some of them have no light but from
the door, while others feem to have had a fmall light
from above, through a hole of a pyramidal form.
Many of thefe apartments have an elevated port that
runs all round the wall, being a part of the rock left
for that purpofe. The moveables found in thefe apart¬
ments confift chiefly of Etrufcan vafes of various forms.
In fome indeed have been found fome plain farcophagi
of ftone, with bones in them. The whole of thefe
apartments are ftuecoedj and ornamented in various >
manners;:
c L A [ 1
Civita manners : fome indeed are plain ; but others, particu-
1 urchino larly three, are richly adorned, having a double row
Clackman ^tru^can infcriptions running round the upper part
of the walls, and under them a kind of frieze of fi-
v~-v—~ gures in painting ; fome have an ornament under the fi¬
gures, which feems to fupply the place of an archi¬
trave. The paintings feem to be in frefco; and in
general referable thofe which are ufually feen upon
Etrufcan vafes •, though fome of them are perhaps
fuperior to any thing as yet feen of the Etrufcan art
in painting. In general they are flight, but well con¬
ceived *, and prove, that the artift was capable of pro¬
ducing things moreftudied and better finiftied ; though,
in fuch a fubterraneous fituation, the delicacy of a fi-
nifhed work would in a great meafure have been
thrown away. It is probable, however, that among
the immenfe number of thefe apartments that yet re¬
main to be opened, many paintings and infcriptions
may be found, fufficient to form a very ufeful and en¬
tertaining wotk. At prefent this great fcene of anti¬
quities is almoft entirely unknown, even in Rome. Mr
Jenkins, refident at Rome, was the firit Engliihman
who vifited it.
, ClVITA Vecchta, a fea port town of Italy in the pa¬
trimony of St Peter, with a good harbour and an
arfenal. Here ihe Pope’s galleys are ftationed, and it
has lately been made a free port ; but the air is very
unwholefome. E. Long. I2s 31. N. Lat. 45. 5.
* CIVOLI, or Cigoli, Ijewts, an Italian painter,
whofe family name was,was born at the caftle
of Cigoli, in Tufcany, in the year 1559. Plis ecce ho¬
mo, which he performed as a trial of Ikill with Barochio
and Michael Angelo de Caravaggio, was judged better
than thofe executed by them. He excelled in de-
figning, and was employed by the popes and princes of
his time. He died at Rome in 1613.
CIUS, in Ancient Geography, a town and river of
.Bithynia, which gave name to the Sinus Cianus. The
town was afterwards called Prufia, Cius having been
deflroyed by Philip father of Perfeu«, and rebuilt by
Prufias king of Bithynia. In the river, Hylas, the fa¬
vourite boy of Hercules, was drowned j (Apollonius
Rhodius).
CL AC, among countrymen. To clack wool, is to
cut off the (beep’s mark, which makes the weight lefs,
and yields lefs cuftom to the king.
CLACKMANNAN, the name of a fmall (hire in
Scotland, not exceeding eight miles in length and five
In breadth. It is bounded on the fouth by the frith
of Forth j on the north and weft by Perthfhire ; and
on the eaft by Fife. The country is plain and fertile
towards the frith, producing corn and pafture in abun¬
dance. It likewife yields, great abundance of excel¬
lent coal, confiderable quantities of which are (hipped
to (apply Edinburgh with fuel. It is watered by the
rivers Forth and Devon, and joins the^hire of Kinrofs
in fending a member alternately to parliament.
Population* of the different Parifhes in this County at two
Periods.
74 ]
Alloa,
Clackmannan,
In rye 5.
C816
In 1790—1798.
4802
. 2528
Dollar,
Tillicoultry
Decreafe,
G L
Ir-1755-
S'l
757
9°o3
8 749
 *
254
A
In 1790—1798.
Clackman
nan
II
Clamp.
* Stati/l,
Hi/l.
Clackmannan, a fmall town of Scotland, and ca¬
pita! of the county of that name, is fituated on the
northern ihore of the Forth, in W. Long. 3. 40.
N. Lat. 56. 15. It (lands on a hill, on the top of which
is the caftle, commanding a noble prolpedt. It was
long the feat of the chief of the Bruces, who was here¬
ditary (heriff of the county before the jurifdidlions were
abolifhtd. The large (quare tower is called after the
name of Robert Bruce, whole great fword and cafque
are (fill preferved here. The hill is prettily wooded ;
and, with the tower, forms a pi6turefque objedl. Clack¬
mannan is Kill the feat of the Bruces of Kcnnet.
CLAGENFURT, a ftrong town of Germany, and
capital of Carinthia, fituated in E. Long. 13. 36.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
CLAGE1, William, an eminent and learned di¬
vine, born in 1646. He was preacher to the fociety
of Gray’s Inn, which employment he exercifed until
he died in 1688, being then al(b one of the king’s
chaplains. Archbifhop Sharp gives him an excellent
character ; and Biftiop Burnet has ranked him among
thofe worthy men whofe lives and labours contributed
to refeue the church from the reproaches which the
follies of others had drawn upon it. Dr Claget pu-
bliihed feveral things 5 but his principal work is his
“ Difcourfe concerning the Operations of the Holy
Spirit 5” nor muft it be forgotten that he was one of
thofe excellent divines who made a noble (land againft
the deiigns of James II. to introduce popery. Four
volumes of his fermons were publiftied after his death
by his brother Nicholas Claget, archdeacon of Sud¬
bury, father of Nicholas Claget afterwards bi(hop of
Exeter. >
CLAIM, in La%v, a challenge of intereft in any
thing that is in pofleflion of another.
CLAIR OBSCURE. See CLARO Obfcuro.
CLAIRAUL1, Alexis, of the French acade¬
my of fciences, was one of the moft illuftrious mathe¬
maticians in Europe. He read to the academy in
1726, when he was not 13 years old, “ A Memoir
upon Four new Geometrical Curves of his own inven¬
tion and fupported the chara&er he thus laid a
foundation for by various publications from time to
time. He publifhed Piemens de Geometric, 1741, in
8vo •, Elemens- d' Algebre, 1 746, in 8vo ; Theorie de la
Figure de la Terre, 1743, in 8vo. 5 Tables de la Lune,
1754, in 8vo. He was concerned alfo in the ’journal
de Ctfavans, which hefurnhhed with many excellent ex-
trafts. He died in 1765. He was one of the acade¬
micians who were fent into the north to determine the
figure of the earth.
CLAM, in Zoology, a Ihell fifli. See Venus.
CLAMP, a piece of wood joined to another.
Clamp is likewife the term for a pile of unburnt
bricks
Clamp
II
Clans.
C L A
bricks built up for burning. Thefe clamps are built
much'after the fame manner as arches are built in kilns,
viz. with a vacuity betwixt each brick’s breadth for the
fire to afcend by ; but with this difference, that in-
ftead of arching, they trufs over, or over-fpan ; that is,
the end of one brick is laid aboilt half way over the
end of another, and fo till both fides meet within half
a brick’s length, and then a binding brick at the top
finiihes the arch.
Clamp in a Jhip, denotes a piece of timber applied to
a mail or yard to prevent the wood from burfting j and
alfo a thick plank lying fore and aft under the beams
of the frrft orlop, or fecond deck, and is the fame that
the rifing timbers are to the deck.
CLAMP Nai/s, fuch nails as are ufed to fallen on
clamps in the building or repairing of Ihips.
CLAMPETIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Bruttii, one of thofe which revolted from Hanni¬
bal (Livy ;) called Lampetia by Polybius. Now
jimantia, or Mantia, a town of Calabria Ultra, near
the bay of Euphemia. E. Long. 16. 20. N. Lat. 39
15-
CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of
board with the grain to another piece of board crofs the
grain. Thus the ends of tables are commonly clamp¬
ed, to prevent their warping.
CLANDES PINE, any thing done without the
knowledge^ of the parties concerned, or without the pro¬
per folemnities. Thus a marriage is faid to be clande-
fline, when performed without the publication of bans,
the confent of parents, &c.
CLANS, in hiftory, and particularly in that of Scot¬
land. The nations which overran Europe were origi¬
nally divided into many fmall tribes ; and when they
came to parcel out the lands which they had conquer¬
ed, it was natural for every chieftain to bellow a por¬
tion, in the fird place, upon thofe of his own tribe or
famdy. Thefe all held their lands of him ; and as the
laiety of each individual depended on the general
union, thefe fmall focieties clung together, and were
dimnguilhed by fome common appellation, either pa-
tronymical or local, long before the introduaion of
lurnames or enfigns armorial. But when thefe be¬
came common, the defcendants and relations of every
chieftain alfumed the fame name and arms with him ;
other vaflals were proud to imitate their example ;
and by degrees they were communicated to all thofe
obertron'svho held of the fame fnperior. Thus clanfhips were
oJand. . ed,’ ®nd ,n a Station or two, that confangui-
nUy whic.i was at firft in a great meafure imaginary,
was believed to be real. An artificial union was con¬
verted into a natural one : men willingly followed a
leader, whom they regarded both as the fuperior of
their lands and the chief of their blood ; and ferved
him not only with the fidelity of valfals, but the affec¬
tion of friends. In the other feudal kingdoms, we
may obferve fuch unions as we have dtfcribed im-
pe-feaiv formed ; but in Scotland, whether they were
th. production of chance, or the effeCt of policy, or
lengthened by their preferving their geneafogies
both'genuine, and fabulous, clanfhips were univerfal.
Such a confederacy might be overcome ; it could not
be broken ; and no change of manner or govern-
menj has been able, in fme parts of the kingdom, to
ciliolve affociations which are founded upon prejudices
4
Clans
F 17s ] C L A
fo natural to the human mind. How formidable were
nobles at the head of followers, who, counting that n
caufe juft and honourable which their chief approved, c,arerK,on-
were ever ready to take the field at his command, and ' '
to facrifice their lives in defence of his perfon or of his
fame ! Againft fuch men a king contended with great
disadvantage j and that cold fervice, which money pur-
chafes, or authority extorts, was not an equal match for
their ardour and zeal.
Some imagine the word clan to be only a corruption
of the Roman colonia ; but Mr Whittaker afferts it to
be purely Britifh, and to fignify z family.
^-UAP, in Medicine^ the firft ftage of the venereal
difeafe, more ufually called a Gonorrhoea.
CLAP-Net, in birding, a fort of net contrived for
the taking of larks with the looking-glafs, by the me¬
thod called daring or daring. The nets are fpread
over an even piece of ground, and the larks are invi¬
ted to the place by other larks faftened down, and by
a looking-glafs compofed of five pieces, and fixed in a
frame fo that it is turned round very fwittly back¬
wards and forwards, by means of a cord pulled by a
perfon at a confiderable diftanee behind a hedge See
Boring. b
CLAR, or Claer, in Metallurgy, bone-alhes per¬
fectly calcined, and ^finely powdered, kept purpofely
for covering the infides of Cupels.
CLARAMONT powder, a kind of earth, called
terra de Baira, from the place where it is found ; it is
famous at Venice, for its efficacy in flopping hemorrha-
gies of all kinds, and in curing malignant feversw
Precept o/" CL ARE constat, in Scots la%v, the
warrant of a fuperior for entering and infefting the heir
of his former vaffal, without the interpofition of an in-
queft.
Nuns of St CLARE, were founded at Affifa in Italy,
about the year 1212. Thefe mins obferved the rule
of St Francis, and wore habits of the fame colour with
thofe of the Francifcan friars ; and hence were called
Minoreffes; and their houfe, without Aldgate, the Mi-
nories, where they were fettled when firft brought over
into England, about the year 1293. They had only
three houfes befides this.
Clare, a market-town of Suffolk, 13 miles fouth
of Bury. E. Long. o. 35. N. Lat. 52. 15. It gives
the title of earl to the duke of Newcaitle.
Clare is alfo the capital of a county of the fame
.name in the province of Connaught, in Ireland, fitua-
ted about 17 miles north-weft of Limerick. W.Longv
9- O. N. Lat. 52. 40. 6*
CLARENCIEUX, the fecond king at arms, fo
called from the duke of Clarence, to whom he firlf be¬
longed ; for Lionel, third fon to Edward III. having
by his wife the honour of Clare in the county of Tho-
mond, was afterwards declared duke of Clarence ;
which dukedom afterwards efeheating to Edward iv!
he made this earl a king at arms. His office is to-
marftial and difpofe of the funerals of all the lower no¬
bility, as baronets, knights, efquires, on the fouth fide
of the Trent; whence he is fometimes called furroy or
fouth roy, in contradiftin&ion to norroy.
CLARENDON, Confitutions of certain conftitu-
tions made in the reign of Henry II. A. D. 1164, in
a parliament held at Clarendon, whereby the king
checked the power of the pope and his clergy, and
greatly
C L A [i
Clarendon greatly narrowed the total exemption they claimed
H from fecular jurifdidlion.
Clangatio.' CLARENDON, Earl of. See HYDE.
v CLARENNA, (Tabulae), in Ancient Geography, a
town of Vindelicia, at the confluence of the Lyeus and
Danube. Now Rain, a town of Bavaria, on the fouth
fide of the Danube, at the confluence of the Lech.
E. Long. II. O. N. Lat. 48. 45.
CLARENZA, the capital of a duchy of the fame
name in the Morea j it is a fea-port town, fituated on
the Mediterranean. E. Long, 21.40. N. Lat. 37. 40.
CLARET, a name given by the French to luch of
their red wines as are not of a deep or high colour.
See Wine.
CLARICHORD, or Manichord, a mufical in-
ftrument in form of a fpinet.
It has 49 or 50 flops, and 70 firings, which bear
on five bridges j the firft whereof is the higheft, the. reft
diminifhing in proportion. Some of the firings are
in unifon, their number being greater than that of the
flops. There are feveral little mortizes for pafling
the jacks, armed with brafs-hooks, which flop and raile
the chords inftead of the feather ufed in virginals and
fpinets *, but what ditlinguifhes it moft is, that the
chords are covered with pieces of cloth, which render
the found fweeter, and deaden it fo that it cannot be
heard at any confiderable diftance ; whence it comes
to be particularly in ufe among the nuns, who learn to
play, and are unwilling to difturb the fifence of the dor-
mitorv.
CLARIFICATION, the a£l of cleaning or fining
any fluid from all heterogeneous matter or feculencies.
The fubftances ufually employed for clarifying li¬
quor, are whites of eggs, blood, and ifinglafs. The
two firft are ufed for fuch liquors as are clarified whilft
boiling hot ; the laft for thofe which are clarified
in the cold, fuch as wines, &c. The whites of eggs
are beaten up into a froth, and mixed with the liquor,
upon which they unite with and entangle the impure
matters that float in it j and prefently growing
hard by the heat, carry them up to the furface in
form of a fcum, no longer diffoluble in the liquid.
Blood operates in the fame manner, and is chiefly ufed
in purifying the brine from which fait is made. Great
quantities of ifinglafs are confumed for fining turbid
wines. For this purpofe fome throw an entire piece,
about a quarter of an ounce, into a wine cafk ; by de¬
grees the glue diflblves, and forms a Ikin upon the fur-
face, which at length fubfiding, carries down with it
the feculent matter which floated in the wine. Others
previoufly dififolve the ifinglafs 5 and having boiled it
down to a flimy confiftence, mix it with the liquor,
roll the calk ftrongly about, and then fuffer it to lland
to fettle. Neumann queftions the wholefomentfs of
wines thus purified, and affures us that he himfelf,
after drinking only a few ounces of fack thus clarified,
but not fettled quite fine, was feized with ficknefs and
vomiting, followed by fuch a vertigo, that he could not
Hand upright for a minute together. The giddinefs
continued with a naufea and want of appetite for feve¬
ral days.
CLARIGATIO, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony
that always preceded a formal declaration of war. It
was performed in this manner : firft four heralds
crowned with vervain were fent to demand fatisfa&ion
6 ] C L A
for the injuries done the Roman ftate. Thefe heralds clan'gatia
taking the gods to witnefs that their demands were |i
juft, one of them, with a clear voice, demanded reftitu- Clarke,
tion within a limited time, commonly 33 days, which ^ J
being expired without reftitution made, then the pater
patratus, or prince of the heralds, proceeded to the ene¬
mies frontiers, and declared war.
CLARII Aeollinis Fanum (Strabo, Pliny), a
temple and grove of Apollo, fituated between Colo¬
phon and Lebedos, in Ionia j called Claras (Thucydi¬
des, Ovid). The name alfo of a town and mountain
there (Nicander) ; and of a fountain (Clemens Alex-
andrinus), the waters of which infpired with prophe¬
tic fury. Clarius the epithet of Apollo (Strabo).
CLARION, a kind of trumpet, whofe tube is nar¬
rower and its tone acuter and (hriller than that of the
common trumpet. It is faid that the clarion, now ufed
among the Moors, and Portuguefe who borrowed it
from the Moors, ferved anciently for a treble to feveral
trumpets, which founded tenor and bafs.
CLARISSES, an order of nuns fo called from their
founder St Clara or St Clare. (See St Clare.) She
was in the town of Aflifa in Italy ; and having re¬
nounced the world to dedicate herfelf to religion, gave
birth to this order in the year 1212; which compre¬
hends not only thofe nuns that follow the rule of St
Francis, according to the ftrift letter, and without
anv mitigation, but thofe likewife who follow the fame
rule foftened and mitigated by feveral popes. It is at
prefent one of the moft flourilhing orders of nuns in
Europe. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered
Mexico for the king of Spain, Ifabella of Portugal,
wife of the emperor Charles V. fent thither fome nun*
of the order of St Clara, who made feveral fettlements
there. Near their monafteries were founded commu¬
nities of Indian young women, to be inftrufted by the
clarilfes in religion, and fuch works as were fuitable to
perfons of their fex. Thefe communities are fo con¬
fiderable that they ufually confill of four or five hun¬
dred.
CLARKE, Dr Samuel, a preacher and writer of
confiderable note in the reign of Charles II. was,
during the interregnum, and at the time of the ejec¬
tion, minifter of St Dennet Fink in London. In No¬
vember 1660, he, in the name of the Prefbyterian mi-
nifters, prefented an addrefs of thanks to the king for
his declaration of liberty of confcience. He was one
of the commiftioners of the Savoy, and behaved on
that occafion with great prudence and moderation. He
fometimes attended the church as a hearer and com¬
municant, and was much efteemed by all that knew
him, for his great probity and induftry. The moft va¬
luable of his numerous works are faid to be his Lives
of the Puritan Divines and other perfons of note, 22
of which are printed in his Martyrology 5 the reft are
in his Lives of fundry eminent Perfons in this latter
Age, folio ; and his Marrow of Ecelefiaftical Hiftory,
in folio and quarto. He died in 1680.
CLARK, Samuel, the fon of the former, was fellow
of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge j but was ejected from
his fellowlhip for refufing to take the engagements, as
he was alfo afterwards from his reflory of Grendon in
Buckinghamihire. He applied himfelf early to the
ftudy of the Scriptures, and his Annotations on the
Bible, printed together with the facred text, is highly
commended
C L A [ I
Clarice, commended by Dr Owen, Mr Baxter, and Dr Calatny.
-—- He died in 1701, aged 75.
CLARKE, Dr Samuel, a very celebrated Englilh
divine, was the fon of Edward Clarke, Efq. alderman
of Norwich, and one of its reprefentatives in parlia¬
ment for feveral years; and born there October II.
1675. He was inftrufted in claflical learning at the
fret-fchool of that town; and in 1691 removed thence
to Caius College in Cambridge, where his uncommon
abilities foon began to difplay themfelves. Though
the philofophy of Des Cartes was at that time the
eitablilhed philofophy of the univerfity, yet Clarke
eafily maftered the new fyilem of Newton ; and in or¬
der to his tirft degree of arts, performed a public ex-
ercife in the fchools upon a quetlion taken from it.
He greatly contributed to the eftablilhment of the
Newtonian philofophy by an excellent tranflation of,
and notes upon, Rohault’s “ Phyfics,” which he fi-
nilhed before he was 22 years of age. The fyftem of
natural philofophy then generally taught in the univer¬
fity was that written by Rohault, founded altogether
upon Cartefian principles, and very ill tranflated into
Latin. Clarke gave a new tranflation, and added to
it fuch notes as might lead ftudents infenfibly and by
degrees to other and truer notions than could be
found there. “ And this certainly (fays Bilhop Hoad-
ly) was a more prudent method of introducing truth
unknown before, than to attempt to throw afide this
treatife entirely, and write a new one inftead of it.
The fuccefs anfwered exceedingly well to his hopes ;
and he may juftly be ftyled a great benefaftor to the
univerfity in this attempt. For by this means the true
philofophy has, without any noife, prevailed ; and to
this day the tranflation of Rohault is, generally fpeak-
ing, the {landing -text for ledlures, and his notes the
firll dire£lion to thofe who are willing to receive the
reality and truth of things in the place of invention
and romance.” Whifton relates, that in 1697, while
he was chaplain to Moore bifliop of Norwich, he met
young Clarke, then wholly unknown to him, at a cof-
feehoufe in that city ; where they entered into a con-
verfation about the Cartefian philofophy, particularly
Rohault’s “ Phvfics,” which Clarke’s tutor, as he tells
us, had put him upon tranflating. “ The refult of
this converfation was (fays Whifton), that I was great¬
ly furprifed that fo young a man as Clarke then was
fliould know fo much of thofe fublime difcoveries,
which were then almoft a fecret to all but to a few
particular mathematicians. Nor do I remember (con¬
tinues he) above one or two at the moft, whom I had
then met with, that feemed to know fo much of that
philofophy as Clarke.” This tranflation of Rohault
was firll printed in 1697, ^vo* There have been four
editions of it, in every one of which improvements
have been made ; efpecially in the laft in 1718, which
his the following title : Jacobi Rohau/ti Rhyjica. La-
tine vertit, recenfuit, et uberioribus jam Ann ot at iambus,
ex illujlrijimi Ifaaci Newtoni Phi/ofophia maximum par
tern hattflis, ampl'jicayit et ornavit S. Clarke, S. T. P.
Accedunt etiam m liac quarto editione novce aliquot tabu-
ice cert incifee, et Annotationes multum funt aublce. Dr
John Clarke, late dean of Sarum, and our author’s
brother, tranflated this work into Englifh, and publifh-
ed it in 2 vols 8vo.
Afterwards he turned his thoughts to divinity : and
Vol. VI. Part I.
77 ] C L A
in order to fit himfelf for the facred fun&ion, he ftudied Clarke.
the Old Teflament in the original Hebrew, the New ' v J
in the original Greek, and the primitive Chriftian
writers. Having taken holy orders, he became chap¬
lain to Moore bilhop of Norwich, who was ever after
his conftant friend and patron. In 1699 he publiflied
two treatiles : one entitled “ Three practical Eflays on
Baptifm, Confirmation, and Repentance;” the other,
“ Some Reflexions on that part of a book called
Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton’s Life, which re¬
lates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and the
Canon of the New Teftament.” In 1701 he publifhed
“ A Paraphrafe upon the Gofpel of St Matthew ;
which was followed in 1702 by the “ Paraphrafes up¬
on the Gofpels of St Mark and St Luke,” and foon
after by a third volume “ upon St John.” They ivere
afterwards printed together in 2 volumes 8vo ; and have
fince undergone feveral editions. He intended to have
gone through the remaining books of the New Tefta¬
ment, but fomething accidentally interrupted the exe¬
cution.
Meanwhile Bilhop Moore gave him the reXory of
Drayton, near Norwich, and procured for him a parifli
in that city ; and thefe he ferved himfelf in that fea-
fon when the bifhop refided at Norwich. In 1704
he was appointed to preach Boyle’s leXure; and the
fubjeX he chofe was, “ The being and attributes of
God.” He fucceeded fo well in this, and gave fuch
high fatisfaXion, that he was appointed to preach the
fame leXure the next year; when he chofe for his fub¬
jeX “ The evidences of natural and revealed religion.”
Thefe fermons were firft printed in two diftinX vo¬
lumes; the former in 1705, the latter in 1706. They
have been fince printed in one volume, under the ge¬
neral title of “ A Difcourfe concerning the Being and
Attributes of God, the Obligations of natural Reli¬
gion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Chriftian
Revelation, in oppofition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the Au¬
thor of the Oracles of Reafon, and other Deniers of
natural and revealed Religion.” Clarke having endea¬
voured in the firft part of his work to {how, that the
being of a God may be demonftrated by arguments
dpriori, is unluckily involved in thecenfure which Pope
has palled upon this method of reafoning in the fol¬
lowing lines. They are put into the mouth of one
of his dunces, addrefling himfelf to the goddefs Dul-
nefs:
“ Let others creep by timid fteps and flow,
“ On plain experience lay foundations low,
“ By common fenfe to common knowledge bred,
“ And loft to nature’s caufe through nature led.
“ All-feeing in thy mills, ive want no guide,
“ Mother of arrogance, and fource of pride !
“ We nobly lake the high priori road,
“ And reafon downward, till we doubt of God.”
Dunciad, b. 4. 1. 455.
Upon which we have the following note : “ Thofe who,
from the eff< Xs in this vifibk wr rid, deduce the eter¬
nal power and godhead of the Firll Caufe, though they
cannot attain to an adequate idea of the Deity, yet
difeover fo much of him as enables them to fee the
end of their creation and the means of their happi-
nefs ; whereas they who take this high priori road,
as Hobbes, Spinoza, Des Cartes, and fome better rea-
Z foners,
%
C L A [ 178 ] > C L A
Claike. foners, for one that goes right, ten lofe themfelves in
“"'v——- mift, or ramble after vifions, which deprive them of
all fight of their end, and millead them in the choice
of wrong means.” Clarke, it is probable, would not
have denied this ; and the poet perhaps would have
fpared bis better reafoners, and not have joined them
with fuch company, had he recollected our author’s
apology for ufing the argument a priori. “ The argu¬
ment a pojieriori (fays he) is indeed by far the moft
generally ufeful argument, molt eafy to be underftood,
and in fome degree fuited to all capacities j and there¬
fore it ought always to be infilled upon : But for as
much as atheillical writers have fometimes oppofed the
being and attributes of God by fuch metaphyfical rea-
fonings, as can no otherwife be obviated than by ar¬
guing a priori; therefore this manner of arguing alfo
is ufeful and neceffary in its proper place.” To this
may be added the aniwer he made to Mr Whifton up¬
on this occafion, as narrated by the latter in his Hif-
torical Memoirs. “ When Clarke brought me his
book, I was in my garden againfl: St Peter’s college in
Cambridge, where I then lived. Now I perceived
that in thefe fermons he had dealt a great deal in ab-
ftraCl and metaphyiical reafoning. 1 therefore afked
him how he ventured into fuch fubtleties, which I ne¬
ver duril meddle with ? and fhowing him a nettle, or
fome contemptible weed in my garden, I told him
that weed contained better arguments for the being and
attributes of God than all hi* metaphyfics. Clarke
confefftd it to be fo ; but alleged for himfelf, that fince
fuch philofbphers as Hobbes and Spinoza had made ufe
of thofe kind of fubtle ties again!!, he thought proper to
fhowthat the like way of reafoning might be made better
ufe of on the fide of, religion ; which reafon or excufe
I allowed to be not inconfiderable.” Undoubtedly,
as the prefent editor of the Biographia Britannica ob-
ferves, the grand, the proper, the decifive proof of
the exiftence, perfedlions, and providence of the Deity,
mull be drawn from his works. On this proof, as be¬
ing equally fatisfadlory to the profoundeft philofopher
and the meaneft peafant, the caufe of religion will
ever Hand fecure. Neverthelefs, if there be fuch a
thing as an argument a priori, why may not fpecula-
tive men be employed in its examination ? Several able
divines and philofophers have thought, and ftill think,
that this argument for the being and attributes of God
will Hand the tell of the fevereft ferutiny j and there¬
fore they cannot be blamed for endeavouring to fet it
in a convincing light to others. As to the merit, in¬
deed, of the whole work under confideration, including
the evidences of natural and revealed religion, it is un¬
doubtedly of the firft order. Difficulties may be raifed
on particular points, and the ableft and moft candid
inquirers may fometimes fee caufe to hefitate with re¬
gard to the validity of the reafoning j but ftill, in ge¬
neral, .the book refledts honour on the age as Well as
the author that produced it, and will defeend, with
diftinguiflied reputation, to a late pofterity. The de¬
fence, in particular, of the facred original and autho¬
rity of Chriftianity is admirably condufled.
In 1706 he publifhed “ A Letter to Mr Dodwell $”
wherein all the arguments in his epiftolary difeourfe
againft the immortality of the foul are particularly an-
fwered, and the judgment of the fathers, to whom
Mr Dcdwell had appealed concerning that matter,
truly reprefented. Bifhop Hoadly obferves, that in Clarke,
this letter he anfwered Mr Dodwell in fo excellent a -y—»
manner, both with regard to the philofophical part,
and to the opinions of fome of the primitive writers,
upon whom thefe dodlrines were fixed, that it gave
univerfal fatisfadlion. But this controverfy did not flop
here 3 for the celebrated Collins, coming in as a fe-
cond to Dodwell, went much farther into the philofo-
phy of the difpute, and indeed feemed to produce all
that could poffibly be faid againft the immateriality of
the foul, as well as the liberty of human aftions. This
enlarged the feene of the difpute, into w Inch our au¬
thor entered, and wrote with fuch a fpirit of clear-
nefs and demonifration, as at once fhoived him great¬
ly fuperior to his adverfaries in metaphyfieal and phy-
fical knowledge, and made every intelligent reader re¬
joice, that fuch an incident had happened to provoke
and extort from him that plenty of ftrong reafoning
and perfpicuity of expreffion, which were indeed very
much wanted upon this intricate and obfeure fubjebt.
“ And I am perfuaded (continues the bifliop), that
as what he has written in this controverfy comprehends
the little that the ancients had faid well, and adds ftill
more evidence than ever appeared clearly before, and
all in words that have a meaning to ihtm, it will re¬
main the ftandard of good fenfe on that fide of the
queftion, on which he fpent fo many of his thoughts,
as upon one of his favourite points.” Clarke’s letter
to Dodwell was foon followed by four defences of it,
in four feveral letters to the author of “ A letter to
the learned Mr Henry Dodwell, containing fome Re¬
marks on a pretended Demonftration of the Immate¬
riality and natural Immortality of the Soul, in Mr
Clarke’s Anfwer to bis late Epiftolary Difeourfe, &c.”
They were afterwards all printed together 3 and the
“ Anfwer to Toland’s Amyntor” added to them.
In the midft of all theie labours, he found time to
fhow his regard to mathematical and phyfical ftudies,
and exa£t knowledge and fkill in them. And his na¬
tural affeftion and capacity for thefe ftudies were not
a little improved by the friendfhip of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton, at whofe requeft he tranfiated his “ Optics” in¬
to Latin in 1706. With this verfion Sir Ifaac was fo
highly pleafed, that he prefented him with the fum of
500I. or 1 col. for each child, Clarke having then five
children.
This year alfo, Bifhop Moore, who had long form¬
ed a defign of fixing him more confpicuoufly, procur¬
ed for him the redlory of St Bcnnet’s, Paul’s Wharf,
in London ; and foon after carried him to court, and
recommended him to the favour of Queen Anne. She
appointed him one of her chaplains in ordinary ; and,
in confideration of his great merit, and at the requeft
of the bifhop, prefented him to the redtory of St
James’s, Wefiminfter, when it became vacant in 1709.
Upon his advancement to this ftation, he took the
degree of D. D. when the public exercife which he
performed for it at Cambridge was prodigioufly admi¬
red. The queftions which he maintained were thefe :
I. “ Nullum firiei Chriftianae dogma, in facris feriptu-
ris traditum, eft redfae rationi diffentaneum j” that
is, “ No article of the Chriftian faith, delivered in the
Holy Scriptures, is difagfeeable to right reafon.” 2.
“ Sine a&ionum humanarum libertate nulla poteft efiie
religio j” that is, “ Without the liberty of human ac¬
tions.
c L A [I
Ckrke. tions there can be no religion.” His tlielis was upon
the firft of thefe quellions, which being thoroughly
lifted by that moft acute difputant Profeffor James,
he made an extempore reply, in a continued difcourfe
for near half an hour, with fo little helitation, that
many of the auditors declared themfelves aftonilhed;
and owned, that if they had not been within fight of
him, they fhould have fuppofed him to have read every
word of it from a paper. After this, through the
courfe of the fyllogiftical difputation, he guarded fo
well again ft the arts which the profefibr was a com¬
plete matter of; replied fo readily to the greateft dif¬
ficulties fuch an objeftor could propofe ; and preffed
him fo clofe and hard with clear and intelligible an-
fwers, that perhaps there never was fuch a conflict
heard in thofe fchools. The profeffbr, who was a man
of humour as well as learning, faid to him at the end
of the difputation, “ Profeflo, me probe exercuifti 5”
that is, “ On my word, you have worked me fuffi-
ciently j” and the members of the univerfity went
away, admiring, as indeed they well might, that a man
even of Clarke’s abilities, after an abfence of fo many
years, and a long courfe of bulinefs of quite ano¬
ther nature, ftiould acquit himfelf in fuch a manner, as
if this fort of academical exercife had been his conftant
employment ; and with fuch fluency and purity of ex-
preflion, as if he had been accuftomed to no other lan¬
guage in convsrfation but J^atin. The fame year
1709, he revifed and corredled Whifton’s tranflation
of the “ Apoftolical Conftitutions” into Englifti.
Whifton tells us, that his own ftudies having been
chiefly upon other things, and having rendered him in¬
capable of being alfo a critic in words and languages,
he defired his great friend and great critic Dr Clarke
to revife that tranflation, which he was fo kind as to
agree to.
In 1712, he publiftied a moft beautiful and pom¬
pous edition of Caefar’s commentaries, adorned with
elegant fculptures. It is entitled, “ C. Julii Caefaris
quae extant, accuratiflime cum libris editis et mflf. opti-
mis collata, recognita, et corredla ; acceflerunt annota-
tiones Samuelis Clarke, S. T. P. item indices loeorum,
rerumque et verborum, utiliflimge.” It was printed in
1712, folio; and afterwards, in 1720, 8vo. It was de¬
dicated to the great duke of Marlborough, “ at a time,”
fays Biftiop Hoadly, “ when his unequalled vidlories
and fucceffes had raifed his glory to the higheft pitch
abroad, and leflened his intereft and favour at home.”
In the publication of this book, the do&or took par¬
ticular care of the punctuation. In the annotations,
he felefted what appeared the beft and moft judicious
in former editors, with fome corrections and emenda¬
tions of his own interfperfed. Mr Addifon has fpoken
of this folio edition of Caefar’s commentaries in the fol¬
lowing words : “ The new edition, which is given us
of Caefar’s commentaries, has already been taken notice
of in foreign gazettes, and is a work that does ho¬
nour to the Englifh prefs. It is no wonder that an
edition ftiould be very correCt, which has pafied through
the hands of one of the moft accurate, learned, and ju¬
dicious writers this age has produced. The beauty of
the paper, of the charaCler, and of the feveral cuts
with which this noble work is illuftrated, makes it the
fineft book that I have ever feen; and is a true inftance
of the Englifti genius, which, though it does not come
79 ] C L A
the firft into any art, generally carries it to greater Clarke.'
heights than any other country in the world.” This—v—’'"
noble work has rifen in value from that time to the pre-
fent. A copy of this edition in large paper, mofi:
fplendidly bound in morocco, was fold at the Hon.
Mr Beauclerk’s fale for forty-four pounds; and it was
faid to be purchafed by the duke of Grafton. “ To
a prince or a nobleman (fays Dr Harwood), it was a
cheap purchafe ; for it was the moft magnificent book
I ever beheld.” The binding coft Mr Beauclerk five
guineas.
The fame year, 1712, he publiftied his celebrated
book entitled, “ The Scripture Doctrine of the Tri¬
nity,” &c. which is divided into three parts. The
firft is, a colledlion and explication of all the texts in
the “ New Teftament,” relating to the dodtrine of the
Trinity : in the fecond, the foregoing dodlrine is fet
forth at large, and explained in particular and dittindt
propofitions ; and in the third, the principal paflages
in the liturgy of the church of England, relating to
the dodlrine of the Trinity, are confidered. Biftiop
Hoadly applauds our author’s method of proceeding,
in forming his fentiments upon fo important a point:
“ He knew (fays he), and all men agreed, that it was
a matter of mere revelation. He did not therefore re ¬
tire into his clofet, and fet himfelf to invent and forge
a plaufible hypothefis, which might fit eafily upon his
mind. He had no recourfe to abftradt and metaphy-
fical reafonings to cover or patronize any fyftem he
might have embraced before. But, as a Chriftian, he
laid open the New Teftament before him. He fearch-
ed out every text in which mention was made of the
three perfons, or any one of them. He accurately ex¬
amined the meaning of the words ufed about every one
of them ; and by the beft rules of grammar and cri¬
tique, and by his Ikill in language, he endeavoured to
fix plainly what was declared about every perfon, and
what was not. And what he thought to be the truth,
he publiftied under the title of ‘ The Scripture Doc¬
trine of the Trinity.’ “ I am far (fays the biftiop)
from taking upon me to determine, in fo difficult a
queftion between him and thofe who made replies to
him ; but this I hope I may be allowed to fay, that
every Chriftian divine and layman ought to pay his
thanks to Dr Clarke for the method into which he
brought this difpute ; and for that colleflion of texts
of the New Teftament by which at laft it muft be de¬
cided, on which fide foever the truth may be fuppofed
to lie.” Whifton informs us, that fome time before the
publication of this book, there was a meflage fent to
him from Lord Godolphin and others of Queen Anne’s
minifters, importing, “ That the affairs of the public
were with difficulty then kept in the hands of thofe
that were for liberty; that it was therefore an unfea-
fonable time for the publication of a book that would
make a great noife and difturbance ; and that there¬
fore they defired him to forbear till a fitter oppor¬
tunity ftiould offer itfelf;” which meffage (fays he)
the doftor had no regard to, but went on according
to the di&ates of his own confcience with the publi¬
cation of his book. The minifters, however, were very
right in their conjeftures ; for the work made noife
and difturbance enough, and occafioned a great num¬
ber of books and pamphlets, written by himfelf and
others.
Z2
Books
C L A [ 180 ] C L A
Clarke. Books and pamphlets, however, were not all which
—v—the “ Scripture Do61rine of the Trinity” occafioned :
it made its author obnoxious to the power ecclefiaftical,
and his book to be complained of by the Lower Houfe
of convention. The doffor drew up a preface, and af¬
terwards gave in feveral explanations, which feemed to
fatisfy the Upper Houfe j at leaft the affair was not
brought to any iffue, the members appearing defirous
to prevent diffenfions and divifions.
In 1715 and 1716, he had a difpute with the cele¬
brated Leibnitz, relating to the principles of natural
philofophy and religion j and a collection of the pa¬
pers which paired between them was publifhed in 1717.
This performance of the doCtor’s is infcribed to her
late Majefty Queen Caroline, then princefs of Wales,
who was pleafed to have the controverfy pafs through
her hands. It related chiefly to the important and
difficult fubjeCts of liberty and neceffity.
In 1718, Dr Clarke made an alteration in the forms
of doxology in the finging pfalms, which produced no
fmall noife and difturbance, and occafioned fome pam¬
phlets to be written. The alteration was this :
To God, through Chrift, his only Son,
Immortal glory be, &c.
And
To God, through Chrift, his Son, our Lord,
All glory be therefore, &c.
A confiderable number of thefe feleft pfalms and
hymns having been difperfed by the Society for Pro¬
moting Chriftian Knowledge, before the alteration of
the doxologies was taken notice of, he was charged
with a defign of impofing upon the fociety; whereas,
in truth, the edition of them had been prepared by
him for the ufe of his own parith only, before the fo¬
ciety had thoughts of purchafing any of the copies ;
and as the ufual forms of doxology are not eftablifhed
by any legal authority, ecclefiaftical or civil, in this he
had not offended.
About this time he was prefented by the lord Lech-
mere, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancafter, to the
mafterfhip of Wigfton’s hofpital in Leicefter. In 1724,
he publiffied 17 fermons preached on feveral occafions,
11 of which were never before printed : and the year
following, a fermon, preached at the parifli-church of
St James’s, upon the ere&ing a charity-fchool for the
education of women fervants. In 1727, upon the
death of Sir Ifaac Newton, he was offered by the court
the place of mafter of the mint, worth communibus an-
nis 1200 or 1500!. a-year. But to this fecular prefer¬
ment he could not reconcile himfelf, and therefore ab-
folutely refufed it. Whifton feems to wonder, that
Clarke’s eulogifts ffiould lay fo little ftrefs upon this re-
fufal, as to mention it not at all, or at leaft very negli¬
gently j while “ he takes it,” he fays, “ to be one of
the moft glorious aftions of his life, and to afford un¬
deniable convi&ion, that he was in earneft in his reli¬
gion.” In 1728, was publiffied, “ A Letter from
Dr Clarke to Mr Benjamin Hoadly, F. R. S. occa¬
fioned by the controverfy, relating to the Proportion
of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion $” and
printed in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, N° 40i.
In 1729, he publiffied the 12 firft books of “ Ho¬
mer’s Iliad.” This edition was printed in 4to, and
dedicated to the duke of Cumberland. The Latin
verfion is almoft entirely new, and annotations are Clarke,
added to the bottom of the pages. Homer, Biffiop
Hoadly tells us, was Clarke’s admired author, even to a
degree of fomething like enthufiafm, hardly natural to
his temper, and that in this he went a little beyond
the bounds of Horace’s judgment, and was fo unwill¬
ing to allow the favourite poet ever to nod, that he
has taken remarkable pains to find out, and give a
reafon for every paffage, word, and title, that could
create any fufpicion. “ The tranflation, (adds the
Biffiop), with his correflions, may now be ftyled ac¬
curate, and his notes, as far as they go, are indeed a
treafury of grammatical and critical knowledge. He
was called to his talk by royal command j and he has
performed it in fuch a manner, as to be worthy of the
young prince, for whom it was laboured.” The year
of its publication was the laft of this great man’s life-
Though not robuft, he had always enjoyed a firm ftate
of health, without any indifpofition bad enough to
confine him, except the fmall-pox in his youth ; till
on Sunday May 11. 1729, going out in the morning
to preach before the judges at Sergeant’s-Inn, he was
there feized with a pain in his fide, which made it
impoffible for him to perform the office he was called
to 5 and quickly became fo violent, that he was obli¬
ged to be carried home. He went to bed, and thought
himfelf fo much better in the afternoon, that he would
not fuffer himfelf to be bled j againft which reme¬
dy, it is remarkable that he had entertained ftrong
prejudices. But the pain returning violently about
two the next morning, made bleeding abfolutely ne-
ceffary j he appeared to be out of danger, and conti¬
nued to think himfelf fo, till the Saturday morning
following; when, to the inexpreffible furprife of ail
about him, the pain removed from his fide to his
head ; and, after a very fliort complaint, took away
his fenfes fo, that they never returned any more. He
continued breathing till within feven and eight qf the
evening of that day, which was May 17. 17295 an£l
then died, in his 54th year.
Soon after his death were publiffied, from his origi¬
nal manufcripts, by his brother Dr John Clarke, dean
of Sarum, “ An Expofition of the Church Catechifm,”
and ten volumes of fermons, in 8vo. His “ Expofi¬
tion” is made up of thofe le&ures he read every
Thurfday morning for fome months in the year, at St
James’s church. In the latter part of his time he re-
vifed them with great care, and left them completely
prepared for the prefs. As to the fermons, few dif-
courfes in the Engliffi language are more judicious,
and fewer ftill are equally inftruftive. The reafoning
and the pra&ical parts are excellent, and the explana¬
tions of Scripture are uncommonly valuable. Though
Dr Clarke had not the turn of mind which qualified
him for moving the paffions, and indeed did not make
it his object, his fentiments, neverthelefs, are frequent¬
ly expreffed with fuch a clearnefs of conception, and
fuch a force of language, as to produce in well difpo-
fed readers all the effeft of the pathetic. Several vo¬
lumes of fermons have been publilhed fince his time,
which are far fuperior in point of elegance and beauty,
and we have the higheft fenfe of their merit. But ftill
if we were called upon to recommend difcourfes, which
abound with the moft folid inftru&ion, and promife
the moft lafting improvement, we ffiould never forget
a
€ L A [i
a Clarke and a Jortin. Three years after the do£tor’s
death appeared alfu the Twelve Laft books of the
Iliad, publifhed in 410 by his fon Mr Samuel Clarke,
who informs us, in the preface, that his father had fi-
nifhed the annotations to the three firft of thefe books,
and as far as the 359th verfe of the fourth 5 and had
revifed the text and verfion as far as verfe 510 of the
fame book. Dr Clarke married Catharine, the daugh¬
ter of the reverend Mr Lockwood, reftor of Little
Miflingham in Norfolk ; in whofe good fenfe and un-
blameable behaviour he was happy to his death. By
her he had feven children, two of whom died before
and one a few weeks after him.
Of the chara&er of this great divine, the following
fhort delineation appeared fome years fince in the Gen¬
tleman’s Magazine : “ Samuel Clarke, D. D. redtor
of St James’s, Weftminfter: in each feveral part of
ufeful knowledge and critical learning, perhaps with¬
out a fuperior; in all united, certainly without an
equal ; in his works, the belt defender of religion ; in
his practice, the greateft ornament to it; in his con-
verfation communicative, and in an uncommon man¬
ner inftru&ive •, in his preaching and writings, ftrong,
clear, and calm ; in his life, high in the etleem of the
wife, the good, and the great; in his death, lamented
by every friend to learning, truth, and virtue.” In
the fame publication fome not incurious anecdotes
concerning him are printed, collefted by the Rev. Mr
Jones of Welwyn. We learned from them, that Dr
Clarke was of a very humane and tender difpofition.
When his young children amufed themfelves with tor¬
menting and killing flies upon the windows, he not
only forbade fuch praftices, but calmly reafoned with
them, in fuch a familiar manner, as was calculated to
make a powerful impreflion upon their minds. He
was very ready and condefcending in anfwering appli¬
cations to him with refpefl to fcruples ; numberlefs
inflances of which occurred in the courfe of his life.
One thing of which Dr Clarke was peculiarly cautious,
was not to lofe the lead minute of his time. He al¬
ways carried fome book about with him, which he
would read whilft riding in a coach or walking in the
fields, or if he had any leifure moments free from
company or his other ftudies. Nay, he would read
even in company itfelf, where he might take fuch a li¬
berty without offence to good manners. His memory
was remarkably ftrong. He told Mr Pyle of Lyn,
that he never forgot any thing which he had once tho¬
roughly apprehended and underftood. The Doftor,
with his intimate friends, was perfefHy free and eafy •,
but if ftrangers were introduced, he behaved with
much circumfpedion, converfing only upon common
topics.
When he vifited Dr Sykes, his ufual way was to fit
with him upon a couch, and, reclining upon his bo-
fom, to difcourfe with him, in the moft familiar man¬
ner, upon fuch fubjefts as were agreeable to the tafte
and judgment of both. When Sir John Germaine lay
upon his deathbed, and was in great confufion and
trouble of mind, he fent for Dr Clarke, and requeft-
ed to know of him whether he fhould receive the fa-
crament, and what he ftiould do in his fad condition.
The Dodlor, who was well acquainted with Sir John’s
purfuits and courfe of life, fedately replied, that he
could not advife him to receive the facrament, and
2
81 ] C L A
that he did not think it likely to be of any avail to him Clarke,
with refpeift to his final welfare. Having faid this, he 1 ■■ ■ y—»
departed without adminiftering the communion, having
firft recommended the dying man to the mercy of
God.
Dr Clarke was of a cheerful, and even playful dif¬
pofition. An intimate friend of his, the late Rev. Mr
Bott, ufed to relate, that once when he called upon
him, he found him fwimming upon a table. At ano¬
ther time, when the two Dr Clarkes, Mr Bott, and
feveral men of ability and learning were together, and
amufing themfelves with diverting tricks, Dr Samuel
Clarke, looking out at the window, faw a grave
blockhead approaching to the houfe ; upon which he
cried out, “ Boys, boys, be wife, here comes a fool.”
This turn of his mind hath fince been confirmed by Dr
Warton, who, in his obfervations on the following line
of Mr Pope,
“ Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wife,”
fays, “ Who could imagine that Locke was fond of
romances ; that Newton once ftudied aftrology ; that
Dr Clarke valued himfelf on his agility, and frequent¬
ly amufed himfelf in a private room of his houfe, in
leaping over the tables and chairs ; and that our au¬
thor himfelf was a great epicure!” With refpefl to
what is here recorded of Dr Clarke, we can fcarcely
perfuade ourfelves to confider it as a frailty. To be
po fie fled of fuch a temper as he was, muft have been
no fmall degree of bappinefs ; as it probably enabled
him to purfue his important and ferious ftudies with
greater vivacity and vigour. To be capable of deriv¬
ing amufement from trivial circumftances, indicates a
heart at eafe, and may generally be regarded as the
concomitant of virtue.
Clarke, William, an Englifh divine, was born at
Haghmon-abbey in Shropfhire, 1696; and after a
grammar-education at Shrewfbury fchool, was fent to
St John’s college Cambridge, of which he wras eleffed
fellow, Jan. 17. 1716; B. A. 1731 ; M. A. 1735. He
was prefented by Archbifhop Wake in 1724 to the rec¬
tory of Buxted in Suflex, at the particular recommen¬
dation of Dr Wotton, whofe daughter he married.
In 1738 he was made prebendary and refidentiary of
the cathedral church at Chichefter. Some years before
this he bad given to the public a fpecimen of his lite¬
rary abilities, in a preface of his father-in law Dr Wot-
ton’s Leges Wallice Kcclejiajlicce et Civiles Hoeli Boni, ct
ahorum Wallice Principum; or Ecclefiaftical and Civil
La ws of Howel D Da, and other princes of Wales.
There is reafon likewife to furmife, that an excellent
Difcourfe on the Commerce of the Romans, which
was highly extolled by Dr Taylor in his Elements of
the Civil Law, might have been written by our author.
It came either from his hand or from that of his friend
Mr Bowyer, and is reprinted in that gentleman’s Mif-
cellaneous Trails. But Mr Clarke’s chief work was,
the Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and Englifh
Coins ; deducing the Antiquities, Cuftoms, and Man¬
ners of each people to modern times : particularly the
Origin of Feudal Tenures, and of Parliaments ; illu-
ftrated throughout with critical and hiftorical Re¬
marks on various Authors both facred and profane.
This work was publiftred, in one volume quarto, in
1767 ; and its appearance from the prefs was owing to
ths.
c L A r 182 1 CL A
<3iarke. tlie difcovery made by Martin Folkes, Efq. of the old
' Saxon pound. It was dedicated to the duke of New-
caftle, whofe beneficent difpofition is celebrated for
having conferred obligations upon the author, which
were not the effe&s of importunity. Mr Clarke’s per¬
formance was perufed in manufcript by Arthur On¬
flow, Efq. fpeaker of the houfe of commons, who ho¬
noured him with fome ufeful hints and obfervations j
but he was chiefly indebted to Mr Bowyer, who took
upon him all the care of the publication, drew up fe-
veral of the notes, wrote part of the diflertation on the
Roman fefterce, and formed an admirable index to the
whole. By this work our author acquired a great
and juft reputation. Indeed, it reflefts honour upon
the country by which it is produced ; for there are
few performances that are more replete with profound
and curious learning. Mr Clarke’s laft promotions were
the chancellorfhip of the church of Chichefter, and the
vicarage of Amport, which were beftowed upon him in
1770. Thefe preferments he did not long live to en¬
joy, departing this life on the 21ft of Oftober, in the
following year. He had refigned in 1768, the redlory
of Buxted to his fon Edward. In Mr Nichols’s Anec¬
dotes of Bowyer, there are feveral letters and ex¬
tracts of letters written to that learned printer by Mr
Clarke, which difplay him to great advantage as a man
of piety, a friend, and a fcholar.
In a Iketch of his character in the Biographta Bri-
tannica, furniftied by Mr Hayley, who was his inti¬
mate acquaintance, he is reprefented as not only a man
of extenfive erudition, but as poffeffed of the pleating
talent of communicating his various knowledge in fa¬
miliar converfation, without any appearance of pedan¬
try or prefumption. Antiquities were the favourite
ftudy of Mr Clarke, as his publications fufficiently
{how ; but he was a fecret, and by no means an unfuc-
eefsful, votary of the mufes. He wrote Englifti verfe
with eafe, elegance, and fpirit. Perhaps there are few
better epigrams in our language than the following,
which he compofed on feeing the words Domus ultima
infcribed on the vault belonging to the dukes of Rich¬
mond in the cathedral of Chichefter.
Did he, who thus infcribed the wall,
Not read, or not believe, St Paul,
Who fays there is, where’er it (lands,
Another houfe not made with hands ?
Or, may we gather from thefe words,
That houfe is not a houfe of lords ?
Among the happier little pieces of his fportive
poetry, there were fome animated ftanzas, defcribing
the charaCler of the twelve Englifti poets, whofe por¬
traits, engravCd by Vertue, were the favourite orna¬
ment of his parlour : but he fet fo modeft and humble
a value on his poetical compofitions, that they were fel-
dom committed to paper, and are therefore very im-
perfeCtly preferved in the memory of thofe to whom
he fometimes recited them. His tafte and judgment
in poetry appear indeed very ftriking in many parts
of his learned and elaborate Connexion of Coins. His
illuftration of Neftor’s cup, in particular, may be
efteemed as one of the happieft examples of that light
and beauty which the learning and fpirit of an elegant
antiquarian may throw on a cloudy and miftaken
pafiage of an ancient poet. In ftrift attention to all
the duties of his ftation, in the moft aClive and unwea¬
ried charity, he might be regarded as a model to the
minifters of God. Though his income was never large,
it was his cuftom to devote a {lulling in every guinea
that he received to the fervice of the poor. As a ma¬
tter, as a hufband, and a father, his conduCl was ami¬
able and endearing j and to clofe this imperfeCt (ketch
of him with his moft ftriking features, he was a man
of genuine unaffeCled piety.
CLARO-obscuro, or Clair-obscure, in paint*
ing, the art of diftributing to advantage the lights and
(hades of a piece, both with refpeCt to the eafing
of the eye and the effeCl of the whole piece. See
Painting.
CLARO-Obfcuro, or Chiaro-fcuro, is alfo ufed to figni-
fy a defign confiding only of two colours, moft ufually
black and white, but fometimes black and yellow j or
it is a defign waftied only with one colour, the (hadov/s
being of a duflty brown, and the lights heightened up
by white.
The word is alfo applied to prints of two colours
taken off at twice ; whereof there are volumes in the
cabinets of thofe who are curious in prints.
CLARUS, or Claros, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Ionia, famous for an oracle of Apollo. It was
built by Manto, daughter of Tirefias, who fled from
Thebes after it had been deftroyed by the Epigoni,
She was fo afBi&ed with her misfortunes, that a lake
was formed with her tears, where (he firft founded the
oracle. Apollo was from thence furnamed Clariusy
Alfo an ifland of the Aegean fea, between Tenedos and
Scios.
CLARY. See Salvia, Botany Index.
CLART-lVater, is compofed of brandy, fugar, clary-
flowers, and cinnamon, with a little ambergis diffolved
in it. It helps digeftion, and is cardiac. This water
is rendered either purgative or emetic, by adding refin
of jalap and fcammony, or crocus metallorum. Some
make clary-water of brandy, juice of cherries, ftraw-
berries,. and goofeberries, fugar, cloves, white pepper,
and coriander feeds j infufed, fugared, and ftrained.
CLASMIUM, an old term in Natural Hijlory, ap¬
plied to fome foflils, of the clafs of gypfums j the cha-
rafters of which are, that they are of a foft texture,
and of a dull opaque look, being compofed, as all the
other gypfums, of irregularly arranged flat particles.
The word is derived from the Greek x.*K<rpoi, a
fragment or fmall particle j from the flaky fmall parti¬
cles of which thefe bodies are compofed. Of this ge¬
nus there is only one known fpecies: this is of a tole¬
rably regular and even ftrufture 5 though very coarfe
and harfti to the touch. It is of a very lively and
beautiful red in colour j and is found in thick round-
ifh maffes, which, when broken, are to be feen com¬
pofed of irregular arrangements of flat particles ; and
emulate a ftriated texture. It will neither give fire
with fteel nor ferment with acids 5 but calcines very
freely and eafily, and affords a very valuable plafter
of Paris, as do all the purer gypfums. It is common
in Italy, and is greatly efteemed there ; it is alfo found
in fome parts of England, particularly Derbyfliire, but
there it is not much regarded.
CLASPERS, or Tendrils. See Cirrhus.
CLASS, an appellation given to the moft general
fubdivifions of any thing; thus, animal is fubdivided
into
C L A [ I
CLifs Into the claiTes quadrupeds, birds, fifties, &c. which
il are again fubdivided into feriefes or orders j and thefe
“a” e’ . lafl; into genera. See Botany.
Class, is alfo ufed in fchools, in a fynonymous fenfe
with form, for a number of boys all learning the fa.me
thing.
CLASSIC, or Classical, an epithet chiefly ap¬
plied to authors read in the claffes at fchools.
This term feems to owe its origin to Tullius Ser-
vius, who, in order to make an eftimate of every per-
fon’s eftate, divided the Roman people into fix bands,
which he called clajfes. The eftate of the firft clafs
was not to be under 200I. and thefe by way of emi¬
nence were called c/ajfici, “ claflics hence authors
of the firft rank came to be called daffies, all the reft
being faid to be infra-daffem: thus Ariftotle is a claf-
fic author in philofophy j Aquinas in fchool divinity,
&c.
CLASSICUM was the alarm for battle, given by
the Roman generals, and founded by trumpets and
other martial mufic throughout the army.
CLATHRI, in antiquity, bars of wood or iron, ufed
in fecuring doors and windows. There was a goddefs
called Clathra, that prefided over the clathri.
CLAVARIA, Club-top. See Botany Index.
CLAVARIUIVI, in antiquity, an allowance the Ro¬
man foldiers had for furniftiing nails to fecure their ftioes
with. They raifed frequent mutinies, demanding lar-
gefles of the emperors under this pretence.
CLA\rATA VESTIMENTA, in antiquity, habits a-
domed with purple clavi, which were either broad or
narrow. See Clavus.
CLAUBERG, John, a learned profeffor of philo¬
fophy and divinity at Diufburg, was born at Solingen
in 1622. He travelled into Holland, France, and
England, and in each country obtained the efteem of
the learned. I he elector of Brandenburg gave him
public teftimonies of his efteem. He died 'in 1665.
His works were printed at Amfterdam in 2 vols 410.
The moft celebrated of thefe is his treatife, entitled
Logica veins et nova, &c.
CLAUDE le Lorrain, or Claude Gelee, a cele¬
brated landlcape painter, and a linking example of the
efficacy of induftry to fupply, or at leaft to call forth
genius. Claude was born in the diocefe of Toul in Lor¬
rain in 1600 ; and, being dull and heavy at fchool, was
put an apprentice to a paftry-cook ; he afterwards ram¬
bled to Rome to leek a livelihood j but, being very
ill-bred, and unacquainted with the language, nobody
cared to employ him. Chance threw him at laft in
the way of Auguftin Taffi, a painter, who hired him to
grind his colours, and to do all the houfehold drud-
gery.. His mailer hoping to make him ferviceable to
him in fome of his greateft works, taught him by de¬
grees the rules of perfpeftive and the elements of de-
fign. Claude at firft did not know what to make of
thofe principles of art; but being encouraged, and not
failing in application, he came at length to underftand
them. Then his mind began to expand, and he cul¬
tivated the art with wonderful eageriaefs. He exerted
his utmoft induftry to explore the true principles of
painting by an inceffant examination of nature, that
genuine, fource of excellence ; for which purpofe, he
niace his ftudies in the open fields ; where he very
frequently continued from funrife till the dulk of
3
83 ] C L A
the evening compelled him to withdraw himfelf from
his contemplations. It was his cuftom to iketch what¬
ever he thought beautiful or linking $ and every cu¬
rious tinge of light, on all kinds of objeffs, he mark¬
ed in his Iketches, with a fimilar colour j from which
he perfedled his landfcapes with fuch a look of real
nature, and gave them fuch an appearance of truth, as
proved fuperior to any artift that had ever painted in
that ftyie.
The beauties of his paintings are derived from na¬
ture herfelf, which he examined with uncommon af-
fiduity ; and Sandrart relates, that Claude ufed to ex¬
plain to him, as they walked through the fields, the
caufes of the different appearances of the fame profpeft
at different hours of the day, from the refleftions or
refraftions of light, from dews or vapours in the even¬
ing or morning, with all the precifion of a philofopher.
He worked on his pictures with great care, endeavour¬
ing to bring them to perfeftion, by touching them fre¬
quently, over again j and if any performance did not an-
fwer his ideas, it was cuftomary with him to alter,
to deface, and repaint it feveral times over till it
correfponded with the image pi£lured in his mind.
But whatever ftruck his imagination, while he obferved
nature abroad, it was fo ftrongly impreffed on his me-
mory, that on his return to his work, he never failed
to make the happieft ufe of it.
His Ikies are warm and full of lullre, and every ob-
jeft is properly illumined. His diftances are admira¬
ble, and in every part a delightful union and harmony
not only excite our applaufe but our admiration. His
invention is pleafing, his colouring delicate, and his
tints have fuch an agreeable fweetnefs and variety,
as have been but imperfe&ly imitated by the bell fub-
fequent artifts, but were never equalled. He frequent¬
ly gave an uncommon tendernefs to his finilhed trees
by. glazing \ and in his large compofitions which he
painted in frefco, he was fo exaft that the diftina fpe-
cies of every tree might readily be diftinguifhed. As to
his figures, when he painted them himfelf, they are very
indifferent ; but he was fo confcious of his deficiency
in this refpea, that he ulually engaged other artifts
who were eminent to paint them for him j of which
number were Courtois and Philippo Laura. His pic¬
tures are now very rare, efpecially fuch as are unda-
maged ; and thofe are at this time fo valued, that no
price, however great, is thought to be fuperior to their
merit. In order to avoid a repetition of the fame fub-
je<51, and alfo to dete61 fuch copies of his works as
might be injurious to his fame, by being fold for ori¬
ginals, it was his cuftom to draw (in a paper book pre¬
pared for this purpofe) the defigns of all thofe piftures
which were tranfmitted to different countries 5 and on
the back of the drawings, he wrote the name of the
perfon who had been the purchafer. That book,
which he titled Libro dt J^emla, is now in the poffeffion
of the duke of Devonftiire.
Claude, John, a Proteftant divine, born in the
province of Angenois in 1619. Meff. de Port Royal
ufing their utmoft endeavours to convert M. de Tu-
renne to the Catholic faith, prefented him with a piece
calculated to that end, which his lady engaged Mr
Claude to anfwer $ and his performance gave rife to
the moft famous controverfy that was ever carried on
in France between the Roman Catholics and Prote-
ftants.,
C L A [ 184 1 C L A
Claude ftants. On the revocation of the edift of Nantz, he re-
II tired to Holland, where he met with a kind reception,
Claudianus. ancj was honoured with a confiderable penfion by the
’”""v prince of Orange. He died in 1687 ; and left a fon,
Ifaac Claude, whom he lived to fee miniiler of the
Walloon church at the Hague, and who publifhed fe-
veral excellent works of his deceafed father.
CLAUDIA, a veftal virgin at Rome, who being
fufpedled of unchaftity, is faid to have been cleared
from that imputation in the following manner: the
image of Cybele being brought out of Phrygia to
Rome in a barge, and it happening to flick fo fall in
the river Tiber that it could not be moved, flie tying
her girdle, the badge of chaftity, to the barge, drew
it along to the city, which a thoufand men were unable
to do.
CLAUDIA Aqua (Frontinus), water conveyed to Rome
by a canal or aquedudl of eleven miles in length, the
contrivance of Appius Claudius the Cenfor, and the
firft flruflure of the kind, in the year of Rome 441.
Called alfo Aqua Appia.
CLAUDIA Copia (Infcriptions), a name of Lugdunutn,
or Lyons in France, the birthplace of the emperor
Claudius: a Roman colony called Claudia, from its be¬
nefactor the emperor 5 and Copia from its plenty of all
neceffaries, efpecially corn. See Lugdunum.
Claudia, or Ciodia Via (Ovid), was that road
which, beginning at the Pons Milvius, joined the Fla-
minia, paffing through Etruria on the fouth fide of the
Lacus Sabatinus, and ftriking off from the Caffia, and
leading to Luca (Antonine) : large remains of it are
to be feen above Bracciano (Holltenius).
CLAUDIA Lex, de Comitiis, was enacted by M. CL
Marcellus in the year ol Rome 702. It ordained, that
at public eleClions of magiftrates no notice ftiould be
taken of the votes of fueh as were abfent. Another,
de Ufura, which forbade people to lend money to mi¬
nors on condition of payment, after the deceafe of their
parents. Another, de Negotiatione, by Q. Claudius the
tribune, 535. It forbade any fenator or father of a
fenator to have any veffel containing above 300 ampho¬
rae, for fear of their engaging themfelves in commer¬
cial fchemes. The fame law alio forbade the fame
thing to the fcribes and the attendants of the queftors,
as it was naturally fuppofed that people who had any
commercial connexions could not be faithful to their
truft, nor promote the intereft of the ftate. Another,
576, to permit the allies to return to their refpeftive
cities, after their names were inrolled. Liv. 41. c.
8. Another, to take away the freedom of the city of
Rome from the colonifts which Caefar had carried to
Novicomum.
CLAUDIANUS, Claudius, a Latin poet, flou-
rithed in the 4th century, under the emperor Theo-
dofius, and under his fons Arcadius and Honorius. It
is not agreed of what country he was a native 5 but
he came to Rome in the year of Chrift 395, when he
was about 20 years old 4 and there infinuated himfelf
into Stilicho’s favour; who, being a perfon of great
abilities both for civil and military affairs, though a
Goth by birth, was fo confiderable a perfon under Ho¬
norius, that he may be faid for many years to have
governed the weftern empire. Stilicho afterwards fell
into difgrace, and was put to death ; and it is more
than probable that the poet was involved in the mif-
fortunes of his patrons, and feverely perfecuted in his Claudianuf
perfon and fortunes by Hadrian, an Egyptian by birth, [|
who was captain of the guards to Honorius, and fuc- Clavius,
ceeded Stilicho. There is reafon, however, to think
that he rofe afterwards to great favour, and obtained
feveral honours both civil and military. The princefs
Serena had a great efleem for Claudian, and recom¬
mended and married him to a lady of great quality
and fortune in Libya. There are a few little poems
on facred fubjedls, which through miftake have been
afcribed by fome critics to Claudian } and fo have made
him be thought a Chrillian. But St Auftin, who was
cotemporary with him, exprefsly fays that he w-as a
Heathen. The time of Ciaudian’s death is uncertain,
nor do we know any farther particulars of his life than
what are to be colledled from his works, and which we
have already related above. He is thought to have
more of Virgil in his ftyle than all the other imitator*
of him.
Claudius I. Roman emperor, A. D. 41. The be¬
ginning of his reign was very promifing j but it ivas
foon difcovered that little better than an idiot filled
the throne, who might eafily be made a tyrant : ac¬
cordingly he became a very cruel one, through the
influence of his emprefs, the infamous Meffalina : after
her death, he married his niece Agrippina, who caufed
him to be poifontd to make room for Nero, A. D. 54.
See (Hi/lory of) Rome.
Claudius II. Aurelius, furnamed Gothicus, figna-
lized himfelf by his courage and prudence under the
reigns of Valerian and Julian ; and on the death of the
latter was declared emperor in 268. He put to death
Aureolus, the murderer of Gallienus; defeated the
Germans *, and in 269 marched againfi: the Goths,
who ravaged the-empire with an army of 300,000 men,
which he at firit harafled, and next year entirely de¬
feated $ but a contagious difeafe, which had fpread
through that vaft army, was caught by the Romans ;
and the emperor himfelf died of it a (hurt time after,
aged 56. Pollio fays, that this prince had the mode¬
ration of Auguftus, the virtue of Trajan, and the piety
of Antoninus.
CLAVES insula:, a term ufed in the Ifle of Man,
where all weighty and ambiguous caufes are referred
to a jury of twelve, who are called claves itifulce, the
keys of the ifland.
CLAVICHORD, and Clavicitherium, two mu-
fical inftruments uled in the 16th century. They were
of the nature of the fpinet, but of an oblong figure.
The firft is ftill uled by the nuns in convents ; and
that the pra£fitioners may not difturb the fifters in the
dormitory, the firings are muffled with fmall bits of
fine woollen cloth.
CLAVICLE. See Anatomy Index.
CLAVICYMBALUM, in antiquity, a mufical
inftrument of 30 firings. Modern writers apply the
name to our harpfichord*.
CLAVI vestium, were flowers or ftuds of purple,
interwoven with or fevved upon the garments of knights
or fenators ; only, for diiiindion, the former ufed them
narrow, the latter broad.
CLAVIS properly fignifies a KEY ; and is fome-
times ufed in Englifh to denote an explanation of fome
obfcure paffages of any book in writing.
CLAVIUS, Christopher, a German Jefuit,
born
C L A [ 1
Clavlus born at Batiiberg, excelled In the knowledge of the
II mathematics, and was one of the chief perfons employ-
zy-lai ds, e(j (0 re$ify the kalendar ; the defence of which he
.alfo undertook againft thofe who cenfured it, efpecially
•Scaliger. He died at ilome in 1612, aged 75. His
works have been printed in five volumes folio ; the
-principal of which is his -Commentary on Euclid’s E-
dements.
CLAUSE, in 'Grammar, denotes a member of a
-period or fentence.
Clause fignifies alfo an article or particular ftipu-
lation in a contradl, a charge or condition in a tefta-
ment, &e.
CLAUSENBURG, a large city of Tranfilvania,
'fituated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 23. 20.
-N. Lat. 46. 53.
CLAVUS, in antiquity, an ornament upon the
■robes of the Roman fenators and knights, which was
more or lefs broad, according -to the dignity of the
perfon *, hence the difttndtion of tunica angufti-clavia
'and iati-elavia.
Clavus, in Medicine and Surgery, is ufed in feve-
ral fignifications : 1. Clavus hyftericus, is a (hooting
pain in the head, between the pericranium and cra¬
nium, which affedfs fuch as have the green ficknefs.
■2. Clavus oculorum, according to Celfus, is a calhrus
tubercle on the white of the eye taking its denomina¬
tion from its figure. 3.. Clavus imports indurated tu¬
bercles of the uterus. 4. It alfo imports a chirurgi-
cal inftrument of gold, mentioned by Amatus Lufita-
nus, defigned to be introduced into an exulcerated pa¬
late, for the better articulation of the voice. And, 5.
It fignifies a calhw, or corn on the foot.
CLAVUS Annalis, in antiquity. So rude and igno¬
rant were the Romans towards the rife of their ftate,
that the driving or fixing a nail was the only method
they bad of keeping a regifier of time4 for which
reafon it was called clavtis annalis. There was an an¬
cient law, ordaining the chief praetor to fix a nail
every year on the Ides of 'September ; it was driven
into the right fide of the temple of Jupiter Opt. Max.
towards Minerva’s temple. This cultom of keeping
tm account of time by means of fixing nails was not
peculiar to the Romans ; for the Etrurians ufed like-
wife to drive nails into the temple of their goddefs
Nortia with the fame view.
CLAW, among zoologifts, denotes the (harp point¬
ed nails with which the feet of certain quadrupeds and
birds are furnilhed.
CLAY, in Natural Hijlory^ is applied to earths, the
chara&ers of which are thefe : They are firmly cohe¬
rent, weighty, and cmup?a ; ftiff, vifeid, and du&ile to
a great degree, w hi lit moiftj fmooth to the touch } not
eafily breaking between the fingers, nor readily drffu-
fible in water ; and, when mixed, not readily fubfiding
from it. See Chemistry and Mineralogy Index.
Clay, a town of Norfolk in England, feated on an
arm of the fea between two rivers, in E. Long', o. 20
N. Lat. 47. 28. 0 •
ClaT-hands, thofe abounding with clay, whether
black, blue, yellow, white, &c. of which the black and
the yellow-are the belt for corn.
All clay foils are apt to chill the plants growing on
them in moilt (eafons, as 'they retain too much water :
in dry feafons, on the contrary they turn hard and
Vol. VI. Parti.
85 ] € * L A
choke the plants. The natural produce of clay flay-iancls
foils is goofe-grafs, large dailies, thirties, docks, pop- |[
pies, &c. Some bear clover, and rye-grafs ; and, Ckzome-
if well manured, produce the belt grain : they hold na2‘
manure the belt of all lands j and the molt proper for
them are horfe-dung, pigeons-dung, fome kinds of
marie, folding of Iheep, malGduft, alhes, chalk, lime,
foot, &c.
CL AY f ON, Dr Robert, a prelate of great
learning, of dittinguilhed worth and probity, and a re-
fpedtable member of the Royal and Antiquarian Soci¬
eties at London, was advanced to the bilhopric of Ki-I-
lala, Jan. 23. 1729*, tranllated to the fee of Corke, Dec.
39* 173S i to that Clogher, Aug. 26. 1745 j and
died much lamented, Feb. 25. 1758. His publications
are, 1. A Letter in the Philolophical Tranfadtions,
N° 461. p. 813. giving an account of a Frenchman 70
years old (at Inilhanan, in his diocefe of Corke), who
faid he gave fuck to a child.—2. The Chronology
of the Hebrew Bible vindicated, &c. 1751, 4to.—
3. An impartial Inquiry into the time of the Co¬
ming of the Meffiah, 1751, 8vo.—-4. An Efiay on
Spirit, 1751, 8vo.—3. A Vindication of the Hiftories
of the Old and New Teftament, in anfwer to the Ob-
je&ions of the late Lord Bolingbroke ; in Two Letters
to a young Nobleman, 1752, 8vo, reprinted in 1753.
—6. A Defence of the Eflay on Spirit, with Re¬
marks on the feveral pretended Anfwers j and which
may ferve as an antidote againft all that lhall ever ap¬
pear againft it, 1753, 8vo.—7. A Journal from Grand
Cairo to Mount Sinai, and back again, tranflated
from a manufeript, written by the Prefetto of E-
gypt, in Company with feme Milllonaries de propa¬
ganda fide at Grand Cairo : to which are added, Re¬
marks on the Origin of Hieroglyphics, and the My¬
thology of the ancient Heathens, 1753, 8vo, two
editions, 410 and 8vo. It was foon after this publica¬
tion that his Lordlhip became (in March 1754) a fel¬
low of the Society of Antiquarians.—8. Some Thoughts
on Self-love, Innate Ideas, Free-will, Tafte, Senti¬
ments, Liberty, and Neceffity, &c. occafioned by read¬
ing Mr Hume’s Works, and the fliort Treatife written
in French by Lord Bolingbroke on Compaftion, 1744,
-Svo.—9. A Vindication of the Hiftorits of the Old
and New Teftament, Part II. Adorned with feveral
Explanatory Cuts, 1754, 8vo.—10. Letters between
the bilhop. .of Clogher and Mr William Penn, con¬
cerning Baptifm, 1755, Svo.— it. A fpeech made
in the Houle of Lords in Ireland, on Monday, Fe¬
bruary 2. 1756, for omitting the Nicene and Atha-
nafian Creeds out of the Liturgy, &c. 17^6, Svo. 
12. A Vindication, Part III. 1758, Svo. The three
parts of the Eflay on Spirit were reprinted by Mr
Bowyer, in one vol. 8vo, 1759 ; with fome additional
notes, and an index of texts of Scripture illuftrated or *
explained.
C LAYTONI A. See Botany Index.
CL AZOMENyE, -arum, (Herodotus, Strabo, Vel¬
leius, Pliny) ; Cla%omena, -<e, (Mela) ; one of the
twelve ancient cities of Ionia. The country of An¬
axagoras 4 fituated in the neighbourhood of Colophon.
The city was fmall, its port on the N. N. W. fide
of the iftand. .Dr Chandler informs us, that traces of
the walls are found by the fea ; and in a hill are verti¬
ces of a theatre. I hree or four trees grew on it j and
A a by
C L E [ I
Chzome- by one is a cave hewn in the rock, and affording water.
riE,e A vaulted room with a chimney at one end, and a ho-
Cleevcrs Ve^ °r tVVO ma^e ^ones pil^d, are all the prefent
> ^ ftru&ures 5 and thefe are chiefly frequented by filher-
men and by perfons employed to watch and to drive
away birds when the grain ripens. Referring to this
confined fituation of Clazomenae, a famous fophift,
when importuned to adorn his native city by refiding
in it rather than at Smyrna, replied, The nightingale
refufes to ftng in a cage.
CLEANTHES, a Stoic philofopher, difciple of
Zeno, flourifhed 240 years before Chrift. He main¬
tained himfelf in the day by working in the night :
being queflioned by the magiftrates how he fubfifted,
he brought a woman for whom he kneaded bread,
and a gardener for whom he drew water j and refufed
a prefent from them. He corrtpofed feveral works,
of which there are now only a few fragments remain-
ing.
CLEAR, as a naval term, is varioufly applied to
the weather, the fea-coafts, cordage, navigation, &c.
The weather is faid to be clear when it is fair and
open, as oppofed to cloudy or foggy. The fea coafl: is
called clear when the navigation is not interrupted, or
rendered dangerous by rocks, fands, or breakers, &c.
It is expreffed of cordage, cables, &c. when they are
unembarraffed or difentangled, fo as to be ready for
immediate fervice. It is ufually oppofed to foul in all
thefe fenfes.
CLEARCHUS, a tyrant of Heraclea in Pontus,
who was killed by Chion and Leonidas, Plato’s pu¬
pils, during the celebration of the feftivals of Bacchus.
He had enjoyed the fovereign power during 12 years.
A Lacedaemonian fent to quiet the Byzantines. He
was recalled, but refufed to obey, and fled to Cyrus
the younger, who made him captain of 13,000 Greek
foldiers. He obtained a viflory over Artaxerxes, who
was fo enraged at the defeat, that when Clearchus fell
into his hands by the treachery of Tiffaphernes, he put
him immediately to death.
CLEx^lTS, in naval affairs, pieces of wood having
one or two projetting ends whereby to faften the
ropes : fome of them are fattened to the throuds below
for this purpofe, and others nailed to different places
of the (hip’s deck or tides.
CLECHE, in Heraldry, a kind of crofs, charged
with another crofs of the fame figure, but of the colour
of the field.
CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper ttra-
tum of fullers earth.
CLEDONISM, Cledonismus, a kind of divina¬
tion, in ufe among the ancients. The word is formed
from which fignifies two things, rumor, “ a
report,” and avis, “ a bird.” In the firlt fenfe, cle-
donifm thould denote a kind of divination drawn from
words occafionally uttered. Cicero obferves, that the
Pythagoreans made obfervation not only of the words
of the gods, but of thofe of men ; and accordingly be¬
lieved the pronouncing of certain words, e. g. incen-
dium, at a meal, very unhappy. Thus, inftead of pri-
fon, they ufed the word domicilium; and to avoid erin-
nys, furies, faid eumenides. In the fecond fenfe, cledo-
nfn thould feem a divination drawn from birds j the
fame with ornithomantia.
CLEEVERS. See Clivers,
86 ] C L E
CLEF, or Cliff, in Mujic, derived from, the La- c;ief.J
tin word clavis, “ a key j” becaufe by it is expreffed —y—
the fundamental found in the diatonic fcale, which re¬
quires a determined fucceflion of tones or femitones,
whether major or minor, peculiar to the note from
whence we fet out, and rcfulting from its pofition in
the fcale. Hence, as it opens a way to this fuccef-
fion, and difcovers it, the technical term iei/ is ufed
with great propriety. But clefs rather point out
the pofition of different mufical parts in the general
fyflem, and the relations which they bear one to an¬
other.
A clef, fays Rouffeau, is a character in mufic placed
at the beginning of a Have, to determine the degree of
elevation occupied by that ftave in the general claviary
or fyftem, and to point out the names of all the notes
which it contains in the line of that clef.
Anciently the letters by which the notes of the ga¬
mut were fignified were called clejs. Thus the leU
ter A was the clef of the note la, C the clef of ut, E
the clef of mi, &c. In proportion as the fyflem was
extended, the embarrafl'ment and fuperfluity of this
multitude of clefs were felt.
Gui d’Arezzo, who had invented them, marked a
letter or clef at the beginning of each line in the ftave j
for as yet he had placed no notes in the fpaces. In
procefs of time they marked no more than one of the
feven clefs at the beginning of one of the lines only ;
and this was fufficient to fix the pofition of all the
refl, according to their natural order : at laft, of thefe
feven lines or clefs they fele£!ed four, which were call¬
ed claves Jignatce, or difcriminating clefs, becaufe they
fatisfied themfelves with marking one of them upon
one of the lines, from which the powers of all the others
might be recognized. Prefently afterwards they even
retrenched one of thefe four, viz. the gamma, of
which they made ufe to mark the fol below, that is to
fay, the hypoproflambanomene added to the fyftem of
the Greeks.
In reality Kircher afferts, that if we underftood the
charafters in which ancient mufic was written, and exa¬
mined minutely the forms of our clefs, we fliould find
that each of them reprefents the letter a little altered
in its form, by which the note was originally named.
Thus the clef of fol was originally a G, the clef of ut
a C, and the clef of fa an F.
We have then three clefs, one a fifth above the plate
other: the clef of F, or fa, which is the lowed ; CXLlV.
the clef of ut, or C, which is the fifth above the for-%^
mer *, and the clef of fol, or G, which is a fifth above Vo ’
that of ut. Thefe clefs, both as marked by foreigners
and in Britain, may be feen in art. 170 of Music j up¬
on which it is neceffary to remark, that by a remain
of ancient praflice, the clef is always placed upon a
line, and never in a fpace. It deferves notice, that
the clef of fa is marked in three different manners: one
in mufic which is printed ; another in mufic which is
written or engraved j and a third in the full harmony
of the chorus.
By adding four lines above the clef offol, and three
lines beneath the clef of fa, which gives both above
and below the greateft extent of permanent or efta-
blifhed lines, it appears, that the whole fcale of notes
which can be placed upon the gradations relative to
thtfe clefs amounts to 24 j that is to fay, three odlaves
and
c L E f 187 ] C L E
Clef. and a fourth from the F, or fa, which is found be-
-'^r“ neath the firft line, to the fi, or B, which is found
above the laft, and all this together forms what we call
the general clavianj ; from whence we may judge, that
this compafs has, for a long time, conftiluted the ex¬
tent of the fyftem. But as at prefent it is continually
acquiring new degrees, as well above as below, the de¬
grees are marked by larger lines, which are added above
or below as occafion requires.
Inftead of joining all the lines, as has been done by
Roufleau in his Diftionary, (plate A, fig. 5.) to mark
the relation which one clef bears to another, they fe-
parate them five by five ; becaufe it is pretty nearly
within the degrees to which the compafs of ordinary
voices extends. This collection of five lines is called a
fave; and in thefe they place a clef, to determine the
names of the notes, the poiitions of femitones, and to
(how what ftation the ftave occupies in the claviary or
general fcale.
In whatever manner we take five fucceflive lines in
the claviary, we fliall find one clef comprehended ; nay,
fometimes two, in which cafe one may be retrenched as
ufelefs. Cuftom has even prefcribed which of the two
fhould be retrenched, and which retained $ it is this
likewife which has determined the number of pofitions
affigned to each clef.
If I form a ftave of the firft five lines in the clavia¬
ry, beginning from below, I find the clef of fa in the
fourth line. This then is one pofition of the clef, and
this pofition evidently relates to the loweftnotej thus
likewife it is that of the bafe clef.
If I wifti to gain a third in afcent, I muft add a line
above ; I muft then obliterate one below, othervvife
the ftave will contain more than five lines. The clef of
fa then is found transferred from the fourth to the
third, and the clef of ut is likewife found upon the
fifth ; but as two clefs are ufelefs, they retrench here
that of ut. It is evident, that the ftave of this clef is
a third higher than the former.
By throwing away ftill one line below to gain ano¬
ther above, we have a third kind of a ftave, where the
clef of fa will be found upon the fecond line, and that
of ut upon the fourth. Here we leave out the clef of
fa, and retain that of ut. We have now gained ano¬
ther third above, and loft it below.
By continuing thefe alterations from line to line,
we pafs fucceflively through four different pofitions
of the clef of ut. Having arrived at that of fol, we
find it placed upon the fecond line, and then upon
the firft. This pofition includes the five higheft lines,
and gives the lharpeft diapafon which the clefs can fig-
nify.
The reader may fee in Roufleau’s Mufical Di&ion-
ary, Plate A, fig. 5. this fucceffion of clefs from the
loweft to the higheft ; which in all conftitutes eight
ftaves, clefs, or different pofitions of clefs.
Whatever might be the charaffer and genius of any
voice or inftrument, if its extent above or below does
not furpafs that of the general claviary, in this number
may be found a ftation and a clef fuitable to it •, and
there are, in reality, clefs determined for all the parts
in mufic. If the extent of a part is very confiderable,
fo that the number of lines neceflary to be added above
or below may become inconvenient, the clef is then
changed in the courfe of the mufic. It may be plainly
perceived by the figure, what clef it is neCeffary to clef
choofe, for raifing or depreffing any part, under what- H
ever clef it may be actually placed. Clematis.
It will likewife appear, that in order to adjuft one v
clef to another, both muft be compared by the gene¬
ral claviary, by means of which we may determinf*
what every note under one of the clefs is with re-
fpe£t to the other. It is by this exercife repeated
that we acquire the habit of reading with eafe all the
parts.
From this manoeuvre it follows, that we may place
whatever note we pleafe of the gamut upon any line
or fpace whatever of the ftave, fince we have the
choice of eight different poiitions, which is equal to the
number of notes in the o6tave. Thus you may mark
a whole tune upon the lame line, by changing the clef
at each gradation. The 7th fig. of the fame plate in
Roufleau’s Mufical Diftionary, to which we formerly
referred, ftiows by the feries of clefs the order of the
notes, re, fa, la, ut, mi, fol, f, re, rifing by thirds,
although all placed upon the fame line. The fig. fol¬
lowing reprefents upon the order of the fame clefs
the note ut, which appears to defcend by thirds upon
all the lines of the ftave.j and further, which yet, by
means of changing the clef, ftill preferves its unifon.
It is upon fuch examples as this, that fcholars ought
to exercife themfelves, in order to underftand at the
firft glance the powers of all the clefs, and their fimul-
taneous effefh
There are two of their pofitions, viz. the clef of
To/ upon the firft line, and that of fa upon the third,
which feem daily to fall more and more into defuetude.
The firft of thefe may feem lefs neceflary, becaufe
it produces nothing but a pofition entirely limilar to
that of/tf upon the fourth line, from which, however,
it differs by two o&aves. As to the clef of fa, it is
plain, that in removing it entirely from the third line,
we ftiall no longer have any equivalent pofition, and
that the' compolition of the claviary, which is at
prefent complete, will by thefe means become de-
fed! ive.
Thus much for Roufleau’s account of clefs. Fie pro¬
ceeds to explain their tranfpofition $ but as this woukl
render the prefent article too long and intricate, we
refer the curious to his Mufcal Diciionanj, vol. i.
page 162. See alfo Mai corn's Differ tation on Muffc.
CLEFT, in a general fenfe, is a fpace made by the
feparation of parts. Green timber is very apt to fplit
and cleave in feveral places, after it is wrought into
form j and thele cracks in it are very difagreeable to
the fight. The common method of the country car¬
penters is to fill up thefe cracks with a mixture of
greafe and faw duft j but the neateft way of all is,
the foaking both fides well with the fat of beef broth*
and then dipping pieces of fpunge into the fame broth*
and filling up all the cracks with them : they fwell
out fo as to fill the whole crack ; and accommodate
themfelves fo well to it, that the deficiency is hardly feen.
Clefts, or Cracks, in Farriery, appear on the bought
of the patterns, and are caufed by a {harp and malic,
nant humour. See Farriery Index.
CLEMA, in antiquity, a twig of the vine, which
ferves as a badge of the centurion’s office.
CLEMA I IS, Vjrgins’-bower. See Botany /«-
dext
CLEMENCY,
A a 2
C L E [i
Clemency. CLEMENCY, denotes much the fame with mercy,
* and implies a remiflion of feverity towards offenders.
The term is moft generally ufed in fpeaking of the
forgivenefs exercifed by princes or perfons of high
authority. It is the refult, indeed', of a difpofition-
which ought to be cultivated by all ranks, though*
its effects cannot be equally confpicuous or extenfive,.
In praife of clemency joined with power-,, it is obferved,
that it is not only the privilege, the honour, and the
duty of a prince, but it is alfo his fecurity, and better
than all his garrifons, forts, and guards, to preferve
himfelf and his dominions in fafety : That that prince
is truly royal, who mailers himfelf} looks upon all in¬
juries as below him 5 and governs by equity and rea-
len, not by paffion or caprice. In illuftratioa of this
iubjeft, the following examplesare fele&ed out of many
recorded in hi (lory.
Sueton c 9. 1 wo patricians having confpired againft Titus
the Roman emperor, were difcovered, convicted, and
fentenced to death by the fenate 5 but the good-na¬
tured prince fent for them, and in private admonilhed
them, that in vain they afpired to the empire, which
was given by deftiny ; exhorting them to be fatisfied
with the rank in which by Providence they had been
placed, and offering them any thing elfe which was in
his power to grant. At the fame time he difpatched
a meffenger to the mother of one of them, who was
then at a great diftance, and under deep concern about
the fate of her fon, to affure her,, that her fon was not
only alive, §ut forgiven..
Zo/ii. 674. 2. Licinius having raifed a numerous army, Zofi-
mus fays 130,000 men, endeavoured to wreft the go¬
vernment out of the hands of his brother-in-law Con-
ftantine the emperor. But his army being defeated,
Licinius fled with what forces he could rally to Nico-
media, whither Conftantine purfued him, and imme¬
diately inverted the place ; but on the fecond day of
the fiege, the emperor’s fiffer intreating him, with a
flood of tears, by the tendernefs he had ever Ihown
for her, to forgive her hulband, and grant him at leaft
his life, he was prevailed upon to comply with her re¬
quell ; and the next day, Licinius, finding no means
of making his efcape, prefented hrmfelf before the
conqueror, and throwing bimfelf at his feet, yielded
to him the purple and the other ealigns of fovereignty.
Conrtantine received him in a very friendly manner,
entertained him at his table, and afterwards fent him
to Theffalonica, alluring him, that he Ihould live un-
molelled fo long as he raifed no new difturbances.
3. The council of thirty, ellablilhed at Athens by
Lyfander, committed the moll execrable cruelties*
Upon pretence of rellraining the multitude withiu
their duty, and to prevent feditions, they had eaufed
guards to be afligned them, had armed 3000 of the
citizens for that purpofe, and at the fame time dis¬
armed all the reft. The whole cky was in the utmoff
terror and difmay. Whoever oppofed their injuftice
and violence fell a vidlim to their refentment. Riches
were a crime that never failed of drawing a fentence
upon their owners, always followed with death and th©
confifcation of eftates; which the thirty tyrants di¬
vided amongft themfelves* They put more people to
death (fays Xenophon) in eight months of a peace,
than their enemies had done in a war of thirty years.
All the citizens of any confideration in Athens, and
4
88 } e L K
who retained a love of liberty, quitted a place reduced
to fo bard and lhameful a llavery, and fought elfewhere
an afylum and retreat where they might live in fafetv.
At the bead of thefe was Thrafybulus, a perfon of ex¬
traordinary merit, who beheld with the moft lively af-
flidlion the miferies of his country.
1 he Lacedaemonians had the inhumanity to endea¬
vour to deprive thofe unhappy fugitives of this laft re-
fource. 1 hey publilhed an edi<Sl to prohibit the cities
of Greece from giving them* refuge, decreed that they
Ihould be delivered up to the thirty tyrants, and con¬
demned all fuch as fhould contravene the execution of
this edi6l to pay a fine of five talents. Only two ci¬
ties rejected with difdain fo unjuft an ordinance, Me-
gara and I hebes ; the latter of which made a decree
to punifh all perfons whatfoever that fhould fee an A-
thenian attacked by his enemies without doing his ut-
moft to aflift him. Lyfias, an orator of Syracufe who
had been banifhed by the thirty, raifed 500 foldiers at
his own expence, and fent them to the aid of the com¬
mon country of Eloquence. Thrafybulus loft no
time. After having taken Pbyta, a finall fort in At¬
tica, he marched to the Piraeus, of which he made
himfelf mafter. The thirty flew thither with their
troops, and a battle enfued. The tyrants were over¬
thrown. Critias, the moft favagg of them all, was
killed on the fpot : and as the army was taking to
flight, I hrafybulus cried out, “ WEerefore do you fly
from me as from a vi&or, rather than aflift me as the
avenger of your liberty ? We are not enemies, but fel¬
low-citizens, nor have we deelarsd war agair.ft the
eity^ but againft the thirty tyrants.” Me continued
to remind them, that they had ths fame origin,
country, laws, and religion : he exhorted them to
eompaftionate their exiled brethren, to reftore their
country to them, and refome their own liberty. This
difcourfe had the defired effe£l. rI h§ army, upon their
return to Athens, expelled the thirty, and fubftituted
ten perfons to govern in their room, whofe condudl
proved no- better than theirs j but King Paufanias,
moved with compaflion for the deplorable condition to
which a city, once fo flouriftiing, was reduced, had the
generofity to favour the Athenians in fecret, and aft
length obtained a peace for them. It was fealed with
the blood of the tyrants, who having, taken arms to re-
inftate themfelves in the government, were all put to
the fword, and left Athens in the full poffeflion of its
liberty. . All the exiles were recalled*. Thrafybulus
at that time propofed the celebrated amnefty, by which
the citizens engaged upon oath, that all paft tranfac-
tions Ihould be buried in oblivion. The government
was re-eftablifhed upon its ancient footing, the laws
were reftored to their priftine vigour, and magiftrates
eledled with the ufual form.
This (fays Rollin)' is one of the fineft events in ancient
hiftory, worthy the Athenian clemency and benevo¬
lence,. and has ferved as a model to fuceeeding ages in
all good governments.. Never had tyranny been more
cruel and bloody than that which the Athenians had-
lately thrown off. Every houfe was in mourning,
every family bewailed the lofs of feme relation : it had’
been a feries of public robbery and rapine, in which
lieenfe and impunity had authorized all manner of
crimes. The people feemed to have a right to demand
the blood of all accomplices in fuch notorious malver-
fation5>
Clemencr
C L E
Clemency, fatlons, and even the intereft of the Rate to authorize
—v—— fuch a claim, that by the exemplary feverities fuch
enormous crimes might be prevented for the future.
But Thrafybulus riling above thefe fentiments, from the
fuperiority of his more extenfive genius, and the views
of a more difcerning and profound policy, forefaw, that
by giving into the punilhment of the guilty, eternal
feeds of difcord and enmity would remain, to weaken
the public by domeific divifions, when it was neceffary
to: unite againft the common enemy, and alfo occafion
the lofs to the ftate of a great number of citizens, who
might render it important fervices from the view of
making amends for paft milbehaviour.
4. Such conduct, after great troubles in a ftate, has
always appeared to the ableft politicians, the moft
certain and ready means to reftore the public peace and
tranquillity. Cicero, when Rome was divided into
two factions upon the occafion of Casfar’s death, who
had been killed by the confpirators, calling to mind
this celebrated amnefty, propofed, after the example
of the Athenians, to bury all that had palled in eternal
oblivion.
5. Cardinal Mazarine obierved to Don Lewis de
Haro, prime minifter of Spain, that this gentle and hu¬
mane Conduit in France had prevented the troubles and
revolts of that kingdom from having any fatal confe-
quences, and “ that the king had not loft a foot of land
by them to that day whereas “ the indexible feverity
oi the Spaniards was the occafion that the fubjeits of
that monarchy, whenever they threw off the malk,
never returned to their obedience but by the force of
arms; which fufficiently appears (fays he) in the ex¬
ample of the Hollanders, who are in the peaceable pof-
feffion of fo many provinces, that not an age ago were
the patrimony of the king of Spain.,r
erod, 6. Leonidas the Lacedaemonian having, with 3.00.
p. x. men only, difputed the pafs of Thermopylae againft the
27> 7s- whole a- my of Xerxes, and being killed in that engage¬
ment, Xerxes, by the advice of Mardonius one of his
generals, caufed his. dead body to be hung upon a gal¬
lows, making thereby the intended dilhonour of his ene¬
my his own immortal lhame. But fome time after,
Xerxes being defeated, and Mardonius flain, one of
the principal citizens of /Egtna came and addreffed
himfelf to Pa'ufaaaias, dtfiring him to avenge the indig-,
nity that Mardonius and Xerxes had (hown ta Leoni¬
das, by treating Mardonius’s body after the fame man¬
ner. As a farther motive for doing fo, he added, that
by thus fatisfying the . manes of thofe who were killed
at Thermopylae, he would be fure to immortalize his
own name throughout all Greece, and make his memo¬
ry precious to the lateft pofterity. “ Carry thy bafe
counfels elfewhere (replied Paufanias) ^ thou muft have
a very wrong notion of true glory to imagine, that the
wav for me to acquire it is to refemble the barbarians.
If the efteem of the people of iEgina is not to be
purchafed but by fuch a proceeding, I ftiall be con¬
tent with preferving that of the Lacedaemonians only,
amongft whom the bafe and ungenerous pleafure of re¬
venge is never put in competition with that of (bowing
clemency and moderation ta their enemies, efpecially
after their death. As for the fouls of my departed
countrymen, they are fufficiently avenged by the death
of the many thoufand Perfians flain upon the fpot in
the laft engagement,’,
C L E
CLEMENS RoMANUS, biftiop of Rome, where he Clemens,
is faid to have been born ; and to have been fellow- Clement,
labourer with St Peter and St Paul. We have no- * ' ' *
thing remaining of his works that is clearly genuine,
excepting one epiftle, written to quiet fome difturban-
ces in the church of Corinth ; which, next to holy
writ, is efteemed one of the moft valuable remains of
ecclefiaftical antiquity.
CLEMENS A/exandrinus, fo called to diftinguilh him
from the former, was an eminent father of the church, ,
who flouriftied at the end of the fecond and beginning
of the third centuries. He was the fcholar of Pan-
taenus, and the inftruftor of Origen. The beft edition
of his works is that in 2 vols folio, publifhed in 1715,
by Archbiftiop Potter.
CLEMENT V. Pope, the firff who-made a pub¬
lic fale of indulgences. He tranfpl'anted the holy fee
to Avignon in France ; greatly contributed to the fup-
preflion of the knights templars; and was author of a
compilation of the decrees of the general councils of
Vienne, ftyled Clementines. He died in 1314.
Clement VII. Julius de Medicis, Pope, memo¬
rable for his refufing to divorce Catharine of Arfa-
goa from Henry VIII. ; and for the bull he publifhed
upon the king’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, which,
according to the. Romifh authors, loft him England.
He died in 1534. -#
Clement XIV. Francis Laurentius Ganganelh\
Pope, was born at St Angelo, in the duchy of Ur-
bino, in October 1705; and chofen pope, though
not yet a biftiop, in 1769: at which time the fee of
Rome was involved in a moft difagreeable and dan¬
gerous conteft with the houfe of Bourbon. His reign,
was rendered troublefome by the collifion of parties
on the affairs of the Jefuits and it is pretended that
his latter days were embittered by the apprehenfions^ •
of poifon. Though this report was probably apocry¬
phal, it is faid that he often complained of the heavy
burden which he was obliged to bear; and regretted,
with great fenfibility, the lofs of that tranquillity which,
he enjoyed in his retirement when only a fimple Fran-
cifcan. He was, however, fortunate in having an <
opportunity, by a fingle a£l,, to diftinguifh a fhort ad-
miniftration of five years in fuch a manner as will ever
prevent its finking into obfcurity. His death was im¬
mediately attributed to poifon, as if an old man of 70,
loaded with infirmities and difbrders, could not quit
the world without violence. His proceedings againft
the Jefuits furnifhed aplaufible pretence for this charge, .
and the malevolence of their enemies embelliftied it with
circumftances. It even feems as if the minifters of
thofe powers who had procured their diffolution did
not think it beneath them to countenance the report }
as if falsehood was receffary to prevent the revival of a
body which had already funk, in its full ftrength, un¬
der the weight of real mifcondiuft. The charge was
the more ridiculous, as the pontiff had undergone a
long and painful illnef®, which originally proceeded
from a fuppreflioh of urine, to which he was fubjeiff ;
yet the report was propagated with the greateft in-
duftry ; and though the French-and Spanifti minifters
were prefent at the opening of his body, the moft hor¬
rible circumftances were publifhed relative to that ope¬
ration. It was confidently told that the head fell off
from the body, and that the ftench poifoned and killed *
the
[ 189 1
C L E [ 190 ] C L E
Glement tlie operators. It availed but little that tbe operators
II fliowed themfelves alive and in good health, and that
corne* the furgeons and phyficians proved the falfehood of
every part of the report. Clement XIV. appears to
have been a man of a virtuous character, and poffeffed
of confiderable abilities. He died much regretted by
his fubje£ts.
CLEMENTINE, a term ufed among the Augu-
ftins, who apply it to a perfon who, after having been
nine years a fuperlor, ceafes to be fo, and becomes a
private monk, under the command of a fuperior. The
word has its rife hence, that Pope Clement, by a bull,
prohibited any fuperior among the Auguftins from con¬
tinuing above nine years in his office.
Clementines, in the canon law, are the conftitutions
of Pope Clement V. and the canons of the council of
Vienne.
CLENARD, Nicholas, a celebrated grammarian
in the 16th century, was born at Dieft ^ and after ha¬
ving taught humanity at Louvain, travelled into France,
Spain, Portugal, and Africa. He wrote in Latin, 1.
Tetters relating to his Travels, which are very curious
and fcarce. 2. A Greek Grammar, which has been
xevifed and corre&ed by many grammarians $ and other
Works. He died at Grenoble in 1542.
CLEOBIS and BtToN, two youths, fons of Cy-
dippe the prieilefs of Juno at Argos. When oxen
could not be procured to draw their mother’s chariot
to the temple of Juno, they put themfelves under the
yoke, and drew it 45 ftadia to the temple, amidrt the
acclamations of the multitude, who congratulated the
mother on account of the piety of her fons. Cydippe
intreated the goddefs to reward the piety of her fons
with the beft gift that could be granted to a mortal.
They went to reft and awoke no more j and by this the
goddefs ftiow'ed that death is the only true happy event
that can happen to a man. The Argives raifed them
ftatues at Delphi.
CLEOBULUS, fon of Evagoras, and one of the
Grecian fages ; he was valiant, a lover of learning,
and an enemy to vice. Flouriftied about c6o years be¬
fore Chrift.
CLEOMBROTUS, a king of Sparta, fon of An-
■axandrides. He was deterred from building a wall
acrofs the ifthmus of Corinth againft the approach of
the Perfians, by an eclipfe of the fun. He died in the
75th Olympiad, and was fucceeded by Pliftarchus, fon
of Leonidas, a minor.
Cleombrotus II. fon of Paufanias king of Sparta,
.after his brother Agefipolis I. He made war againft
the Boeotians, and left he ffiould be fufpefled of treach¬
erous communications with Epaminondas, he gave that
general battle at Leu&ra, in a very difadvantageous
place. He was killed in the engagement, and his army
deftroyed, in the year of'Rome 382.
Cleombrotus III. a fon-in-law of Leonidas king
of Sparta, who for a while ufurped the kingdom after
the expulfion of his father-in-law. When Leonidas
was recalled, Cleombrotus wTas banifhed, and his wife
Chelonis, who had accompanied her father, now accom¬
panied her huiband in his exile.
CLEOME, in Botany, a genus of the liliquofa
-order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants j
^ and in the natural method ranking under the 25th or-
’der, Put amines. There are three nectariferous glan¬
dules, one at each ftnus of the calyx except the lowed ; Cleoiuf
the petals all rifing upwards; the filiqua unilocular and H
bivalved. There are 15 fpecies, all of them, except Cleopatra,
two, natives of warm climates. They are herbaceous
plants, riling from one to two feet higli; and are adorn¬
ed with flowers of various colours, as red, yellow, flelh-
colour, &c. They are propagated by feeds, and re¬
quire no other care than what is common to other ex¬
otics which are natives of warm countries.
CLEOMENES, king of Sparta, conquered the
Argives, and freed Athens from the tyranny of the Pi-
fiftratidae. By bribing the oracle, he pronounced De-
maratus, his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, be-
caufe he refufed to punilh the people of Aigina, who
had deferted the Greeks. He killed himfelf in a fit of
madnefs.
CLEOMENES II. fucceeded his brother Agefipolis II.
He reigned 34 years in the greateft tranquillity, and
was father to Acrotatus and Cleonymus. He was fuc¬
ceeded by Areus I. fon of Acrotatus.
Cleomenes III. fucceeded his father Leonidas.
He was of an enterprifing fpirit, and refolved to reftore
the ancient difcipline of Lycurgus in its full force. He
killed the Ephori, and removed by poifon his royal col¬
league Eurydamides, and made his own brother Eucli-
das king, againft the laws of the ftate, which forbade
more than one of the fame family to fit on the throne.
He made war againft the Achteans, and attempted to
deftroy the Achaean league. Aratus the general of the
Achaeans, who fuppofed himfelf inferior to his enemy,
called Antigonus to his affiftance ; and Cleomenes,
when he had fought the unfortunate battle of Sellafia,
retired into Egypt to the court of Ptolemy Euergetes,
where his wife and children had gone before him.
Ftolemy received him with great cordiality ; but his
fucceflbr, weak and fufpicious, foon exprefled his jealoufy
of this noble ftranger, and imprifoned him. Cleomenes
killed himfelf, and his body was flayed and expofed on
a crofs, 140 Olymp.
CLEON, the name of feveral noted men of anti¬
quity. 1. Of an Athenian, who, though originally a
tanner, became general of the armies of the ftate by his
intrigues and eloquence. He took Thoron in Thrace,
and was killed at Amphipolis in a battle with Brafidas
the Spartan general,. Olymp. 89th. 2. A general of
Meflenia, who difputed with Ariftodemus for the fove-
reignty. 3. A ftatuary. 4. A poet, who wrote a
poem on the Argonauts. 5. An orator of Halicarnaf-
fus who compofed an oration for Lyfander, in which
he intimated the propriety of making the kingdom of
Sparta eleftive. 6. A Magnefian who wrote fome com¬
mentaries, in which he fpeaks of portentous events, See.
CLEONiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar-
golis, above Mycenm, on the road which leads from
Argos to Corinth ; {landing on an eminence, on every
fide occupied by houfes. In the foreft near this town
was {lain by Hercules the huge lion (Sil. Italicus, Se¬
neca). Cleonccus the epithet. Cleonecum Sidus, the
lion.- Another Cleonce on Mount Athos in Chal-
cidice.
CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt,
was daughter of Ptolemy Auletes. By her extraor¬
dinary beauty, (he fubdued the two renowned Roman
generals Julius Crefar and Mark Antony ; the latter of
whom, it is thought, loft the empire of Rome by his
attachment
C L E [191] C L E
Cleopatra attachment to her. At length Mark Antony being
II fubdued by O&avius Caefar, the tried the force of her
Clepiydra. declining charms upon the conqueror, but in vain ; up-
* on which, expecting no mercy from him, (he poifoned
herfelf, 30 years before Chrift. According to fome
authors, (he was the reftorer of the Alexandrian libra¬
ry, to which (he added that of Pergamos $ and it is
faid, that (lie ftudied philofophy to confule her for the
abfence of Antony. With her death ended the family
of the Ptolemies in Egypt, after it had reigned from
the death of Alexander 294 years : for Egypt, after
this, was reduced to a Roman province, in which de¬
pendence it remained till it was taken from them by
the Saracens, A. D. 641.
CLEOPATRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Egypt, on the Arabian gulf. See Arsinoe. Now faid
to be Sue*, fituated at the bottom of the gulf of the
Red fea. E. Long. 34. 30. N. Lat. 30. O.
CLEOSTRATUS, a celebrated aftronomer, born
in Tenedos, was, according to Pliny, the firft who dif-
covered the figns of the zodiac ; others fay, that he
only difcovered the figns Aries and Sagittarius. He
alfo corrected the errors of the Grecian year about the
306th year before Chrift.
CLEPSYDRA, an inftrument or machine ferving
to meafure time by the fall of a certain quantity of wa¬
ter.
The word comes from uMn-loi, condo, and aqua,
“ water though there have likewife been clepfydrae
made with mercury.
The Egyptians, by this machine, meafured the
courfe of the fun. Tycho Brahe, in our days, made
ufe of it to meafure the motion of the ftars, &c. and
Dudley ufed the fame contrivance in making all his
maritime obfervations. The ufe of clepfydrse is very
ancient ; they were invented in Egypt under the Pto¬
lemies, as were alfo fun-dials. Their ufe was chiefly
in the winter •, the fun-dials ferved in the fummer.
They had two great defefls ; the one, that the water
ran out with a greater or lefs facility, as the air was
more or lefs denfe ; the other, that the water ran
more readily at the beginning than towards the con-
clufion. M. Amontons has invented a clepfydra free
from both thefe inconveniences j and which has thefe
three grand advantages, of ferving the ordinary pur-
pofe of clocks, of ferving in navigation for the difco-
very of the longitude, and of meafuring the motion of
the arteries.
ConJlruBion of a CLEPSTLHA. To divide any cy-
lindric veflel into parts to be emptied in each divifion
of time*, the time wherein the whole, and that wherein
any part, is to be evacuated, being given.
Suppofe, for example, a cylindric veflel, whofe
charge of water throws out in 1 2 hours, were required
to be divided into parts to be evacuated each hour.
1. As the part of time 1 is to the whole time 12 ; fo is
the fame time 12 to a fourth proportional, 144.
2. Divide the altitude of the veflel into 144 equal parts:
here the laft will fall to the laft hour; the three next
above to the laft part but one ; the five next to the
tenth hour, &c. j laftly, the 23 laft to the firft hour.
For fince the times increafe in the feries of the natural
numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and the altitudes, if the
numeration be in retrograde order from the twelfth
hour, increafe in the feries of the unequal numbers 1,
1
3> 5s 7s 9> ^c* ih- altitude, computed from the twelfth Clepiydra
hour, will be as the fquares of the times, 1, 4, 9, 16, II
25, &c. therefore the fquare of the whole time 144 ^^rc*
comprehends all the parts of the altitude of the veflel
to be evacuated. But a third proportional to I and
12 is the fquare of 12, and confequently it is the num¬
ber of equal parts into which the altitude is to be di¬
vided, to be diftributed according to the feries of the
unequal numbers, through the equal intervals of hours.
Since in lieu of parts of the fame veflel, other lefs vef-
fels equal thereto may be fubftituted, the altitude of a
veflel emptied in a given fpace of time being given, the
altitude of another veflel to be emptied in a given time
may be found ; viz. by making the altitudes as the
fquares of the time. For a further defcription, fee Hy¬
drodynamics Index.
CL ERG, John ee, a moft celebrated writer and
univerfal fcholar, born at Geneva in 1657. After he
had pafled through the ufual courfe of ftudy at Geneva,
and had loft his father in 1676, he went to France in
1678 ; but returning the year after, he was ordained
with the general applaufe of all his examiners. In
1682, Le Clerc vifited England with a view to learning
the language. He preached feveral times in the French
churches in London, and vifited feveral biftiops and
men of learning 5 but the fmoky air of the town not
agreeing with his lungs, he returned to Plolland within
the year, where he at length fettled. He preached
before a fynod held at Rotterdam by the remonftrants
in 1684 j and was admitted profeflor of philofophy,
polite literature, and the Hebrew tongue, in their
fchool at Amfterdam. The remainder of his life af¬
fords nothing but the hiftory of his works, and of the
controverfies he was engaged in ; but thefe would lead
into too extenfive a detail. He continued to read re¬
gular ledtures ; and becaufe there was no fingle author
full enough for his purpofe, he drew up and publiftied
his Logic, Ontology, Pneumatology, and Natural Phi¬
lofophy. He publiftied Ars Critic a; a Commentary
on the Old Teftament ; a Compendium of Univerfal
Hiftory ; an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of the two firft; Cen¬
turies $ a French Tranflation of the New Teftament,
&c. In 1686, he began, jointly with M. de Crofe,
his Bibhotheque Umverfelle et Hijiorique, in imitation of
other literary journals j which was continued to the
year 1693 inclufive, in 26 vols. In 1703, he began
his Bibhotheque Choifie, and continued it to 1714, and
then commenced another work on the fame plan, called
Bibhotheque Ancienne et Moderne, which he continued
to the year 1728 ; all of them juftly deemed excellent
ftores of ufeful knowledge. In 1728 he was feized
with a palfy and fever j and after fpending the laft fix
years of his life with little or no underftanding, died in
J736*
Clerc, John le, called Chevalier, an eminent hifto-
rical painter, was born at Nanci in 1587, but ftudied
in Italy, where he refided for 20 years} and was a
difciple of Carlo Venetiano, with whom he worked
a long time, and whofe ftyle he fo effe&ually ftudied
and imitated, that feveral of the pictures which were
finiftied by Le Clerc were taken for the work of Ve¬
netiano. He was moft highly efteemed at Venice for
his extraordinary merit } and as a token of public re-
fpeft, he was made a knight of St Mark. His free¬
dom of hand was remarkable } he had a light pencil }
and
C L E
T i
He died
Cierc, 2nd in ins colouring he refembled his mailer.
Clergy. jn ,6^^.
Clerc, SebnJUan /<<; engraver, and defigner in or¬
dinary to the French king, was born at Metz in 1637.
After having learnt defigning, he applit d himfelf to
mathematics, and was engineer to the marlhal de la
Ferte. He went to Paris in 1665, where he applied
himfelf to defigning and engraving with fuch fuceefs,
that M. Colbert gave him a penfion of 600 crowns.
Tn 1672 he was admitted into the royal academy of
painting and fculpture j and in 1680 was made pro-
feiTor of geometry and perfpeftive in the fame acade¬
my. He publifhed, befides a great number of defigns
and prints, 1. A Treatife on theoretical and practical
"Geometry, n. A Treatife on Architefture j and other
works: and died in 1714.—He was an excellent ar-
tift, but chiefly in the petit ftyle. His genius feldom
exceeds the dimenfions of fix inches. Within thofe
limits he could draw up 20,000 men with great dex¬
terity. No artift except Callot and Della Bella could
touch a fmall figure with fo much fpirit. His moft
efteemed prints are : 1. The pajjion of our Saviour, on
36 fmall plates, lengthwife, from his own compofitions.
The belt impreflions are without the borders. 2. The
miracle of the feeding fve thoufand, a middling fi-zed
plate, lengthwife. In the firft impreflions, which are
very rare, a town appears in the back-ground j in
"place of which a mountain is fubftituted in the common
ones. 3. The elevation of the large fones ufed in build-
. Jng the front of the Louvre, a large plate/length wife.
The firft impreftions are without the date 1677, which
was afterwards added. 4. The academy of the faiences,
a middling-fized plate, lengthwife. The firft impref¬
lions are before the Ikeleton of the flag and tortoife
were added. The fecond impreflions are before the
lhadow was enlarged at the bottom, towards the right-
hand fide of the print. Both thefe impreflions are
very fcarce. The firft is rarely met with. This print
was copied for Chambers’s Didlionary. 3. The May
of the' Gobelins, a middle-fized plate, lengthwife. The
firft impreflion is before the woman was introduced,
who covers the wheel of the coach. 6. The four con-
tjttef s, large plates, lengthwife, reprefcnting the taking
of Tournay, the taking of Douay, the defeat of the
compte de Marfin, and the Switzerland alliance. 7. The
battles of Alexander, from Le Brun, fix fmail long
plates, including the title, which reprefents the pi&ure
gallery at the Gobelins. The firft impreflions of the
•tent of Darius, which plate makes part of this fet, is
diftinguiflied by the flioulder of the woman, who is
feated in the front, being without the ftiadow, which
■was afterwards addedj for which reafon they are called
the prints with the naked fhoulder. 8. The entry of
Alexander into Babylon, a middle-fized plate, length-
wife. In the firft impreflions, the face of Alexander
is feen in profile j in the fecond, it is a three-quar¬
ter face, and therefore celled the jrt ini with the head
■turned.
Clerc, George le. See Buffon.
CLERGY, a general name given to the body of
ecclefiaftics of the Chriftian church, in-contradiftinclion
to the laity. See Laity.
The diftinftion of Chriftians into clergy and laity
was derived from the Jewifh church, and adopt* d into
the Chriftian by the apoftles themfelves: whenever
92 ] C L E
any number "of converts was made, as loon as they Clergy,
were capable of being formed into a congregation or '—y—*
church, a bithop or prclbyter, with a deacon, were or¬
dained to minifter to them. Of the bilhops, pnefts,
and deacons, the clergy originally confifted j but in the
third century, many inferior orders were appointed, as
fubfervient to the office of deacon, fuch as Acolu-
Thists, Readers, &c.
This venerable body of men being feparated and fet Hlarkl
apart from the reft of tne people, in order to attend Co
the more clofely to the fervice of Almighty God, have
therefore large privileges allowed them by our muni¬
cipal laws ; and had formerly much greater, which
were abridged at the time of the reformation, on ac¬
count of the ill ufe which the Popifti clergy had endea¬
voured to make of them. For, the laws having ex¬
empted them from almoft every perfonal duty, they
attempted a total exemption from every feoular tie.
But it is obferved by Sir Edward Cooke, that as the
overflowing of waters doth many times make the ri¬
ver to lofe its proper channel, fo, in times paft, eccle-
fiaftical perfons feeking to extend their liberties be¬
yond their due bounds, either loft, or enjoyed not,
thofe which of right belonged to them. The perfonal
exemptions do indeed for the moft part continue : a
clergyman cannot be compelled to ferve on a jury, nor
to appear at a court-leet, or view of frank-pledge,
which almoft every other perfan is obliged to do j
but if a layman is fummoned on a jury, and before the
trial takes orders, he fliall notwithftanding appear and
be fworn. Neither can he be chofen to any temporal
office, as bailiff, reeve, conftable, or the like j in re¬
gard of his own continual attendance on -the facred
tunftion. During his attendance on divine fervice, be
is privileged from arrefts in civil fuits. In cafes alfo of
felony, a clerk in orders ftiall have the benefit of his
cjerg7, without being branded in the hand ; and may
likewife have it more than once ; in both which par¬
ticulars he is diftinguiftied from a layman. But, as
they have their privileges, fo alfo they have their dif-
abilJties, on account of their fpiritual avocations. Cler¬
gymen are incapable of fitting in the houfe of com¬
mons ; and by ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. are not
in general allowed to take any lands or tenements to
farm, upon pain of 10I. per month, and total avoidance
of the leafe ; nor, upon like pain, to keep any tap-
houfe or brew-houie ; nor engage in any manner of
trade, nor lell any merchandife, under forfeiture of
. treble value. Which prohibition is confonant to the
canon l^w.
Ben ft of CLERGT, is an ancient privilege whereby
one in orders claimed to be delivered to his ordinary to
purge himfelf of felony.
After trial and convifHon * of a criminal, the judg- * Seethe
ment of the court regularly follows, unlefs fufpended art.ic,es Ar‘
or arrefted by lome intervening circumftances, of which
the principal is benefit of clergy, a title of no fmall eu- and CWw'o
riofity as well as ofej and concerning which, therefore,
it may not be improper to enquire, 1. Into its original,
and the various mutations which this -privilege of the
clergy has fuftarned. ’2. To what perfons it is to be
allowed-at this day. 3. in what cafes. 4. The cortfe-
quences of allowing it.
I. Clergy, the privilegium clericale, or (in common Blackft.
fpeech, the benefit of clergy) had its original from the Co:nmesi‘
pious
c L E [ 193 ] C L E
Clergy, pious regard paid by Uinltian princes to the church m
—r—• its infant ftate, and the ill ufe which the popiih eccle-
fiaftics foon made of that pious regard. The exemp¬
tions which they granted to the church were principal¬
ly of two kinds : 1. Exem^ions of places confecrated
to religious duties from criminal arrelts $ which was
the foundation of fan&uaries. 2. Exemption of the
perfons of clergymen from criminal procefs before the
fecular judge in a few particular cafes ; which was
the true original and meaning of the privilegium cle-
ricale.
But the clergy increafing in wealth, power, fionour,
number, and intereif, foon began to fet up for them-
felves ; and that which they obtained by the favour ol
the civil government, they now claimed as their in
herent right, and as a right of the highefl; nature, in-
defeafible, and jure divino. By their canons, there¬
fore, and conftitutions, they endeavoured at, and
where they met with eafy princes, obtained, a vaft
extenfion of thofe exemptions ; as well in regard to
the crimes themfelves, of which the lift became quite
univerfal, as in regard to the perfons exempted ;
among whom were at length comprehended, not
only every little fubordinate officer belonging to the
church or clergy, but even many that were totally
I ■ laymen.
In England, however, although the ufurpations of the
pope were very many and grievous, till Henry VIII.
totally exterminated his fupremacy, yet a total ex¬
emption of the clergy from fecular jurifdi&ion could
never be thoroughly effe&ed, though often endea¬
voured by the clergy ; and therefore, though the an¬
cient privilegium clericale was in fome capital cafes,
yet it was not univerfally allowed. And in thofe par¬
ticular cafes, the ufe was for the biffiop or ordinary to
demand his clerks to be remitted out of the king’s
courts as foon as they were indicted ; concerning the
allowance of which demand there was for many years a
great uncertainty ; till at length it was finally fettled
in the reign of Henry VI. that the prifoner fhould firft
be arraigned; and might either then claim his benefit
of clergy by way of declinatory plea ; or, after con¬
viction, by way of arreft of judgment. This latter
way is molt ufually praCtifed, as it is more to the fatis-
faftion of the court to have the crime previoufly afcer-
tained by confeffion or the verdidt of a jury ; and alfo
it is more advantageous to the prifoner himfelf, who
may poffibly be acquitted, and fo need not the benefit
of his clergy at all.
Originally the law was held that no man fhould be
admitted to the benefit of clergy, but fuch as had the
habitum et tonfuram ciericalem. But, in procefs of
time, a much wider and more comprehenfive criterion
was eftablifhed ; every one that could read (a great
mark of learning in thofe days of ignorance and her
fifter fuperftition) being accounted a clerk, or cle-
ricus, and allowed the benefit of derkfhip, though
neither initiated in clerkfhip, nor trimmed with the
holy tonfure. But when learning, by means of the
invention of printing, and other concurrent caufes, be¬
gan to be more generally difleminated than formerly,
and reading was no longer a competent proof of clerk¬
fhip, or being in holy orders ; it was found that as ma¬
ny laymen as divines were admitted to the privilegium
clericale; and therefore by ftatute 4 Henry VII. c. 12
Vol. VI. Part I. d
a diftinchon was once more drawn between mere lay Clergy,
fcholars and clerks that were really in orders. And,
though it was thought reafonable ftill to mitigate the
feverity of the law with regard to the former, yet
they were not put upon the fame footing with ac¬
tual clergy ; being fubjeded to a flight degree of pu-
niffiment, and not allowed to claim the clerical privi¬
lege more than once. Accordingly the ftatute dire&s,
that no perfon, once admitted to the benefit of clergy,
ftiall be admitted thereto a fecond time, until he pro¬
duces his orders 5 and in order to diftinguifti their per¬
fon, all laymen who are allowed this privilege, fhall
be burned with a hot iron in the brawn of the left
thumb. This diftimBion between learned laymen and
real clerks in orders, was abolifhed for a time by the
ftatutes 28 Hen. VIII. c. 1. and 32 Hen. VIII. c. 3.;
but is held to have been virtually reftored by ftatute
1 Edw. VI. c. 12. which (latute alfo enadls, that lords
of parliament and peers of the realm may have the be¬
nefit of their peerage, equivalent to that of clergy, for •
the firft offence (although they cannot read, and with¬
out being burnt in the hand), for all offences then cler¬
gyable to commoners, and alfo for the crimes of houfe-
breaking, highway robbery, horfe»ftealing, and robbing
of churches.
After this burning, the laity, and before it the real
clergy, were difcharged from the fentence of the law
in the king’s courts, and delivered over to the ordi¬
nary, to be dealt with according to the ecclefiaftical
canons. Whereupon the ordinary, not fatisfied with
the proofs adduced in the profane fecular court, fet
himfelf formally to make a purgation of the offender
by a new canonical trial ; although he had been pre-.
vioufty convifted by his country, or perhaps by his
own confeffion. This trial was held before the biftiop
in perfon, or his deputy j and by a jury of twelve
clerks : And there, firft, the party himfelf was re¬
quired to make oath of his own innocence j next, there
was to be the oath of twelve compurgators, who fwore
they believed he fpoke the truth'; then, witneffes
were to be examined upon oath, but on behalf of the
prifoner only; and, laftly, the jury were to bring in
their verdiB upon oath, which ufually acquitted the
prifoner ; othervvife, if a clerk, he was degraded or
put to penance. A learned judge, in the beginning
of laft century, remarks with much indignation the
yaft complication of perjury and fubornation of per¬
jury, in this folemn farce of a mock trial; the witnef¬
fes, the compurgators, and the jury, being all of them
partakers in the guilt : the delinquent party alfo,
though conviBed in the cleareft manner, and confcious
of his own offence, yet was permitted, and almoft com¬
pelled to fwear himfelf not guilty ; nor was the good
biftiop himfelf, under whofe countenance this fcene was
tranfaBed, by any means exempt from a fliare of it.
And yet, by this purgation, the party was reftored to
his credit, his liberty, his lands, and his capacity of
purchafing afrefti, and was entirely made a new and an
innocent man.
This fcandalous proftitution of oaths, and the forms
of juftice, in the almoft conftant acquittal of felonious
clerks by purgation, was the occafion that, upon, very
heinous and notorious circumftances of guilt, tem¬
poral courts would not truft the ordinary with the
trial of the offender, but delivered over to him the
B b conviBed
OLE [ 194 ] C L E
€iergy. convi&ed clerk, abfque purgatione fuciendo ; in which
■“"■'V h"--’ fituation the clerk convift could not make purgation ;
but was to continue in prifon during life, and was in¬
capable of acquiring any perfonal property, or receiv¬
ing the profits of his lands, unlefs the king (hould
pleafe to pardon him. Both thefe courfes were in fome
degree exceptionable $ the latter perhaps being too
rigid, as the former was produftive of the moft aban¬
doned perjury. As therefore thefe mock trials took
their rife from faftious and popifii tenets, tending to
exempt one part of the nation from the general muni¬
cipal law, it became high time, when the reformation
was thoroughly eftablilhed, to abolilh fo vain and im¬
pious a ceremony.
Accordingly the ftatute 18 Eliz. c. 7. enafb, that,
for the avoiding fuch perjuries and abufes, after the
offender has been allowed his clergy, he ftiall not be
delivered to the ordinary as formerly j but, upon fuch
allowance, and burning of the hand, he fhall forthwith
be enlarged and delivered out of prifon, with pro-
vifo, that the judge may, if he thinks fit, continue the
offender in gaol for any time not exceeding a year.
And thus the law continued unaltered for above a
century j except only, that the flatute 21 Jac. I. c. 6.
allowed, that women convi6ted of fimple larcenies
under the value of 10s. fliould (not properly have
the benefit of clergy, for they were not called upon to
read j but) be burned in the hand, whipped, or flock¬
ed, or imprifoned for any time not exceeding a year.
And a fimilar indulgence by the ftatutes 3 and 4 Will,
and Mary, c. 9. and 4 and 5 Will, and Mary, c. 24. was
extended to women guilty of any clergyable felony
whatever ; who were allowed once to claim the benefit
of the ftatute, in like manner as men might claim the
benefit of clergy, and to be difcharged upon being
burned in the hand, and imprifoned for any time not
exceeding a year. All women, all peers, and all male
commoners who could read, were therefore difcharged
in fuch felonies abfolutely, if clerks in orders 5 and for
the firft offence upon burning in the hand, if lay ; yet
all liable (except peers), if the judge faw occafion, to
imprifonment not exceeding a year. And thefe men
who could not read, if under the degree of peerage,
were hanged.
Afterwards, indeed, it was confidered, that educa¬
tion and learning were not extenuations of guilt, but
quite the reverfe j and that if the punifhment of death
for fimple felony was too fevere for thofe who had
been liberally inftrudted, it was, d fortiori^ too fevere
for the ignorant alfo. And thereupon, by ftatute
5 Anne, c. 6. it was enabled that the benefit of clergy
ihculd be granted to all thofe who were entitled to alk
it, without requiring them to read by way of condi¬
tional merit. And experience having (hown that fo
univerfal a lenity was frequently inconvenient, and an
encouragement to commit the lower degrees of felo¬
ny ; and that though capital puniftiments were too ri¬
gorous for thefe inferior offences, yet no punifhment
at all (or next to none, as branding or whipping),
was as much too gentle 5 it was enabled by the fame
ftatute 5 Anne, c. 6. that when any perfon is convidt-
ed of any theft or larceny, and burnt in the hand
for the fame, he fhall, at the difcretion of the judge,
be committed to the houfe of corredlion or public
work-houfe, to be there kept to hard labour for any
3
time not lefs than fix months, and not exceeding two Clergy,
years *, with a power of inflidling a double confinement
in cafe of the party’s efcape from the firft. And it is
alfo enadled by the ftatutes 4 Geo. I. c. 11. and
6 Geo. I. c. 23. that when any perfons fhall be con-
vidled of any larceny, either grand or petit, or any fe¬
lonious ftealing or taking of money or goods and chat¬
tels, either from the perfon or the houfe of any other,
or in any other manner, and who by the law fhall be
entitled to the benefit of clergy, and liable only to the
penalties of burning in the hand, or whipping ; the
court in their difcretion, inftead of fuch burning in.
the hand, or whipping, may diredl fuch offenders to
be tranfported to America for feven years $ and if
they return, or are feen at large in this kingdom
within that time, it fhall be felony without benefit of
clergy.
In this ftate. does the benefit of clergy at prefent
ftand ; very confiderably different from its original in-
ftitution *, the wifdom of the Englifh legiflature hav¬
ing, in the courfe of a long and laborious procefs, ex-
trafted, by a noble alchemy, rich medicines out of poi-
fonous ingredients ; and converted, by gradual muta¬
tions, what was at firft an unreafonable exemption of
particular popifh ecclefiaflics, into a merciful mitiga¬
tion of the general law with refpeft to capital punifti¬
ments.
From the whole of this detail, we may collefl, that
however in times of ignorance and fuperflition, that
monfter in true policy may for a W'hile fubfift, of a
body of men refiding in a ftate, and yet independent
of its laws; yet when learning and rational religion
have a little enlightened men’s minds, fociety can no
longer endure an abfurdity fo grofs, as muft deftroy its
very fundamentals. For, by the original contraft of
government, the price of protection by the united force
of individuals, is that of obedience to the united will
of the community. This united will is declared in the
laws of the land ; and that united force is exerted in
their due, and univerfal, execution.
II. We are next to inquire, to what perfons the be¬
nefit of clergy is to be allowed at this day ; and this
muft chiefly be colledfed from what has been obfer-
ved in the preceding article. For, upon the whole,
we may pronounce, that all clerks in orders are, with¬
out any branding, and of courfe without any tranf-
portation (for that is only fubftituted in lieu of the
other), to be admitted to this privilege, and immedi¬
ately difcharged, or at moft only confined for one year ;
and this as often as they offend. Again, all lords of
parliament, and peers of the realm, by the ftatute
I Edw. VI. c. 12. Ihall be difcharged in all clergyable
and other felonies provided for by the a£t without any
burning in the hand, in the fame manner as real clerks
convict; but this is only for the firft offence. Laftly,
all the commons of the realm, not in orders, whether
male or female, ftiall, for the firft offence, be difchar¬
ged of the punifhment of felonies, within the benefit of
clergy, upon being burnt in the hand, and fuffering
difcretionary imprifonment; or, in cafe of larceny, up¬
on being tranfported for feven years, if the court fhall
think proper.
III. The third point to be confidered is, for what
crimes the privi/egiutn clericale, or benefit of clergy,
is to be allowed. And it is to be obferyed, that nei-
thsjr-
C L E
Clergy, ther in high treafon, nor in petit larceny, nor in any
—-v"-—'1 mere mifdemeanors, it was indulged at the common
law } and therefore we may lay it down as a rule,
that it was allowable only in petit treafon and capital
felonies j which for the molt part became legally en¬
titled to this indulgence by the ftatute de c/ero,
25 Edw. III. flat. 3. c. 4. which provides, that clerks
convidf for treafon or felonies, touching other perfons
than the king himfelf or his royal majefty, fhall have
the privilege of holy church. But yet it was not al¬
lowed in all cafes whatfoever; for in fome it was de¬
nied even in common law, viz. injidalio viarum, or ly¬
ing in wait for one on the highway ; depopulatio agro¬
rum, or deftroying and ravaging a country 5 combuftio
domorum, or arfon, that is, burning of houfes 5 all
which are a kind of hoftile a£ts, and in fome degree
border upon treafon. And farther, all thefe identical
crimes, together with petit treafon, and very many
other ads of felony, are oufted of clergy by particular
ads of parliament.
Upon the whole, we may obferve the following
rules. 1. That in all felonies, whether new created,
or by common law, clergy is now allowable, unlefs ta¬
ken away by ad; of parliament. 2. That where clergy
is taken away from the principal, it is not of courfe ta¬
ken away from the acceffory, unlefs he be alfo particu¬
larly included in the words of the flatute. 3. That
when the benefit of clergy is taken away from the of¬
fence (as in cafe of murder, buggery, robbery, rape,
and burglary), a principal in the fecond degree, being
prefent, aiding and abetting the crime, is as well ex¬
cluded from his clergy as he that is a principal in
the firfl degree : but, 4. That where it is only taken
away from the perfon committing the offence (as in
the cafe of ftabbing, or committing larceny in a
dwelling-houfe), his aiders and abettors are not ex¬
cluded, through the tendernefs of the law, which hath
determined that fuch ftatutes (hall not be taken li¬
terally.
IV. Laftly, We are to inquire what the confe-
quences are to the party, of allowing him this benefit
of clergy. We fpeak not of the branding, imprifon-
ment, pr transportation j which are rather concomitant
conditions, than confequences, of receiving this indul¬
gence. The confequences are fuch as affed: his pre¬
fent intereft, and future credit and capacity; as hav¬
ing been once a felon, but now purged from that
guilt by the privilege of clergy ; which operates as a
kind of ftatute pardon. And we may obferve, 1. That,
by his conviduon, he forfeits all his goods to the king j
which, being once veiled in the crown, Ihall not after¬
wards be reftored to the offender. 2. That, after con-
vidion, and till he receives the judgment of the law
by branding or the like, or elfe is pardoned by the
king, he is, to all intents and purpofes, a felon ; and
fubjed to all the difabilities and other incidents of a
felon. 3. That, after burning or pardon, he is dif-
charged for ever of that, and all other felonies before
committed, within the benefit of clergy 5 but not of
felonies from which fuch benefit is excluded j and this
by llatutes 8 Eliz. c. 4. and 18 Eliz. c. 7. 4. That
by the burning, or pardon of it, he is reftored to ail
capacities and credits, and the poffeflion of his lands,
as it he had never been convided. 5. That what is
said with regard to the advantages of commoners and
G L E
laymen, fubfequent to the burning in the hand, is clerk,
equally applicable to all peers and clergymen, although v-—
never branded at all. For they have the fame privi¬
leges, without any burning, to which others are entitled
after it.
CLERK (c/ericus'), a word formerly ufed to fignify
a learned man, or man of letters. The word comes
from the Greek ufed for clergy ; but more pro¬
perly fignifying lot or heritage, in regard the lot and
portion of clerks or ecclefiattics is to ferve God. Ac¬
cordingly clerus was at firft ufed to fignify thofe who
had a particular attachment to the fervice of God.
The origin of the expreflion is derived from the Old
Teftament, where the tribe of Levi is called the lot,
heritage, xAjjgej; and God is reciprocally called their
portion; by reafon that tribe was confecrated to the
fervice of God, and lived on the oft'erings made to God,
without any other fettled provifion as the reft had.
Thus, Pafquier cbferves, the officers of the counts (Vo-
mites) were anciently created under the title of clerks
of accornpts ; and fecretaries of ftate were called clerks
of the fecret. So clericus domini regis, in the time of
Edward I. was Englifhed, the king's fecretary, or clerk
of his council. The term was applied indifferently to
all who made any profeflion of learning 5 or who knew
how to manage the pen j though originally it was ap¬
propriated to ecclefiaftics. As the nobility and gentry
were ufually brought up to the exercife of arms, there
were none but the clergy left to cultivate the fciences :
hence, as it was the clergy alone who had made any
profeffion of letters, a very learned man came to be
called a great clerk, and a ftupid ignorant man a bad
clerk.
Clerk is alfo applied to fuch as by their courfe of
life exercife their pens in any court or office $ of which
there are various kinds : thus,
^ CLERK of the Bails, an officer in the court of king’s
bench, whofe bufinefs is to file all bail-pieces taken in
that court, where he always attends.
CLERK of the Check, an officer belonging to the king’s
court j fo called, becaufe he has the check and con-
troulment of the yeomen that belong to the king, queen,
or prince. He likewife, by himfelf or deputy, fets the
watch in the court. There is alfo an officer in the
navy of the fame name, belonging to the king’s yards.
CLERK of the Crown, an officer in the king’s bench,
who frames, reads, and records all indiftments againft
offenders, there arraigned or indifted of any public
crime. He is likewife termed clerk of the crown-office,
in which capacity he exhibits information by order of
the court for divers offences.
Clerk of the Crown, in chancery, an officer whofe
bufinefs it is conftantly to attend the lord chancellor
in perfon or by deputy ; to write and prepare for the
great feal fpecial matters of ftate by commiffion, both
ordinary and extraordinary, viz. commiffions of lieu¬
tenancy, of juftices of affize, oyer and terminer, gaol-
delivery, and of the peace ; all general pardons, grant¬
ed either at the king’s coronation, or in parliament;
the writs of parliament, with the names of the knights,
citizens, and burgeffes, are alfo returned into his office.
He alfo makes out fpecial pardons and writs of execu¬
tion on bonds of ftatute-ftaple forfeited.
Clerk of the Deliveries of the Ordnance. See Ord¬
nance.
B b 2 Cleft
[ 195 3
Clerk.
C L E [i
CLERK of the Errors, in the court of common pleas,
- an officer who tranferibes and certifies into the king’s
bench the tenor of the record of the a&ion on which
the writ of error, trade out by the curfitor, is brought
there to be determined. In the king’s bench, the clerk
of the errors tranferibes and certifies the records of
caufes, by bill, in that court, into the exchequer. And
the bufinefs of the clerk of the errors in the exchequer,
is to tranferibe the records certified thither out of the
king’s bench, and to prepare them for judgment in the
exchequer chamber.
CLERK of the F./Joins, in the court of common pleas,
keeps the effoin roll, or enters efloins r he alfo provides
parchment, cuts it into rolls, marks the numbers on
them, delivers out all the rolls to every officer, and re¬
ceives them again when written. See Essoin.
CLERK of the Ef reals, an officer in the exchequer,
who every term receives the eftreats out of the lord-
treafurer’s remembrancer’s office, and writes them out
to be levied for the crown.
CLERK of the Green Cloth, formerly an officer in
chancery, but now aboliffied.
CLERK of the Hamper or Hanaper, an officer in chan-
cery, whofe bufinefs is to receive all money due to the
king for the feals of charters, letters patent, commif-
fions, and writs; alfo the fees due to the officers for
enrolling and examining them.
CLERK-Cotnptrol(er of the King's Houfehold, an offi¬
cer of the king’s court, authorifed to allow or difallow
the charges of purfuivants, meffengers of the green-
cloth, &c. to infpedl and controul all defers of any of
the inferior officers •, and to fit in the counting-houfe
with the lord-fteward and other officers of the houfe¬
hold for regulating fuch matters.
CLERK of the Kingys Silver, an officer of the common
pleas, to whom every fine is brought, after it has paf-
fed the office of the cufos hrevium ; and who enters the
effeft of writs of covenant, into a book kept for that
purpofe, according to which all the fines of that term
are recorded in the rolls of the court.
Clerk of the Market, an officer of the king’s houfe,
to whom is given the charge of the king’s meafure and
weights, the ftandards of thofe that ought to be ufed
all over England.
CLERK of the Nichils or Nihi/s, an officer of the ex¬
chequer, who makes a roll of all fuch fums as are ni-
chilled by the fheriffs upon their eftreats of green wax,
and delivers them into the remembrancer of the trea-
fury, to have execution done upon them for the kinp-.
See Nihil.
Clerk of the Ordnance. See Ordnance.
CLERK of the Outlaxvnes, an officer of the common
pleas, and deputy to the attorney-general, for making
out all writs of capias utlegatum after outlawry, to
which there muft be the king’s attorney’s name.
CLERK of the Paper-ofice, n.x\ officer belonging to the
king’s bench, whofe bufinefs is to make up the paper-
books of fpecial pleadings in that court.
CLERK of the Peace, an officer belonging to the fef-
fions of the peace, whofe bufinefs is to read indidrnents,
inrol the proceedings, and draw the procefs : he like-
wife certifies into the king’s bench tranferipts of in-
didlments, outlawries, attainders, and convictions had
before the juftices of peace, within the lime limited by
ftatute, under a certain penalty. This office is in the
2
96 ] C L E
gift of the of os rotulorum, and may be executed by
deputy.
Clerk of the Pells, an officer that belongs to the
exchequer, whofe bufinefs is to enter every teller’s bill
into a parchment roll called pellis receptorum / and to
make another roll of payments called pellis exituum.
Clerk of the Petty Bag, an officer of the court of
chancery, whereof there are three, the mailer of the
rolls being the chief: their bufinefs is to record the
return of all inquifitions out of every (hire ; to make
out patents of cuftomers, gaugers, comptrollers, &c. j
liberates upon extent of ftatutes-ftaple ; conge d'clires
for biffiops j fummons of the nobility, clergy, and bur-
gefies to parliament j and commiffions direffed to
knights and others of every (hire, for affeffing fubfidi.es
and taxes.
Clerk of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer, who
having the account of all debts due to the king, deli¬
vered out of the remembrancer’s office, charges them
in a great roll folded up like a pipe. He writes out
warrants to flieriffs, to levy the faid debts on the goods
and chattels of the debtors j and if they have no goods;,
then he draws them down to the treafurer’s remem,.-
brancer to write eftreats againft their lands.
CLERK of the Pleas, an officer of the exchequer, in
whofe office all the officers of the court, having fpecial
privilege, ought to fue or to be fifed in any a&ion. In
this office alfo a£1 ions at law may be profecuted by other
perfons, but the plaintiff ought to be tenant or debtor
to the king, or fome way accountable to him. The
under clerks are attorneys in all fuits..
Clerks of the Privy feal, four officers that attend the
lord privy feal, for writing and making out all things
that are fent by warrant from the fignet to the privy
feal, and to be palled the great feal and likewife to
make out privy leals, upon fpecial occafions of his ma-
jefty’s affairs, as for loan of money or the like.
CLERK of the Rolls, an officer of the chancery, whofe
bufinefs is to make fearches after, and copies of deeds,
officers, &.c.
Clerk of the Signet, an officer continually attending
upon his majefty’s principal fecretary, who has the cu-
ftody of the privy fignet, as well for fealing the king’s
private letters as thofe grants which pafs the king’s
hand by bill figned. There are four of thefe officers
who have their diet at the fecretary’s table.
Six Clerks, officers in chancery next in degree be¬
low the twelve mafters, whofe bufinels is to inrol com¬
miffions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c. which pafs
the great feal. They rvere anciently clerici, and for¬
feited their places if they married. Thefe are alfo at¬
torneys for parties in fuits depending in the court of
chancery.
Clerk of the Treafury, an officer belonging to the
court of common pleas, who has the charge of keeping
the records of the court, makes out all records of mji
prius, and likewife all Exemplifications of records being
in the trealury. He has the fees due for all fearches^
and has under him an under keeper, who always keeps
one key of the treafury-door.
Clerk of the Warrants, an officer of the common
pleas, whofe bufinefs is to enter all warrants of at¬
torney for plaintiffs and defendants in fuit ; and to in¬
rol deeds of bargain and fale, that are acknowledged
in court, or before a judge. His office is likewife to
eftreat
ClesL
C L E [I
Clerk
lermont
Manu-
; fcript.
eftreat into the exchequer all iflues, tines, eflreats, and
amercements, which grow due to the crown in that
court.
CLERKE, Captain Charles, a celebrated Eng-
lifh navigator, was bred up in the navy i'rom his youth,
and was prelent in feveral adtions during the war of
J755. In the engagement between the Bellona and
Courageux he was in great danger ; for having been
Rationed in the mizen-top on board the former, the mall
was carried overboard, by a Ihot, and he fell into the
fea along with it 5 but, however, was taken up without
having received any injury. When Commodore Byron
made his firlt voyage round the world, Mr Clerke ferv-
ed on board his ftiip in quality of a midlhipman; and
was afterwards on the American Ration. In the year
1768, he failed round the world a fccond time in the
Endeavour, on board of which he ferved in the Ration
of mailer’s mate j but, during the voyage, fucceeded
to a lieutenancy. He returned in 1775, and was loon
after appointed mailer and commander. When Cap¬
tain Cook undertook his lafl voyage, Mr Clerke was
appointed captain of the Difcovery j and in confe-
quence of the death of Captain Cook, naturally fuc¬
ceeded to the fupreme command. He did not, how¬
ever, long enjoy his new dignity. Before his depar¬
ture from England, he had manifefl fymptoms of a
confumption. Of this difeafe he lingered during the
whole of the voyage ; and his long refidence in the cpld
northern climates cut off all hopes of recovery 5 but
though fenlible that the only chance he had of pro-
longing his life was by a fpeedy return to a warmer
climate, his attention to his duty was fo great, that he
perfevered in fearch of a paffage between the Afiatic
and American continents until every one of the officers
was of opinion that it was imprafticable. He bore his
diltemper with great firmnefs and equanimity, retain¬
ing a good flow of fpirits to the lafl ; and died on the
22d of AuguIt 1778, in the 38th year of his age,, the
ftiip then being within view of the coafl; of Kamtf-
chatka.
CLERKE's IJland lies on the weftern fide of the Ame¬
rican continent, in N. Lat. 63. 15. and E. Long.
169. 30. It was difcovered by Captain Cook in his
lafl voyage, but a landing could not be effe&ed. At
a diftance it appeared to be of confiderable extent, and
to have feveral hills conne&ed with the low grounds in
fuch a manner as to make it look like a group of illands.
Near its eaftern extremity is a littls illand remarkable
for having three elevated rocks upon it. Both the large
and fmall ifland are uninhabited.
CLERMONT, a confiderable, rich* and populous
town of France, in Auvergne, with a biffiop’sfee. The
cathedral, the public fquares, and the walks, are very
fine. Here is a bridge naturally formed, as they pre¬
tend, by the petrifying quality of a fountain. E. Long.
3. 10. N. Lat. 45. 47.
CLERMONT Manufcript, is a copy of St Paul’s Epi-
ftles, found in the monaftery of Clermont in France,
and ufed by Beza, together with the Cambridge MS.
in preparing his edition of the New Teflament. This
copy is in the oftavo form, and is written on fine
vellum in Greek and Latin, with fome mutilations.
Beza fuppofes that it is of equal antiquity with the
Cambridge copy 5 but both were probably written by
a Latin Lribe in a later period than hs affigns to them.
97 ] C L E
The various readings of this MS. were communicated Clermont
to Archbiffiop Ulher, and they are preferved by Wal- Manu-
ton. The MS. itfelf was in the poffeffion of Morinusj Lnpt
and after his death depofited among the MS. copies of Aleves
the royal library at Paris, N° 2245. < ‘ <
CLEROMANCY, a kind of divination performed
by the throwing of dice, or little bones 5 and obferv-
ing the points, or marks, turned up. The word
comes from “ lot,” and “ divination.”
At Bura, a city of Achaia, was a temple and cele¬
brated oracle of Hercules, where fuch as confulted the
oracle, after praying to the idol, threw four dice, the
points whereof being well fcanned by the priefl, he
was fuppofed to draw an anfwer from them.
Something of this kind feems to have been praftiftd
with regard to Jonah.
CLERVAL, a town of France, in the Franche
Comte, feated on the river Doux, belonging to the
houfe of Wirtemburgh, but depends on the crown of
France. E. Long. 5. 57. N. Lat. 46. 35.
CLERVAUX, one of the moft celebrated and fineft
abbeys of I ranee, in Champagne, five miles from Bar-
fur-Aube, and feated in a valley furrounded with >vood$
and mountains. It is the chief of the Ciftercian or¬
der. Here is the famous Tun of St Bernard, which
will hold 800 tuns of wine. Near this abbey is a fmail
town.
CLESIDES, a Greek painter, about 276 years
before Chrift, in the reign of Antiochus I. He re¬
venged the injuries he had received from Queen Stra*
tonice, by reprefenting her in the arms of a fiffierman*
However indecent the painter might reprefent the
queen, Ihe was drawn with fuch perlonal beauty, that
flie preferved the piece and liberally rewarded the ar-
tift.
CLETHRA. See Botany Index.
CLEVELAND, a diflrift in the north riding of
Yorklhire in England, from whence the noble family
of Fitzroy took the title of duke, but which is now'
extindh
Cleveland, John, an Englifh poet of fome emi¬
nence in his time, who during the civil war under
Charles I. engaged as a literary champion in the. royal
caufe againft the parliamentarians. He died in 1658,
and was much extolled by his party. His works, which
confifl of poems, charadlers, orations, epiftles, &c.
were printed in odlavo in 1677.
CLEVES, the duchy of, a province of the circle of
Weflphalia, in Germany. It is divided into two parts
by the Rhine, and is about 40 miles in. length from
eaft to weft, and 20 in breadth from north to fouth.
It is a fine agreeable country, and pretty populous.
The towns are Cleves, the capital^ Calcar, Gennet,
Santen, Orfoy, Bureck, and Greit. Thefe lie on the
left fide of the river. On the right, Dayfburgh, Wefe,
Rees, and Emmerick. There have been great con-
tefts about this duchy, but it now belongs to the king
of Pruffia.
Cleves, a city of Germany, in the duchy of
Cleves, of which it is the capital. It Hands upon a
pie a fan t hill, about a mile from the Rhine, with which
it communicates, by means of a canal which is l&rge
enough for great barges. The caftle Hands upon a
mountain, and, though old, is very agreeable. It w'as
built in the time of Julius Caefar, It was taken by the
French .
C L I [ 198 ] C L X
Cleves French in 1794. Calvinifts, Lutherans, and Roman
!l Catholics, are all tolerated in this city. E. Long. 5.
GJimate. 5Q> N> Lat< 5I_ 45<
CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put
himfelf under the protedlion of fame great man, who
in refpedl of that relation was called patron.
This patron affifted his client with his protection, in-
tereft, and goods ; and the client gave his vote for his
patron, when he fought any office for himfelf or his
friends. Clients owed refpedf to their patrons, as thefe
owed them their protedlion.
The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus,
to unite the rich and poor together, in fuch a manner
as that one might live without contempt and the
other without envy •, but the condition of a client, in
courfe of time, became little elfe than a moderate fla-
very.
Client is now ufed for a party in a law-fuit, who
has turned over his caufe into the hands of a counfellor
or folicitor.
CLIFFORTIA. See Botany Index.
CLIMACTERIC, among phyficians, (from cli-
ma&er) “ a ladder”), a critical year in a perfon’s
life.
According to fome, this is every feventh year ; but
others allow only thefe years produced by multiplying
7 by the odd number 3, 5, 7, and 9, to be climadleri-
cal. Thefe years, they fay, bring with them fome
remarkable change with refpe£t to health, life, or for¬
tune : the grand climadleric is the 63d year ; but
fome, making two, add to this the 81ft : the other
remarkable climadterics are the 7th, 2ift, 35th, 49th,
and 56th.
CLIMATE, or Clime, in Geography^ a part of
the furface of the earth, bounded by two circles
parallel to the equator, and of fuch a breadth, as
that the longed: day in the parallel nearefc the pole
exceeds the longed day in that next the equator by
fome certain fpaces, viz. half an hour. The word
comes from the Greek inclinamentum, “ an in¬
clination.”
The beginning of the climate is a parallel circle
wherein the day is the ffiorted. The end of the cli¬
mate, is that wherein the day is the longed. The
climates therefore are reckoned from the equator to
the pole 5 and are fo many bands, or zones, term!- Climax
nated by lines parallel to the equator ; though, in -y~»
dridlnefs, there are feveral climates in the breadth of
one zone. Each climate only differs from its conti¬
guous ones, in that the longed day in dimmer is longer
or ffiorter by half an hour in the one place than in the
other. As the climates commence from the equator,
the fird climate at its beginning has its longed day
precifely 12 hours long; at its end, 12 hours and a
half: the fecond, which begins where the fird ends,
viz. at twelve hours and a half, ends at 13 hours ; and
fo of the red, as far as the polar circles, where, what
the geographers call hour-climates, terminate, and month-
climates commence. An hour climate is a fpace com-
prifed between two parallels of the equator, in the
fird of which the longed day exceeds that in the latter
by half an hour ; fo the month-climate is a fpace ter¬
minated between two circles parallel to the polar cir¬
cles, whofe longed day is longer or ffiorter than that of
its contiguous one by a month or 30 days.
The ancients who confined the climates to what
they imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only
allowed of feven. The fird they made to pafs through
Meroe, the fecond through Sienna, the third through
Alexandria, the fourth through Rhodes, the fifth
through Rome, the fixth through Pontus, and the
feventh through the mouth of the Borydhenes. The
moderns, who have failed further toward the poles,
make 30 climates on each fide ; and, in regard the
obliquity of the fphere makes a little difference in the
length of the longed day, indead of half an hour,
fome of them only make the difference of climates a
quarter.
Vulgarly the term climate is bedowed on any coun¬
try or region differing from another either in refpedf
of the feafons, the quality of the foil, or even the
manners of the inhabitants; without any regard to
the length of the longed day. Abulfeda, an Arabian
author, didinguiffies the fird kind of climates by the
term real climates, and the latter by that of apparent
climates. Varenius gives us a table of 30 climates;
but without any regard to the refraftion. Ricciolus
furniffies a more accurate one, wherein the refra&ions
are allowed for; an abdradt of which follows :
Middle
of Clim.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Lonreft
Day.
12th 30
13 o
r3 3°
14 o
r4 30
15 o
r5 30
Latit.
Middle
of Clim.
7~ 18
*5 36
23 8
29 49
35 35
40 32
44 42
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
Longeft
Day.
16th O
17 O
18
!9
20
22
24
Latit.
48 15
53 46
57 44
60 39
62 44
6c 10
65 54
Middle
of Clim.
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
Latit.
66 53
69 30
73 o
78 6
84 o
90
Cont.
Light.
31°
62
93
124
156
188
North
Night.
270
58
87
IJ7
148
180
Cont.
Light.
3°
60
89
120
150
178
South
Night.
2 8d
59
88
118
149
177
CLIMAX, or Gradation, in Rhetoric, a figure
wherein the word or expreffion which ends the fird
member of a period begins the fecond, and fo on ; fo
that every member will make a didindl fentence, ta¬
king its rife from the next foregoing, till the argument
and period be beautifully finiffied ; as in the following
gradation of Dr Tillotfon. “ After we have pradliled
good adlions a while, they become eafy ; and when
they are eafy, we begin to take pleafure in them ; and
when they pleafe us we do them frequently ; and by
frequency of adls, a thing grows into a habit; and con¬
firmed habit is a kind of fecond nature : and fo far as
any
C L I
Climax
0.
Clitoris.
any thing is natural, fo far it is neceffary; and we can
hardly do othervvife; nay, we do it many times when
we do not think of it.”
CLINCH, in the fea language, that part of a cable
which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and then
feized or made fart.
CLINCHING, in the fea language, a kind of flight
caulking ufed at lea, in a profpedt of foul weather,
about the ports : it eonfifts in driving a little oakum
into their feams, to prevent the water coming in at
them.
CLINIC, a term applied by the ancient church-
hiftorians to thofe who receive baptifm on their death¬
bed.
Clinic Medicine, was particularly ufed for the me¬
thod of vifiting and treating, fick perfons in bed, for
the more exaft difcovery of all the fymptoms of their
difeafe.
. CLINIAS, a Pythagorean philofopher, and mufi-
cian, in the 65th Olympiad. He was wont to affuage
his paffion, being very choleric, by his lyre.
CLINOPODIUM, Field Basil. See Botany
Index.
CLIO, in Pagan mythology, the firft of the mufes,
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemofyne. She prefided
over hiftory. She is reprefented crowned with laurels,
holding in one hand a trumpet, and a book in the
other. Sometimes fhe holds a plectrum or quill with a
lute. Her name fignifies honour and reputation, xAsaj,
gloria; and it was her office faithfully to record the
aftions of brave and illuftrious heroes. She had Hya¬
cinths by Pierius, fon of Magnes.
Clio, in Zoology, a genus of infefls belonging to
the order of vermes mollufca. The body is oblong and
fitted for fwimming; and it has two membranaceous
wings placed oppofite to each other. The fpecies are
three, principally dirtinguiffied by the fhape of their
vagina, and are all natives of the ocean.
CLIPEUs, an old term in Natural Hijlory, which
is given to the flat deprefled centroniae, from their re-
fembling a rtiield.
CLISfHENES, a famous Athenian magirtrate,
the author of the mode of banirtiing ambitious citizens
by oftracifm, or writing their names upon a (hell ; the
intention vyas patriotic, but it was abufed like all other
human inftitutions: fome of the worthieft citizens of
Athens being thus exiled. He died 510 years before
Chriit.
CLIFOMACHUS, the philofopher, flourifhed a-
bout 140 years before Chrift. He was born at Car-
thage •, quitted his country at 40 years of age j and
went to Athens, where he became the difciple'and fuc-
cenor of Carneades. He compofed manv books, but
they are all loft.
CLITORIA. See Botany Index.
CLI TORIS, in Anatomy, is a part of the external
pudenda, fituated at the angle which the nymphte form
with each other. Like the penis it has an erection
and is thought to be the principal feat of venereal
pleafure. I he clitoris is of different fizes in different
women j but in general it is fmall, and covered wdth
the labia.. The preternaturally enlarged clitoris is
what conftitutes a hermaphrodite. When the clitoris
js too large, it may be fo extirpated as to remove
s-he unneceffary part j but this requires much care, for
l *99 1
C L I
a farther extirpation fubjefts the patient to an involun¬
tary difcharge of urine.
CLITUMNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Umbria, on this fide the Apennines. According to
Pliny, it was a fountain confifting of feveral veins,
fituated between Hifpellum and Spoletium ; which foon
after fwelled into a very large and navigable river,
running from eaft to weft into the Tinia, and both to-
gether into the Tiber. A river famous for its milk-
white flocks and herds, (Virgil). The god of the ri¬
ver was called Clitumnus.
CLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great’s nurfe,
followed that prince in his conquefts, and faved his life
by cutting off the hand of Rofaces, who held an axe
lifted up to kill him at the paffage of the Grani-
cus. Alexander, who had a great regard for him,
fome time after invited him to fupper j when Cli-
tus, at the end of the repaft, being heated with w’ine,
diminilhed the exploits of that prince, in order to
magnify thofe of Philip his father. This fo enraged
Alexander, that he killed him with his own hand j
but he was afterwards fo affli&ed at it, that he at¬
tempted his own life.
CLIVE, Robert, Lord, fon of Richard Clive, Elq.
of Styche near Drayton in Salop, was born in 1725,.
Toward the clofe of the war in 1741, he was fent as
a writer in the Eaft India fervice to Madras ; but be¬
ing fonder of the camp than the compting-houfe, he
foon availed himfelf of an opportunity to exchange
his pen for a pair of colours. He firft diftinguiflied
himfelf at the fiege of Pondicherry in 1748; a<Red
under Major Laurence at the taking of Devi Cotta in
Tanjore, who wrote of his military talents in high
terms; commanded a fmall party for the taking of
Arcot, and afterwards defended that place againft the
French ; and performed many other exploits, which,
confidering the remotenefs of the fcene of a&ion,
would require a long detail to render fufficiently in¬
telligible. He was, however, in brief, looked upon
and acknowledged as the man who firft roufed his
countrymen to fpirited adlion, and raifed their reputa-
tation in the Eaft ; fo that when he came over to
England in 1753, he was prefented, by the court of
directors, with a rich fword fet with diamonds, as an
acknowledgment of part, and an incitement to future,
fervices. Captain Clive returned to India, in 1755, as
governor of Fort St David, with the rank of lieutenant-
colonel in the king’s troops ; when as commander of
the company’s troops, he, in conjunction with Admiral
Watfon, reduced Angria the pirate, and became maf-
ter of Geria, his capital, with all his accumulated trea-
fure. On the lofs of Calcutta, and the w’ell known
barbarity of the foubah Surajah Dowla, they failed to
Bengal ; where they took Fort William, in January
1757; and Colonel Clive defeating the foubah’s army
foon after, accelerated a peace. Surajah Dowla’s per¬
fidy, however, foon produced frefh hoftilities, which
ended in his ruin ; he being totally defeated by Colonel
Clive at the famous battle of Plaffey. The next dav
the conqueror entered Muxadabad in triumph ; and
placed Jaffier Ally Cawn, one of the principal gene¬
rals, on the throne ; the depofed foubah was form af¬
ter taken, and privately put to death by Jaffier’^ fon.
Admiral Watfon died at Calcutta ; hut Colonel Clive
commanded in Bengal the two fucceeding years; he
was-
Clitoris
Clive.
'Clive
C L O t 200 ]' C L O
was honoured by the Mogul with the dignity of an
Qj”]. onirah of the empire j and was rewarded by the new
M, ^ v‘ foubah with a grant of lands, or a jaghire, producing
27,000l. a-year. In 1760, he returned to England,
where he received the unanimous thanks of the com¬
pany, was eledled member of parliament for Shrewf-
bury, and was raifed to an Irilh peerage by the title
of Lord Clive, Baron of Plafley. In 1764, frefh dif-
turbances taking place in Bengal, Lord Clive was ef-
teemed the only man qualified to fettle them, and was
accordingly again appointed to that prefidency j after
being honoured with the order of the Bath, and with
the rank of major-general. When he arrived in India,
he exceeded the moft fanguine expe&ation, in refto-
ring tranquillity to the province without linking a
blow, and fixed the highelf ideas of the Britilh power
in the minds of the natives. He returned home in
1767*, and in I772> when a parliamentary inquiry
into the condudl of the Eaft India Company was
agitated, he entered into an able juftification of
himfelf in a malterly fpeech in the houfe of com¬
mons. He died fuddenli] towards the clofe of the
year 1774.
CLOACAE, in atitiquity, the common fevvers of
Rome, to carry off the dirt and foil of the city into
the I iber ; jultly reckoned among the grand works of
the Romans. The firft common fewer, called Cloaca
Maxima, was built by Tarquinius, feme fay Prifcus,
others Superbus, of huge blocks of Hone joined toge¬
ther without any cement, in the manner of the edi¬
fices of thofe early times, confiding of three rows of
arches one above another, which at length conjoin
and unite together ; meafuring in the clear 18 palms
in height, and as many in width. Under thefe arches,
they rowed in boats, which made Pliny fay that the
city was fufpended in air, and that they failed beneath
the houfes. Under thefe arches alfo were ways
through which carts loaded with hay could pafs with
eafe. It began in the Forum Romanum j meafured
300 paces in length ; and emptied itfelf between the
temple of Vella and the Pons Senatorius. There were
as many principal fewers as there were hills. Pliny
-concludes their firmnefs and llrength from their Hand¬
ing for fo many ages the (hocks of earthquakes, the
fall of houfes, and the vail loads and weights moved
over them.
CLOACINA, the goddefs of jakes and common
fewers, among the Romans.
CLOCK, a machine cor.ftrmRed in fuch a manner,
and regulated fo by the uniform motion of a pendulum
(a), as to meafure time, and all its fubdivifions, with
great exa£fnefs.
The invention of clocks with wheels is referred to
Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, who lived in the time
of Lotharius fon of Louis the Debonnair, on the cre¬
dit of an epitaph quoted bv Ughelli, and borrowed by
him from Panvinius. They were at firlt called noc¬
turnal dials, to diflinguilh them from fun-dials, which
Ihowed the hour by the fun’s Ihadow. Others afcribe
the invention to Boethius, about the year 510. Mr
JDerham makes clock-work of a much older Handing j
and ranks Archimedes’s fphere mentioned by Clau- Clock,
dian, and that of Pofidonius mentioned by Cicero, — y—-
among the machines of this kind : not that either their
form or ufe was the fame with thofe of ours, but that
they had their motion from feme hidden weights or
fprings, with wheels or pullies, or feme fuch clock¬
work principle. But be this as it will, it is certain
the art of making clocks, fuch as are now in ufe, was
either firff invented, or at lead retrieved, in Germany,
about 200 years ago. 1 he water-clocks, or clepfy-
drae, and fun-dials, have both a much better claim to
antiquity. The French annals mention one of the
former kind fent by Aaron, king of Perfia, to Charle¬
magne, about the year 807, which feemed to bear
fome refemblance to the modern clocks : it was of
brafs, and fhowed the hours by twelve little balls of
the fame metal, which fell at the end of each hour,
and in falling flruck a bell and made it found. There
were alfo figures of 1 2 cavaliers, which at the end of
each hour came forth at certain apertures or win¬
dows in the fide of the clock, and ihut them again,
&e.
The invention of pendulum clocks is owing to the
happy indufiry of the lad age : the honour of it is dif-
puted liy Huygens and Galileo. The former, who
has written a volume on the fubjefl, declares it was
firfl put in pra&ice in the year 1657, and deferip-
tion thereof printed in 1657. Becker, de Nova Tem-
poris dimetiendi Theoria, anno 1680, contends for Ga¬
lileo ; and relates, though at fecond-hand, the whole
hiHory of the invention ; adding, that one Trefler, at
that time clock-maker to the father of the Grand Duke
of Tufcany, made the firfi pendulum-clock at Florence,
by direction of Galileo Galilei ; a pattern of which
was brought into Holland. The Academy del’ Ci-
menta fay exprefsly, that the application of the pen¬
dulum to the movement of a clock was firff propofed by
Galileo, and firff put in pra6tice by his fon Vincenzo
Galilei, in 1649. inventor who he will, it is
certain the invention never flourilhed till it came into
Huygen’s hands, who infiffs on it, that if ever Galileo
thought of fuch a thing, he never brought it to any de¬
gree of perfeftion. The firft pendulum-clock made in
England was in the year 1662, by Mr Fromantil, a
Dutchman.
Among the modern clocks, thofe of Strafburg and
Lyons are very eminent for the richnefs of their fur¬
niture, and the variety of their motions and figures.
In the firft, a cock claps his wings, and proclaims the
hour ; the angel opens a door and falutes the virgin j
and the Holy Spirit defeends on her, &c. In the fe-
cond, two horfemen encounter, and beat the hour on
each other •, a door opens, and there appears on the
theatre the Virgin, with Jefus Chrift in her arms ; the
Magi with their retinue, marching in order, and pre-
fenting their gifts j two trumpeters founding all the
while to proclaim the proceffion. Thefe, however,
are excelled by two lately made by Englifh artifts, and
intended as a prefent from the Eaft India Company to
the emperor of China. The clocks we fpeak of are
in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine
attiti -,e,
(-0 A balance not unlike the fly of a kitchen-jack was formerly ufecl in place of the pendulum.
C L O [2
attitude, a lady, leaning her right hand upon a part
of the chariot, under which is a clock of curious work-
manlhip, little larger than a (hilling, that (trikes and
repeats, and goes eight days. Upon her finger fits a
bird finely modelled, and fet with diamonds and ru¬
bies, with its wings expanded in a flying pofture, and
aftually flutters for a confiderable time on touching a
diamond button below it j the body of the bird (which
contains part of the wheels that in a manner give life
to it) is not the bignefs of the 16th part of an inch.
The lady holds in her left hand a gold tube not much
thicker than a large pin, on the top of which is a fmall
round box, to which a circular ornament fet with dia¬
monds not larger than a fixpence is fixed, which goes
round near three hours in a conftant regular motion.
Over the lady’s head, fupported by a fmall fluted pil¬
lar no bigger than a quill, is a double umbrella, under
the largeft of which a bell is fixed at a confiderable di-
ftance from the clock, and feems to have no connection
with it j but from which a communication is fecretly
conveyed to a hammer, that regularly (trikes the hour,
and repeats the fame at pleafure, by touching a dia¬
mond button fixed to the clock below. At the feet of
the lady is a gold dog 5 before which from the point
of the chariot are two birds fixed on fpiral fprings; the
wings and feathers of which are fet with (tones of va¬
rious colours, and appear as if flying away with the
chariot, which, from another feeret motion, is con¬
trived to run in a ftraight, circular, or any other direc¬
tion } a boy that lays hold of the chariot, behind, feems
alfo to pufli it forward. Above the umbrella are flowers
and ornaments of precious (tones ; and it terminates
with a flying dragon fet in the fame manner. The
whole is of gold, molt curioufly executed, and embel-
li(hed with rubies and pearls.
Of the general Mechamfm of CLOCKS, ami hov) they
tneafure Time. The firft figure of Plate CXLVI. is
a profile of a clock : P is a weight that is fufpended
by a rope that winds about the cylinder or barrel C,
which is fixed upon the axis aa; the pivots b b go into
holes made in the plates TS, TS, in which they turn
freely. Thefe plates are made of brafs or iron, and are
connected by means of four pillars ZZ; and the whole
together is called the frame.
The weight P, if not reftrained, would neceflarily
turn the barrel C with an uniformly accelerated motion,
in the fame manner as if the weight was falling freely
from a height. But the barrel is furniflied with a rat¬
chet-wheel KK, the right fide of whofe teeth (trikes
againft the click, which is fixed with a ferew to the
wheel DD, as reprefented in fig. 2. fo that the aCtion
of the weight is communicated to the wheel DD, the
teeth of which aCt upon the teeth of the fmall wheel d
which turns upon the pivots cc. The communication
or aCtion of one wheel with another is called the pitch-
tng; a fmall wheel like d is called a pinion, and its teeth
are leaves of the pinion. Several things are requifite
to form a good pitching, the advantages of which are
obvious in all machinery where teeth and pinions are
employed. The teeth and pinion leaves (hould be of a
proper (hape, and perfectly equal among themfelves $
the fize alfo of the pinion (hould be of a juft proportion
to the ’heel aCting into it $ and its place muft be at a
certaii diftance from the wheel, beyond or within
whi' t will make a bad pitching.
Vul. VI. Part I.
] C L O
The wheel EE is fixed upon the axis of the pinion
d; and the motion communicated to the wheel DD
by the weight is tranfmitted to the pinion d, confe-
quently to the wheel EE, as likewife to the pi¬
nion e and wheel FF, which moves the pinion f, upon
the axis of which the crown or balance wheel GH is
fixed. The pivots of the pinion f play in holes of the
plates LM, which are fixed horizontally to the plates
TS. In a word, the motion begun by the weight is
tranfmitted from the wheel GH to the palettes IK,
and, by means of the fork UX rivetted on the pa¬
lettes, communicates motion to the pendulum AB,
which is fufpended upon the hook A. The pendulum
AB deferibes, round the point A, an arc of a circle
alternately going and returning. If then the pendu¬
lum be once put in motion by a pu(h of the hand, the
weight of the pendulum at B will make it return upon
itfelf, and it will continue to go alternately backward
and forward, till the refiftance of the air upon the pen¬
dulum, and the friCtion at the point of fufpenfion at A,
deftroy the originally impreffed force. But as, at every
vibration of the pendulum, the teeth of the balance-
wheel GH, aft fo upon the palettes IK (the pivots
Upon the axis of thefe palettes play in two holes of the
potence s t), that after one tooth H has communicated
motion to the palette K, that tooth efcapes j then the
oppofite tooth G aCts upon the palette I, and efcapes
in the fame manner ; and thus each tooth of the
wheel efcapes the palettes IK, after having commu¬
nicated their motion to the palettes in fuch a manner
that the pendulum, inftead of being ftopt, continues to
move.
The wheel EE revolves in an hour ; the pivot c of
the wheel pafles through the plate, and is continued
to r i upon the pivot is a wheel NN with a long fockei.
faftened in the centre ; upon the extremity of this
focket r the minute-hand is fixed. The wheel NN
a£ts upon the wheel O; the pinion of which p a£ts
upon the wheel gg, fixed upon a focket which turns
along with the wheel N. This wheel gg makes its re*
volution in 12 hours, upon the focket of which the
hour-hand is fixed.
From the above defeription it is eafy to fee, 1. That
the weight p turns all the wheels, and at the fame
time continues the motion of the pendulum. 2. That
the quicknefs of the motion of the wheel is determined
by that of the pendulum. 3. That the wheels point
out the parts of time divided by the uniform motion of
the pendulum.
When the cord from which the weight is fufpend¬
ed is entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound
up again by means of a key, which goes on the fquare
end of the arbor at Q by turning it in a contrary di-
redlion from that in which the weight defeends. For
this purpofe, the inclined fide of the teeth of the wheel
R (fig. 2.) removes the click C, fo that the ratchet-rig
wheel R turns while the wheel D is at reft ; but as
foon as the cord is Wound up, the click falls in between
the teeth of the wheel D, and the right fide of the
teeth again aft upon the end of the click, which obli¬
ges the wheel D to turn along vvith the barrel; and
the fpring A keeps the click between the teeth of the
ratchet-wheel R.
We (hall now explain how time is meafured by the
motion of the pendulum j and how the wheel E, upon
C c the
%
G L O [ 202 ] . G L O
Clock, the axis of which the minute-hand is fixed, makes but
“'V'-1-' one precife revolution in an hour. The vibrations of
a pendulum are performed in a ftiorter or longer time
in proportion to the length of the pendulum itfelf. A
pendulum of 3 feet 84 French lines in length, makes
3600 vibrations in an hour, t. e. each vibration is per¬
formed in a fecond of time, and for that reafon it is
called a fecond pendulum. But a pendulum of 9 inches
2^ French lines makes 7200 vibrations in an hour, or
two vibrations in a fecond of time, and is called a half-
fecond pendulum. Hence, in conftrudling a wheel
whofe revolution muft be performed in a given time,
the time of the vibrations of the pendulum which re¬
gulates its motion muft be confidered. Suppofing,
then, that the pendulum A B makes 7200 vibrations in
an hour, let us confider how the wheel E {hall take up
an hour in making one revolution. This entirely de¬
pends on the number of teeth in the wheels and pini¬
ons. If the balance-wheel confifts of 30 teeth, it will
turn once in the time that the pendulum makes 60 vi¬
brations ; for at every turn of the wheel, the fame tooth
adts once on the palette I, and once on the palette K,_
which occafions two feparate vibrations in the pendu¬
lum $ and the wheel having 30 teeth, it occafions twice
30, or 60 vibrations. Confequently, this wheel muft
perform 120 revolutions in an hour $ becaufe 60 vibra¬
tions, which it occafions at every revolution, are con¬
tained 120 times in 7200, the number of vibrations
performed by the pendulum in an hour. Now, in
order to determine the number of teeth for the wheels
EF, and the pinions e f it muft be remarked, that
one revolution of the wheel E muft turn the pinion e
as many times as the number of teeth in the pinions
is contained in the number of teeth in the wheel.
Thus, if the wheel E contains 72 teeth, and the pi¬
nion e 6, the pinion will make 12 revolutions in the
time that the wheel makes I $ for each tooth of the
wheel drives forward a tooth of the pinion, and when
the 6 teeth of the pinion are moved, a complete re¬
volution is performed \ but the wheel E has by that
time only advanced 6 teeth, and has ftill 66 to ad¬
vance before its revolution be completed, which will
occafibn 11 more revolutions of the pinion. For the
fame reafon, the wheel F having 60 teeth, and the
pinion jT6, the pinion will make iq revolutions while
the wheel performs one. Now, the wheel F being
turned by the pinion e, makes 12 revolutions for one
of the wheel E ; and the pinion^ makes 10 revolu¬
tions for one of the wheel F j confequently, the pi¬
nion f performs 10 times 12 or 120 revolutions in
the time the wheel E performs one. But the wheel
G, which is turned by the pinion fy occafions 60 vi¬
brations in the pendulum each time it turns round y
confequently the wheel G occafions 60 times 120 or
7200 vibrations of the pendulum while the wheel E
performs one revolution y but 7200 is the number of
vibrations made by the pendulum in an hour, and con¬
fequently the wheel E performs but one revolution in
an hour y and fo of the reft.
From this reafoning, it is eafy to difcover how a
clock may be made to for any length of time with¬
out being wound up : 1. By increafing the number of
teeth in the wheels ; 2. By diminiftiing the number of
teeth in the pinions; 3. By increafing the length of
the cord that fufpends the weight; 4. By increafing
the length of the pendulum ; and, 5. By adding to clock,
the number of wheels and pinions. But in proportion ——v—!«
as the time is augmented, if the weight continues th&
fame, the force which it communicates to the laft wheel
GH will be diminiftied.
It only remains to take notice of the number of
teeth in the wheels which turn the hour and minute-
hands.
The wheel E performs one revolution in an hour ;
the wheel NN, which is turned by the axis of th
wheel E, muft likewife make only one revolution in
the fame time; and the minute-hand is fixed to the
focket of this wheel. The wheel N has 30 teeth, and
a<3s upon the wheel O, which has likewife 30 teeth*
and the fame diameter ; confequently the wheel O
takes one hour to a revolution : now the wheel O car¬
ries the pinion p, which has 6 teeth, and which a6ts
upon the wheel q q oi 72 teeth; confequently the pi¬
nion 7? make's 12 revolutions while the wheel qq makes-
one, and of courfe the wheel qq takes 12 hours to one
revolution; and upon the focket of this wheel the!
hour hand is fixed. All that has been faid here con¬
cerning the revolutions of the wheels, &c. is equally
applicable to watches as to clocks.
The ingenious Dr Franklin contrived a clock to
fhow the hours, minutes, and feconds, with only three
wheels and twro pinions in the whole movement. The
dial-plate (fig. 3.) has the hours engraven upon it in Fig. ^
fpiral fpaces along two diameters of a circle containing
four times 60 minutes. The index A gees round in
four hours, and counts the minutes from any hour by
which it has paffed to the next following hour. The
time, therefore, in the pofition of the index (hown in
the figure is either 32! minutes paft XII. III. or VIII.;
and fo in every other quarter of the circle it points to
the number of minutes after the hours which the in¬
dex laft left in its motion. The fmall hand B, in the
arch at top, goes round once in a minute, and (hows
the feconds. The wheel-work of this clock may be
feen in fig. 4. A is the firft or great wheel, contain-pjg ^
ing 160 teeth, and going round in four hours with the
index A in fig. 3. let down by a hole on its axis. This
wheel turns a pinion B of 10 leaves, which therefore
goes round in a quarter of an hour. On the axis of
this pinion is the wheel C of 120 teeth ; which goea
round in the fame time, and turns a pinion D of
eight leaves round in a minute, with the fecond
hand B of fig. 3. fixed on its axis, and alfo the com¬
mon wheel E of 30 teeth for moving a pendulum
(by palettes) that vibrates feconds, as in a common
clock. This clock is wound up by a line going over
a pulley on the axis of the great wheel, like a common
thirty hour clock. Many of thefe admirably fimple
machines have been conftrufled, which meafure time
exceedingly well. It is fubjeft, however, to the in¬
convenience of requiring frequent winding by drawing
up the weight, and likewife to fome uncertainty as to
the particular hour (hown by the index A. Mr Fer-
gufon has propofed to remedy thefe inconveniences by
the following conftruflion. In the dial-plate of his
clock (fig. 5.) there is an opening, abed, below the pjg
centre, through which appears part of a flat plate, on
which the 12 hours, with their d'vifions into quarters,
are engraved. This plate turns round in 12 hours;
and the index A points out the true hour, &c. B is
the
C L O
Clock.
'*£•
Plate
XLVII
%■ 7-
the minute-hand, which goes round the large circle of
>■* 60 minutes whilft the plate abed ihifts its place one
hour under the fixed index A. There is another open-
ing, e f g, through which the feconds are feen on a
flat moveable ring at the extremity of a fleur-de-lis en¬
graved on the dial-plate. A in fig. 6. is the great
wheel of this clock, containing 120 teeth, and turn¬
ing round in 12 hours. The axis of this wheel bears
the plate of hours, which may be moved by a pin paf-
fing through fmall holes drilled in the plate, without
affe&ing the wheel-work. The great wheel A turns
a pinion B of ten leaves round in an hour, and car¬
ries the minute hand B on its axis round the dial-
plate in the fame time. On this axis is a wheel C of
120 teeth, turning round a pinion D of fix leaves in
three minutes j on the axis of which there is a wheel
E of 90 teeth, that keeps a pendulum in motion, vi¬
brating feconds by palettes, as in a common clock,
when the pendulum-wheel has only 30 teeth, and goes
round in a minute. In order to fhow the feconds by
this clock, a thin plate mufi: be divided into three
times fixty, or 180 equal parts, and numbered io, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, three times fucceflively ; and fixed on
the fame axis with" the wheel of 90 teeth, fo as to
turn round near the back of the dial-plate ; and thefe
divifions will (how the feconds through the opening
efS h, fig- 5- Th is clock will go a week without
winding, and always fliow the precife hour j but this
clock, as Mr Fergufon candidly acknowledges, has two
difadvantages of which Dr Franklin’s clock is free.
When the minute-hand B is adjufted, the hour plate
muft alfo be fet right by means of a pin-, and the fmall-
nefs of the teeth in the pendulum-wheel will caufe the
pendulum-ball to deferibe but fmall arcs in its vibra¬
tions ; and therefore the momentum of the ball will be
lels, and the times of the vibrations will be more affe£t-
ed by any unequal impulfe of the pendulum-wheel on
the palettes. Befides, the weight of the flat ring on
which the feconds are engraved will load the pivots of
the axis of the pendulum-wheel with a great deal of
fri£Hon, which ought by all poflible means to be avoid¬
ed. To remedy this inconvenience, the fecond plate
might be omitted.
A clock fimilar to Dr Franklin’s was made in Lin-
colnfhire about the end of the lyth century or begin¬
ning of the 18th ; and is faid to be in London in the
pofleflion of a grandfon of the perfon who made it.
A clock, fliowing the apparent diurnal motions of
the fun and moon, the age and phafes of the moon,
with the time of her coming to the meridian, and the
times of high and low water, by having only two
wheels and a pinion added to the common movement,
was contrived by Mr Fergufon, and deferibed in his Se-
left Exercifes. The dial-plate of this clock (fig. 7.)
contains all the twenty-four hours, of the day and night.
S is the fun, which ferves as an hour index by going
round the dial-plate in twenty-four hours ; and M is
the moon, which goes round in twenty-four hours fifty
minutes and a hair, the time of her going round in the
heavens from one meridian to the fame meridian again.
The fun is fixed to a circular plate (fee fig. 8.) and
carried round by the motion of that plate on which the
twenty-four hours are engraven ; and within them is a
circle divided into twenty-nine and a half equal parts
-or the days of the moon’s age, reckoning from new
[ 203 3
C L O
moon to new moon} and each day hands dire&Iy un- cio'-k
der the time, in the twenty-four hour circle, of the
moon’s coming to the meridian j the XII under the
fun handing tor noon, and the oppofite XII for mid-
night. I he moon M is fixed to another circular plate
(fig. 6.) of the fame diameter with that which carries
the fun, part of which may be feen through the open-
ing, over which the fmall wires r and b pafs in the
moon-plate. I he wire a (hows the moon’s age and
time of her coming to the meridian, and b fhows the
time of high-water for that day in the fun-plate. The
diftance of thefe wires anfvvers to the difference of time
between the moon’s coming to the meridian and high-
water at the place for which the clock is made. At
London their difference is two hours and a half.
Above the moon-plate there is a fixed plate N, fup-
ported by a wire A, joined to it at one end, and fixed at
right angles into the dial plate at the midnight XII.
This plate may reprefent the earth, and the dot L
London, or the place to which the clock is adapted.
Around this plate there is an elliptic lhade on the
moon-plate, the highert points of which are marked
high-water, and the lowefl low-water. As this plate
turns round below the plate N, thefe points come fuc-
ce{lively even with L, and ftand over it at the time*
when it is high or low water at the given place j
which times are pointed by the fun S on the dial-
plate and the plate H above XII at noon rifes or
falls with the tide. As tire fun S goes round the dial-
plate in twenty-four hours, and the moon M in twenty-
four hours fifty minutes and a half, it is plajn that the
moon makes only twenty-eight revolutions and a half,
whilft the fun makes twenty-nine and a half j fo that
it will be twenty-nine days and a half from conjunc¬
tion to conjunflion. And thus the wire a fliifts over
one day of the moon’s age on the fun-plate in twenty-
four hours, f he phafes of the moon for every day of
her age may be feen through a round hole rn in the
moon-plate: thus at conjunction or new-moon, the
whole fpace feen through //; is black j at oppofition or
full moon this fpace is white j at either quadrature
half black and half white ; and at every polition the
white part refembles the vifible part of the moon for
every day of her age. The black-fhaded fpace N^F /
(fig. 8.) on the fun-plate ferves for thefe appearances. F; s
N reprefents the new moon, F the full moon, and f S' ’
her firft quarter, and / her laft quarter, &c. The
wheel-work and tide-work of this clock are repre-
fented in fig. 9. A and B are two wheels of equal D'g. p
diameters ; A has fifty-feven teeth, with a hollow axis
that pafles through the dial of the clock, and carries
the fun-plate with the fun S. B has fifty-nine teeth,
with a folid Ipindle for its axis, which turns within the
hollow axis of A, and carries the moon-plate with the
moon M : both wheels are turned round by a pinion
C of nineteen leaves, and this pinion is turned round
by the common clock-work in eight hours j and as
nineteen is the third part of “fifty-feven, the wheel A
will go round in twenty-four hours ; and the wheel B
in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a half j fifty-
feven being to twenty-four as fifty-nine to twenty-four
houis fifty minutes and a half very nearly. On the
back of the wheel B is fixed an elliptical ring D, which,
in its revolution, raifes and lets down a lever EF, whofe
centre of motion is on a pin at F j and this, by the up-
C c 2 right
C L O [ 204. ] C L O
Clock, right bar G, raifes and lets down the tide-plate H
v twice in the time of the moon’s revolving from the me¬
ridian to the meridian again : this plate moves between
four rollers R, R, R, R. A clock of this kind was
adapted by Mr Fergufon to the movement of an old
watch: the great wheel of a watch goes round in four
hours j on the axis of this he fixed a wheel of twenty
teeth, to turn a wheel of forty teeth on the axis of the
•pinion C ; by which means that pinion was turned
round in eight hours, the wheel A in twenty-four, and
the wheel B in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a
half.
To this article we fhall fubjoin a brief account of
two curious contrivances. The firfl, for giving motion
to the parts of a clock by making it to defcend along
an inclined plane, is the invention of Mr Maurice
Wheeler ; the clock itfelf was formerly feen in Don
Saltero’s coffee-houfe at Chelfea. DE, fig. 10. is the
Plate inclined plane on which the clock ABC defcends *,
■CXLVIII. this confilts externally of a hoop about an inch broad,
•fig. 10. ancl or plates Handing out beyond the hoop
about one-eighth of an inch all round, with indented
edges, that the clock may not Hide, but turn round
w hi lit it moves down. One of thefe plates is infcribed
with the twenty-four hours, which pafs fucceflively
Fig. ir. under the index LP, fig. 11. which is always in a pofi-
tion perpendicular to the horizon, and ftiows the hour
on the top of the machine : for this reafon the lower
part of the index, or HL, is heavieft, that it may pre¬
ponderate the other HP, and always keep it pendu¬
lous, with its point to the vertical hour, as the move¬
ment goes on. Infiead of this index, an image may
be fixed for ornament on the axis g, which with an
erefted finger performs the office of an index. In or¬
der to defcribe the internal part or mechanifm of this
clock, let LETQ be the external circumference of
the hoop, and f f the fame plate, on which is placed
the train of wheel work 1, 2, 3, 4, which is much the
fame as in other clocks, and is governed by a balance
and regulator as in them. But there is no need of a
fpring and fufee in this clock: their effefts being
otherwife anfwered as we {hall fee. In this machine
the great wheel of 1 is placed in the centre, or upon the
axis of the movement, and the other wheels and parts
towards one fide, which would therefore prove a bias
to the body of the clock, and caufe it to move, even
on a horizontal plane, for fome ffiort diftance : this
makes it neceffary to fix a thin plate ©f lead at C, on
. the oppofite part of the hoop, to reftore the equilibrium
of the movement. This being done, the machine will
abide at reft in any pofition on the horizontal plane
HH ; but if that plane be changed into the inclined
plane DE, it will touch it in the point D; but it
cannot reft there, becaufe the centre of gravity at M
acting in the direflion MI, and the point T having
nothing to fupport it, mull continually defcend, and
carry the body down the plane. But now if any
weight P be fixed on the other fide of the machine,
fuch as (hall remove the centre of gravity from M to
the point V in the line LD which pafles through the
point D, it will then reft upon the inclined plane, as
in the cafe of the rolling cylinder. If this weight
P be fuppofed not fixed, but fufpended at the end of
an arm, or veftis, which arm or lever is at the fame
time faftened to a centrical wheel 1, moving on the axis
M of the machine, which wheel by its teeth fhall com- Clock,
municate with the train of wheels, Sec. on the other'—"v—
fide, and the power of the weight be juft equal to the
fridtion or refiftance of the train, it will remain motion-
lefs as it did before when it was fixed ; and confe-
quently the clock alfo will be at reft on the inclined
plane. But fuppofing the power of the weight P to
be fuperior to the refiftance of the train, it will then
put it into motion, and of courfe the clock likewife j
which will then commence a motion down the plane j
while the weight P, its vettis PM, and the wheel I,
all conftantly retain the fame pofition which they have
at firft when the clock begins to move. Hence it is
eafy to underftand, that the weight P may have fuch
an intrinfic gravity as (hall caufe it to ad upon the
train with any required force, fo as to produce a mo¬
tion in the machine of any required velocity ; fuch, for
infiance, as (hall carry it once round in twenty-four
hours : then, if the diameters of the plates ABC be
four inches, it will defcribe the length of their circum¬
ference, viz. 1256 inches, in one natural day 5 and
therefore, if the plane be of a fufficient breadth, fuch
a clock may go feveral days, and would furnifti a
perpetual motion, if the plane were infinitely ex¬
tended. Let SD be drawn through M perpendicular
to the inclined plane in the point D ; alfo let LD be
perpendicular to the horizontal line HH, paffing
through Dj then is the angle HDE=rLDS=DMT j
whence it follows that the greater the angle of the
plane’s elevation is, the greater will be the arch DT j
and confequently the further will the common centre
of gravity be removed from M ; therefore the power
of P will be augmented, and of courfe the motion of
the whole machine accelerated. Thus it appears, that
by duly adjufting the intrinfic weight of P, at firft to
produce a motion ihowing the mean time as near as
poffiblc, the time may be afterwards corrected, or the
clock made to go fafter or flower by railing or depref-
fing the plane, by means of the ferevv at S. The an¬
gle to which the plane is firft raifed is about ten de¬
grees. The marquis of Worcefter is alfo faid to have
contrived a watch that moved on a declivity. See
farther PhiU Tratif. Abr. vol. i. p. 468, &c. or N°
i6t.
The other contrivance is that of M. de Gennes for
making a clock afeend on an inclined plane. To this
end let ABC (fig. 12.) be the machine on the inclined Fi<r. n,
plane EDE, and let it be kept at reft upon it, or in
equilibrio by the weight P at the end of the level PM.
The circular area CF is one end of a fpring barrel in
the middle of the movement, in which is included a
fpring as in a common watch. To this end of the
barrel the arm or lever PM is fixed upon the centre M $
and thus, when the clock is wound up, the fpring
moves the barrel, and therefore the lever arid weight P
in the fituation PM. In doing this, the centre of
gravity is conftantly removed farther from the centre
of the machine, and therefore it muft determine the
clock to move upwards, which it will continue to do
as long as the fpring is unbending itfelf; and thus the
weight and its lever PM will preferve the fituation they
firft have, and to do the office of a chain and fufee.
Phil. Tranf N° 140. or Abridg. vol. i. p. 467.
By flat. 9 and 10 W. III. cap. 28. ^ 2. no perfon
fhall export, or endeavour to export out of this king-
domjr
C L O [
block. d°m> any outward or inward box-cafe or dial-plate,
—v—~ gold, filver, brafs, or other metal, for clock or watch,
without the movement in or with every fuch box, &c.
made up fit for ufe, with the maker’s name engraven
thereon ; nor dvdl any perfon make up any clock or
watch without putting his name and place of abode
or freedom, and no other name or place, on every
clock or watch ; on penalty of forfeiting every fuch
box, cafe, and dial-plate, clock and watch, not made
up and engraven as aforefaid j and 20I. one moiety
to the king, the other to thofe that (hall fue for the
fame.
Clocks, Portable, or commonly denominated
Watches. See the article Watch.
CLOCK-Work, properly fo called, is that part of the
movement which ftrikes the hours, &c. on a bell; in
contradiftinttion to that part of the movement of a
clock or watch which is defigned to meafure and ex¬
hibit the time on a dial-plate, and which is termed
Watch-work.
Plate I* Of the Clock part. T he wheels compofing this
KLVTII. pat t are ; "I he great or firft wheel H, which is moved
by the weight or fpring at the barrel G : in fixteen or
thirty-hour clocks, this has ufually pins, and is called
the pin-wheel; in eight-day pieces, the fecond wheel
I is commonly the pin-wheel, or ftriking wheel, which
is moved by the former. Next the ftriking wheel is
the detent-wheel, or hoop-wheel K, having a hoop
almoft round it, wherein is a vacancy at which the
clock locks. 1 he next is the third or fourth wheel,
according to its diftance from the firft, called the warn¬
ing-wheel L. The la ft is the flying pinion £), with a
fly or fan, to gatner air, and fo bridle the rapidity of
the clock’s motion. To thefe muft be added the pi¬
nion of report, which drives round the locking-wheel,
called alfo. the count wheel} ordinarily with eleven
notches in it, unequally diftant, to make the clock ftrike
the hours.
Befides the wheels, to the clock part belongs the
rafh or ratch j a kind of wheel with twelve large fangs,
running concentrical to the dial-wheel, and, ferving to
lift up the detents every hour, and make the clock
ftrike . the detents or flops, which being lifted up
and let fall, lock and unlock the clock in ftriking
the hammer, as S, which ftrikes the bell R; the harm
mer-tails, as T, by which the ftriking pins draw back
the hammers ; latches, whereby the work is lifted up
and unlocked ; and lifting-pieces, as P, which lift up
and unlock the detents.
The method of calculating the numbers of a piece
of clock-work having fomething in it very entertain-
ing, and at the fame time very eafy and ufeful, we
fhall give our readers the rules relating thereto : 1. Re-
gard here needs only be had to the counting-wheel,
ftnking-wheel, and detent-wheel, which move round
m this proportion : the court-wheel commonly goes
round once in 12 or 24 hours ; the detent-wheel moves
round every ftroke the clock ftrikes, or fometimes but
once in two ftrokes : wherefore it follows, that, 2.
As many pins as are in the pin-wheel, fo many turns
hath the detent-wheel in one turn of the pin-wheel •
or, which is the fame, the pins of the pin-wheel are
the quotients of that wheel divided by the pinion of
the detent-wheel. But if the detent-wheel moves but
®Rce round in two ftrokes of the clock, then the faid
205 ] C L O
of quotient is but half the number of pins. 3. As many
turns of the pin-wheel as are required to perform the
ftrokes of 12 hours (which are 78), fo many turns muft
the pinion of report have to turn round the count-wheel
once *, or thus the quotient of 78, divided by the num¬
ber of ftriking-pins, ftiall be the quotient for the pi¬
nion pf report and the count wheel j and this is in
cafe the pinion of report be fixed to the arbor of the
pin-wheel, which is commonly done.
An example will make all plain : The locking-wheel
being 48, the pinion of report 8, the
pin-wheel 78, the ftriking pins are 13,
and fo of the reft. Note alfo, that 78 8) 48 ( 6
divided by 13 gives 6, the quotient of 
the pinion of report, As for the warn- 6) 78 (13
ing-wheel and fly-wheel, it matters little 6) 60 (xo
what numbers they have j their ufe being 6) 48 ( 8
only to bridle the rapidity of the motion
of the other wheels.
The following rules will be of great fervice in this
calculation. 1. To find how many Jlrokes a clock Jlrikes
tn one turn of the fufee or barrel: As the turns of the
great wheel or fufee are to the days of the clock’s
continuance ; fo is the number of ftrokes in 24 hours,
viz. 156, to the ftrokes of one turn of the fufee.
2. To fnd how many days a clock will go : As the
ftrokes in 24 hours are to thofe in one turn of the fu¬
fee ; fo are the turns of the fufee to the days of the
clock’s going.
3. To find the number of turns of the fufee or barrel t
As the ftrokes in one turn of the fufee are to thofe of
24 hours ; fo is the clock’s continuance to the turns of
the fufee or great wheel.
4. To find the number of leaves in the pinion of re¬
port on the axis of the great wheel: As the number of
ftrokes in the clock’s continuance is to the turns of the
fufee j fo are the ftrokes in 12 hours, viz. 78, to the
quotient of the pinion of report fixed on the arbor of
the great wheel.
S' 10 find the jlrokes in the clock's contitnumce : As 12
is to 78 ; fo are the hours of the clock’s continuance to
the number of ftrokes in that time.
By means of the following table, clocks and
watches may be fo regulated as to meafure true equal
time.
The ftars make 366revolutions from
any point of the compafs to the fame ^ H. M. S.
point again in 365 days and one
minute •, and therefore they gain a
365th of a revolution every 24 hours
of mean folar time, near enough for
regulating any clock or watch.
This acceleration is at the rate of
3 min. 55 fee. 53 thirds, 59 fourths
in 24 hours ; or in the neareft round
numbers, 3 minutes, 56 feconds; by
which quantity of time every ftar
comes round fooner than it did on the
day before.
Therefore if you mark the precife
moment ftiown by a clock or watch
when any ftarvanifhes behind a chim¬
ney, or any other objeft, as feen
through a fmall hole in a thin plate
of metal, fixed in a window-ftmtter j
U
su
'-I
C/I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
15
16
3
7
11
56
52
48
44
19 40
23 36
27
3i
35
39
43
47
5i
55
59
2
6
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
o
56
5 2
18
Clock.
c L O f 206 -3 -C L O
€!oc5c.
18
19
20
21
22
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
ID
18
22
48
44
40
36
26 32
30 28
34 24
38 20
42 16
46 12
50 8
54
58
and do this for feveral nights fuccef-
H. M. S. lively (as fuppofe twenty) ; if, at the
end of that time, the ftar vanifhes as
much fooner than it did the firft night,
by the clock, as anfvvers to the time
denoted in the table for fo many days,
the clock goes true ; otherwife not.
If tlie difference between the clock
and ftar be lefs than the table Ikows,
the clock goes too faft ; if greater,
it goes too ilow 5 and muft be re¬
gulated accordingly, by letting down
or raifing up the ball of the pendulum,
by little and little, by turning the
4 fcrew-nut under the ball, till you find
o it keeps true equal time.
1 hus fuppofing the ftar ftiould difappear behind a
chimney, any nig'ht when it is XII. by the clock;
and that, on the 20th night afterward, the fame ftar
ftiould difappear when the time is 41 minutes 22 fe-
corids paft X, by the clock; which being fubtra&ed
from 12 hours o min. o fee. leaves remaining 1 hour
18 minutes 40 feconds for the time the ftar is then
fafter than the clock: look in the table, and againft
20, in the left hand column, you will find the acce¬
leration of the ftar to be 1 hour 18 min. 40 fee.
agreeing exaftly with what the difference ought to be
between the clock and ftar; which ftiows that the
clock meafures true equal time, and agrees with the
jmean folar time, as it ought to do.
II. Of the Watch part of a clock or watch. This
is that part of the movement which is defigned to
meafure and exhibit the time on a dial-plate ; in con-
tradiftinttion to that part which contributes to the
jftriking of the hour, 8tc.
The feveral members of the watch part are, 1. The
balance, confiftingof the rim, ivhich is its circular part ;
.and the verge, which is its fpindle; to which belong
two palettes or leaves, that play in the teeth of the
crown-wheel. 2. The potence, or pottance, which
is the ftrong ftud in pocket watches, whereon the lower
pivot of the verge plays, and in the middle of which
one pivot of the balance wheel plays; the bottom of
the pottance is called the foot, the middle part the
nofe, and the upper part the (houlder. 3. The cock,
which is the piece covering the balance. 4. The re¬
gulator, or pendulum fpring, which is the fmall fpring,
in the new pocket-watches, underneath the balance.
5. The pendulum (fig. 13.) ; whofe parts are, the verge
.r, palettes 5, 5, cocks yyy, the rod, the fork, £, the
flatt 2, the bob or great ball 3, and the corre6ior or
regulator, 4, being a contrivance of Dr Derham for
bringing the pendulum to its nice vibrations. 6. The
•wheels, which are the crown wheel F in pocket-
pieces, and fwing-wheel in pendulums; ferving to
drive the balance or pendulum. 7. The contrate-wheel
E, which is that next the crown-wheel, &e. and
\yhofe teeth and hoop lie contrary to thofe of other
wheels; whence the name. 8. The great, or firft
wheel C ; which is that the fufee B, &c. immediately
drives, by means of the chain or firing of the fpring-
box or barrel A ; after which are the fecond wheel
D, third wheel, &.c, Laftlv, between the frame and
- dial-plate., is the pinion of report, which is that fixed
on the arbor or the great wheel ; and ferves to drive n r
the dial-wheel, as that ferves to carry the hand.   
For the illuftration of this part of the work which lies
concealed, let ABC (fig. 14*) reprefent the uppermoft Fig. 14,
fide of the frame-plate, as it appears when detached
from the dial-plate : the middle of this plate is perforated
with a hole, receiving that end of the arbor of the
centre wheel which carries the minute hand ; near
the plate is fixed the pinion of report « £ of 10 teeth ;
this drives a wheel c d of 40 teeth ; this wheel carries
a pinion efui 12 teeth ; and this again drives a wheel
g h with 36 teeth.
As in the body of the watch the wheels every¬
where divide the pinions; here, on the contrary, the
pinions divide the wheels, and by that means dimi-
niih the motion, which is here neceffary ; for the hour
hand, which is carried on a focket fixed on the wheel
g h, is required to move but once round, while the
pinion a b moves twelve times round. For this pur-
pofe the motion of the wheel r // is ^ of the pinion a b.
Again, while the wheel c d, or the pinion e f, goes
once round, it turns the wheel £ h but -J- part round ;
confequently the motion of ^ h is but | of f of the mo¬
tion of a b y but y of ^ is ; 1. e. the hour-wheel g h
moves once round in the time that the pinion of re¬
port, on the arbor of the centre of the minute wheel,
makes 12 revolutions, as required. Hence the ftruc-
ture of that part of a clock or watch which (hows the
time may be eafily under flood.
i he cylinder A (fig, 13.) put into motion by a
weight or inclofed fpring moves the fufee B, and the
great wheel C, to which it is fixed by the line or cord
that goes round each, and anfwers to the chain of %
watch,
I he method of calculation is eafily7 underftood by
the fequel of this article ; for, fuppofe the great wheel
C goes round once in 12 hours, then if it be a royal
pendulum clock, vibrating feconds, we have 60 X 60 X 12
:=43200 feconds or beats in one turn of the great
wheel. But becaufe there are 60 fwings or feconds
in one minute, and the feconds are (hown by an index
on the end of the arbor of the fwing-wheel, which in
thofe clocks is in an horizontal polition ; therefore it
is neceffary that the fwing-wheel F(hould have 30 teeth;
whence i— 720, the number to be broken into
quotients tor finding the number of teeth for the other
wheels and pinions.
In fpring-clocks, the difpofition of the wheels in
the watch part is fuch as is here reprelented in the fi¬
gure, where the crown-wheel F is in an horizontal po-
(ition ; the feconds not being (hown there by an index,
as is done in the large pendulum clocks. Whence in
thefe clocks the wheels are difpofed in a different man¬
ner, as reprefented in fig. 15. where Cis the great wheel, pjg ^
and D the centre or minute rvheel, as before : but
the contrate wheel E is placed on one fide, and F the
fwing-wheel is placed with its centre in the fame per¬
pendicular line GH with the minute-wheel, and with
its plane perpendicular to the horizon, as are all the
others. Ihus the minute and hour hands turn on
the end of the arbor of the minute wheel at o, and
the fecond hand on the arbor of the fwing-wheel
at b.
Theory and calculation of the Watch-partt as laid down
bv
C L G [ 207 ] C L 0
Clock, by the Rev. Dr Derham.— r. The fame motion, it is
-V—• evident, may be performed either by one wheel and
one pinion, or many wheels and many pinions j pro¬
vided the number of turns of all the wheels bear the
proportion to all the pinions which that one wheel
bears to its pinion : or, which is the fame thing, if
the number produced by multiplying all the wheels
together be to the number produced by multiplying
all the pinions together, as that one wheel to that
one pinion. Thus, fuppofe you had occafion for a
wheel of 1440 teeth, and a pinion of 28 leaves j
you make it into three wheels of 36, 8, and 5, and
three pinions of 4, 7, and r. For the three wheels,
36, 8, and 5, multiplied together, give 144O for the
wheels, and the three pinions, 4, 7, and I, multiplied
together, give 28 for the pinions. Add, that it mat¬
ters not in what order the wheels and pinions are fet,
or which pinion runs in which wheel ; only for con¬
venience fake, the biggeft numbers are commonly put
to drive the reft.
2. Two wheels and pinions of different numbers may
perform the fame motion. Thus, a wheel of 36 drives
a pinion of four j the fame as a wheel of 45 a pinion
of 5 j or a wheel of 90 a pinion of 10 ; the turns of
each being 9.
3. If, in breaking the train Into parcels, any of
the quotients ftiould not be liked ; or if any other two
numbers, to be multiplied together, are defired to be
varied, it may be done by this rule. Divide the two
numbers by any other two numbers which will mea-
fure them ; multiply the quotients by the alternate di-
vifors j the produft of thefe two laft numbers found
will be equal to the product of the two numbers firft
given. Thus, if you would vary 46 times 8, divide
thefe by any two numbers which will evenly meafure
them : fo, 36 by 4 gives 9; and 8 by 1 gives 8 ; now,
by the rule, 9 times x is 9, and 8 times 4 is 32 * fo
that for 364-8, you have 324-9 *, each equal to 288.
If you divide 36 by 6, and 8 by 2, and multiply as
before, you have 244-12—364-8=288.
4. If a wheel and pinion fall out with crofs num¬
bers, too big to be cut in wheels, and yet not to be
altered by thefe rules ; in feeking for the pinion of re¬
port, find two numbers of the fame, or a near propor¬
tion, by this rule j as either of the two given num¬
bers is to the other, fo is 360 to a fourth. Divide
that fourth number, as alfo 360, by 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10,
12, 15, (each of which numbers exaflly meafures 360),
or by any of thofe numbers that bring a quotient near-
eft to an integer. As fuppofe you had 147 for the
wheel, and 170 for the pinion ; which are too great to
be cut into fmall wheels, and yet cannot be reduced
into lefs, as having no other common meafure but unity ;
fay, as 170 : 147 :: 360 : 311. Or, as 147 : 170 ::
360 : 416. Divide the fourth number and 360 by
one of the foregoing numbers 5 as 311 and 360 by 6,
it gives 52 and 60 j divide them by 8, you have 39
and 45 j and if you divide 360 and 416 by 8, you
have 45 and 52 exactly. Wherefore, inftead of the
two numbers 147 and 170, you may take 52 and 60,
or 39 and 45, or 43 and 52, &c.
5. I o come to praftice in calculating a piece of
watch-work : Firft pitch on the train or beats of the
balance in an hour ; as, whether a fwift one of about
20,000 beats (the ufual train of a common 30 hour
4
pocket-watch), or a flower of about 16,000 (the train Clock,
of the new pendulum pocket-watches), or any other ——y—-
train. Next, refolve on the number of turns the fufee
is intended to have, and the number of hours the
piece is to go : fuppofe e. gr. 12 turns, and to go 30
hours, or 192 hours (i. e. 8 days), &c» Proceed now
to find the beats of the balance or pendulum in one
turn of the fufee j thus in numbers j 12 : 16 :: 20,000 :
26666. Wherefore 26666 are the beats in one turn
of the fufee or great wheel, and are equal to the quo¬
tients of all the wheels unto the balance multiplied to¬
gether. Now this number is to be broken into a con¬
venient parcel of quotients; which is to be done thus :
firft, halve the number of beats, viz. 26666, and you
have 13333 ’ pitch on the number of the crown¬
wheel, fuppofe 17: divide 13333 by 17, and you have
784 for the quotient (or turns) of the reft of the
wheels and pinions j which, being too big for one or
two quotients, may be belt broken into three. Choofe
therefore three numbers ; which, when multiplied all
together continually, will come neareft 784 : as fup¬
pofe 10, 9, and 9, multiplied continually, give 8io,
which is fomewhat too much j therefore try again o-
ther numbers, 11, 9, 8: thefe, drawn one into ano¬
ther continually, produce 7925 which is as near as
can be, and is a convenient quotient. Having thus
contrived the piece from the great wheel to the ba¬
lance, but the numbers not falling out exadlly, as you
firft propofed, correft the work thus: firft multiply 792,
the product of all the quotients pitched upon, by 17
(the notches of the crown-wheel) •, the product is
13464, which is half the number of beats in one turn
of the fufee : Then find the true number of beats in an
hour. Thus, 16 : 12 :: 13464 : 10098 which is half
the beats in an hour. Then find what quotient is to be
laid upon the pinion of report (by the rule given under
that word). Thus, 16 : 12 :: 12 : 9, the quotient of
the pinion of report. Having thus found your
quotients, it is eafy to determine what numbers the
wheels lhall have, for choofing what numbers the pi¬
nions (hall have, and multiplying the pinions by their
quotients, the produift is the number for
the wheels. Thus the number of the 4' 3® ( 9
pinion of report is 4, and its quotient is ^ ’
9 ; therefore the number for the dial-wheel ^5 C11
muft be 4X9, or 36 : fo the next pinion 5) 45 (9
being 5, its quotient II, therefore the ^ 4::) ( 8
great wheel muft be 5x11 = 555 and fo
of the reft. 17
Such is the method of calculating the numbers of a
16 hour watch. Which watch may be made to go
longer by leffening the train, and altering the pinion
of report. Suppofe you could conveniently flacken the
train to 16000 ; then fay, As 4 16000 or 8000 :
13464 :: 12 : 20 5 fo that this watch will go 20 hours.
Then, for the pinion of report, fay (by the rule given
under that word), as 20 : 12 :: 12 : 7. So that 7
is the quotient of the pinion of report.
And as to the numbers, the operation is ^ 7
the fame as before, only the dial-wheel" "
is but 28; for its quotient is altered to 7. 55 (11
If you would give numbers to a watch of 5) 45 ( 9
about 10,000 beats in an hour, to have 12 5' 4° (8
turns of the fufee, to go 170 hours, and
17 notches in the crown-wheel 5 the work
is
c L O [ 208 ] C L O
Clock. Is the fame, in a manner, as in the laft example : and
\r ' confequently thus : as 12 : 170 :: 10000 : 141666,
■which fourth number is the beats in one turn of the
iufee $ its half, 7°^33> being divided by 17, gives
4167 for the quotient j and becaufe this number is too
big for three quotients, therefore choofe four, as 10,
8, 8, 6 f; vvhofe produft into 17 makes 7x808, near¬
ly equal to half the true beats in one turn of the fu-
fee. Then fay, as 170 : 12 : 7x808 : 5069, which is
half the true train of your watch. And again, 170 :
12 :: I2x4£, the denominator of which expreffes the
pinion of report, and the numerator is the number of
the dial-wheel. But thefe numbers being too big to be
cut in fmall wheels, they muft be varied by the fourth
rule above. Thus:
As 144 : 170 :: 360 : 425 :
Or 170 144 360 : 305.
24) 20 Then dividing 360, and either of thefe
   two fourth proportionals (as direfted by
6) 6o (10 the rule), fuppofe by 15 ; you will have
6) 48 ( 8 or -53-} then the numbers of the whole
5) 40 C ^ movements will Hand as in the margin.
5) 33 ( 6f Such is the calculation of ordinary
-     watches, to fhow the hour of the day :
17 in fuch as Ihow minutes, and feconds, the
procefs is thus :
I. Having refolved on the beats in an hour, by di¬
viding the defigned train by 60, find the beats in a mi¬
nute ; and accordingly, find proper numbers for the
•crown-wheel and quotients, fo as that the minute-wheel
ftiall go round once in an hour, and the fecond wheel
once in a minute.
Suppofe, you {hall choofe a pendulum of feven
inches, which vibrates 142 ftrokes in a minute, and
8520 in an hour. Half thefe fums are 71, and
4260. Now, the firft work is to break this 71 into
a good proportion, which will fall into one quotient,
and the crown-wheel. Let the crown-wheel have 15
notches j then 71, divided by 15, gives nearly 3 } fo
a crown-wheel of 15, and a wheel and pinion whofe
quotient is 5, will go round in a minute to carry a
hand to fhow feconds. For a hand to go
4° ( 5 round in an hour to {how minutes, becaufe
   there are 60 minutes in an hour, it is but
15 breaking 60 into good quotients (fuppofe
10 and 6, or 8 and 74-> &c.) : and it is
8) 64 ( 8 done. I hus, 4260 is broken as near as
8) 60 ( 74 can be into proper numbers. But fince
8) 4° ( 5 it does not fall out exa611y into the above
—  mentioned numbers, you muft correct (as
15 before diredted), and find the true number
of beats in an hour, by multiplying 13 by
3, which makes 73 5 and 73 by 60 makes 4300, which
is half the true train. Then find the beats in one turn
of the fufeej thus, 16 : 192 :: 4300 : 34000 j which
laft is half the beats in one turn of the fufee. This
34000 being divided by 4300 (the true
9) 108 (12 numbers already pitched on), the quo-
8) 64 ( 8 tient will be 10 •, which, not being too big
8) 60 ( 74 for a fingle quotient, needs not be divided
8) 4° ( 5 in^° more : and the work will {land as
in the margin. As to the hour-hand, the
15 great wheel, which performs only one re¬
volution in 12 turns of the minute-ivheel,
will fhow the hour ; or it may be done by the minute- dock
wheel. Clodia.
It is requifite for thofe who make nice aftronomical ''"““V"-
obfervations, to have watches that make fome exadt
number of beats per fecond, without any fradtion j but
we feldom find a watch that does. As four beats per
fecond would be a very convenient number, we {hall
here give the train for fuch a watch, which would (like
moft others) ge 30 hours, but is to be wound up once
in 24 hours.
The fufee and firft wheel to go round in four hours.
1 his wheel has 48 teeth, and it turns a pinion of 12
leaves, on whofe axis is the fecond wheel, which goes
round in one hour, and carries the minute-hand. This
wheel has 60 teeth, and turns a pinion of 10 leaves 3
on whofe axis is the third wheel of 60 teeth, turning
a pinion of 6 leaves 3 on whofe axis is the fourth (or
contrate) wheel, turning round in a minute, and car¬
rying the fmall hand that {hows the feconds, on a
fma!l circle on the dial-plate, divided into 60 parts :
this contrate wheel has 48 teeth, and turns a pinion
of 6 leaves 3 on whofe axis is the crown or balance-
wheel of 13 teeth, which makes 30 beats in each revo¬
lution.
The crown-wheel goes 480 times round in an hour,
and 30 times 480 make 14400, the number of beats
in an hour. But one hour contains 3600 feconds j and
14400 divided by 3600 quotes 4, the required number
of beats in a fecor.d.
The fufee muft have 74 turns, to let the chain go fa
many times round it. Then, as 1 turn is to 4 hours,
fo is 74 turns to 50 hours, the time the watch would
go after it is wound up.
See further the articles Movement, Turn, &c.
And for the hiftory and particular conftrudlion of
Watches, properly fo called, fee the article Watch.
CLODIA LEX, tie Cijpro, was enabled by the tri¬
bune Ciodius, in the year of Rome 607, to reduce Cy¬
prus into a Roman province, and expofe Ptolemy
king of Egypt to fale in his regal ornaments. It em¬
powered Cato to go with the prsetorepn power and
fee the audion of the king’s goods, and commiflion-
ed him to return the money to Rome. Another, de
Magijiratibus, 693, by Ciodius the tribune. It for¬
bade the cenfors to put a ftigma or mark of infamy
upon any perfon who had not been adfually accufed
and condemned by both the cenfors. Another, de Re-
ligione, by the fame, 696, to deprive the prieft of Cy-
bele, a native of Peftinuns, of his office, and confer the
priefthood upon Brotigonus, a Gallogrecian. Ano¬
ther, de Provincus, 693, which nominated the pro¬
vinces of Syria, Babylon, and Perfia, to the conful
Gabinus, and Achaia, Theffaly, Macedon, and Greece,
to his colleague Pifo, with proconfular power. It
empowered them to defray the expences of their
march from the public treafury. Another, 693, which
required the fame diftribubtion of corn among the
people gratis, as had been given them before at fix
afles and a triens the bulhel. Another, 693, by the
fame, de Judiciis. It called to an account fuch as
had executed a Roman citizen without a judg¬
ment of the people and all the formalities of a trial.
Another, by the fame, to pay no attention to the
appearances of the heavens while any affair was be¬
fore
-17
Fig. 3.
CLOCK.
PLATE CJlLVI.
fc/ls/Z?
** *
WJrc/ubald SciUj> t
PLATE CXJA'UL
CV’ua
Cloifter.
C L O [
fore the people. Another, to make the power
the tribunes free in making and propofing laws.
 , Another, to re-eftablifh the companies of artiiis which
had been inftituted by Numa, but fince his time abo-
Jilhed.
CLODIUS, Publius, a Roman defcended of an
illuftrious family. He made himfelf famous for his li-
centioufnefs, avarice, and ambition. He committed
inceft with his three fitters, and introduced himfelf in
women’s clothes into the houfe of Julius Ctefar, whilit
Pompeia, Caefar’s wife, of whom he was enamoured,
was celebrating the myfterles of Ceres, where no man
was permitted to appear. He was accufed for this
violation of human and divine laws; but he made him-
feR tribune, and by that means fcreened himfelf from
jultice. He defcended from a patrician into a ple¬
beian family to become a tribune. He was fuch an
enemy to Cato, that he made him go with praetorian
power, in an expedition againft Ptolemy king of Cy¬
prus, that by the difficulty of the campaign he might
ruin his reputation, and deftroy his intereft at Rome
during his abfence. Cato, however, by his uncommon
fuccefs, fruftrated the defigns of Clodius. He was alfo
an inveterate enemy to Cicero, and by his influence he
baniffied him from Rome, partly on pretence that he
had punifhed with death and without trial the adhe¬
rents of Catiline. He wreaked his vengeance upon Ci¬
cero’s houfe, which he burnt, and fet all his goods to
fale ; which, however, to his great mortification, no
one offered to buy. In fpite of Clodius, Cicero was
recalled, and all his goods reftored to him. Clodius
was fome time after murdered by Milo, whofe defence
Cicero took upon himfelf.
CLOGHER, an epifcopal town of Ireland, in the
county of Tyrone, and province of Ulfter. It fent
two members to the Irifli parliament. In a very early
age an abbey of regular canons, dedicated to the Vir¬
gin Mary, was founded here. St Patrick is faid to
have prefided over the church of Clogher ; and having
■appointed St Kertenn to be his fucceffor, he refigned
this government, and went to Armagh, where he found¬
ed his celebrated abbey. On the 20th of April 1396,
a dreadful fire burnt to the ground the church, the
two chapels, the abbey, the court of the bifliops, and
thirty-two other buildings, with all the facerdotal veft-
ments, utenfils, &c. belonging to the biffiop’s chapter
and church. In the year 1610, on the 24th of July
whilfl; George Montgomery was bifliop of Clogher,
King James annexed this abbey and its revenues to
that fee. The fee (valued in the king’s books at 350I.
per annum by extent returned 15th James I.) is re¬
puted to be worth 4000I. annually. W. Long. 6. qo.
N. Lat. 54. 30.
.CLOIS PER a habitation furrounded
with walls, and inhabited by canons or religious, &c.
In a more general fenfe, cloifter is ufed for a mona-
ftery of religious, of either fex. In a more rettrain-
ed fenfe, cloifter is ufed for the principal part of a re¬
gular monaftery, confiding of a fquare built around ;
ordinarily between the church, the chapter-houfe, and
the. refe&ory ; and over which fs the dormitory. The
cloifters ferved for feveral purpofes in the ancient mo-
nafte . Petrus Blefenfis obferves that it was here
the monks held their ledlures : the ledlure of morali¬
ty at the north fide, next the church : the fchool on
Vol. VI. Part I,
209 ] C L 0
of the weft, and the chapter on the eaft ; fpiritual medi- cloifter
tation, &c. being referved for the church. Lanfranc |]
obferves, that the proper ufe of the cloifter was for Clofe-haui-
the monks to meet in, and converfe together, at cer- et*’
tain hours of the day. u—-y——/
I he form of the cloifter was fquare ; and it had its
name claujlrum, from claudo, “ I ffiut or clofe as
being inclofed on its four fides with buildings. Hence
in architecture, a building is itill faid to be in form of
a cloifter, when there are buildings on each of the four
fides of the court.
CLONMELL, the aftize town of the county of
Tipperary in Ireland, is fituated on the river Suir, hath
a barrack for two troops of horfe, and is governed by
a mayor, recorder, bailiffs, and town-clerk. The river
is navigable from this town to Garrick and Waterford ;
and there is fome trade carried on here in the woollen
branch, particularly by the Quakers, who are very nu¬
merous in this neighbourhood. Near this place is a
fpring of Spa water, that iffues from the fide of a
rifing ground, and is overlooked by a pretty fteep
hill, on that fide of the river Suir, which is in the
county.of Waterford. The cures performed by drink¬
ing this water in the feurvy, and other chronic di-
ftempers, drew thither, fome years ago, a great re¬
fort of people ; but faffiion, which reigns with an ab-
folute authority, has brought other waters of late into
higher credit. It was in this town that the celebrated
and reverend Laurence Sterne was born, on the 24th
of November 1713. The town confifts of four crofs
ftreets, and has a fpacious bridge of 20 arches over
the river Suir ; the market-houfe is ftrong and well
built, and there is a charter-fehool here for forty chil¬
dren, to which the late John Dawfon, Efq. and Sir
Charles Moore, Bart, were confiderable benefaftors.
A Dominican friary was founded at Clonmell, in
1269, and dedicated to St Dominick. In the fame
year Otho de Grandifon erefled one of the moft mag¬
nificent in Ireland. In it was kept an image of St
Francis, refpefting the miracles wrought by which
many marvellous ftories are circulated. This town «
very ancient, being built before the invafion of the
Danes : it was formerly defended by a fquare wall.
Oliver Cromwell, who found more refiftance from this
place than any other of his conquefts in the kingdom,
demoliffied the caftles and fortifications, of which now
only the ruins remain : the chief Gothic church here
is ftill kept in good repair. W. Long. 7. 27. N. Lat
J4- I4-
CLOSE, in Heraldry. When any bird is drawn in
a. coat of arms with its wings clofe down about it,
(i. e. not difplayed), and in a ftanding pofture, they
blazon it by this word clofe ; but if it be flying, they
call it volant. See Volant.
Close, in Mujic. See Cadence.
CLOSE-Hau/cd, in Navigation, the general arrange¬
ment or trim of a ffiip’s fails when ftie endeavours to
make a progrefs in the neareft direflion poffible to¬
wards that point of the compafs from which the wind
blows. In this manner of failing, the keel commonly
makes an angle of fix points with the line of the wind*-
but floops and fome other fmall veffels are faid to fail
almoft a point nearer. All veffels, however, are fup.
pofed to make nearly a point of leeway when clofe-
hauled? even when they have the advantage of a good
D i failing
Clofe-
hauled
II
Cloth.
Falconer's
C L O [21
failing breeze and fmootli water. The angle of lee¬
way, however, increafes in proportion to the increafe
of the wind and fea. In this difpofition of the fails,
f they are all extended fidewife on the (hip, fo that the
wind as it crofl'es the fliip obliquely toward the Hern
from forwards, may fill their cavities. But as the cur¬
rent of wind alfo enters the fails in an oblique direc¬
tion, the effort of it to make the fhip advance is confi-
derably diminifhed : fhe will therefore make the leaft
progrefs when failing in this manner. The fhip is
faid to be clofe-hauled, becaufe at this time her tacks,
or lower corners of the principal fails, are drawn clofe
down to her fide to windward, the fheets hauled clofe-
aft, and all the bow-lines drawn to their greateft ex-
tenfion to keep the fails fteady.
CLOSE-^uarters, certain ftrong barriers of wood,
ilretching acrofs a merchant-fhip in feveral places.
They are ufed as places of retreat when a fhip is
boarded by her adverfary, and are therefore fitted
with feveral fmali loop-holes through which to fire the
fmall arms, and thereby annoy the enemy, and defend
themfelves. They are likewife furnifhed with feveral
caifons called powder-chefls, which are fixed upon the
deck, and filled with powder, oid nails, &c. and may
be fired at any time from the clofe-quarters upon the
boarders.
We have known an Englifh merchant-fhip of 16
JMl. of the an(j properly fitted with clofe-quarters, defeat
the united efforts of three French privateers who
boarded her in the lafl war, after having engaged at
fome diftance nearly a day and a half, with very few
intervals of reft. Two of the cruifers were equipped
with twelve guns each, and the other with eight. The
French failors were, after boarding, fo much expofed
to continued fire of mufquetry and cohorns charged with
granadoes, that a dreadful fcene of carnage enfued, in
which the decks were foon covered with the dead bodies
1 of the enemy, feveral of which the boarders, in their
hurry to efcape, had left behind.
CLOT-bird : a fpecies of Fringilla. See Or¬
nithology Index.
CLOTH, in commerce, a manufa&ure made of
wool, wove in the loom.
Cloths are of divers qualities, fine or coarfe. The
goodnefs of cloth, according to fome, confifts in the
following particulars : I. That the wool be of a good
quality, and well dreffed. 2. It muft be equally fpun,
carefully obferving that the thread of the warp be
finer and better twilled than that of the woof. 3. The
cloth muft be well wrought, and beaten on the loom,
fo as to be everywhere equally compaft. 4. The
wool muft not be finer at one end of the piece than in
the reft. 5. The lifts muft be fufficiently ftrong, of
the fame length with the fluff, and muft confift of
good wool, hair, or oftrich-feathers ; or, what is ftill
better, of Danifh dog’s hair. 6. The cloth muft be
free from knots and other imperfe&ions. 7. It muft
be well fcoured with fullers earth, well fulled with
the bell white foap, and afterwards wafhed in clear
water. 8. The hair or nap muft be well drawn out
with the teazel, without being too much opened.
9. It muft be fhorn clofe without making it thread¬
bare. 10. It muft be well-dried. 11. It muft not be
tenter-ftretched, to force it to its juft dimenfions.
o ] c l o
12. It muft be prefled cold, not hot-prefled, the latter
being very injurious to woollen cloth. '
Manufacluring of white Cloths which are intended for
dyeing. The beft wool for the manufacturing of cloths
are thofe of England and Spain, efpecially thofe of
Lincolnfhire and Segovia. To ufe thofe wools to the •
beft advantage, they muft be fcoured, by putting them
into a liquor fomewhat more than luke-warm, compofed
of three parts of fair water and one of urine. After
the wool has continued long enough in the liquor to
foak, and diffolve the greafe, it is drained and well
wafhed in running Mater. When it feels dry, and has
no fmell but the natural one of the fheep, it is faid to
be duly fcoured.
After this, it is hung to dry in the fliade ; the heat
of the fun making it harfh and inflexible : when dry,
it is beat with rods upon hurdles of wood, or on cords,
to cleanfe it from duft and the groffer filth 5 the more
it is thus beat and cleanfed, the fofter it becomes, and
the better for fpinning. After beating, it muft be •well
picked, to free it from the reft of the filth that had ef-
caped the rods.
It is now in a proper condition to be oiled, and
carded on large iron cards placed flopewife. Olive oil
is efteemed the beft for this purpofe ; one-fifth of which
ftiould be ufed for the wool intended for the woof, and
a ninth for that defigned for the warp. After the
wool has been well oiled, it is given to the fpinners,
who firft card it on the knee, with fmall fine cards, and
then fpin it on the wheel, obferving to make the thread
of the warp fmaller by one-third than that of the woof,
and much compaCler twifted.
The thread thus fpun, is reeled, and made into
Ikeins. That defigned for the woof is wound on little
tubes, pieces of paper, or rufhes, fo difpofed as that
they may be eafily put in the eye of the ihuttie. That
for the warp is wound on a kind of large wooden bob¬
bins, to difpofe of it for warping. When warped, it is
ftiffened with fize ; the beft of which is that made of
fhreds of parchment •, and when dry, is given to the
weavers, who mount it on the loom.
The warp thus mounted, the weavers, who are two
to each loom, one on each fide, tread alternately on
the treddle, firft on the right ftep, and then on the
left, which raifes and lowers the threads of the warp
equally j between which they throw tranfverfely the
fhuttle from the one to the other; and every time
that the ftiuttle is thus thrown, and a thread of the
woof inferted within the warp, they ftrike it conjundl-
ly with the fame frame, wherein is fattened the comb
or reed, between whofe teeth the threads of the warp
are paffed, repeating the ftroke as often as is necef-
fary.
The weavers having continued their work till the
whole warp is filled with the woof, the cloth is finifh-
ed ; it is then taken off the loom by unrolling it from
the beam whereon it had been rolled in proportion as it
was wove ; and now given to be cleanfed of the knots,
ends of threads, ftraws, and other filth, which is dons
with iron nippers.
In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to be
fcoured with urine, or a kind of potters clay, well
fteeped in water, put along with the cloth in the
trough wherein it is fulled. The cloth being again
cleared
Cloti
Cloth
II
Cloud.
aufe of
ie forma-
on of
ouds un-
Wain.
, C L O [2
cleared from tlie earth or urine, is returned to the
former hands to have the leffer filth, fmall ftraws, &c.
taken off as before: then it is returned to the fuller
to be beat and fulled with hot water, wherein a
fuitable quantity of foap has been diflolved $ after ful¬
ling, it is taken out to be fmoothed or pulled by the
lifts lengthwife, to take out the wrinkles, crevices,
&c.
The fmoothing is repeated every two hours, till
the fulling be finifhed, and the cloth brought to its
proper breadth ; after which it is wafhed in clear wa¬
ter, to purge it of the foap, and given wet to the
carders to raife the hair or nap on the right fide with
the thiftle or weed. After this preparation, the cloth-
worker takes the cloth, and gives it its firft cut or
{hearing j then the carders relume it, and after wet¬
ting, give it as many more courfes with the teazle,
as the quality of the fluff requires, always obferving
to begin againft the. grain of the hair, and to end with
it; as alfo to begin with a fmoother thiftle, proceed¬
ing ft ill with one fharper and (harper, as far as the fixth
degree.
After thefe operations, the cloth being dried, is re¬
turned to the cloth-worker, who (hears it a fecond
time, and returns it to the carders, who repeat their
operation as before, till the nap be well ranged on the
furface of the cloth, from one end of the piece to the
other.
The cloth thus wove, fcoured, napped, and fliorn, is
fent to the dyer ; when dyed, it is wafhed in fair wa¬
ter, and the worker takes it again wet as it is, lays the
nap with a brufh on the table, and hangs it on the
tenters, where it is ftretcbed both in length and breadth
fufficiently to fmooth it, fet it fquare, and bring it to
its proper dimenfions, without (training it too much ;
obferving to brufh it afrefh, the way of the nap, while
a little moift, on the tenters.
When quite dry, the cloth is taken off the tenters,
and brufhed again on the table, to finifh the laying of
the nap ; after which it is folded, and laid cold under
a prefs, to make it perfeftly fmooth and even, and give
it a glofs.
Laftly, the cloth being taken out of the prefs, and
the papers, &c. for gloffing it removed, it is in a con¬
dition for fale or ufe. With regard to the manufac¬
ture of mixt cloths, or thofe wherein the wools are
firft: dyed, and then mixt, fpun, and wove of the co¬
lours intended, the procefs, except what relates to
the colour, is moftly the fame with that juft repre¬
fen ted.
CLOTH made from Vegetable Filaments. See Bark
and Filaments.
Incombujlible Cloth. See Asbestos.
CLOTHO, the youngeft of the three Parcae, daugh¬
ters of Jupiter and Themis. She was fuppofed to
prefide over the moment that we are born. She held
the diftaff in her hand, and fpun the thread of life,
whence her name xX&Suv, to fpin. She was reprefen ted
wearing a crown with feven ftars, and covered with a
variegated robe.
CLOUD, a colledlion of vapours fufpended in the
atmofphere.
That the clouds are formed from the aqueous va¬
pours, which before were fo clofely united with the
atmofphere as to be invifible, is univerfally allowed ;
ii ] C L O
but it is no eafy matter to account for the long conti- Cloud,
nuance of fome very opaque clouds without diffolving ; v
or to give a reafon why the vapours, when they have
once begun to condenfe, do not continue to do fo till
they at laft fall to the ground in the form of rain or
fnow, Sec. The general caufe of the formation of
clouds, it has been fuppofed, is a feparation of the la¬
tent heat from the water of which the vapour is com-
pofed. The confequence of this feparation muft be the
condenfation of that vapour, in fome degree at leaft :
in fuch cafe, it will firft appear as a frnoke, mift, or
-fog; which, if interpofed betwixt the fun and earth,
will form a cloud ; and the fame caufes continuing to
ad, the cloud will produce rain or fnow. But though
the feparation of this latent heat in a certain degree is
the immediate caufe of the formation of clouds, the re¬
mote caufe, or the changes produced in the atmofphere,
whereby fuch a feparation may be induced, are much
more difficult to be difeovered. In common obferva-
tion, we fee that vapour is moft powerfully condenfed 2
by cold fubftances, fuch as metals, water, &c. But Not always
cold alone cannot in all cafes caufe the condenfation of owing to
the atmofpherical vapours, otherwife the nights behov-coW*
ed to be always foggy or cloudy, owing to the va¬
pours, raifed throughout the day by the heat of the
fun, being condenfed by the fuperior coldnefs of the
night. Great rains may happen in very warm weather,
when the union of the vapours with the atmofphere
ought rather to be promoted than diflolved, if cold were
the only agent in their condenfation. The ferenity ef
the atmofphere, alfo, in the moft fevere frofts, abun¬
dantly fhows that fome other caufe befides mere heat or
cold is concerned in the formation of clouds, and con¬
denfation of the atmofpherical vapours. ^
The eleftric fluid is now fo generally admitted as Elecftricity
an agent in all the great operations of nature, that it probably
is no wonder to find the formation of clouds attributed conccrne<**
to it. This hath accordingly been given by S. Bec-
caria as the caufe of the formation of all clouds what-
foever, whether of thunder, rain, hail, or fnovv. The
firft, he thinks, are produced by a very great power of
eledlricity, and the others by one more moderate. But
though it is certain that all clouds, or even fogs and
rain, are ele&rified in fome degree, it ftill remains a
queftion, whether the clouds are formed in confequence
of the vapour whereof they are compofed being firfl:
eledtrified, or whether they become eledlrified in con¬
fequence of its being firft feparated from the atmo¬
fphere, and in fome meafure condenfed. This hath
not yet, as far as we know, been afeertained by the
experiments of Beccaria, or any other perfon ; and in¬
deed, notwithftanding the multitude of eledlrical dif-
coveries that have lately been made, there feems tq be.
little or no foundation for afeertaining it. Eledtricity
is known to be ir> many cafes a promoter of evapora¬
tion ; but no experiments have yet been brought to
prove that eledtrified air parts with its moifture more
readily than fuch as is not eledlrified ; fo that, till the
properties of eledlrified air are farther inveftigated, it is
impoffible to lay down any rational theory of the forma¬
tion of clouds upon this principle. 4
But whether the clouds are produced, i. e. the in- Clouds of-
vifible vapours floating in the atmofphere condenfed t?n Pro(fi-
fo as to become vifible, by means of eledlricity or noti fe^Uri|c^*
it is certain that they do contain the eledlric fluid in
D d 2 prodigious
Cloud.
Terrible
C L O [21
prodigious and inconceivable quantities, and many very
terrible and deftruftive phenomena have been occa-
fioned by clouds very highly electrified. The molt ex¬
traordinary inftance of this kind perhaps on record
happened in the ifland of Java, in the Eaft Indies,
in Auguft 1772. On the 11th of that month, at mid-
deftrutftion night, a bright cloud was obferved covering a moun-
by an elec- tain in the diftrift called Cheribon, at the fame time
trifled cloud fey.erai reports were heard like thofe of a gun. The
people who dwelt upon the upper parts of the moun¬
tain not being able to fly fait enough, a great part
of the cloud, almoft three leagues in circumference,
detached itfelf under them, and was feen at a dif.
tance rifing and falling like the waves of the fea, and
emitting globes of fire fo luminous, that the night be¬
came as clear as day. The efftdts of it were alto-
nifbing ; every thing was deftroyed for feven leagues
round $ the houfes were demolifhed ; plantations were
buried in the earth j and 2140 people loft their lives,
befides 1500 head of cattle, and a vaft number of
By another horfeS’ Soat3> &c- . *
in the ifland Another inftance of a very deftruClive cloud, the
ef Malta, eleftric quality of which will at prefent fcarcely be
doubted, is related by Mr Brydone, in his Tour
through Malta. It appeared on the 29th of October
1757. About three quarters of an hour after midnight,
there was feen to the fouth-weft of the city of Melita,
a great black cloud, which, as it approached, changed
its colour, till at laft it became like a flame of fire
mixed with black fmoke. A dreadful noife was heard
on its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It
palled over the port, and came firft on an Englifh ftiip,
which in an inftant was torn in pieces, and nothing
left but the hulk \ part of the mails, fails, and cord¬
age, were carried to a considerable diftance along with
the cloud. The fmall boats and felloques that fell in
its way were all broken to pieces and funk. The noife
increafed, and became more frightful. A fentinei, ter^
rified at its approach, ran into his box 5 but both he
and it were lifted up and carried into the fea, where he
perilhed. It then traverfed a confiderable part of the
city, and laid in ruins almoft every thing that flood in
its way. Several houfes were laid level with the
ground, and it did not leave one fteeple in its pafiage.
The bells of fome of them, together with the fpires,
were carried to a confiderable diftance j the roofs of
the churches demolilhed and beat down, &c. It went
off at the north-eaft point of the city, and demolilhing
the light-houfe, is faid to have mounted up into the air
with a frightful noife ; and paffed over the fea to Sicily,
where it tore up fome trees, and did other damage ;
but nothing confiderable, as its fury had been moftly
fpent at Malta. The number of killed and wounded
amounted to near 200 \ and the lofs of (hipping, &c»
was very confiderable.
The effefts of thunder-ftorms, and the vaft quantity
©f eleflricity collected in the clouds which produce
thefe florms, are fo well known, that it is fuperfiuous
to mention them. It appears, however, that even
the clouds are not fo highly electrified as to produce
Inftance of t^e*r e^e(^s 011 thofe who are immerfed in them,
two people It is only the difeharge of part of their eleClricity up-
involved in on fuch bodies as are either not eledtrified at all, or
a thunder- not f0 highly eleCtrified as the cloud, that does all the
t-kmd. xnifehief. We have, however, only the following in-
2 ] C L O
ftance on record, of* any perfons being immerfed in the Cloud,
body of a thunder-cloud. Profeffor Sauffure and young y—^
Mr jaiabert, when travelling over one of the high Alps,
were caught among clouds of this kind ; and, to their
aftonilhment, found their bodies fo full of eledlrical fire,
that fpontaneous flafhes darted from their fingers with
a crackling noife, and the fame kind of fenfalion as
when ftrongly eledrified by art. g
The height of clouds in general is not great 5 the Height of
fummits of very high mountains being commwnly quite the clouds,
free from them, as Mr Brydone experienced in his jour¬
ney up Mount /Etna ; but thofe which are moft high¬
ly eleClrified defeend loweft, their height being often
not above feven or eight hundred yards above the
ground $ nay, fometimes thunder-clouds appear actu¬
ally to touch the, ground with one of their edges * r.* See
but the generality of clouds are fufpended at the height^,
of a mile, or little more, above the earth. Some*,
however, have imagined them to arife to a moft incre¬
dible and-extravagant height. Maignan of Thouloufe,
in his Treatife of PerfpeCtive, p. 93, gives an account
of an exceeding bright little cloud that appeared at
midnight in the month of Auguft, which fpread itfelf
almoft as far as the zenith. He fays that the fame
thing was alfo obferved at Rome; and from thenca
concludes that the, cloud was a colledion of vapours
raifed beyond the projeClion of the earth’s ftiadow,
and of eonfequence illuminated by means of the fun.
This, however, can by no means be credited j and it
is much more probable that this cloud owed its fplen-
dor to eleClricity, than to the reflection of the folar
beams.
In the evenings after funfet, and mornings before Their van*
funrife, we often obferve the clouds tinged with beau-ous colours
tiful colours. They are moftly red ; fometimes o-^ccouate^
range, yellow, or purple-, more rarely bluifh ; andtor’
feldom or never green. The reafon of this variety of
colours, according to Sir Ifaac Newton, is the differ¬
ent fize of the globules into which the vapours are cen-
denfed. This is controverted by Mr Melville, who
thinks that the clouds refleCt the fun’s light precifely
as it is tranfmitted to them through the atmofphere.
This refleCls the moft refrangible rays in the greateft
quantity ; and therefore ought to tranfmit the leaft re¬
frangible ones, red, orange, and yellow to the clouds,
which accordingly appear moft ufually of thofe colours.
In this opinion he was greatly confirmed by obferving,
when he was in Switzerland, that the fnowy fummits
of the Alps turned more and more reddifh after funfet,
in the fame manner as the clouds •, and he imagines that
the femitranfparency of the clouds, and the obliquity
of their fituation, tend to make the colours in them
much more rich and copious than thofe on the tops of
fnowy mountains.
The motions of the clouds, though fometimes di-Q£tjie
reCled by the wind, are not always fo, efpecially whentions of
thunder is about to enfue. In this cafe they-feem to clouds,
move very flowly, and often to be abfolutely ftationary
for fome time. The reafon of this moft probably is,
that they are impelled by two oppofite ftreams of air
neatly of equal ftrength j by which means their velo¬
city is greatly retarded. In fuch cafes both the aerial
currents feem to afeend to a very confiderable height $
for Meff. Charles and Roberts, when endeavouring to
avoid a thunder-cloud in one of their aerial voyages,
could.
C L O [ 213 ] C L O
Cloud.
II
lieir
tiapes.
12
'onnec-
ion of the
lotuls with
/iud.
.T3
•heir ufes.
could find no alteration in the courfe of the current,
though they afcended to the height of 4000 feet from
the furface of the earth. In forne cafes the motions
of the clouds evidently depend on their electricity, in¬
dependent of any current of air whatever. Thus, in
a calm and warm day, we often fee fmall clouds meet¬
ing each other in oppofite directions, and fetting out
from fuch fhort dittances, that we cannot fuppofe any
opponte winds to be the caufe. Thele clouds, when
they meet, initead of forming a larger one, become much
lefs, and fometimes vaniih altogether 5 a circumftance
undoubtedly owing to the difcharge of oppofite elec¬
tricities into each other. This ferves alfo to throw
fome light on the true caufe of the formation of clouds j
for if two clouds eleCtrified, the one pofitively and the
other negatively, dellroy each other in contaCl; ij;
follows, tiiat any quantity of vapour fufpended in the
atmofphere, while it retains its natural quantity of
eleCIricity, remains inviiible, but becomes a cloud when
eleftrified either plus or minus. A difficulty, however,
ftill occurs j viz. in what manner a fmall quantity of
vapour furrounded by an immenfe ocean of the fame
kind of matter, can acquire either more or lefs eleftri-
city than that which furrounds it j and this indeed we
feem not as yet to have any data to folve in a fatisfac-
tory manner.
The ffiapes of the clouds are likewife undoubtedly
owing to their eleftricity $ for in thofe feafons in which
a great commotion has been excited in the atmofphe-
rical eleClricity, we ffiall perceive the clouds afluming
ftrange and whimfical fhapes, which vary almoft every
moment. This, as well as the meeting of fmall clouds
in the air, and vanifiiing upon contaCt, is an almoft in¬
fallible fign of thunder.
Befides the phenomena of thunder, rain, &c. the
clouds are intimately connected with thofe of wind,
and always affume a particular ftiape, when a ftrong
continued wind is about to enfue j though it is remark¬
able, that in the ftrongeft winds we fhall often obferve
them ftationary. Sometimes alfo,. on the approach of
a cloud, we fhall find afudden and violent guft of wind
arife ; and at others, the wind, though violent before-
fhall ceafe on the approach of a cloud, and recover its
ftrength as foon as the cloud is paft. This connection,
of the clouds with wind is moft remarkable in moun¬
tainous countries, when the peaks are fufficiently high
to have their tops involved in clouds. A very remark¬
able mountain of this kind is met with at the Cape of
Good Hope, from the clouds on whofe top, accord¬
ing to the relations of travellers, the winds iflue forth
as if they had been confined in a bag ; and fomething
fimilar has been obferved of mountains in other parts
of the world.
The ufes of the clouds are. evident : as from them
proceeds the rain which refrefties the earth ; and with¬
out which, according to the prefent fyftem of nature,
the whole furface of the earth muft be a mere defert.
They are likewife of great ule as a fcreen interpofed
between the earth and the fcorching rays of the fun
which are often fo powerful as to deftroy the grafs and
other tender vegetables. In the more fecret operations
of nature alfo, where the eleCtrical fluid is concerned,
the clouds bear a principal lhare ; and ferve efpecially
as a medium for conveying that fluid from the atmo-
fpliere into the earth, and from the earth into the at-
mofphere ; in doing which, when eleCtrified to a great Ckud
degree, they fometimes produce very terrible effeCts j ||
of which inftances have been already given. Clouts.
CLOVE-tree. See Caryofhyllus, Botany /a- '■""‘"‘v—
dex.
Clove, a term ufed in weights of wool. Seven
pounds make a clove. In ElTex, eight pounds of cheef*
and butter go to the clove.
Clove July flower. See Dianthus, Botany In¬
dex.
CLOVER-grass. See Trifolium, Botany /a-
dex, and Agriculture Index.
CLOUGH, or Draught, in commerce, an allow¬
ance of two pounds in every hundred weight for the
turn of the fcale, that the commodity may hold out
weight when fold out by retail.
CLOVIO, Giorgio Giulio, hiftory and portrait
painter, was born in Sclavonia, in 1498. Having in
the early part of his youth applied himielf to literature,,
his genius prompted him to purfue the art of painting
for a profeflion ; and at 18 years of age he went to
Rome, where he fpent three years to perfect his hand,
in drawing, and devoted himfelf entirely to painting
in miniature. His knowledge of colouring was efta-
blilhed by the inftruflions of Julio Romano, and his
tafte of compofition and defign was founded on the ob-
fervations he made on the works of Michael Angelo
Buonaroti. By thofe afliftances he arrived at fuch
a degree of excellence in portrait as well as in hiftory,
that in the former he was accounted equal to Titian,
and in the latter not inferior to Buonaroti.. He died
in 1578. His works are exceedingly valuable, and
are at this day numbered among the euriofities of Rome.
Vafari, who had feen the wonderful performances of
Clovio, with inexpreffible aftonifliment, enumerates
many of his portraits and hiftorical compofitions, and
feems to be almoft at a lofs for language fufficiently ex-
preffive of their merit. He mentions two or three
pictures on which the artift had beftowed the labour
of nine years ; but the principal pifture reprefented
Nimrod, building the Tower of Babel ; which was fo
exquifitely finiflied, and fo perfect in all its parts, that
it feemed quite inconceivable how the eye or the pen¬
cil could execute it. He fays it is impoflible to ima¬
gine any thing fo admirably curious ; whether one con-
fiders the elegance of the attitudes, the richnefs of the
compolition, the delicacy of the naked figures, the
perfpeftive proportion of the objefts, the tender dl-
ftances, the feenery, the buildings, or other ornaments;
for every part is beautiful and inimitable. He alfo
takes notice of a fingle ant introduced in one of the
pi61ures of this mafter; whish, though exceedingly and
incredibly fmall, is yet fo perfect, that even the moft
minute member was as diflintt as if it had been paint¬
ed of the natural fize.
CLOVIS I. was the real founder of the French mo¬
narchy ; for he was the firft conqueror of the feveral
provinces of Gaul, pofleffed before his time by the Ro¬
mans, Germans, and Goths. Thefe he united to the
then fcanty dominions of France, removtjd the feat of
government from Soiffons to Paris, and made this the
capital of his new kingdom. He died in 511, in the
46th year of his age and 31ft of his reign. See (Hifl.
of) France.
CLOUTS, in Gunnery, are thin plates of iron nail¬
ed,
e l u [21
Clouts ed on that part of the axle-tree of a gun-carriage which
II comes through the nave, and through which the linfpin
cluny- goes.
""'UL‘J CLOYNE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Cork and province of Munfler. W. Long. 8. o.
N. Lat. 51. 40. It is but a fmal! place, though an
epifcopal refidence. A church was built, and a bilhop-
ric erected here, by St Colman, who died on the 4th
of November 604-, and in 707 an abbey was alfo
founded here. In 1430, the biftiopric was united to
that of Cork*, and the union continued till the nth
of November 1638, when Dr George Synge was con-
fecrated biihop of Cloyne j fince which time this fee
has been governed by its own prelates, one of whom
was the celebrated Berkeley. This fee is not taxed in
the king’s books ; but is now reputed to be worth
2500I. a-year. The chapter of Cloyne is compofed of
a dean, chapter, chancellor, treafurer, an archdeacon,
and fourteen prebendaries. The diocefe is divided in¬
to four rural deaneries, and the collegiate church of St
Mary of Youghal is united to the bilhopric. The ca¬
thedral is a decent Gothic building. The nave is a-
bout 120 feet long j having lateral allies, befides the
crofs allies, divided by Gothic arches, five on each fide.
In the choir there is an excellent organ. The bilhop’s
palace, which rvas rebuilt at the beginning of the pre-
fent century, is large and convenient. To the north-
weft of Cloyne is a reputed holy well, dedicated to St
Colman, which is much frequented on the 24th of No¬
vember, being the patron day.
CLUE of A sail, the lower corner ; and hence
CLUE-Garnets are a fort of tackles faftened to the
clues, or lower corners of the mainfail or forefail to
trufs them up to the yard as occafion requires, which
is ufually termed clueing up the fails.
CLUE-Lines are for the fame purpofeas clue-garnets $
only that the latter are confined to the courfes, where¬
as the former are common to all the fquare fails. See
thefe ropes as reprefented in the article Ship.
CLUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a principal town
of the Hither Spain, a Roman colony, with a conven-
tus juridicus, on the Durius, to the weft of Numantia,
Now Corunna del Conde.
CLUNIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cor-
fica, near Baftia. Now St Catharine.
CLUNY, or Clugny, a celebrated abbey of Bene-
di&ine monks, in a city of that name j being the head
or chief of a congregation denominated from them.
It is fituated in the Mafonnois, a little province of
France, on the river Crone j and was founded by
William duke of Berry and Aquitain j or, as others
fay, by the abbot Bernon, fupported by that duke, in
the year 910.
This abbey was anciently fo very fpacious and mag¬
nificent, that in 1245, a^ter t^ie holding of the firft.
council of Lyons, Pope Innocent IV. went to Cluny,
accompanied with the two patriarchs of Antioch and
Conftantinople, 12 cardinals, 3 archbiftiops, 15 biftiops,
and a great number of abbots; who were all enter¬
tained, without one of the monks being put out of
their place ; though S. Louis £). Blanche his mother,
the duke of Artois his brother, and his fitter, the em¬
peror of Conftantinople, the fons of the kings of Ar-
jagon and Caftile, the duke of Burgundy, fix counts,
4 ] C L U
and a great number of lords, with all their retinues, ciunv,
were there at the fame time. Clupea.
Cluny, at its firft erection, was put under the im- ■v—■
mediate protection of the apoftolic fee, with exprefs
prohibition to all fecular and ecclefiafiio powers, to dif-
turb the monks in the pofieffion of their effefts, or
the eleCtion of their abbot. By this they pretended
to be exempted from the jurifdiCtion of biftiops 5 which
at length gave the hint to other abbeys to infill on the
fame.
Cluny is the head of a very'numerous and extenfive
congregation : in effeCt, it was the firft congregation
of divers monafteries united under one chief, fo as only
to conftitute one body, or, as they call it, one order,
that ever arofe.
This order of monks was brought into England by
William, earl of Warren, fon-in-law to William the
Conqueror, who built a houfe for them at Lewes in
Suflex about the year 1077. There were 27 priories
and fells of this order in England, which were govern¬
ed by foreigners, afterwards made denizens.
CLUPEA, or Herring, in Ichthyology, a genus
belonging to the order of abdominalcs. The upper jaw
is furniftied with a ferrated myftachej the branchioftege
membrane has eight rays j a fcaly ferrated line runs
along the belly from the head to the tail $ and the
belly-fins have frequently nine rays. There are 11
fpecies, viz.
1. The harengus, or common herring, has no fpots,
and the under jaw is longer than the upper one. A
herring dies immediately after it is taken out of the
water; whence the proverb arifes, As dead as a her¬
ring. The meat is everywhere in great efteem, being
fat, foft, and delicate j efpecially if it is drefled as foon
as caught, for then it is incomparably better than on the
next day.
The herring was unknown to the ancients. Not-
withftanding the words and pxtvis are by tranfla-
tors rendered halec, the charaClers given to thofe fifti
are common to fuch numbers of different fpecies as ren¬
der it impofiible to fay which they intended.
Herrings are found from the higheft northern lati-jqerr;nggy
tudes yet known, as low as the northern coafts of where
France j and except one inftance, brought by Dod, offound.
a few being once taken in the bay of Tangier, none
are ever found more foutherly. They are met with
in vaft ftioals on the coaft of America, as low as Ca¬
rolina. In Chefapeak-bay is an annual inundation of
thofe fifti, which cover the ftiore in fuch quantities as
to become a nuifance. We find them again in the feas
of Kamti’chatka, and probably they reach Japan j for
Kempfer mentions, in his account of the fifti of that
country, fome that are congenerous. The great win¬
ter rendezvous of the herring is within the ar£Hc circle :
there they continue for many months in order to re¬
cruit themfelves after the fatigue of {pawning; the feas
within that fpace fwarming with infeft food in a far
greater degree than thofe of our warmer latitudes. 2
This mighty army begins to put itfelf in motion in thelmmenfe
fpring; we diftinguilh this vaft body by that name ; ^oals of
for the word herring comes from the German heerf^™"
“ an army,” to exprefs their numbers. They begin
to appear off the Shetland ifles in April and May ;
thefe are only the forerunners of the grand Ihoal which
comes
Vonderful
iftindt of
hefe crea-
ures.
C L U [ 215 ] C L U
comes in June ; and their appearance is marked by-
certain figns, by the number of birds, fuch as gannets
and others, which follow to prey on them ; but when
the main body approaches, its breadth and depth is
fuch as to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It
is divided into diftimSl columns of five or fix miles in
length, and three or four in breadth, and they drive
the water before them with a kind of rippling : fome-
times they fink for the fpace of ten or fifteen minutes,
and then rife again to the furface ; and in fine wea¬
ther refleft a variety of fplendid colours like a field of
the mod precious gems $ in which, or rather in a much
more valuable, light (hould this ftupendous gift of Pro¬
vidence be confidered by the inhabitants of the Britilh
illes.
The firft check this army meets in its march fouth-
ward is from the Shetland ifles, which divide it into
two parts •, one wing takes to the eaft, the other to
the weftern (Imres of Great Britain, and fill every bay
and creek with their numbers $ others pafs on to¬
wards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of her¬
rings : they then pafs through the Britifh Channel,
and after that, in a manner difappear. Thofe which
take towards the weft, after offering themfelves to the
Hebrides, where the great ftationary filhery is, pro¬
ceed to the north of Ireland, where they meet with a
fecund interruption, and are obliged to make a fecond
divifion : the one takes to the weftein fide, and is
fcarce perceived, being foon loft in the immenfity of
the Atlantic ; but the other, that pa(fes into the Irifh
fea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of moft of the
coafts that border on it. Thefe brigades, as we may
call them, which are thus feparated from the greater
columns, are often capricious in their motions, and do
not (how an invariable attachment to their haunts.
Were we inclined to confider this partial migration
in a moral light, we might refledt with veneration and
awe on the mighty power which originally impre(fed
on this moft ufeful body of his creatures the inftindt
that diredfs and points out the courfe, that blelfes and
enriches thefe iflands, which caufes them at certain
and invariable times to quit the vaft polar deeps, and
offer themfelves to our expedting fleets. That bene¬
volent Being has never been known, from the earlieft
account of time, once to withdraw this blefling from
the whole ; though he often thinks proper to deny it
to particulars, yet this partial failure (for which we fee
no natural reafon) fhould fill us with the moft exalted
and grateful fenfe of his providence for imprefling fuch
an invariable and general inftindt on thefe fifli towards
a fouthward migration when the whole is to be bene¬
fited, and to withdraw it when only a minute part is to
fuffer.
This inftindi was given them, that they might re¬
move for the fake of depofiting their fpawn in warmer
Teas, that would mature and vivify it more affuredly
than thofe of the frozen zone. It is not from defedt
of food that they fet themfelves in motion ; for they
come to us full of fat, and on their return are almoft
univerfally obferved to be lean and miferable. What
their food is near the pole we are not yet informed ;
but in our feas they feed much on the onifcus marinus,
a cruftaceous infedt, and fometimes on their own fry.
They are full of roe in the end of June, and conti-
aue in perfedtion till the beginning of winter, when
3
they depofit their fpawn. The young herrings begin Clupea.
to approach the (hores in July and Auguft, and are v-—»*
then from half an inch to two inches long j thofe in
Yorkfhire are called herring Jile. Though we have no yout^ one8
particular authority for it, yet as very few young her-probably
rings are found in our feas during winter, it feems moft retire with
certain that they muft return to their parental hauntst*ieir Pa'
beneath the ice, to repair the vaft deftrudlion of theirrents’
race during fummer by men, fowl, and fi(h. Some of
the old herrings continue on our coaft the whole year :
the Scarborough fifttermen never put down their nets
but they catch a few j but the numbers that remain are
not worth comparifon with thofe that return. See
Herring-FlSHER T.
The Dutch are moft extravagantly fond of this fi(h
when it is pickled. A premium is given to the firft;
bufs that arrives in Holland with a lading of this their
ambrofia, and a vaft price given for each keg. There
is as much joy among the inhabitants on its arrival, as
the Egyptians (how on the firft overflowing of the
Nile. Flanders had the honour of inventing the art Pickling of
of pickling herrings. One William Beauklen of Bi- herrings
verlet, near Sluys, hit on this ufeful expedient j from
him was derived the name pickle, which we borrow from
the Dutch and German. Beauklen died in 1397. The
emperor Charles V. held his memory in fuch venera¬
tion for the fervice he did to mankind, as to do his
tomb the honour of a vifit. It is very Angular that
moft nations give the name of their favourite difh to
the facetious attendant on every mountebank. Thus
the Dutch call him pickle herring; the Italians maca¬
roni; the French, jean pottage; the Germans hans
wurji, that is, jack faufage; and the Englith dignify
him with the name of jack pudding. ^
2. The fprattus has 13 rays in the back fin. It is agprattus,
native of the European feas, and has a great refem-where
blance to the herring, only it is of a lefs fize. They (out¬
come into the river Thames below bridge in the be¬
ginning of November, and leave it in March ; and are,
during that feafon, a great relief to the poor of the ca¬
pital. At Gravefend and at Yarmouth they are cured
like red-herrings ; they are fometimes pickled, and are
little inferior in flavour to the anchovy, but the bones
will not diflblve like thofe of the latter. ^
3. The alofa, or Jhad, has a forked fnout, and black Alofa, or
fpots on the (ides. According to Belonius and Haf-^ath where
felquift, this is a fifli of paflage in the Nile. The laft^ounc^*
fays, it is found in the Mediterranean near Smyrna,
and on the coaft of Egypt near Rofetta ; and that in
the months of December and January it afcends the
Nile as high as Cairo, where the people fluff it with
pot marjoram ; and when dreffed in that manner, it g
will very nearly intoxicate the eater. In Great Bri-xhefinefl:
tain the Severn affords this fifti in higher perfection inhabit the
than any other river. It makes its firft appearance^evem•
there in May, but in very warm feafons in April j for
its arrival fooner or later depends much on the temper
of the air. It continues in the river about two months,
and then is fucceeded by a variety which we (hall have
occafion to mention hereafter.
The Severn (had is efteemed a very delicate fifli
about the time of its firft appearance, efpecially in that
part of the river that flows by Gloucefter, where they
are taken in nets, and ufually fell dearer than falmon :
fome are fent to London, where the fiflimongers di-
ftinguilb
'Ciupea
II
Clufium.
C L U [2
ftinguifti them from thofeof the Thames by the French
name a/q/e. Whether they fpawn in this river and the
Wye is not determined, for their fry has not yet been
"" difcovered. The old fifh come from the fea into the
river in full roe. In the months of July and Auguft,
multitudes of bleak frequent the river near Gloucefter;
fome of them are as big as a fmall herring, and thefc
. the fifhermen erroneoufly fuppofe to be the fry of the
Iliad. Numbers of thefe are taken near Gloucefter, in
thofe months only, but none of the emaciated (had are
ever caught in their return.
The Thames Iliad does not frequent that river till
the latter end of May or beginning of June, and is
efteemed a very coarfe and infipid fort of fifh. The
Severn (had is fometimes caught in the Thames, though
rarely, and called a///s (no doubt a/q/e, the French
name) by the fifhermen in that river. About the fame
9 time, and rather earlier, the variety called, near Glou-
Twaite de-cefter, the twaite, makes its appearance, is taken in
fcribed. great numbers in the Severn, and is held in as great
difrepute as the (had of the Thames. The differences
between each variety are as follow: the true fhad
Weighs fometimes^ eight pounds; but their general
fize is from four to five. The twaite, on the con¬
trary, weighs from half a pound to two pounds,
which it never exceeds. The twaite differs from a
Ihad only in having one or more round black fpots on
the Tides ; if only one, it is always near the gill; but
commonly there are three or four, placed one under
the other.
4» The encraJicohiSy or anchovy, has its upper jaw
longer than the under one, and is about three inches
long. They are taken in vaft quantities in the Medi¬
terranean, and are brought over here pickled. The
great fifhery is at Georgia, a fmall ifle weft of Leg¬
horn. See Anchovy-Fisher T,
The other fpecies are, 5. The atherinoides has a
fliining line on each fide, and fmall belly-fins. It is a
native of Surinam. 6. The thriffa has 28 rays in the fin
at the anus. It is found in the Indian ocean. 7. The
fima has yellow fins, thofe of the belly being very
fmall. The mouth is flat; the upper jaw is very
Ihort j the body is of a fhining filver colour, and the
fins are yellow. It is a native of Afia. 8. The fterni-
cla has no belly-fins, and the body is broad. It is a
native of Surinam. 9. The myftus is fhaped like a
fword, and the fins at the anus are united. It is
found in the Indian ocean. 10. The tropica has a
wedge-like tail, and a white, broad, compreffed body.
It is found at Afcenfion ifland. 11. The finenfis is very
like the common herring, but broader. It has no teeth,
and is a native of China.
CLUSI A, the Balsam-tree. See Botany Index.
CLUSINA palus, in Ancient Geography, a lake of
Tufcany, extending north-weft between Clufium and
Arretium, and communicating with the Arnus and Cla-
nis. Now Chiana Pah/dc.
CLUSINI Fontes, (Horace), baths in Tufcany,
in the territory of Clufium, between this laft to the
north, and Acula to the fouth, at the diftance of eight
miles from each. Now Bagni di S. Cafciana.
CLUSIUM, anciently called Caviars, (Virgil, Li¬
vy) ■, a town of Tufcany, at the fouth end of the Palus
Clufina, where it forms the Clanis $ the royal refi-
dence of Porfenna, three days journey from Rome to
10
Anchovy
defcribed.
16 ] C L Y
the north, (Polybius). Clujimis the epithet. Chtjtni
Veteres the people. Now Chiuji. E. Long. 130, Lat.
430.—Clujium Novum, was a town of Tufeany, near
the fprings of the Tiber, in the territory of Arretium 5
where lies the Ager Clufinus : now called Cafentino.
Clujini Novi, the people, (Pliny).
CLUTIA. See Botany Index.
CLUVIER, Philip, in Latin C'uverius, a cele¬
brated geographer, born at Dantzic in 1580. He tra¬
velled into Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands, in
order to ftudy law 5 but, being at Leyden. Jofeph
Scaliger perfuaded him to give way to his genius for
geography. Cluvier followed his advice, and for this
purpofe vifited the greateft part of the European
ftates. He was well verfed in many languages ; and
wherever he went, obtained illuftrious friends and
prote&ors. At his return to Leyden, he taught there
with great applaufe ; and died in 1623, aged 43.
Pie wrote, 1. De tribus Rheni alveis. 2. Germania
antiqua. 3. Sicilia antiqua. 4. Italia antiqua. 5. In~
troduEho in univerfum Geographiam. All jufliy efteem¬
ed.
CLYDE, a large river of Scotland, which, with
the rivers Tweed and Annan, has its fource at the head
of Annandale, and joins the fea at Greenock, where it
forms the Frith of Clyde. It is navigable for fmall
veffels up to Glafgow. The canal, which joins the
Forth, falls into it ten miles below that city. The
cataraft called the Falls of the Clyde, oppofite to La¬
nark, is a great natural curiofity, and the firft fcene
of the kind in Great Britain. This tremendous (heet
of water for about a mile falls from rock to rock. At
Stone-byres, the firft fall is about 60 feet •, the next
at Cora-Lynn, is over folid rock, and is ft ill higher.
At both thefe places this great body of water exhibits
a grander and more interefting fpe&acle than imagina¬
tion can pofiibly conceive.
At Cora-Lynn, the falls are feen to moft advantage
from a pavilion placed in a lofty fituation, and which
is furnilhed with mirrors which produce a fine effeft.
The catarabl is full in view, feen over the tops of trees
and bufhes, precipitating itfelf, for an amazing way,
from rock to rock, with Ihort interruptions, forming a
rude flope of furious foam. The fides are bounded by
vaft rocks, clothed on their tops with trees : on the
fummit and very verge of one is a ruined tower, and
in front a wood overtopt by a verdant hill. A path
conduits the traveller down to the beginning of the fall,
into which projects a high rock, in floods infulated by
the water •, and from the top is a tremendous view of
the furious ftream. In the clift's of this favage retreat
the brave Wallace is faid to have concealed himfelf,
meditating revenge for his injured country.
On regaining the top, the walk is formed near the
verge of the rocks, which on both fides are perfectly
mural and equidiftant, except where they overhang :
the river is pent up between them at a diftance far be¬
neath *, not running, but rather Aiding along a ftony
bottom floping, the whole way. The fummits of the
rock are wooded ; the fides fmooth and naked ; the
ftrata narrow and regular, forming a flupendous natu¬
ral mafonry. After a walk of above half a mile on the
edge of this great chafm, on a hidden appears the
great and bold fall of Boniton, in a foaming ftieet, far
projecting into a hollow, in which the water ftiows a
violent
C L Y [2
■Clyde Violent agitation, and a wide extending mift arifes
|| from the furface. Above that is another fall j two
Olytia. iefl’er fucceed ; beyond them the river winds, grows
" more tranquil, and is feen for a confiderable way,
bounded on one fide by wooded banks, on the other by
rich and fwelling fields*
The great fall of Stone-byres, firft mentioned, has
more of the fublime in it than any of the others, and
is feen with more difficulty : it confifts of two precipi¬
tous cataracts falling one above the other into a vaft
chafm, bounded by lofty rocks, forming an amazing
theatre to the view of thofe who take the pains to de-
fcend to the bottom. Between this and Cora-Lynti
there is another fall called DundoJJlin*
GLYMENE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of
Oceanus, who, being beloved by Apollo, he had by
her Phaeton, Lampatia, Egle, and Phebe. See Phae¬
ton.
CLYPEOLA, Treacle-mustard. See Botany
Index.
CLYSSUS, an extract prepared, not from one, but
feveral bodies mixed together j and, among the mo¬
derns, the term is applied to feVeral extracts prepared
from the fame body, and then mixed together.
CLYSTER, is a liquid remedy, to be inje&ed
chiefly at the anus into the larger inteftines. It is
ufually adminiftered by the bladder of a hog, fheep, or
ox, perforated at each end, and having at one of the
apertures an ivory pipe faftened with packthread. But
the French, and fometimes the Dutch, ufe a pewter
fyringe, by which the liquor may be drawn in with
more eafe and expedition than in the bladder, and like-
wife more forcibly expelled into the large inteftines.
This remedy ftiould never be adminiftered either too
hot or too cold, but tepid ; for either of the former
will be injurious to the bowels.
Clyfters are fometimes ufed to nourifti and fupport a
patient who can fwallow little or no aliment, by reafon
of fome impediment in the organs of deglutition j in
which cafe they may be made of broth, milk, ale, and
deco&ions of barley and oats with wine. The Englilh
introduced a new kind of clyfter, made of the fmoke
of tobacco, which has been ufed by feveral other na¬
tions, and appears to be of confiderable efficacy when
other clyfters prove ineffedlual, and particularly in the
iliac paflion, in the hernia incarcerata, and for the re¬
covery of drowned perfons.
CL YTEMNESTR A, in fabulous hiftory, the daugh¬
ter of Jupiter and Leda. She married Agamemnon j
but while that prince was at the fiege of Troy, (he had
an amorous intrigue with ASgifthus, whom Ihe engaged
to murder Agamemnon at his return to his dominions.
Her fon Oreftes, however, revenged the death of his
father by killing Aigifthus, with his mother Clytem-
neftra ; but was afterwards haunted by the Furies as
long as he lived.
CLYTIA, or Clytie, daughter of Oceanus and
Tethys, beloved by Apollo. She was deferted by her
lover, who paid his addreffes to Leucothoe j and this
fo irritated her, that fhe difcovered the whole intrigue
to her rival’s father. Apollo defpifed her the more
for this; and (he pined away, and was changed into a
flower, commonly called a fun-Jlower, which ftill turns
its head towards the fun in bis courfe in token of her
love.
Vor.. VI. Part I.
7 1 C O A
CNEORUM, Widow-wail. See Botany iWe#. Cirorum
CNICUS, Blessed-thistle. See Botany Index. ||
CNIDUS, in Ancient Geography, a Greek town of l~ua<:^' ,
Caria ; fituated on a horn or promontory of a peninfula. *
It had in front a double port, and an ifland lying before
it in form of a theatre, which being ioined to the con¬
tinent by moles or caufeways. made Cnidus a Dipolis
or double town (Strabo), becaufe a great number of
Cnidians inhabited the ifland. Paufanias mentions a
bridge which joined the ifland to the continent.—Cnidii,
the people. Cnidius, the epithet.—Cnidia Venus, a prin¬
cipal divinity of the Cnidians, (Horace). Her ftatue
was executed by Praxiteles j and fo exquifitely done,
and fo much admired, that people came from all parts
to view it (Pliny). Of this place was Eudoxus, the fa¬
mous aftronomer and geometrician, whb had there an
obfervatory (Strabo).
CNOSSUS, or Cnosus, anciently called Cara (os,
from a cognomina! river running by it; a city of Crete,
23 miles to the eaft of Gortina (Peutinger). Here
flood the fepulchre of Jupiter, the famous labyrinth,
and the palace of Minos, a very ancient king; here
happened the adventure of Ariadne his daughter with
Thefeus. Called Gnojis (Ovid). Its port-town was
Heracleum, on the eaft fide of the ifland.
COACH, a vehicle for commodious travelling, fd-
fpended on leathers, and moved on wheels. In Bri¬
tain, and throughout Europe, the coaches are drawn
by horfes, except in Spain, where they ufe mules. In
a part of the eaft, efpecially the dominions of the great
Mogul, their coaches are drawn by oxen. In Den¬
mark they fometimes yoke rein-deer in their coaches;
though rather for curiofity than ufe. The coachman
is ordinarily placed on a feat raifed before the body of
the coach. But the Spaniffr policy has difplaced him
in that country by a royal ordinance ; on occafion of
the duke d’Olivares, who found that a very important
fecret, whereon he had conferred in his coach, had
been overheard and revealed by his coachman : fince
that time the place of the Spanifh coachman is the fame
with that of the French ftage coachman and our pofti-
lion, viz. on the firft horfe on the left.
According to Profefibr Beckmann, coaches of feme
kind were known about the beginning of the i6lh cen¬
tury ; but the ufe of them was limited to women of the
higheft rank. It w'as accounted difgraeeful in men to
ride in them. It appears from the hiftory of that pe¬
riod, that the electors and princes of the empire, when
they did not choofe to attend the meetings of the ftates,
excufed themfelves to the emperor, by informing him,
that their health would not permit them to travel on
horfeback ; and it was confidered unbecoming to ride
in carriages like women. But it feems alfo pretty
certain, that about the end of the 15th century, the
emperor, kings, and fome princes, travelled in covered
carriages, and alfo employed them on public folemni-
ties.
The nuptial carriage of the firft wife of Leopold, a
Spanith princefs, coft, including the harnefs, 38,000
florins. The coaches ufed by that emperor are thus
deferibed. In the imperial coaches no great magnifi¬
cence was to be feen, being covered over with red
cloth and black nails. The harnefs was black, and no
gold was to be feen in the whole work. They had
glafs panmds, for which reafon they were called impe-
E e rial
C O A [ 21
'* Coach, ria/ coaches. The harnefs was ornamented with frin-
v——v——' ges of red filk on days of fettivity. The imperial
coaches were only diltinguifhed by having leather tra¬
ces, while the ladies in the emperor’s fuite were con¬
tented with traces made of ropes. Fifty gilt coaches
having fix horfes each, were to be feen in 1681 at
the court of Erneft Augultus of Hanover. The firft
time that plenipotentiaries appeared in coaches, was
at the imperial commiffion in 1613, held at Er-
1 furth.
We meet with ample proof in the hiftory of France,
that the monarchs rode on horfes, the fervants on
mules, and ladies of diftindlion fometimes on affes, at
Paris, in the 14th, 15th, and even 16th centuries.
Yet carriages of feme kind feem to have been ufed in
France at an early period, fince there is {fill preferved
a ftatute of Philip the Fair, iffued in 1294, for the fup-
preffion of luxury, and in which the wives of citizens
were prohibited the ufe of carriages.
The oldeft coaches ufed by the ladies of England
were denominated whirlicotes, a name now funk in
oblivion. About the end of the 14th century, when
Richard II, was forced to fly before his rebellious fub-
jects, be and all bis attendants travelled on horfeback,
his mother alone riding in a coach, as fhe w'as indifpo-
fed. This became afterwards unfafhionable, the daugh¬
ter of Charles IV. having fhowed the ladies of Eng¬
land how conveniently file could ride on a fide-fad-
dle.
According to Stow, coaches firft came to be ufed in
England about the middle of the 16th century, having
been introduced from Germany by the earl of Arun¬
del. The Englifii plenipotentiary came to Scotland in
a coach in the year 1598, and they were generally
ufed about the year 1605.
Authors obferve, as a thing very fingular, that there
were at firft no more than three coaches in Paris the
firft that of the queen ; the fecond that of Diana mif-
trefs of Henry II.; and the third belonging to Jean de
Lava de Bois Dauphin ; whofe enormous bulk difabled
him from travelling on horfeback. One may hence
judge how much vanity, luxury, and idlenefs, have
grown upon our hands in latter days •, there being now
computed in that fame city no lefs than 15,000
coaches.
Coaches have had the fate of all other inventions, to
be brought by degrees to their perfection 5 at prefent
they feem to want nothing, either with regard to eafe
or magnificence. Louis XIV. of France made feveral
fumptuary laws for reftraining the exceffive richnefs of
coaches, prohibiting the ufe of gold, filver, &c. there¬
in *, but they have had the fate to be negleCted.
The following are the duties payable on carriages of
this defcription in Britain (1804).
For one carriage, with four wheels, the
annual fum of - - - L.io o O
For two - - - 11 o o
three - - - 12 o o
four - - - 12100
five - - - - 13 o o
fix - - - - 13 10 o
feven - - - 14 o o
eight - - - - 14100
nine and upwards, - 1500
8 ] C O A
And for every additional body fuccefiive-
ly ufed on the fame carriage or number
of wheels, the further fum of - L.5 o
For carriages wTith lefs than four wheels,
drawn by one horfe - - 5 5
For carriages drawn by two or more
horfes - - - 7 7
For every additional body - 210
For carriages with four wheels let out to
hire - - - - 8 8
Every maker of coaches, chaifes, chariots, &c. muft,
from and after the 5th day of July 1785, take out at
the excife office in London, or of their agents in the
country, a licence, to be renewed annually at leaft ten
days before the expiiation of the former, for which they
muft pay 20s. They muft alfo pay 20s. duty for every
four-wheeled carriage newly built for fale, and I os. for
every two-wheeled carriage. Thefe duties are alfo pay¬
able to the commiffioners of the excife in town, or their
agents in the country.
Coach-makers in Scotland are to take out their li-
cenfes and pay the duties to the commiflioners of ex¬
cife in Edinburgh, or their agents in the country of
that part of Great Britain.
Every coach-maker neglefling to take out a licence,
and renewing the fame annually, forfeits 10I. ; and
negledling or refufing to fettle every fix weeks, in the
manner particularly directed by the aft, is a forteiture
of 20I.
Hackney-COACHES, thofe expofed to hire, in the
ftreets of London, and fome other great cities, at rates
fixed by authority.
One thoufand hackney coaches are allowed in Lon¬
don and Weftminfter : which are to be licenftd by
commiffioners, and to pay a duty to the crown. They
are all numbered, having their numbers engraved on
tin plates fixed on the coach-doors. Their fares or rates
are fixed by aft of parliament •, and by a late aft have
been increafed in confrquence of a new weekly tax.
Stage-COACHES are thofe appointed for the convey¬
ance of travellers from one city or town to another..
The mafters of ft age coaches are not liable to an ac¬
tion for things loft by their eoachmeji, who have mo¬
ney given them to carry the goods, unlefs where fuch
mafter takes a price for the lame.
Perfons keeping any coach, berlin, landau, or other
carriage with four wheel-, or any calafh, chaife, chair,
or other carriage with two wheels, to be employed as
public ftage-eoaches or carriages, for the purpofe of
conveying paflengers for hire to and from different
places, fhall pay annually 5s. for a licence \ and no per-
fon fo lictnfed (hall by virtue of one licence keep more
than one carriage, under the penalty of 10I.
Mail-CoACHES are ftage-coaches of a particular con-
ftruftion to prevent overturns $ and for a certain confi-
deration carry his majefty’s mails, which are protefted
by a guard, and fubjeft to the regulations of the poft-
office. They are punftual as to their time of arrival
and departure, are reftrifted to four infide paffengers,
and from experience have proved very beneficial to the
commerce and correfpondence of this country. I he
late John Palmer, Efq. who had the merit of the in¬
vention, and was indefatigable in bringing the efta-
blilhment to a permanent footing, was great!y. pa¬
tronized
C O A [ 2
Coach tronized by government; and got, as the reward of his
|| fervice, a handfome appointment in the general poft-
Coal. office, London. See IVHEEL-Carrtages.
Coach, or Couch, is aifo a fort of chamber or apart¬
ment in a large ffiip of war near the item. The floor
of it is formed by the aftmoft part of the quarter-deck,
and the roof of it by the poop : it is generally the ha¬
bitation of the captain.
COADUNATE, in Botany, an order of plants in
\\\e fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, in which
he has thefe genera, viz. annona, liriodendrum, mag¬
nolia, uvaria, michelia, thea.
COAGULATION, in Chemijlry, is performed by
fix different agents 5 and by each of thefe in feveral
different manners. 1. It is performed with water, by
congealing, eryftallizing, and precipitating, as in the
mercurius vitse and fome other preparations. 2. With
oil, which, by the force of fire, unites with fulphur,
falls, and metals. 3. With alcohol, upon the fpirit of
fal ammoniac, the white of eggs, the ferum of the
blood, &c. 4. With acid and alkali growing folid to¬
gether, as in the tartarum vitriolatum. 5. With fixed
alkali, as in milk. And, 6. With acid falls j as in
milk, ferum, and the whites of eggs.
COAGULUM, is the fame with what in Englifh
we call runnel, or rather the curd formed thereby.
COAKS. For the exciting of intenfe heats, as for
the fmelting of iron ore, and for operations where the
acid and oily particles would be detrimental, as the
drying of malt, foffil-coals are previoufly charred, or
reduced to coaks ; that is, they are made to undergo an
operation fimilar to that by which charcoal is made.
By this operation coals are deprived of their phlegm,
their acid liquor, and part of their fluid oil. Coaks,
therefore, confifl of ths two moll fixed conftituent parts,
the heavy oil and the earth, together with the acid
concrete fait, which, though volatile, is diffolved by
the oil and the earth.
COAL, among chemifts, fignifies any fubflance
containing oil, which has been expofed to the fire in
clofe veffels, fo that all its volatile principles are ex¬
pelled, and tl/at it can fuflain a red heat without fur¬
ther decorapofition. Coal is commonly folid, black,
very dry, and confiderably hard. The fpecific cha¬
racter of perfeCt coal is its capacity of burning with
accefs of air, while it becomes red hot and fparkles,
fometimes with a fenfible flame which gives little light,
with no friioke or foot capable of blackening white
bodies.
Coal, or carbonaceous matter, is capable of decom-
pofing fulphuric acid, and feparates the fulphur :
added to nitrous acid, it inflames it j or to metallic
earths, it reduces them to metals. But in thefe pro-
ceffes, or new combinations, the affiftance of red heat
is required. Coal feems to be an unalterable com¬
pound in every inftance but thofe mentioned, of burn¬
ing in the open air, and of feparating oxygen from
other bodies : for it may be expofed in clofe veffels to
the molt violent and long-continued fire without fuffer-
ing the leaft decompofition. No difpofition to fufe, or
any diminution of weight, can be perceived. It is a
fubftance exceedingly fixed, and perhaps the moft re-
fraCtory in nature. It refifts the aCtion of the moft
powerful menftrua, liver of fulphur alone excepted.
i9 ] GOA
Coal is evidently a refult of the decompofition of the Coal,
compound bodies from which it is obtained. It con- -v-—
fills of the greateft part of the earthy principle of thefe
compound bodies, with which a part of the faline prin¬
ciples, and fome of the phlogifton of the decompolied
oil, are fixed and combined very intimately. Coal can
never be formed but by the phlogifton of a body which
has been in an oily ftate j hence it cannot be formed
by iulphur, phofphorus, metals, nor by any other fub¬
ftance the phlogifton of which is not in an oily ftate. This is the
Alfo every oily matter treated with fire in clofe Vef-
fels, furniffies true coal j fo that whenever a charry re- j°aiJme
fiduum is left, we may be certain that the fubftance feUage.
employed in the operation contained oil. Laftly, the
inflammable principle of coal, although it proceeds
from oil, certainly is not oil, but pure phlogifton, fince
coal added to fulphuric acid can form fulphur, to phof-
phoric acid can torm phofphorus, &c. and fince oil can
produce none of thefe effedts till it has been decom-
pofed and reduced to the ftate of coal. Befides, the
phenomena accompanying the burning of coal are dif¬
ferent from thofe which happen when oily fubftances
are burnt. The flame of charcoal is not fo bright as
that of oil, and produces no flame or loot. A
All the phlogifton of coal is not burnt in the open
air, particularly when the combuftion is flow. One
part of it exhales without decompofition, and forms a
vapour, or an invifible and infenfible gas. This va¬
pour (which is, or at leaft contains a great deal of
fixed air) is found to be very pernicious, and to affedl
the animal fyftem in fuch a manner as to occafion
death in a very ffiort time. For this reafon it is dan¬
gerous to remain in a clofe place, where charcoal or
any other fort of ceal is burnt. Perfons ftruck by
this vapour are ftunned, faint, fuffer a violent headach,
and fall down fenfelefs and motionlefs. The be ft me¬
thod of recovering them is by expofure to the open
air, and by making them fwallow vinegar, and breathe
its fleam.
Amongft coals, fome differences are obfervable,
which proceed from the difference of the bodies from
which they are made 5 fome coals, particularly, are
more combuftible than others. This combutlibility
feems to depend on the greater or lefs quantity of fa-
line principle they contain j that is, the more of the
faline principle it contains, the more eafily it decom-
pofes and burns. For example, coals made of plants
and wood containing much faline matter capable of
fixing it, the allies of which contain much alkaline fait,
burn vigoroully and produce much heat; whereas the
coals of animal matters, the faline principles of which are
volatile, and cannot be fixed but in fmall quantity, and
the allies of which contain little or no fait, are fcarcely
at all combuftible. For they not only do not kindle fo
eafily as charcoal does, nor even burn alone, but they
cannot be reduced to allies, without very great trouble,
even when the moft effeiftual methods are ufed to faci¬
litate the combuftion. The coal of bullocks blood has
been kept for fix hours very red in a (hallow crucible,
furrounded by burning charcoal, and conftantly ftir-
red all the time, that it might be totally expofed to
the air 5 yet could it not be reduced to white, or even
gray, allies : It ftill remained very black, and full of
phlogifton. The coals of pure oils, or of concrete
E e 2 oily
C O A [ 220 ] C 0 A
Coal. oily fubftances and foot, which is a kind of coal raifed
v—1 during inflammation, are as difficultly reduced to allies
as animal coals. Thefe coals contain very little faline
matter, and their affies yield no alkali. The coals
which are fo difficultly burnt, are alfo lefs capable of
inflaming with nitre than others more combuftible j and
fome of them even in a great meafure refill the a£tion
of nitre.
Coal, in Mineralogy, a kind of folid inflammable
fubltance, fuppofed to be of a bituminous nature, and
commonly ufed for fuel. Of this fubllance there are
various fpecies.
1. Pit-coal (Lithanthrax), is a black, folid, com-
pa£t, brittle mafs, of moderate hardnefs, lamellated
Itruclure, more or lefs (hining, but feldom capable of a
good poliffi j and does not melt when heated. Ac¬
cording to Kirwan, it confilts of petrol or afphaltum, in¬
timately mixed with a fmall portion of earth chiefly ar¬
gillaceous ; feldom calcareous ; and frequently mixed
with pyrites. A red tin&ure is extracted from it by
fpirit of wine, but caullic alkali attacks the bituminous
part. From fome forts of it a varniffi may be made by
means of fat oils. Fixed alkali has never been found
in any kind of it, nor fulphur, unlefs when it happens
to be mixed with pyrites.—None of the various kinds
are found to be eleflrics per fe (a).
The varieties of lithanthrax, enumerated by Cron-
ftedt, are, I. With a fmall quantity of argillaceous
earth and fulphuric acid. It is of a black colour, and
finning texture ; it burns, and is moftly confumed in
the fire, but leaves, however, a fmall quantity of affies.
2. Slaty coal.
2. Culm coal, called kolm, by the Swedes, has a
greater portion of argillaceous earth and fulphuric
acid, with a moderate proportion of petrol. It has the
fame appearance with the foregoing, though its texture
is more dull : it burns with a flame without being con-
fumed, but leaves behind it a flag of the fame bulk
with the original volume of the coal. The following
is Mr Kirwan’s defcription of it, from the memoirs of
the Stockholm academy. “ Its fra&ure has a rougher
feflion than the cannel coal *, its fpecific gravity from
I.300 to 1.370. The belt kind affords, by diflilla-
tion, at firft fixed air, then an acid liquor, after¬
wards inflammable air, and a light oil of the nature
of petrol j then a volatile alkali; and laftly pitch-
oil. 1 he refiduum is nearly three quarters of the Coal.
whole j and being flowly burnt, affords 13 per cent.  y—■
of affies, which confift moflly of argillaceous earth j
and about three hundredth parts of them are magnetic.
It is found in England, and among fome aluminous ores
in Sweden.”
3. Slate coal contains fuch a quantity of argillaceous
earth, that it looks like common flate j however, k
burns by itfelf like a flame. M. Magellan is of opi¬
nion that this is the bituminous fubllance already
defcribed. This fchiftus is of a dark bluiflr rufty co¬
lour 5 when thrown on the fire it burns with a lively
flame, and almoll as readily as the oily wood of dry
olive-tree, or lignum vitae 5 emitting the very dif-
agreeable fmell of petrol. Such large quarries of it
are found near Purbeck in Dorfetffiire, that the poorer
part of the inhabitants are thence fupplied with fuel.
From the appearance of this flaty c al, Cronftedt has
been induced to fuppofe that the earth of all kinds of
coal is argillaceous, though it is not fo eafy to diftin-
guiflr it after being burnt. The pit-coals, he fays,
contain more or lefs of the fulphuric acid ; for which
reafon the fmoke arifing from them attacks filver in the
fame manner as fulphur does, let the coals be ever fo
free from marcafite, which, however, is often imbibed
or mixed with them.
4. Gunnel coal (Ampelites), is of a dull black co¬
lour breaks eafily in all diredlions ; and, if broken
tranfverfely, prefents a fmooth conchoidal furface. It
burns with a light lively flame, but is very apt to fly
in pieces in the fire ; however, it is faid to be entirely
deprived of this property by immerfion in water for
fome hours previous to its being ufed. It contains a
confiderable quantity of petrol in a lefs condenfed ftate
than other coal. Its fpecific gravity is about 1.270.
This kind of coal being of an uniform hard texture,
is eafily turned on a lathe, and takes a good poliffi.
Hence it is ufed for making vaiious toys, which appear
almoft as well as if made of the fineft jet.
5. Kilkenny coal has a fpecific gravity equal to
1.400. It contains the largeft quantity of afphaltum ;
burns with lefs fmoke and flame, and more intenfely,
though more flowly, than the cannel coal. The quan¬
tity of earth it contains does not exceed one twentieth
part of its weighty but this kind of coal is-frequently
mixed with pyrites. It is found in the county of Kil¬
kenny,
(a) “ The varieties of this coal (fays M. Magellan) are very numerous according to the different fub-
fiances with which it is mixed j but in regard to their economical ufes, only two kinds are taken notice of by
the Britiffi legiflature, viz. culm and caking coals. The caking coals, in burning, ffiow an incipient fufion, fo
that their fmalleft pieces unite in the fire into one mafs ; by which means the fmalleft pieces, and even the
mere duft of this kind, are almoft equally valuable with the largeft pieces. The other fort called culm, does not
fufe or unite in the fierceft fire y fo that the fmall coal, being unfit for domeftic purpofes, can only be ufed in
burning limeftone.
“ It ffiould be an eafy matter for any perfon to diftinguiffi culm from fmall caking coal, either bv try¬
ing to make fire with it in a common grate, without interpofing any other fuel between it $ when if it kindles,
it is a caking coal4 if not it is culm : Or by putting fome of thefe fmall fragments of coal on an ignited
iron Ihovel; if they melt and run together, they belong to the caking kinds; if not they are culm. But it
feems that coal merchants are now in the cuftom of calling culm the powdery parts of pit-coal, of whatfoever kind
they may happen to be^ The reafon of this is, that there is a difference in the duty payable by culm and by
caking coals. There never was any difficulty, however, on the fubjefl ; nor would there be any difficulty in
collefting the tax, were it not for the infufferable ignorance and love of defpotic oppreflion which generally per- -
vades the underling efficers of the revenue.”
Z
C O A [22
kenny, belonging to the province of Leinfter in Ire¬
land. The quality of it a* burning without fmoke, is
proverbially ufed as an encomium on the county.
6. Sulphureous coal con litis of the former kinds mix¬
ed with a very confiderable portion of pyrites 5 whence
it is apt to moulder and break when expofcd to the air,
after which water will a£l upon it. It contains yel¬
low fpots that look like metal j burns with a fulphu-
reous fmell, leaving behind it either flag or fulphu-
reous allies, or both. Its fpecific gravity is 1.500 or
more.
y. Boveij coal (Xylanthrax) is of a brown or
brownifli-black colour, and of a yellow laminar tex¬
ture. Its laminae are frequently flexible when firft
dug, though they generally harden when expofed to
the air. It confifts of wood penetrated with petrol
or bitumen, and frequently contains pyrites, alum,
and vitriol. According to the German chemifts, its
alhes contain a little fixed alkali; but Mr Mills dif¬
fers from them on this fubje£f. By diflillation it yields
a fetid liquor mixed with a volatile alkali and oil ; part
of which is foluble in alcohol, and part of a mineral
nature, and infoluble. It is found in almoft all the
countries of Europe.
Thefe are the moft confiderable varieties of coals
commonly known j but we mufl: not imagine, that
each of them is to be met homogeneous in thofe places
where they are found. On the contrary, the differ¬
ent qualities and proportions of their ingredients make
a vail; number of other varieties, fit for different pur-
pofes, according to the quality and quantity of thofe
they contain. Thus, various kinds of coals are often
found mixed with one another under ground, and
fome of the finer forts fometimes run like veins be¬
tween thofe of a coarfe kind. Thus, M. Magellan
obferved in the fine coals employed in a curious ma¬
nufactory at Birmingham, that they produced a much
clearer flame than he had ever obferved from common
coal ; yet, on inquiry, he found that thefe were picked
out from the common coals of the country, through
which they ran in veins and were eafily diftinguifhed
by the manufacturers, though they did not afford fuf-
ficient indications of a fpecific difference. The pur-
pofe to which they were applied was the moulding rods
of tranfparent and coloured glafs into the flhapes proper
for common buttons, which they performed with alto-
nifhing expedition.
Fourcroy remarks, that this foflil bitumen, when
heated in contaCt with a body in combuftion, and ha¬
ving a free accefs of air, kindles the more flowly and
with the greater difficulty in proportion as it is more
Weighty and compaCl. When once kindled, it emits a
ftrong and durable heat, and burns for a long time
before it is confumed. The matter that is burned,
and produces the flame, appears very denfe, and feems
united to fome other fubftance which retards its de-
ftruCtion. On burning, it emits a particular ftrong
fmell, which is not at all fulphureous when the coal
contains no pyrites. When the combuftible, oily, and
other volatile parts of the coal are diflipated, if the com¬
buftion be then flopped, the remainder is found to be
reduced to a true charred ftate, and is called coak.
This fubftance is capable of exciting the moft intenfe
heat, for which purpofe it is ufed in metallurgic works
all over Britain.
1 ] C O A
“ It is well known (fays M. Magellan), that the Coat,
Englifh method of burning pit coal into coak has been
a moft profitable and happy acquifition for the fmelt- ‘ne‘
ing our ores, and for many other metallurgical and
chemical proceffes in this ifland. But the ingenious
and advantageous undertaking of Lord Dundonald, by
which he turns to a very confiderable profit the mines
of coals in his and other eftates, building ovens of a
proper conftru&ion for burning pit coal into coak,
and at the fame time for coliefling, in feparate re¬
ceptacles, the volatile alkali, oil, tar, and pitch, which
wTere generally loft by the ufual method, deferves to be
noticed, as it affords a very remarkable inftance of the
great Ioffes to mankind, for want of carefully attend¬
ing to every refult from great proceffes of art when
made on a large fcale. Thefe ovens are fo contri¬
ved, as to admit an under fupply of air •, and the
coals, after being kindled, decompofe themfelves by a
flow but incomplete combuftion, which does not de-
ftroy the ingredients. The refiduum left in the oven
proves to be moft excellent cinders or coaks ; whilft
the volatile parts, which otherwife would be diflipated
in the air, are feparated and condenfed in refervoirs, or
receptacles of capacious fize, placed at proper diftances
beyond the reach of fire. Monf. Faujas de St Fond,
who vifited thefe works in a journey he made to Scot¬
land, undertook to erefl a fimilar kind of an oven in
France j and it is rather lingular, that he endeavours
to eftablifh a claim of having difcovered the fame pro-
cefles before he faw them in Scotland, as if it did not re-
flefl a greater honour on his induftry, to carry back to
his country fome ufeful knowledge, than to return as
ignorant as our Englifh travellers,” &c.
On fubjefling pit-coal of any kind to diftillation in
clofe veffels, it firft yields a phlegm or watery liquor,
then an ethereal or volatile oil, afterwards a volatile al¬
kali, and laftly a thick and greafy oil ; but it is re¬
markable, that, by reflifying this laft oil, a tranfparent
thin and light oil of a ftraw colour is produced, which
being expofed to the air becomes black like animal
oils. From this and other obfervations, the general
opinion is, that coals, bitumens, and other oily fub-
ftances found in the mineral kingdom, derive their
origin from vegetables buried in the earth, fince it is
well known that only organized bodies have the power
of producing oily and fat fubftances. “ The amazing
irregularities, gaps, and breaks (fays M. Magellan) of
the ftrata of coals, and of other foflil fubftances, e-
vince that this globe has undergone the moft violent
convulfions, by which its parts have been broken, de¬
tached and overturned in different ways, burying large
trails of their upper furfaces, with all the animal and
vegetable productions there exifting, at the time of
thofe horrible cataftrophes, whole epoch far precedes
all human records. And it is eafy to be conceived,
that the various heaps and congeries of thefe vegetable
and animal fubftances, remaining for ages and ages in
the bowels of the earth, have obtained various confift-
encies, and ftill produce thofe oily and bituminous jui¬
ces, which find way to gufh out, leaving behind their
thickeft parts on the fame places where they are found,
and in many others where the induftry of mankind ne¬
ver will be able to penetrate.”
COAL-Mine. See CoalerY. Malicioufly fetting fira
to coal-mines is felony, by flat. 10 Geo. II. c. 32. § 6..
Small 1
Caal,
Coalery.
Hi (lory of
coals.
* See Am-
p elites.
•{■ L. xxxvi.
cap. 26.
Augultus
placed the
ftatues of
four ele¬
phants
made of it
in the tem¬
ple of Con¬
cord.
TVhitaker's
Hijlory of
JVIancbef-
ter.
$ e- “ the
place of
tents ” An
ancient Bri-
tifli town,
the (ite of
which was
the prefent
Caftleiield
at vlan-
chelter.
C O A [2
Small COAL, a fort of charcoal prepared from the
fpray and brufhwood, dripped off from the branches of
coppice wood, fometimes bound in bairns for that pur-
pofe, and fometimes charred without binding, in which
cafe it is called “ coming together.”
COALERY, Coaliery, or Colliery} a coal-
work, or place where Coals are dug.
It is generally agreed, that our cannel coal * is the
lapis ampelites of the Romans, though it feems to
have been ufed by them only for making toys, brace¬
lets, &c. But of that common fuel which we denomi¬
nate coals, the native Romans were entirely ignorant.
It is certain that they are not, as fome have imagined,
the lapis obfidianus of Pliny, about which there have
been great difputes f: nor the Gagates or Jet,
which others, again, have taken for the lapis objidianus:
though the lightnefs and texture Ihow plainly that it is
not either done or coal. In fa6f, there are no beds of
it in the compafs of Italy. The great line of that fuel
feems to fweep away round the globe, from north-ead
to fouth-wed ; not ranging at a didance even from the
fouth-eaderly parts of our idand, as is generally ima¬
gined, but a<dually vifiting Brabant and France, and
yet avoiding Italy.
But the primaeval Britons appear to have ufed it.
And in the precinfts of Mancheder particularly, which
are furnilhed with an inexhaudible abundance of it,
they could not have remained unapprifed of the agree¬
able combudible around them. The currents there
frequently bring down fragments of coal from the
mountains : and in the long and winding courfe of
them through the paridi, the Britons would foon mark
the diining dones in the channels } and by the aid of
accident, or the force of redeffion,' find out the utility
of them. But we can advance dill nearer to a cer¬
tainty. Several pieces of coal were difcovered fome
years ago in the fand under the Roman way to Rib-
cheder, when both were dug up at the condru£tion of
a houfe in Quay-dreet. The number of pieces, feve-
ral of them as large as eggs, was not lefs than 40 ;
and a quantity of Hack was dug up with them. Thefe
circumdances fhow the coals to have been lodged upon
the fpot before the road of the Romans covered it..
That ground being in the neighbourhood of Mance-
nion%, the Britons had there repofited a quantity of
caals, probably for the ufe of the garrifon } and many
of the fmaller fragments, and fome of the Hack were
buried in the fand upon which they were laid. And
that the Britons in general were acquainted with this
fuel, is evident from its appellation amongd us at pre¬
fent, which is not Saxon, but Britifh } and fubfids a-
mong the Irifh in their 0 gual, and among the Cornifh
in their kolan, to this day.
The extenlive beds of fuel, therefore, with which the
kingdom of England, and the precinfts of Mancheder,
are fo haopily dored, were fird noticed by the {kill,
and fird opened by the labour of the Britons ; and
fome time before the arrival of the Romans among us.
And the nearer quarries in the confines of Bradford,
Newton, and Mancheder, would naturally attract the
notice, and invite the inquiries of the Britons, before
any others. The current of the Medlock, which
wadies the fides of them, would bring down fpecimens
of the riches within, lodge many of them about the
22 ] C O A
Cadlefield, and allure the Britons fucceflively to a col- Coalery.
ledion of the one, and a fearch after the other. - ■ ■ y
But, even for ages after the difcovery, wood continu¬
ed to compofe the general fuel of the nation. In 852,
a grant was made of fome lands by the abbey of Peter¬
borough, under the refervation of certain boons and
payments in kind to the monadery } as, one night’s
entertainment} 10 veffels of Weldi, and two of com¬
mon ale} 60 cart-loads of wood, and 12 of pit-coal}
where we fee the quantity of coal was only one cart¬
load to five of wood. The latter naturally continued
the principal article of our fuel as long as the foreds
and thickets prefented themfeives fo ready to the hand }
and fuch it continued to a very late period. The
fird public notice of the former is mentioned by Mr
Hume to have been in the time of Henry III. who, in
the year 1272, granted a charter to the town of New-
cadle, giving the inhabitants a licenfe to dig coals }
and the fird datute relating to this article was the 9th
Henry V. c. 10. ordaining all keels in the port of
Newcadle to be meafured by commidioners, before
carriage of coals, on pain of forfeiture. They were not
brought into common ufe till the reign of Charles I. }
and were then fold for about 17s. a chaldron. In loxae Campbell's
years after the redoration, there were about 200,000 Political
chaldrons burnt in London} in 1670, about 270,000Purvey.
chaldrons } at the revolution upwards of 300,000 chal¬
drons } and at prefent, full 600,000 are annually con-
fumed there. There is, befides, an immenfe confump-
tion in other parts of Britain, and in Ireland. In Scot¬
land, they fupply their own confumption, and alfo ex¬
port. In Ireland, though they have coal, yet they take
annually to the value of 30,000!. from England, and
12,cool, from Scotland.
The mod remarkable coalery, or coal-work, that we
have ever had in this idand, was that wrought at Bor-
rowdounnefs, under the fea. The veins of coal were
found to continue under the bed of the fea in this place,
and the colliers had the courage to work the vein near
half way over } there being a mote half a mile from the
fhore, where there was an entry that went down into
the coal-pit, under the fea. This was made into a
kind of round quay or mote, as they call it, built fo as
to keep out the fea, which do wed there twelve feet.
Here the coals were laid, and a (hip of that draught
of water could lay her fide to the mote, and take in
the coal.—This famous coalery belonged to the earl
of Kincardine’s family. The frelh water which fprung
from the bottom and fides of the coal-pit ivas always
drawn out upon the (hore by an engine moved by wa¬
ter, that drew it forty fathoms. This coal-pit con¬
tinued to be wrought many years to the great profit of
the owners, and the wonder of all that faw it} but, at
lad, an unexpected high tide drowned the whole at
once : the labourers had not time to efcape, but perilh-
ed in it.
There are feveral other countries in Europe which
poffefs confiderable coal-mines } as France, Liege,
Germany, and Sweden. Alfo on the other fide of the
Atlantic ocean, there has been coal difcovered, and
wrought: in Newfoundland, Cape-Breton, Canada, 2
and fome of the New England provinces. But in all Excellence
thefe countries, the coal is of a quality much inferior of the Bri¬
to the Britilh, and entirely unfit to be ufed in manytlfl1,
manufactures}
C O A [2
Coa]er„ manufa^ures ; fo that they import coal from Britain
— for various manufaftures. For a fuller account of the
coal in different countries of the world, fee Williams's
Mineral Kingdom, 2d edition, by James Millar, M. D.
3 Edinburgh, 18 10.
Importance Qur inIancl coal-trade, that i«, carrying coals from
of the coal- jy[-evvca{tie? Sunderland, Blith, and other adjacent places
in the north of England, as alfo from the frith of Edin¬
burgh in Scotland, and other places adjacent, to the
city of London, and to the port towns on the coaft all
the way, as well on this fide of Newcaftle, north, as up
the channel as high as Portfmouth weft, is a prodigious
article, and employs abundance of (hipping and fea-
men j infomuch that, in a time of urgent neceffity, the
coalery navigation alone has been able to fupply the go¬
vernment with a body of feamen for the royal navy,
able to man a confiderable fleet at a very flrort warn¬
ing, and that without difficulty, when no other branch
of trade could do the like. Likewife the Whitehaven
eoaleries in Cumberland, belonging to Lord Lonfdale,
furnifh feveral counties in Ireland with coals, and con-
ftantly employ upwards of 2000 feamen ; which alfo
is a noble nurfery for the navy of this kingdom. And
not only do the pit coal fufficiently fupply all the ports,
but, by means of thofe ports and the navigable rivers,
all the adjacent counties very far inland.
In fhort, coals, though not an exclufive, yet may,
with propriety, be flyled a peculiar blefling to Britain,
from their greaty plenty, their acknowledged excel¬
lence, and their being found in fuch places as are
conveniently fituated for exportation. Nor is there
any danger of the txport trade being leffened even by
the feveral duties that have been laid upon them ; for
the foreign confumpt being founded in neceffity with
regard to manufadhires, and in economy where they
are ufed for convenience (wood and turf being dearer
than coals with the duty), we need be in no fear of
the markets declining. There is as little room to be
alarmed from an apprehenfion of their being exhaufted ;
as the prefent works are capable of fupplying us for a
long feries of years, and there are many other mines
ready to be opened when thefe {hall fail. Befides,
there are known to be coals in many parts of the three
kingdoms, which hitherto they have had no encourage¬
ment to work.
Befides the value of this commodity as a conveni-
ency of life, as an article of commerce, and as giving
rife to a nurfery of feamen for the increafe of the
marine ; other important advantages deferve to be no¬
ticed. Coals are in many refpe&s, and in a very high
degree ufeful to the landed intereft ; not only by rai¬
ling exceedingly the real value, and of courfe the pur-
chafe, of thofe lands in which they are found, and thofe
'* Thefe are through which it is neceffaiy to pafs * from the works
emphati- to places where they are embarked, but from the
general improvements they have occafioned ; fo that
and are kt *verv fevv counties are now better cultivated than Nor¬
at as high thumberland, and the fame effects they have had in a
rents as any greater or lefs degree in other places. I houfands of
perted pr0" laborious people are employed in and about the mines ;
■Britain. thoufands more in conveying them to the ports, and
on board the fhips 5 to fay nothing of thofe that draw
their fubfiftence from the carriage of them by land to
fupply families, &c. There are alfo great numbers
i
C O A
that live in a fuperior ftation ; as ftewards, dire&ors, c oalery.
faftors, agents, book-keepers, &c. To thefe we may -~y——
add the extraordinary encouragement given to inge¬
nious artifts who have invented, and the numerous
workmen continually employed about thofe feveral
curious and coftly machines which, for a variety of
purpofes in this bufinefs, are in continual ufe, and of
courfe in continual wear j wre may join to thefe the
multitudes that obtain their living from the many ma-
nufadlures in which they are employed, and which
could not be carried on but by the help and cheapnefs
of coals. Laftly, the produce of coals exported, which
amounts to a very confiderable fum, btfides being pro¬
fitable to the owners, merchants, and mariners, is fo
much clear gain to the nation.
It might be expe£!ed, that a trade fo beneficial to
individuals, and to the nation in general, and which
has been gradually increafing for feveral centuries paft,
would have been advanced bv this time to very great
parfeflion, and reduced to a regular fyftem. But, in
one very effential refpe61, it is found to be quite other-
wife. The art of working coal-mines in the moft pro¬
fitable manner is indeed highly improved ; but the fun¬
damental of the art, that of fearching for and difco-
vering coal in any diftri£! of country where it has not
yet been found, has never, that we know of, been
treated in a fyftematic manner. The reader, therefore,
will not be difpleafed to find this defett fupplied in the
courfe of the prefent article, together with a detail of
all the other operations in the bufinefs of coaleries. 4
The terreftrial matters which compofe the folid itu tion of
parts of the earth are difpofed in ftrata, beds, or layers, the ftrata.
the under furface of one bearing againft or lying upon
the upper furface of that below it, which lafi bears or
lies on the next below in the fame manner.
Thefe ftrata confift of very different kinds of mat¬
ter, fuch as free ftone, lime-ftone, metal-ftone or wiiin-
ftone, coal, &e. as will be particularly fpecified in the
fequel.
Some of thefe ftrata are of confiderable tbicknefs,
being often found from 100 to 200 feet or upwards,
nearly of the fame kind of matter from the fuperior
to the inferior furface ; and others are found of the leaft:
thicknefs imaginable, one inch or lefs.
All thefe flrata are divided or parted from each
other laterally, either by their even, fnaooth, polifhcd
furfaces, with very thin lamina of foft or dufly ma ter
betwixt them, called which renders them
eafv to feparate ; or elfe only by the furfaces clofely
conjoined to each other, without any vifible matter in-
terpofed betwixt them : yet the different fubftance of
each ftratum is not in the lead inlet mixed, t hough
fometimes they adhere fo ftrongly together, that it is
very difficult to part or di-j"in them : in this laft cafe
they are faid to have a bad parting.
Befides this principal divifion or parting laterally,
there are, in fome ftrata, fecondary divilii ns or part¬
ings alfo latetally, feparating or approaching towards
a feparation, of the fame ftratum, into parts of dif¬
ferent thickneffes, nearly parallel to each other, in the
fame manner as the principal partings divide the dif¬
ferent ftrata from each other: but thefe fecondary
ones are not fo ftrong or vifible, nor make fo effeftual
a parting, as the principal ones do j and are only met
with
C O A [ 224 ] C 0 A
Coalery.
with In fuch ftrata, as are not of an uniform hardnefs,
texture, or colour, from the upper to the under fur-
face.
There are other divifions or partings, called backs,
in almoft every ftratum, which crofs the former late¬
ral ones longitudinally, and cut the whole flratum
through its two furfaces into long rhomboidal figures.
Thefe again are croffed by others called cutters, run¬
ning either in an oblique or perpendicular diredtion
to the laft-mentioned backs, and alfo cut the ftratum
through its two furfaces. Both thefe backs and cut¬
ters generally extend from the upper or fuperior ftra¬
tum down through feveral of the lower ones *, lb that
• thefe backs and cutters, together with the lateral
partings before mentioned, divide every ftratum into
innumerable cubic, prifmatic, and rhomboidal figures,
according to the thicknefs of the ftratum, and the po-
fition and number of the backs and cutters. They
fometimes have a kind of thin partition of dufty or
foft matter in them, and fometimes none, like the firft-
mentioned partings 5 but the fofter kind of ftrata ge¬
nerally have more backs and cutters than the harder
kind, and they do not' extend or penetrate through the
others.
©XLIX exP^a*n farther, let A, B, C, D, E,
t " F, G, (fig. I.) reprefent the principal partings before
mentioned, or the upper and under furfaces of any
ftratum ; then a, b, c, d, e, f, will reprefent the fe-
condary lateral partings nearly parallel to the princi¬
pal ones 5 g, h, i, k, l, m, the longitudinal partings call¬
ed backs ; n, 0, p, q, r, .r, the crofs partings called cut¬
ters, crofting the laft-mentioned ones either obliquely
or perpendicular.
In all places where the ftrata lie regular, they are
divided and fubdivided ih the manner above men¬
tioned ; and fometimes in this manner extend through
a pretty large diftrift of country $ though it is often
otherwife *, for their regularity is frequently interrupt¬
ed, and the ftrata broken and difordered, by fundry
chafms, breaches, or fiffures, which are differently de¬
nominated according to their various dimenfions, and
the matters with which they are filled, viz. dikes,
hitches, and troubles, which (hall be explained in
g order.
Dikes. Dikes are the largeft kind of fiffures. They feem to
!be nothing but a crack or breach of the folid ftrata,
occafioned by one part of them being broken away and
fallen from the other. They generally run in a ftraight
line for a confiiderable length, and penetrate from the
furface to the greateft depth ever yet tried, in a di-
redlion fometimes perpendicular to the horizon, and
fometimes obliquely. The fame kind of ftrata are found
lying upon each other in the fame order, but the whole
of them greatly elevated or depreffed, on the one fide
of the dike as on the other. Thefe fiffures are fome¬
times two or three feet wide, and fometimes many
fathoms. If the fiffure or dike be of any confiderable
width, it is generally filled with heterogeneous mat¬
ter, different from that of the folid ftrata on each fide
of it. It is fometimes found filled with clay, gravel,
or fand •, fometimes with a confufed mafs of different
kinds of ftone lying edgeways", and at other times
with a folid body of free-ftone, or even whin-ftone.
When the fiffure is of no great width, as fuppofe two
or three feet only, it Is then ufually found filled with
a confufed mixturfe of the different matters which Coalery,
compofe the adjoining ftrata, confolidated into one   y——
mafs. If the dike runs or ftretches north and fouth,
and the fame kind of ftrata are found on the eaft fide
of the dike, in a fituation with refpedt to the horizon
10 or 20 fathoms lower than on the other fide, it is
then faid to be a dip-dike, or downcajl dike of le or 20
fathoms to the eaftward j or counting from the eaft
fide, it is then faid to be a rife-dike, or upca/i of fo
many fathoms weftward. If the ftrata on one fide
are not much higher or lower with refpedl to the ho¬
rizontal line, than thofe on the other, but only broken
off and removed to a certain diftance, it is then faid
to be a dike of fo many fathoms thick, and from the
matter contained between the two fides of the fiffure
or dike, it is denominated a clay-dike,Jione-dike, &c. g
A hitch is only a dike or fiflure of a fmaller degree, Hitches,
by which the ftrata on one fide are not elevated or
feparated from thofe on the other fide above one fa¬
thom. Thefe hitches are denominated in the fame
manner as dikes, according to the number of feet they
elevate or deprefs the ftrata.
There are dikes (though they are not often met
with in the coal-countries) whofe cavities are filled
with fparr, the ores of iron, lead, vitriol, or other me¬
tallic or mineral matters $ and it is pretty well known,
that all metallic veins are nothing elfe than what in
the coal countries are called dikes.
The ftrata are generally found lying upon each
other in the fame order on one fide of the dike as on
the other, as mentioned above, and nearly of the fame
thicknefles, appearing to have been originally a con¬
tinuation of the fame regular ftrata, and the dike only
a breach by fume later accident, perpendicularly or
obliquely down through them, by which one part is
removed to a fmall diftance, and depreffed to a lower
fituation than the other. But this is not the only al¬
teration made in the ftrata by dikes ; for generally, to
a confiderable diftance on each fide of the dike, all the
ftrata are in a kind ©f ftiattered condition, very ten¬
der, eafily pervious to water, and debafed greatly in
their quality, and their inclination to the horizon often
altered.
Troubles may be denominated dikes of the fmalleft Troublel.
degree ; for they are not a real breach, but only a ten¬
dency towards it, which has not taken a full effe<ff.
The ftrata are generally altered by a trouble from
their regular file to a different pofition. When the
regular courfe of the ftrata is nearly level, a trouble
will caufe a fudden and confiderable afcent or defcent j
where they have, in their regular fituation, a certain
degree of afcent or defcent, a trouble either increafes
or alters it to a contrary pofition : and a trouble has
thefe effefts upon the ftrata in common with dikes,
that it greatly debafes them from their original qua¬
lity •, the partings are feparated ; the backs and cutters
disjoined, and their regularity difordered ; the original
cubic and prifmatic figures, of which the ftrata were
compofed, are broken, the diflocation filled with hete¬
rogeneous matter, and the whole ftrata are reduced to
a fofter and more friable ftate.
The ftrata are feldom or never found to lie in a
true horizontal fituation 5 but generally have an incli¬
nation or defcent, called the dip, to fome particular
part of the horizon. If this inclination be to the eaft¬
ward,
C O A [ z
Cillery, ward, It Is called an eajl dip, and a ’ivejl rife\ and ae-
■ cording to the point of the compafs to which the dip
8 inclines, it is denominated, and the afcemt or rife is
)ip and {.0 j-jjg contrary point. This inclination or dip of the
rata ^ ^rata is found to hold everywhere. In fome places, it
varies very little from the level ; in others, very con-
fiderably ; and in fome fo much, as to be nearly in
a perpendicular direftion : but whatever degree of
inclination the llrata have to the horizon, if not inter¬
rupted by dikes, hitches, or troubles, they are always
found to lie in the firll regular manner mentioned.
They generally continue upon one uniform dip until
they are broken or difordered by a dike, hitch, or
trouble, by which the dip is often altered, fometimes
to a different part of the horizon, and often to an op-
pofite point; fo that on one fide of a dike, hitch, or
trouble, if the ftrata have an eat! dip, on the other fide
they may have an eatl rife, whJch is a weft dip; and
in general, any confiderable alteration in the dip is ne¬
ver met with, but what is occafioned by the circum-
ftances laft mentioned.
Plate To illuftrate what has been faid, fee fig. 2. where
CXLlX, a, b, c<) d, &c. reprefent a courfe of ftrata lying upon
*• each other, having a certain inclination to the horizon.
AB, is a downcaft-dike, which deprelfes the ftrata
obliquely to e,f g, h, &c. lying upon each other in the
fame order, but altered in their inclination to the ho¬
rizon. CD reprefents a clay or freeftone dike, where
the ftrata are neither elevated nor de.prelfed, but only
broken off and removed to a certain diftance. EF re¬
prefents a hitch, which breaks off and depreffes the ftra¬
ta only a little, but alters their inclination to the hori¬
zon. GH reprefents a trouble, where the ftrata on
one fide are not entirely broken off from thofe on the
other, but only in a cruthed and irregular fituation.
As fome particular ftrata are found at fome times to
increafe, and at other times to diminith, in their thick-
neffes, whilft others remain the fame, confequently
they cannot be all parallel ; yet this increafe and dimi¬
nution in their thickneffes come on very gradually.
The ftrata are not found difpofed in the earth ac¬
cording to their fpecific gravities; for we often find
ftrata of very denfe matter near the furface, and per¬
haps at 50 or even 100 fathoms beneath, we meet
with ftrata of not half the fpecific gravity of the firft.
A ftratum of iron ore is very often found above one
of coal, though the former has twice the gravity of
the latter; and, in Ihort, there is fuch an ablolute un¬
certainty in forming any judgment of the difpofition
of the ftrata from their fpecific gravities, that it can¬
not in the leaft be relied upon.
It has been imagined by many, that hills and val¬
leys are occafioned by thofe breaches in the ftrata be¬
fore mentioned called dikes; but this is contradicted
by experience. If it was fo, we Humid meet with
dikes at the ikirts of the hills, and by the fides of val¬
leys, and the fea-fhore; but inftead of that we gene¬
rally find the ftrata lying as uniformly regular un¬
der hills and valleys, and beneath the bottom of the
fea (as far as has been yet tried), as in the moft cham¬
paign countries. It may happen, indeed, that a dike
is met with in fome of thefe places; but that being
only a cafual circumftance, can never be admitted as
a general caufe. Whatever irregularities are occa¬
fioned in the folid ftrata by dikes, or other branches,
Vot. VI. Part I.
25 ] C O A
are commonly covered over and evened by thofe beds c,oajt,,y,
of gravel, clay, fand, or foil, which lie uppermoft, v v
and form the outward furface of the earth. Where-
ever thefe fofter matters have been carried off, or
removed by accident, as on the tops of hills and the
fides of valleys, there the lolid ftrata are expofed, and
the dip, rife, and other circumftances of them may
be examined; but no certain conclufions can be drawn,
merely from the unevennefs and inequalities ol the out-
waid furface.
The preceding obfervations, upon the general difpo¬
fition of the fo]id ftrata, are equally applicable to the
ftrata of coal as to thofe of ftone or other matter. ^
We ftiall next give an account of the feveral ftrata Defcription
of coal, and of ftone, and other matters, which ^ ftla_
ufually connedled %\ith coal, and are found to have ^ed^vitlT*
particular affinity with it; and, for the fake of diftinc-C0a^
lion, thall arrange them into fix principal claffes, which
will include all the varieties of ftrata that have been
found to occur in all thofe diftridts of country, both in
Scotland and England, where coal abounds.
1. OfWhin-Jione.~\ The ftrata of what is denomi¬
nated whin-ftone are the hardeft of all others ; the an¬
gular pieces of it will cut glafs ; it is of a very coarfe
texture, and when broken acrofs the grain, exhibits the
appearance of large grains of fand half vitrified ; it
can fcarcely be wrought, or broken in pieces, by com¬
mon tools, without the affiftance of gunpowder ; each
ftratum is commonly homogeneous in fubftance and
colour, and cracked in the rock to a great depth. The
moft common colours of thefe ftrata are black or dark
blue, yet there are others of it afh-coloured and light
brown. Their thieknefs in all the coal countries is
but inconfiderable, from fix or five feet down to a few
inches ; and it is only in a few places they are met
with of thefe thickneffes. In the air it decays a little,
leaving a brown powder; and in the fire it cracks, and
turns reddifh brown. Limeftone, and what is called
bajlard limejione, is fometimes, though rarely, met with
in coaleries. It is a well known ftone ; but from its
refemblance in hardnefs and colour is often miftaken
for a kind of whin. Sometimes, particularly in hilly
countries, the folid matter next the furface is found
to be a kind of foft or rotten whin ;—but it may be
noted, that this is only a mafs of heterogeneous mat¬
ter difpofed upon the regular ftrata ; and that beneath
this, all the ftrata are generally found in as regular an
order as where this heterogeneous matter does not oc¬
cur.
2. Of Pqft-Jlone.'] This is a freeftone of the hard¬
eft kind, and next to the limeftone with refpeft to
hardnefs and folidity. It is of a very fine texture ; and
when broken appears as if compofed of the fineft fand.
It is commonly found in a homogeneous mafs, though
variegated in colour; and, from its hardnefs, is not
liable to injury from being expofed to the weather.
Of this kind of ftone there are four varieties, which
may be diftinguiftied by their colour. The nr,oft com¬
mon is white poll, which in appearance is like Port¬
land ftone, but confiderably harder ; it is fometime*
variegated with ftreaks or fpots of brown, red, or
black.
Gray poll Is alfo very common; it appears like &
mixture of fine black and white fand: it is often va¬
riegated with brown and black ftreaks j the laft men-
Ff Uoned
C O A [ 2 2
Goalery. tioned appear like fmall clouds compofed of particles of
—v—' coal.
Brown or yellow poll is often met with of differ¬
ent degrees of colour ; moft commonly of the colour
of light ochre or yellow fand. It is as hard as the
reft, and fometimes variegated with white and black
ftreaks.
Red poll is generally of a dull red colour : this is
but rarely met with 5 it is often ftreaked with white
or black.
• All thefe lie in ftrata of different thickneffes ; but
commonly thicker than any other ftrata whatever : they
are feparated from each other, and from other kinds of
ftrata, by partings of coal, fand, or foft matter of dif¬
ferent colours which are very diftinguifhable.
3. Of Sand-Jlone.~\ This is a freeftone of a coarfer
texture than poft, and not fo hard; is fo lax as to be
eafily pervious to water $ when broken, is apparently
of a coarfe fandy fubftance j is friable and moulders to
land when expofed to the wind and rain ; has frequent¬
ly white fhining fpangles in it, and pebbles or other
fmall ftones inclofed in its mafs. Of this, there are
two kinds commonly met with, diftinguifhed by their
colours, gray and brown, which are of different (hades,
lighter or darker in proportion to the mixture of
white in them. It is moft generally found in ftrata of
confiderable tbicknefs, without many fecondary part¬
ings ; and fometimes, though rarely, it is fubdivided into
layers as thin as the common gray flate. It has gene¬
rally fandy or foft partings.
4. Of Metalfone.~\ This is a tolerably hard ftratum,
being in point of hardnefs next to fand-ftone j gene¬
rally folid, compaft, of confiderable weight and of
an argillaceous fubftance, containing many nodules or
balls of iron ore, and yellow or white pyrites ; its part¬
ings, or the furfaces of its ftrata, are hard, poliftied,
and fmooth as glafs. When broken, it has a dull
dufky appearance (though of a fine texture), like hard
dried clay mixed with particles of coal. Though hard
in the mine or quarry, when expofed to the frefli air it
falls into very fmall pieces. The moft ufual colour of
this (tone is black *, but there are feveral other lighter
colours, down to a light brown or gray. It is eafily
diftinguifhed from freeftone by its texture and colour^
as well as by its other charadleriftics. It lies in ftrata
of various thickneffes, though feldom fo thick as the
two laft-mentioned kinds of (tone.
5. Of Shiver.~\ This ftratum is more frequently met
with in coaleries than any other. There are many va¬
rieties of it, both in hardnefs and colour 5 but they all
agree in one general charafteriftic. The black colour
is moft common $ it is called by the mintrs black Jhiver,
black metal, or bleas. It is fofter than metal-ftone,
and in the mine is rather a tough than a hard fub¬
ftance, is not of a folid or compaft matter, being ea¬
fily feparable by the multitude of its partings, &c.
into very fmall parts, and readily abforbing water.
The fubftance of this ftratum is an indurated bole,
commonly divided into thin laminae of unequal thick¬
neffes, which break into long fmall pieces when ftruck
with force ; and, on examination, they appear to be
fmall irregular rhomboids : each of thefe fmall pieces
has a polilhed glaffy furface 5 and, when broken crofs
the grain, appears of a dry, leafy, or laminated tex-
6 ] C O A
ture, like exceeding fine clay : it is very friable j feels Coalery.
to the touch like an unftuous fubftance j and diffolves in
air or water to a fine pinguid black clay. There are
almoft conftantly found inclofed in its ftrata lumps or
nodules of iron ore, often real beds of the fame.
There are other colours of this ftratum befides black.
The brown or dun (hiver is very frequently met with j
it agrees with the above defeription in every thing but
colour. Gray ftiiver is alfo very common : it feems to
be only a mixture of the black and dun j and by the
different degrees of mixture of thefe colours others are
produced. It lies in ftrata fometimes of confiderable
thicknefs, at other times not exceeding a few feet :
they are commonly parted from each other by laminae
of fpar, coal, or foft matter.
6. Of CoaL~\ Referring the reader, for the fcientific
divifion of coals, to Mineralogy, and the preceding
articles, we (hall here confider them as diftinguifhable
into three kinds, according to their degrees of inflam¬
mability. For a full view of the natural hiftory of
coal, fee Williams'1 s Mineral Kingdom by Dr Millar.
I. The leaft inflammable kinds are thofe known by
the name of Welfh coal, which is found in Wales j Kil¬
kenny coal, which is found near Kilkenny in Ireland j
and blind or deaf coal, which is found in many parts of
Scotland and England. This coal takes a confiderable
degree of heat to kindle it, but when once thoroughly
ignited will burn a long time ; it remains in the fire
in feparate pieces without flicking together or caking 5
it produces neither flame nor fmoke, and makes no
cinders, but burns to a white ftony flag : it makes a
hot glowing fire like charcoal or cinders, and emits
effluvia of a fuffbeating nature, which renders it unfit
for burning in dwelling-houfes, its chief ufe being
among maltfters, dyers, &c. for drying their commo¬
dities. 2. Open burning coal, foon kindles, making a
hot pleafant fire, but is foon confumed : it produces
both fmoke and flame in abundance •, but lies open in
the fire, and does not cake together fo as to form cin¬
ders, its furface being burnt to afhes before it is tho¬
roughly calcined in the midft 5 from this it has its
name of an open burning coal; it burns to white or
brown afhes very light. Of this kind are cannel-coal,
jett, parrot, fplint, and moft of the coals in Scotland.
3. Clofe burning coal, kindles very quickly, makes a
very hot fire, melts and runs together like bitumen,
the very fmalleft culm making the fineft cinders, which
being thoroughly burnt, are porous and light as a pu¬
mice ftone, and when broken are of a fhining lead co¬
lour ; it makes a more durable fire than any other
coal, and finally burns to brown or reddifh coloured
heavy afhes. Of this kind are the Newcaftle and fe¬
veral other of the Englifh coals, and the fmithy coals
of Scotland. The open and the clofe burning coal
mixed together, make a more profitable fire for domef-
tic ufes than either of them feparate.
In all thofe diftri&s of country where coal is found,
there are generally feveral ftrata of it; perhaps all the
different kinds above mentioned will be found in fome,.
and only one of the kinds in others j yet this one kind
may be divided into many different feams or ftrata,.,
by beds of {hiver or other kinds of matter interpofing,
fo as to give it the appearance of fo many feparate
ftrata.
All
Coalery.
hey lie.
Plate
CXLIX.
fig- 3*
C ° -A. [2
All thefe ftrata above defcribed, with their feveral
varieties, do not lie or bear upon each other in the
rhe order or^er which they are defcribed, nor in any certain
n which or invariable order. Though there be found the fame
kinds of ftrata in one coalery or diftrift as in another,
yet they may be of very different thicknefles. In
fome places there are moft of the hard kinds, in others
moft of the fofter ; and in any one diftri& it rarely
happens that all the various kinds are found j for fome
kinds, perhaps, occur only once or twice, whilft others
occur 10 or 20 times before we reach the principal flra-
tum of coal.
In order to explain this, fuppofe the ftrata in the
pit at A (fig. 3.) lie in the order a, b, c, d, &c. they
may be fo much altered in their thickneffes, by rea-
fon of fome of them increafing and others diminifh-
ing, at the diftance of B, that they may be found there
of very different thickneffe.s j or if they are examined
in a pit at D, by reafon of its lower fituatien, and the
ftrata there not being a continuation of thofe in the
other places, they may be very different both in their
order and thickneffes, and yet of the fame kinds.
Though they be thus found very different in one
coalery or diftrift from what they are found to be in
another, with refpeft to their thickneffes, and the or¬
der in which they lie upon each other, yet we never
meet with a ftratum of any kind of matter but what
belongs to fome of thofe above defcribed.
To illuftrate how the various ftrata lie in fome
places, and how often the fame ftratum may occur be¬
twixt the furface and the coal, we ihall give the fol¬
lowing example. The numbers in the left-hand co¬
lumn refer to the claffes of ftrata before defcribed, to
which each belongs. The fecond column contains the
names of the ftrata •, and the four numeral columns, to
the right hand, exprefs the thicknefs of each ftratum,
in fathoms, yards, feet, and inches.
Example.
N°
Soil and gravel
Clay mixed with loofe ftones
Coarfe brown fand-ftone, with foft part¬
ings - - . .
White poft, with fliivery partings
Black fliiver or bleas, with iron-ftone balls
Coarfe fplinty coal
Soft gray fhiver - - -
Brown and gray poft, ftreaked with black
Black fhiver, with beds and balls of iron-
ftone
Gray and black metal-ftone
White and brown poft
Black and gray fhiver, ftreaked with white
Soft gray fand-ftone, with fliivery partings
Yellow and white poft, with fandy partings
Black and dun fliiver, with iron-ftone balls
White poft ftreaked with black, and black
partings - _ _
Gray fhiver, with iron-ftone balls
Brown and black metal-ftone
Hard flaty black fliiver
Coal, hard and fine fplint -
Soft black fliiver
Coal, fine and clear . _
Hard black fliiver *.
Total Fathoms
Fas
o
1
Yds
25 I ©
Ft.
27 ] C O A
In this inftance the fpecies of fand-ftone only occurs
twice, poft five times, whilft the ftiiver occurs no lefs
than nine times.
Coalety.
To apply the forgoing obfervations to praflice.
Suppofe it was required to examine whether
there
Plate
CXLIX.
ng- 3*
was coal in a piece of ground adjoining to, or in the
neighbourhood of, other coaleries. ^
In the firft place, it is proper to be informed, at Methods of
fome of the adjacent coaleries, of the number and kinds fearching
of ftrata, the order in which they lie upon each other j^or coah
to what point of the horizon, and in what quantity,
they dip 5 if any dikes, hitches, or troubles, and the
courfe they ftretch. Having learnt thefe circumftan-Rule ift.
ces, fearch in the ground under examination where
the ftrata are expofed to view, and compare thefe with,
the other. If they be of the fame kinds, and nearly
correfpond in order and thicknefs, and be lying in a
regular manner, and agree by computation with the
dip and rife, it may fafely be concluded the coal is
there •, and the depth of it may be judged from the
depth of the coal in the other coalery, below any par¬
ticular ftratum which is vifible in this.
If the folid ftrata are not expofed to view, neither Rule si.
in the hills nor valleys of the ground under examina¬
tion, then fearch in the adjoining grounds, and if the
fame kind of ftrata are found there as in the adjacent
coalery, and there is reafon, from the dip and other
circumfiances, to believe that they ftretched through
the ground to be examined ; it may then be concluded
the coal is there, as well as thefe other ftrata.
Suppofe a coalery is on the fide of a hill at A, fig.
3. and you would fearch for a coal at B, on the other
fide of the hill, but in a much lower fituation ; by ob-
ferving the feveral ftrata lying above the coal at A, and
the point to which they dip, which is dire&ly towards
B (if clear of dikes), you may expcft to find the fame
kind of ftrata on the other fide of the hill, but much
lower down. Accordingly, if fome of the ftrata are
vifible in the face of the precipice C, they may be
compared with fome of thofe in the pit at A. Or, if
they are not to be feen there, by fearching in the op-
pofite hill, they may perhaps be difcovered at the place
F $ where, if they be found in the manner before men¬
tioned, and there be reafon to believe they extend re¬
gularly from the firft place to this, it is more than pro¬
bable the coal, as well as thefe ftrata, will be found in
the intermediate ground.
If the ground to be examined lie more to the rife of Rule 3^*
the coal, as at E, which being fuppofed to be on a
flat, perhaps the folid ftrata there may be wholly co¬
vered by the gravel, clay, &c. of the outward furface
lying upon them. In this cafe, by meafuring the ho¬
rizontal diftance and the defcent of ground from A
to E, and computing the quantity of afcent or rife of
the coal in that diftance ; by comparing thefe toge¬
ther, it may be judged at what depth the coal will be
found there, allowing that it lie regular. Thus, fup¬
pofe the coal at A 80 yards deep, the diftance from A
to E 500 yards, and that the coal rifes one yard in 1©
of horizontal diftance :
Then, from the depth of the pit 80
Deduct the defcent of ground from A to
E, fuppofe - - - 24
Ff 2
This
Coalery.
Bwle 4tli.
C O A
This remainder would be the depth, if
the coal was level - - - - -
But as the coal rifes I in 10 yards, then
[ 228
C O A
56
Coaiery,
dedu£t what
which is -
it rifes in 500 yards,
50
Kule 5th,
12
And the remainder is the depth of that
coal at E 6 yards.
Or fuppofe that the place at B is 500 yards the
contrary way, or to the full dip of the coal at A } if a
view of the folid ftrata cannot be obtained, then by
proceeding in the fame manner as before, the depth
of the coal at that place may be computed. Thus,
To the depth of the coal at the pit A 80
Add the defcent or inclination of the
coal in 500 yards, which, as before,
is - - 5°
This fum would be the depth, if the
ground was level - - - - -
But as the ground defcends towards B,
deduft the quantity of that, which
fuppofe -
Remains the depth of the coal at B - 50 yards.
If the place to be examined be neither to the full
dip nor full rife, but in feme proportion towards ei¬
ther, the fame method may be purfued, computing
how much the coal rifes or dips in a certain diflance in
that dire&ion.
If there is known to be a dike in the workings of
the pit at A, which elevates or deprefles the flrata to¬
wards the place under examination, then the quantity
of the elevation or depreffion muft be accordingly ad¬
ded to or deduced from the computed depth of the
coal at that place. Suppofe there is an upcaft dike
jo fathoms or 2Q yards towards B, then deduct 20
from 50, the depth before computed, there will re¬
main 30 yards or 13 fathoms for the depth of the coal
at B.
But it often happens that coal is to be fearcbed for
in a part of the country, at fuch a confiderable diflance
from all other coaleries, that by reafon of the interven¬
tion of hills, valleys, unknown dikes, &c. the con¬
nexion or relation of the ftrata with thofe of any other
coalery cannot be traced by the methods laft mention¬
ed •, in which cafe a more extenfive view muft be tak¬
en of all circumftances than was neceffary in the for¬
mer •, and a few general rules founded on the foregoing
obfervations, and on conclufions drawn from them,
will greatly aflifl: in determining, fometimes with a
nreat degree of probability, and fometimes with abfo-
lute certainty, whether coal be in any particular di-
ftrifl of country or not. . i .
The firft; proper ftep to be taken in fuch a caie,. is
to take a general view of that diftridl of country in¬
tended to be fearched, in order to judge, from the out¬
ward appearance or face of the country, which parti¬
cular part out of the whole is the moft likely to con¬
tain thofe kind of ftrata favourable to the produdlion
of coal ; and confequently fuch particular part being
found, is the moft advifeable to be begun with in the
examination^
]
Though the appearance of the outward furface
gives no certain or infallible rule to judge of the kinds
of ftrata lying beneath, yet it gives a probable one >Mountajn
for it is generally found, that a chain of mountains oroUsUfltHj/
hills rifing to a great height, and very fteep on thet^onS4
ftdes, are commonly compofed of ftrata much harder
and of different kinds from thofe before deferibed
wherein coal is found to lie, and therefore unfavour¬
able to the production of coal; and thefe mountainous
fituations are alfo more fubjedt: to dikes and troubles
than the lower grounds j fo that if the folid ftrata com-
pofing them gave even favourable fymptoms of coaly
yet the laft circumftance would render the quality
bad, and the quantity precarious. And, on the whole,
it may be obferved, that mountainous lituations are
found more favourable to the produdlion of metals
than of coal. It is like wife generally found that thofe jjms an4-
diftridls abounding with valleys, moderately rifing hills,valleys,
and interfperfed with plains, fometimes of confider¬
able extent, do more commonly contain coal,, and
thofe kinds of ftrata favourable to its produdlion, than
either the mountainous or champaign countries j and
a country fo lituated as this laft deferibed, efpecially
if at fome confiderable diftance from the mountains,
ought to be the firft part appointed for particular ex-
amination. Plains, or level grounds of great extent,piaiug.
generally fituated by the fides of rivers, or betwixt
fuch moderate rifing grounds as laft deferibedy are
alfo very favourable to the produdlion of coal, if the
folid ftrata, and other circumftances in the higher
grounds adjoining, be conformable ; for it will fierce¬
ly be found, in fuch a fituation, that the ftrata are fa¬
vourable in the rifing grounds, on both fides of the
plain, and not fo in the fpace betwixt them. Though
plains be fo favourable, in fuch circumftances, to the
produ&ion of coal, yet it is often more difficult to be
difeovered in fuch a fituation, than in that before de¬
feribed ; becaufe the clay, foil, and other lax matter,
brought off the higher grounds by rains and other
accidents, have generally covered the furfaces of fuch
plains to a confiderable depth, which prevents the ex¬
ploration of the folid ftrata there, unlefs they be ex-
pofed to view by digging, quarrying, or fome fuch
operation.
That part of the diftrift being fixed upon which
abounds with moderate hills and valleys as propereft
to begin the examination at, the firft ftep to be taken
is to examine all places where the folid ftrata are ex-
pofed to view (which are called the crops of the ftra¬
ta), as in precipices, hollows, &c. tracing them as ac¬
curately and gradually as the circumftances will allow,
from the uppermoft ftratum or higheft part of the
o-round to the very undermoft : and if they appear t»
be of the kinds before deferibed, it will be proper to
note in a memorandum book their different thickneffes;.
the order in which they lie upon each other 5 the point
of the horizon to which they dip or incline, the quan¬
tity of that inclination, and whether they lie in a re¬
gular ftate. This ftiould be done in every part of the
ground where they can be feen, obferving at the fame
time, that if a ftratum can be found in one place,
which has a connexion with fome other in a fecond
place, and if this other has a connexion with another
in a third place, &c. ; then, from thefe feparate con¬
nexions, the joint correfpondence of the whole may
C O A t 229 ] C 0 A
Coalery. traced, and the ftrata, which in fome places are co-
t—y—1 vered, may be known by their correfpondence with
thofe which are expofed to view.
If by this means the crops of all the ftrata cannot
be feen (which is often the cafe), and if no coal be
difcovered by its crop appearing at the furface : yet
if the ftrata that have been viewed confift of thofe
kinds before defcribed, and are found lying in a regu¬
lar order, it is fufficiently probable that coal may be
in that part of the diftrift, although it be concealed
from fight by the furface of the earth or other matter.
Rule (5th. Therefore, at the fame time that the crops of the ftrata
are under examination, it will be proper to take notice
of all fuch fprings of water as feem to be of a mineral
nature, particularly thofe known by the name of iron
water, which bear a mud or fediment of the colour of
ruft or iron, having a ftrong aftringent tafte. Springs
of this kind proceed originally from thofe ftrata which
contain beds or balls of iron-ore ; but by reafon of
the tenacity of the matter of thofe ftrata, the water
only difengages itfelf fiowly from them, defcending
into fome more porous or open ftratum below, where,
gathering in a body, it runs out to the furface in fmall
ftreams or rills. The ftratum of coal is the moft ge¬
neral refervoir of this water; for the iron-ftone being
lodged in different kinds of fhiver, and the coal com¬
monly connedted with fome of them, it therefore de-
fcends into the coal, where it finds a ready paffage
through the open backs and cutters. Sometimes, in¬
deed, it finds fome other ftratum than coal to colleft
and tranfmit it to the furface ; but the difference is
eafily diftinguithable ; for the ochrey matter in the
water, when it comes from a ftratum of coal, is of a
darker nifty colour than when it proceeds from any
other, and often brings with it particles and fraall
pieces of coal; therefore, wherever thefe two circum-
ftances concur in a number of thefe kind of fprings,
fituated in a direction from each other anfwerable to
the ftretch or to the inclination of the ftrata, it may
be certain the water comes off coal, and that the coal
lies in a fomewhat higher fituation than the apertures
of the fprings.
There are other fprings alfo which come off coal,
and are not diftinguifhable from common water, other-
wife than by their aftringency, and their having a blue
fcum of an oily or glutinous nature fwimming upon
the furface of the water. Thefe, in common with the
others, bring out particles of coal, more efpecially in
rainy feafons when the fprings flow with rapidity.
When a number of thefe kinds are fituated from each
other in the direftion of the ftrata, as above defcri-
. bed ; or if the water does not run forth as in fprings,
but only forms a fwamp, or an extenfion of ftagnant
water beneath the turf 5 in either cafe, it may be de¬
pended upon that this water proceeds from a ftratum
of coal.
Rule 7th. If the ftratum of coal is not expofed to view, or
cannot be difcovered by the firft method of fearching
for the crop, although the appearance of the other
ftrata be very favourable, and afford a ftrong proba¬
bility ef coal being there ; and if the laft-mentioned
method of judging of the particular place where the
crop of the coal may lie, by the fprings of water iflu-
ing from it, Ihould, from the deficiency of thofe fprings
or other circumftanees, be thought equivocal, and
2
not give a fatisfaftory indication of the coal ■, then a Coalery,
further fearch may be made in all places where the
outward furface, or the ftratum of clay or earth, is
turned up by ploughing, ditching, or digging, parti¬
cularly in the lower grounds, in hollows, and by the
fides of ftreams. Thefe places fhould be ftri&ly exa¬
mined, to fee if any pieces of coal be intermixed with
the fubftance of the fuperior laft ftrata 5 if any fuch be
found, and if they be pretty numerous and in detached
pieces, of a firm fubftance, the angles perfect or not
much worn, and the texture of the coal diftinguifti-
able, it may be concluded, that the ftratura of coal to
which they originally did belong, is at no great dif-
tance, but in a fituation higher with refpeft to the
horizon j and if there be alfo found along with the
pieces of coal other mineral matter, fuch as pieces of
fhiver or freeftone, this is a concurrent proof that it
has come only from a fmall diftance. Though the two
fore-mentioned methods fliould only have produced a
ftrong probability, yet if this laft-mentioned place*,
where the pieces of coal, &c. are found in the clay,
be in a fituation lower than the fprings j when this
circumftance is joined to the other two, it amounts to
little lefs than a moral certainty' of the ftratum of coal
being a very little above the level of the fprings. But
if, on the contrary, thefe pieces of coal are found more
fparingly interfperfed in the fuperior ftratum, and if
the angles are much fretted or worn off, and very lit¬
tle of other kinds of mineral matter connefted with
them ; it may then be concluded, that they have come
from a ftratum of coal fituated at a greater diftance
than in the former cafe 5 and by a ftri<ft fearch and an
accurate comparifon of other circumftances, that parti¬
cular place may be difcovered with as much certainty
as the other.
After the place is thus difcovered, where the ftra¬
tum of coal is expelled to lie concealed, the next pro¬
per ftep to be taken, is to begin digging a pit or hole
there perpendicularly down to find the coal. If the
coal has no folid ftrata above and beneath it, but be
found only embodied in the clay or other lax matter,
it will not be there of its full thicknefs, nor fo hard
and pure as in its perfect ftate when enclofed betwixt
two folid ftrata, the uppermoft called the roof and
the undermoft called the pavement, of the coal : in
fuch fituation therefore it becomes neceffary, either
to dig a new pit, or to work a mine forward until the
ftratum of coal be found included betwixt a folid roof
and pavement, after which it need not be expedted to‘
increafe much in its thicknefs : yet as it goes deeper
or farther to the dip, it moft likely will improve in its
quality \ for that part of the ftratum of coal which lies
near the furface, or only at a fmall depth, is often de-
bafed bya mixture of earth and fundry other impuri¬
ties walked down from the furface, through the backs
and cutters, by the rains j whilft the other part of the
ftratum which lies at a greater depth is preferved pure,
by the other folid ftrata above it intercepting all the
mud walked from the furface.
The above methods of inveftigation admit of many
different cafes, according to the greater or lefs number
of favourable circumftances attending each of the modes
of inquiry ; and the refult accordingly admits every
degree of probability, from the moft diftant, even up
to ^abfolute certainty. In fome fituations, the coal
C O A [ 230 ] C O A
Coalery. will be difcovered by one method alone, in others, by
w”—V mllj' a comparifon of certain circumftances attending each
method *, whilft in fome others, all the circumtlances
that can be colledted only lead to a certain degree of
probability.
In the laft cafe, where the evidence is only proba¬
ble, it will be more advifeable to proceed in the fearch
by boring a hole through the. folid ftrata (in the man¬
ner hereafter defcribed), than by digging or finking a
pit, it being both cheaper and more expeditious j and
in every cafe, which does not amount to an abfolute
certainty, this operation is neceflary to afcertain the
real exifience of the coal in that place.
We (hall now fuppofe that, having examined a cer¬
tain difirift, fituated within a few miles of the fea or
fome navigable river, that all the circumftances which
offer only amount to a probability of the coal being
there, and that boring is neceflary to afcertain it. We
(hall therefore defcribe the operation of boring to the
coal j then the method of clearing it from water, com¬
monly called winning it j and all the fubfequent ope¬
rations of working the coal and railing it to the furface,
leading it to the river or harbour, and finally putting
it on board the ftiips.
Of boring Suppofe that the ground, A, B, C, D, fig. 4. has
for the been examined, and from the appearance of the ftrata
C°a Plate where they are vifible (as at the precipice D, and fe-
CXLIX. veral other places), they are found to be of thofe kinds
fig. 4. ufually connected with coal, and that the point to
which they rife is dire&ly weft towards A, but the
ground being flat and covered to a confiderable depth
with earth, &c. the ftrata cannot be viewed in the
low grounds; therefore, in this and all fimilar fituations,
the firft hole that is bored for a trial for coal fhould be
on the weft fide of the ground, or to the full rife of
the ftrata as at A, where boring down through the
ftrata I, 2, 3, fuppofe 10 fathoms, and not finding
coal, it will be better to bore a new hole than to pro¬
ceed to a great depth in that; therefore, proceeding fo
far to the eaftward as B, where the ftratum 1, of the
firft hole is computed to be 10 or 12 fathoms deep, a
fecond hole may be bored, where boring down through
the ftrata 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, the ftratum 1 is met with, but
no coal; it would be of no ufe to bore farther in this
hole, as the fame ftrata would be found which were
in the hole A : therefore, proceeding again fo far to
the eaftward, as it may be computed the ftratum 4 of
the fecond hole will be met with at the depth of 10 or
12 fathoms, a new hole may be bored C, where,
boring through the ftrata 9, 10, H, 12, the coal is
met with at 13, before the hole proceed fo deep as
the ftratum 4 of the former. It is evident, that, by
this method of procedure, neither the coal nor any
other of the ftrata can be pafled over, as the laft hole
is always bored down to that ftratum which was neareft
the furface in the former hole.
The purpofes for which boring is. ufed are numerous,
and fome of them of the utmoft importance in coaleries,
In coaleries of great extent, although the coal be known
to extend through the whole grounds, yet accidental
turns, and other alterations in the dip, to which the
coal is liable, render the boring of three or more holes
neceflary, to determine exactly to what point of
the horizon it dips or inclines, before any capital ope¬
ration for the winning of it can be undertaken j be-
3
caufe a very final! error in this may occafion the lofs of Coalerj.
a great part of the coal, or at leaft incur a double ex- -v—
pence in recovering it.
Suppofe A, B, C, D, (fig. 5.) to be part of an ex-Fig. 5.
tenfive field of coal, intended to be won or laid dry by
a fire-engine $ according to the courfe of the dip in
adjoining coaleries, the point C is the place at which
the engine {hould be ere6ted, becaufe the coal dips in
the direftion of the line AC, confequently the level line
would be in the direction CD ; but this ought not to
be trufted to. Admit two holes, 1, 2, be bored to
the coal in the diredion of the fuppofed dip, at 200
yards diftance from each other, and a third hole 3 at
200 yards diftance from each of them : fuppofe the
coal is found, at the hole 1, to be 20 fathoms deep 5 at
the hole 2, 10 fathoms deeper j but at the hole 3, only
8 fathoms deeper than at 1. Then to find the true
level line and dip of the coal, fay, As 10 fathoms, the
dip from 1 to 2, are to 200 yards the diftance, fo are 8
fathoms, the dip from 1 to 3, to 160 yards the di¬
ftance from I on the line I, 2, to a, the point upon a
level with the hole 3. Again fay, As 8 fathoms, the
dip from I to 3, are to 200 yards the diftance $ fo are
10 fathoms, the dip from 1 to 2, to 250 yards, the
diftance from I, in diredlion of the line 1, 3, to Z>, the
point upon a level with the hole 2. Then let fall the
perpendicular I c, which will be the true direflion of
the dip of the coal, inftead of the fuppofed line AC j
and by drawing ED, and DF, parallel to the other
lines, the angle D, and no other place, is the deepeft
part of the coal, and the place where the engine
ftiould be erefled. If it had been eredfted at the angle
C, the level line would have gone in the direftion cb,
by which means about one-third part of the field of
coal would have been below the level of the engine,
and perhaps loft, without another engine was eredted
at D.
Boring not only {hows the depth at which the coal
lies, but its exadl: thicknefs j its hardnefs j its quality,
whether clofe burning or open burning, and whether
any foul mixture is in it or not; alfo the thicknefs,
hardnefs and other circumftances of all the ftrata bored
through ; and from the quantity of water met with in
the boring, fome judgment may be formed of the fize
of an engine capable of drawing it, where an engine
is neceflary. When holes are to be bored for thefe
purpofes, they may be fixed (as near as can be guefled)
in fuch a fituation from each other, as to fuit the places
where pits are afterwards to be funk : by which means
moft of the expence may be faved, as thefe pits would
otherwife require to be bored, when finking, to dif-
charge their water into the mire below. There are
many other ufes to which boring is applied, as will be
explained hereafter.
For thefe reafons boring is greatly pradlifed in Eng¬
land, and is brought to great perfediion ; and as the
operation is generally entrufted to a man of integrity,
who makes it his profeflion, the accounts given by him
of the thicknefs and other circumftances of the ftrata,
are the moft accurate imaginable, and are trufted to
with the greateft confidence ; for as very few gentle¬
men choofe to take a leafe of a new coalery which
has not been fufficiently explored by boring, it is ne-
ceflary the account fliould be faithful, being the only
rule to guide the landlord in letting his coal, and the
tenant
C O A [ 231 ] C O A
Coalery. tenant in taking it. In Scotland it is not fo generally
praftifed ; nor are there any men of charafter ivho are
profeffed borers, that operation being commonly left
to any common workman ; whence it happens, that
it never has been in any efteem, the accounts given by
them being fo imperfect and equivocal, as not to merit
any confidence.
The tools or inftruments ufed in boring are very
fimple. The boring rods are made of iron, from 3 tc
4 feet long, and about an inch and a half fquare, with
a fcrew at each end, by which they are fcrewed toge¬
ther, and other rods added, as the hole increafes in
depth. The chifel is about 18 inches long, and two
and a half broad at the end, Avhich being fcrewed on
at the lower end of the rods, and a piece of timber
put through an eye at the upper end, they are prepa¬
red for work. The operation is performed by lifting
them up a little, and letting them fall again, at the
fame time turning them a little round $ by a conti¬
nuance of which motions, a round hole is fretted or
worn through the hardeft ftrata. When the chifel is
blunt, it is taken out, and a fcooped inftrument call¬
ed a wimble, put on in its Head ; by which the dull or
pulverized matter which was worn off the ftratum in
the laft operation is brought up. By this fubftance,
the borers know exactly the nature of the ftratum
they are boring in : and by any alteration in the
working of the rods (which they are fenfible of by
handling them), they perceive the leaft variation of the
ftrata. The principal part of the art depends upon
keeping the hole clean, and obferving every variation
of the ftrata with care and attention.
The eftabliftied price of boring in England was fome
time ago 5s. per fathom for the firft five fathoms, 10s.
per fathom for the next five fathoms, and 15s. per fa¬
thom for the next five fathoms $ and fo continually in-
creafing 5s. per fathom at the end of every five fa¬
thoms ; the borer finding all kinds of boring inftru¬
ments j but if more than one foot in thicknefs of whin
occur, he is paid per day. See a new method of bor¬
ing for coal defcribed in Dr Millar’s edition of Wil¬
liams'1 s Min. Kingdom.
Of wbn'n? ^ exceedingly uncommon to meet with a ftratum
the coal. of coal which is naturally dry, or whofe fubterranean
fprings or feeders of water are fo very fmall as to require
no other means than the labour of men to draw off or
conduft them away j for it moft commonly happens
that the ftratum of coal, and the other ftrata adjacent,
abound fo much in feeders of water, that, before accefs
can be had to the coal, fome other methods muft be
purfued to drain or conduft away thefe feeders ; there¬
fore, after the deepeft part of the coal is difcovered,
the next confideration is of the beft method of draining
it, or, in the miners language, of winning the coal.
If the coal lies in fuch an elevated fituation, that a
part of it can be drained by a level brought up from
the lower grounds, then that will be the moft natural
method j but whether it be the moft proper or not,
depends upon certain circumftanoes. If the fituation
of the ground be fuch, that the level would be of a
great length, or have to come through very hard ftrata,
and the quantity of coal it would drain, or the profits
expe&ed to be produced by that coal, fhould be ina¬
dequate to the expence of carrying it up j in fuch cafe
feme other method of winning might be more proper.
Or fuppofe, in another cafe, it be found, that a level coa]ery.
can be had to a coalery, w’hich will coft 2000I. and '  v—m J
require five years to bring it up to the coal, and that
it will drain 30 acres of coal when completed j yet if
it be found that a fire engine, or fome other machine,
can be erefted on that coalery, for the fame fum of
money, in one year, which will drain 50 acres of the
fame coal, then this laft would be a more proper me¬
thod than the level; becaufe four years profit would
be received by this method before any could come in
by the other j and after the 30 acres drained by the
level is all wrought, a machine of fome kind would ne-
verthelefs be neceffary to drain the remaining 20 ac/es ^
fo that erefling a machine at firft would be on all ac¬
counts the moft advifable.
Where a level can be driven, in a reafonable time,
and at an adequate expence, to drain a fufficient tra&
of coal, it is then the moft eligible method of win¬
ning ; becaufe the charge of upholding it is generally
lefs than that of upholding fire-engines or other ma¬
chines.
If a level is judged propereft after confideration of
every neceflary circumftance, it may be begun at the
place appointed in the manner of an open ditch, about
three feet wide, and carried forward until it be about
fix or feven feet deep from the furface, taking care to
fecure the bottom and fides by timber work or build¬
ing, after which it may be continued in the manner
of a mine about three feet wide, and three feet and a
half high, through the folid ftrata, taking care all along
to keep the bottom upon a level, and to fecure the
roof, fides, and bottom, by timber or building, in all
places where the ftrata are not ftrong enough to fup-
port the incumbent weight, or where they are liable
to decay by their expofure to the frelh air. If the
mine has to go a very long way before it reaches the
coal, it may be neceffary to fink a fmall pit, for the
convenience of taking out the ftones and rubbilh pro¬
duced in working the mine, as well as to fupply frefh
air to the workmen ; and if the air fhould afterwards
turn damp, then fquare wooden pipes made of deals
clofely jointed (commonly called air-boxes), may be
fixed in the upper part of the mine, from the pit-bot¬
tom all the way to the end of the mine, which will
caufe a fufficient circulation of frefh air for the work¬
men. Perhaps in a great length it will be found pro¬
per to fink another or more pits upon the mine, and
by proceeding in this manner it may be carried for¬
ward until it arrive at the coal j and after driving a ,
mine in the coal a few yards to one fide, the firft coal¬
pit may be funk.
If a level is found impra&icable, or for particular ^ ^
reafons unadvifable, then a fire engine*, or fometicle^'w.
other machine, will be neceffary, which fhould be fixed
upon the deepeft part of the coal, or at leaft fo far
towards the dip as will drain a fufficient extent of
coal, to continue for the time intended to work the
coalery ; and whether a fire engine, or any other
machine is ufed, it will be of great advantage to have
a partial level brought up to the engine-pit, if the fi¬
tuation of the ground will admit it at a fmall charge,
in order to receive and convey away the water with¬
out drawing it fo high as to the furface $ for if the pit
was 30 fathoms deep to the coal, and if there was a
partial level which received the water five fathoms
c o
Coalery. only below the furface,
A . . [
the engine by this means
would be enabled to draw one-fixth part more water than
without it; and if there were any feeders of water in
the pit above this level, they might be conveyed into
it, where they would be difcharged without being drawn
by the engine.
The engine-pit may be from feven to nine feet
wide, and whether it be circular, oval, or of any
other form, is not very material, provided it be fuf-
ficiently firong, though a circular form is moll gene¬
rally approved. If any feeders of water are met
with a few fathoms from the furface, it will be pro¬
per to make a circular or fpiral cutting about one foot
<leep, and a little hollowed in the bottom, round the
circumference of the pit, in order to receive and con¬
duct the water "down, without flying over the pit and
incommoding the workmen. If the ftrata are of fo
tender or friable a nature as not to bear this opera¬
tion, or if the water leaks through them, then it will
be neceffary to infert in the fore-mentiond cutting a
circular piece of timber called a crib, hollowed in the
fame manner to collefl the w'ater *, and a fecond may
be inferted two or three yards below the firft, with a
Hoping niche down the wall or fide of the pit, to con¬
vey the water from the former into it j proceeding by
fome of thefe methods until the pit is funk 15 or 20
fathoms, at which place it would be proper to fix a
ciftern or refervoir, for the firft or upper fet of pumps
to ftand in j for if the pit be 30 fathoms as fuppofed,
it would be too great a length for the pumps to be all
in one fet from bottom to top ; therefore, if any ex¬
traordinary feeders are met with, betwixt 15 and 20
fathoms deep, it would be beft to fix the ciftern where
it may receive them, and prevent their defcending to
the bottom j obferving that the upper fet of pumps be
fo much larger than the lower one, as the additional
feeders may require ; or if there are no additional feed¬
ers, it ought then to be a little fmaller.
After the upper ciftern is fixed, the operation may
be purfued by the other fet of pumps in much the fame
manner as has been defcribed, until the pit is funk to
the coal j which being done, it would be proper to
fink it fix or eight feet deeper, and to work fome coal
out from the dip fide of the pit, to make room for a
large quantity of water to collefr, without incommod¬
ing the coal-pits when the engine is not working.
It would exceed the proper bounds of this article to
enumerate all the accidents to which engine-pits are
liable in finking; we ftiall therefore only recite a few
which feem important.
If a quickfand happens to lie above the folid flrata,
next the furface, it may be got through by digging
the pit of fuch a widenefs at the top (allowing for the
natural flope or running of the fand) as to have the
proper fize of the pit on the uppermoft folid ftratum,
where fixing a wooden frame or tub as the timber-
work of the pit, and covering it round on the out-
fide with wrought clay up to the top, the fand may
again be thrown into the excavation round the tub, and
levelled with the furface.
If the quickfand ftiould happen to lie at a confider-
able depth betwixt the clay and folid ftrata, then a
ftrong tub of timber elofely jointed and (hod with
iron, of fuch a diameter as the pit will admit, may be
let down into it j and by fixing a great weight upon
232 ] C O A
the top, and by working out the fand, it may be made Coalery,
to fink gradually, until it comes to the rock or other w—y—
folid ftratum below,; and when all the fand is got
out, if it be lightly calked and fecured, it will be fuf-
ficient.
It fometimes happens, that a ftratum of foft matter
lying betwixt two hard foiid ones, produces fo large a
quantity of water as greatly to incommode the opera¬
tions. In fuch a cafe, a frame-work of plank, ftrength-
ened with cribs and elofely calked, will keep back the
whole or the greateft part of it, provided the two ftra¬
ta which include it are of a clofe texture ; or let an ex¬
cavation of about two feet be made in the foft ftratum
quite round the circumference of the pit, and let that
be filled clofe up betwixt the hard ftrata with pieces of
dry fir-timber about ten inches fquare inferted endwife,
and afterwards as many wooden wedges driven into
them as they can be made to receive ; it this be well
finil'hed, little or no water will find a paffage through
it.
It rarely happens that any fuffocating damp or foul
air is met with in an engine-pit ; the falling of water,
and the working of the pumps, generally caufing a fuf-
ficient circulation of frefh air. But that kind of com-
buftible vapour, or inflammable air, which will catch
fire at a candle, is often met with. It proceeds from
the partings, backs, and cutters, of the folid ftrata,
exhaling from fome in an infenfible manner, whilft
from others it blows with as great impetuofity as a
pair of bellows. When this inflammable air is per¬
mitted to accumulate, it becomes dangerous by taking
fire, and burning or deftroying the workmen, and
fometimes by its explofion will blow the timber out of
the pit and do confiderable damage. If a confider-
able fupply of frefti air is forced down the pit by air-
boxes and a ventilator, or by dividing the pit into two
by a clofe partition of deals from top to bottom, or by
any other means it will be driven out, or fo weakened
that it will be of no dangerous confequence ; or when
the inflammable air is very ftrong, it may be fafely car¬
ried off by making a clofe fheathing or lining of thin
deals quite round the circumference of the pit, from
the top of the folid ftrata to the bottom, and length¬
ening it as the pit is funk, leaving a fmall vacancy be¬
hind the fheathing ; when the combuftible matter,
which exhales from the ftrata, being confined behind
thefe deals, may be vented by one or two fmall leaden
pipes carried from the (heathing to the furface, fo
that very little of it can tranfpire into the area of the
pit. If a candle be applied to the orifice of the pipe
at the furface, the inflammable air will inftantly take
fire, and continue burning like an oil-lamp, until it be
extinguiftied by fome internal caufe. Upon the whole,
every method ftioukl be ufed to make the pit as ftrong
in every part, and to keep it as dry as poffible ; and
whenever any accident happens, it ftiould be as ex-
peditioufty and thoroughly repaired as poflible, before
any other operation be proceeded in, left an additional
one follow, which would more than double the difficul¬
ty of repairing it.
The firft operations, after finking the engine-pit, areof workin
the working or driving a mine in the coal, and fink- the coaL
ing the firft coal-pit. The fituation of the firft coal¬
pit ftiould be a little to the rife of the engine-pit, that
the water which collects there may not obftrufl the
working
C 0 A [ 233 ] C O A
working of the coals every time the engine Hops j
and it fliould not exceed the diftance of 20, 30, or 40
yards, becaufe when the firft mine has to be driven a
long way, it becomes both difficult and expenfive. If
there be not a fufficient circulation of freffi air in the
mine, it may be fupplied by the before-defcribed air-
boxes and a ventilator, until it arrives below the in¬
tended coal-pit, when the pit may be bored and funk
to the coal, in the manner before mentioned.
After the pit is-thus got dowm to the coal, the next
confideration ffiould be, the belt method of working
it. The moft general practice in Scotland is to ex¬
cavate and take away a part only of the ftratum of
coal in the firft working of the pit, leaving the other
part as pillars for fupporting the roof 5 and after the
coal is wrought in this manner to fuch a diftance from
the pit as intended, then thefe pillars, or fo many of
them as can be got, are taken out by a fecond work¬
ing, and the roof and other folid ftrata above permit¬
ted to fall down and fill up the excavation. The
quantity of coal wrought away, and the fize of the
pillars left in the firft working, is proportioned to the
hardnefs and ftrength of the coal and other ftrata adja¬
cent, compared with the incumbent weight of the fupe-
rior ftrata.
The fame mode of working is purfued in moft parts
of England, differing only as the circumftances of the
coalery may require j for the Englifh coal, particular¬
ly in the northern counties, being of a fine tender tex¬
ture, and of the clofe-burning kind, and alfo the roof
and pavement of the coal in general not fo ftrong as
in Scotland, they are obliged to leave a larger propor¬
tion of coal in the pillars for fupporting the roof, du¬
ring the firft time of working *, and, in the fecond work¬
ing, as many of thefe pillars are wrought away as can
be got with fafety.
The Scots coal in general being very hard, and of
the open-burning kind, it is neceffary to work it in
fuch a manner as to produce as many great coals as
pwffible, which is beft effected by taking away as high
a proportion of the coal as circumftances will allow in
the firft working $ on the contrary, the Engliffi coal
being very tender, cannot poffibly be wrought large,
nor is it of much importance how fmall they are, be¬
ing of fo rich a quality ; fo that a larger proportion
may be left in pillars in this coal than could rvith pro¬
priety be done in the other; and, when all circumftan¬
ces are confidered, each method feems well adapted to
the different purpofes intended.
The ancient method of working w'as, to work away
as much of the coal as could be got with fafety at one
working only, by which means the pillars were left fo
fmall as to be cruffied by the weight of the fuperior
ftrata, and entirely loft. As great quantities of coals
were loft by this method, it is now generally ex¬
ploded, and the former adopted in its place, by which
a much larger quantity of coal is obtained from the
lame extent of ground, and at a much lefs expence in
the end.
The exa& proportion of coal proper to be wrought
away, and to be left in pillars at the firft working,
may be judged of by a comparifon of the circumftan¬
ces before mentioned. If the roof and pavement are
both ftrong, as well as the coal, and the pit about 30
fathoms deep, then two-Uiirds, or probably three-
Vol. VI. Part I.
fourths, may be taken away at the firft working, and
one third or one-fourth left in pillars. If both roof'-
and pavement be foft or tender, then a larger pro¬
portion muft be left in pillars, probably one-third or
near one-half; and in all cafes the hardnefs or ftrength
of the coal muft be confidered. If tender, it will re¬
quire a larger pillar than hard coal; becaufe, by being
expofed to the air after the firft working, a part of it
will moulder and fall off, by which it will lofe much
of its folidity and refiftance.
The proportion to be wrought away and left in
pillars being determined, the next proper ftep is to
fix upon fuch dimenfions of the pillars to be left, and
of the excavations from which the coal is to be taken
au’ay, as may produce that proportion. In order to
form a juft idea of which, fee a plan of part of a pit’s
workings (fig. 6.) fuppofed to be at the depth of 30
fathoms, and the coal having a moderate rife. A, re-
prefents the engine-pit ; B, the coal-pit ; A a B, the
mine from the former to the latter ; BC, the fiift
working or excavation made from the coal-pit, com¬
monly called the winning mine or winning headway^
nine feet wide; bbbb, &c. the workings called rootm^
turned off at right angles from the others, of the width
of 1 2 feet : cccc, &c. the workings called throughers
or thirlings, 9 feet wide, wrought through at right
angles from one room to another; ddd, &c. the pil¬
lars of coal left at the firft working for fupporting the
roof, 18 feet long and 12 feet broad; DD, twro large
pill ars of coal near the pit bottom, 15 or 20 yards long,
and 10 or 15 broad, to fupport the pit, and prevent its
being damaged by the roof falling in ; e e, the level
mine wrought in the coal from the engine-pit bottom
four or five feet wide; ff, &c. large pillars of coal left
next the level, to fecure it from any damage by the
roof falling in ; g g, a dike which depreffes the coal,
1 fathom ; b h, &c. large pillars and barriers of coal,
left unwrought, adjoining to the dike where the roof
is tender, to prevent its falling down. The coal ta¬
ken out by the firft working in this pit is fuppofed to
be one third of the whole; and allowing the rooms
12 feet wide, and the thirlings 9 feet wide, then the
pillars will require to be I 2 feet wide and I 8 feet long ;
for if one pillar be in a certain proportion to its ad¬
joining room and thirling, the whole number of pillars
will be in the fame proportion to the whole number
of rooms and thirlings in the pit. Suppofe ABCD
(fig. 7.) to be a pillar of coal 18 feet long and 12 feet ;
broad, its area will be 216 fquare feet; ACHE, the
adjoining thirling, 12 feet by 9 feet, and its area 108
fquare feet ; BAEFG, the adjoining room, 27 feet long
and I 2 feet broad, and its area 324 fquare feet ; which
added to 108 gives 432 fquare feet, or two-thirds
wrought, and 216 fquare feet left, or one-third of the
whole area FGHD.
It is proper to obferve, that in the profecution of
the workings, the rooms to the right of the winning
headway fhould be oppofite to the pillars on the left,
and the fitft, third, and fifth pillar, or the fecond,
fourth, and fixth, adjoining to the faid headway, fliould
be of fuch a length as to overlay the adjoining thir¬
lings, as, in the plan, the pillar 2 overlays the thir¬
lings 1 and 3 ; and the pillar 4 overlays the thir-
lings 3 and 5 ; this will effectually fupport the roof
of the main road BC, and will bring the other pillars^
G g inte
Coalery.
—y——
Plate
CXLIX.
fig. 6.
7«
C O A [2,
t'loalery. into their regular order, by which means each pillar
   will be oppofite to two thirlings. Alfo a larger pro¬
portion of coal than common fhould be left in all
places which are intended to be kept open after the
fecond working, fuch as the pit-bottoms, air courfes,
roads, and water-courfes, or where the roof is ten¬
der, as it generally is near dikes, hitches, and troubles }
and if the roof fhould continue tender for a confider-
able fpace, it will perhaps be found proper to leave a
few inches of coal adhering to the roof, which, toge¬
ther with a few props of timber fixed under it, may
fupport it effe£lually for a long time. The level mine
e e, and the winning headway B.C, fhould be wrought
forward a confiderable length before the other rooms,
in order to be driven through any dikes that might in-
terpofe, otherwife the progrefs of the workings might
probably be ftopt a confiderable time, waiting until
a courfe of new rooms were procured on the other
fide of the dike. Suppofe the dike g g, fig. 6. to de-
prefs the coal fix feet or one fathom, and that it rifes
in the fame manner on the under fide of the dike as it
does on the upper fide •, in fuch a cafe, the only reme¬
dy would be to work or drive a level mine through the
ftrata of ftone from the engine-level at e, over the
dike, until it interfeft the coal at i; and from thence
to drive a new level mine in the coal at i i, and a new
winning headway i k. In order to gain a new fet of
rooms and to fupply frefh air to this new operation, a
fmall mine might be driven from the room and a hole
funk down upon the level room i i; therefore, if the
level mine e e was not driven fo far forward as to have
all thefe operations completed before the rooms and
ether workings were intercepted by the dike, the
working of the pit might ceafe until thefe new places
were ready.
If there be two or three ftrata or feams of coal in
the fame pit (as there often are) having only a ftratum
ef a few feet thick lying betwixt them, it is then ma¬
terial to obferve, that every pillar in the fecond feam
be placed immediately before one in the firft, and
every pillar in the third feam below one in the fe¬
cond ; and in fuch a fituation the upper ftratum of coal
ought to be firft wrought, or elfe all the three toge¬
ther ; for it would be unfafe to work the lower one
firft, left the roof ftiould break, and damage thofc ly¬
ing above.
It fometimes becomes neceflary to work the coal
lying to the dip of the engine or the level j which coal
is confequently drowned with water, and muft there¬
fore be drained by fome means before it can be wrought.
If the quantity of water proceeding from it be incon-
fiderable, it may then be drained by fmall pumps laid
upon the pavement of the coal, and wrought by men
or horfes, to raife the water up to the level of the en¬
gine-pit bottom 5 or if the feeders of water be more
confiderable, and the fituation be fuitable, the work¬
ing rod of thefe pumps might be connefted with thofe
in the engine-pit; by which means the water would be
raifed up to the level; but if the quantity of water be
very great ; or if, from other circumftances, thefe me¬
thod6 may not be applicable ; then the engine pit may
be funk as deep below the coal as may be neceffary,
and a level ftone mine driven from its bottom to the d'p
of the ftrata, until it inrerfeft the ftratum of coal, from
whence a new level mine might be wrought, which would
4 ] C 0 A
effeftually drain it. Suppofe AB, fig. 8. to be a fee- Coalery,
tion of the engine-pit; BC, the coal drained by the ”—
engine; BD, the coal to the dip of the engine in-FlS'8*
tended to be drained ; then if the engine-pit be funk
deeper to E, a ftone mine may be wrought in the di-
reflion ED, until it interfedi the coal at D, by which
the water will have a free pafiage to the engine, and
the coal will be drained.
If there be another ftratum of coal lying at fuch a
depth below the firft as the engine-pit is intended to
be funk to, the upper feam may in fome fituations be
conveniently drained, by driving a mine in the lower
feam of coal from E to F, and another in the upper
one from B to D ; and by boring a hole from D to F,
the water will defeend to F, and, filling the mine EF,
rife up to the engine-pit bottom at E, which is upon
a level with D.
Whenever it is judged neceffary to work the -pil¬
lars, regard muft be had to the nature of the roof.
If the roof is tender, a narrow room may be wrought
through the pillar from one end to the other, leaving
only a (hell of coal on each fide for fupporting the roof
the time of working, Suppofe A BCD, fig. 7. to be
a pillar of coal 18 feet long and 12 feet broad : if the
roof is not ftrong, the room I, 2, 3, 4, of eight feet
wide, may be wrought up through that pillar, leaving
a ftiell of two feet thick on each fide ; and if it can be
fafely done, a part of thefe {hells may alfo be wrought
away, by working two places through them as at 5 and
6. By this means very little of the coal will be loft ;
for two-thirds of the whole being obtained by the firft
working, and above two thirds of the pillar by the fe¬
cond working, the lofs upon the whole would not ex¬
ceed ene-tsnth : but it may be obferved, that fome pil¬
lars will not produce fo great a proportion, and per¬
haps others cannot be wrought at all ; fo that, upon
the whole, there may be about one-fixth, one-feventh,
or in fome fituations but one-eighth part of the coal loft.
If the roof be hard and ftrong, then as much coal may
be wrought off each fide and each end of the pillar as
can be done with fafety, leaving only a fmall piece {land¬
ing in the middle ; and when the roof is very ftrong,
fometimes feveral pillars may be taken entirely out, with¬
out any lofs of coal : and in general this laft method
is attended with lefs lofs, and produces larger coals,
than the former. In all cafes it is proper to begin
working thofe pillars firft which lie fartheft: from the
pit bottom, and to proceed working them regularly
away towards the pit ; but if there be a great number
of pillars to the dip of the pit, it is the fafeft method
to work thefe out before thofe to the rife of the pit
are begun with.
There is no great difference in the weight of differ¬
ent kinds of coals, the lighteft being about 74 pounds
avoirdupois, and the heavieft about 79 p°unds the cu¬
bic foot; but the moft ufual weight is 75 pounds the
foot, which is 18 hundred weight and 9 pounds the
cubic yard. The ftatute chalder is 53 hundred weight;
or when meafured is as follows : 268.8 cubic.incht6 to
the Winchefter gallon ; 4^ gallons to the coal peck,
about 3 pounds weight ; 8 coal-pecks to the boll, about
247*. 'pounds ; and 24 bolls to the chalder, of 53
hundred weight. If one coal meafuring exaftly a cu¬
bic yard (nearly equal to 3 bolls) be broken into
pieces of a moderate fize, it will meafure feven coal
F bolls
C O A [ 235 ] C O A
1 Coalery. bolls and a half. If broken very fmall it will mea-
■—V'"**’ lure 9 bolls j which fhows, that the proportion of the
weight to the meafure depends upon the fize of the
coals ; therefore accounting by weight is the moft ra¬
tional method.
A Table of the weight and quantity of coal contained
in one acre Scots meafure, allowing one-fixth part to
be loft below greund, in feams of the following
thickneffes.
We lhall next mention fome of the various methods
of bringing the coals from the rooms and other work¬
ings to the pit-bottom. Where the ftratum of coal is
of a fuffieient thicknefs, and has a moderate rife and
dip, the coals are moft advantageoufly brought out by
horfes, who draw out the coals in a tub or balket pla¬
ced upon a fledge : a horfe by this means will bring out
from four to eight hundred weight of coals at once,
according to the quantity of the afcent or defcent. In
fome coaleries they have accefs to the workings by a
mine made for them, Hoping down from the furface of
the earth to the coal j and where that convenience is
wanting, they are bound into a net, and lowered down
the pit. If the coal be not of fuch a height as to ad¬
mit horfes, and has a moderate rife like the laft, then
men are employed to bring out the coals: they ufually
draw a bafket of four or five hundred weight of coals,
fixed upon a fmall four-wheeled carriage. There are
fome fituations in which neither horfes nor men can be
properly ufed ; particularly where the coal has a great
degree of defcent, or where many dikes occur : in fuch
a cafe the coals are beft brought out by women called
bearers, who carry them in a kind of bafket upon their
backs, ufually a hundred, or a hundred weight and a
half, at once.
When the coals are brought to the pit-bottom, the
bafkets are then hooked on to a chain, and drawn up
the pit by a rope to the furface, which is beft effe&ed
by a machine called a gw, wrought by horfes. There
are fome kinds of gins for drawing coals, fome wrought
by water, others by the vibrating lever of a fire-engine,
but either of thefe laft is only convenient in fome par¬
ticular fituations, thofe wrought by horfes being in
moft general ufe. After the coals are got to the fur¬
face, they are drawn a fmall diftance from the pit, and
laid in feparate heaps : the larger coals in one heap, the
fmaller pieces called chews in another, and the culm or
x8 pan-coal in a feparate place.
dfim68 ^bere is an accident of a very dangerous nature, to
which ad coaleries are liable, and which has been the
ruin of feveral $ it is called a crujh, or a fitt. When
Thicknefs of Coal.
Feet. Inches.
Weight in Tons
5068
3835
4602
5369
6136
6903
7670
8437
9?Q4
Quantity in Chaldert
H58—
1447 +
*73M-
2026-f-
23' ? +
2604-f-
2894 -f—
3183 +
3473 +
the pillars of coal are left fo fmall as to fail, or yield Coalery.
under the weight of the fuperior ftrata j or when the ——y——
pavement of the coal is fo foft as to permit the pillars
to fink into it, which fometimes happens by the great
weight that lies upon them ; in either cafe the folid
ftratum above the coal breaks and fads in, cruthes the
pillar to pieces, and doles up a great extent of the
workings, or probably the whole coalery. As fuch an
accident feldom comes on fuddenly, if it be perceived
in the beginning, it may fometimes be flopped by build¬
ing large pillars of ftone amongft the coal pillars : but
if it has already made fome progrefs, then the beft me¬
thod is to work away as many of the coal pillars ad¬
joining to the crufti as may be fuffieient to let the roof
fall freely down j and if it makes a breach of the folid
ftrata from the coal up to the furface, it will very pro¬
bably prevent the crufli from proceeding any farther in
that part of the coaltry. If the crufti begins in the rife
part of the coalery, it is more difficult to flop it from
proceeding to the dip, than it is to flop it from going to
the rife when it begins in a contrary part.
Another circumftance proper to be taken notice of Foul air.
is the foul or adulterated air fo often troublefome in
coaleries. Of this there are two kinds ; the black
damp or ftyth, which is of a fuffocating nature j and
the inflammable or combuflible damp. Without flay¬
ing to inquire, in this place, into the origin and efifefts
of thefe damps, it may be fufficient to obferve, that,
in whatever part of any coalery a conftant fupply or
a circulation of frefh air is wanting, there fome of
thefe damps exift, accumulate in a body, and become
noxious or fatal j and whenever there is a good circu¬
lation of frefh air, they cannot accumulate, be.ing mix¬
ed with and carried away by the ftream of air as faft as
they generate or exhale from the flrata. Upon thefe
principles are founded the feveral methods of ventila¬
ting a coalery. Suppofe the wotkings of the pits A Plate
and B (fig. 6.) to be obnoxious to the inflammable CXIdX.
damps } if the communication was open betwixt the
two pits, the air which went down the pit A would
proceed immediately beyond the mine a, and afcend out
of the pit B ; for it naturally takes the neareft direc¬
tion, fo that the air in all the workings would be ftag-
nant ; and they would be utterly inacceflible from the
accumulation of the combuftible damp. In order to
expel this, the air muft be made to circulate througli
all the different rooms by means of collateral air-
courfes made in this manner : The paffage or mine e
inuft be clofed up or flopped by a partition of deals, or
by a wall built with bricks or ftones, to prevent the air
palling that way. This building is called a Jloppmg.
There muft alfo be ftoppings made in the thirlings
11 r, &c, between the pillars f f, &c. which will di-
red the air up the mine e e, until it arrives at the in-
nermoft thirling 2, which is to be left open for its paf¬
fage. There muft alfo be ftoppings made at the fide of
the mine a at m m, and on both fides of the main head- *
way BC at bb, &c. then returning to the innermoft
thirling 2, proceed to the third row of pillars, and build
up the thirlings 2 2, &e. leaving open the thirling 3
for a paffage for the air ; and proceeding on to the fifth
row of pillars, build up in the fame manner the i op-
pings 3 3, &c. leaving open 4 for an air courfe:
and by proceeding in this manner to flop up the thir¬
lings or paflages in every other row of pillars, the cur-
G g 2 rent
. c O A r 236 ] C O A
. Coal ry- re*1 of frefll aJr vvi11 circulate through and ventilate the Where the pits are fituated at fome confiderable di-
v whole workings, in the dirtaion pointed toby tbefmall fiance from the harbour, it becomes neceffary to have
arrows m the plan, clearing away all the damps and a ftore-houfe near the (hipping place, vrhere the coals
noxious vapours that may generate. When it is arrived may be lodged, until the lighters or ftiips are ready to '
at C, it is conduced acrofs the main headway, and take them in. The waggon-way fhould be made into
carried through the other part of the pit’s workings in the ftore-houfe, at fuch a height from the ground, as
the fame manner, until it returns through n n to the to permit the coals to run from the waggons down »
j it B, where it afcends ; and as the rooms advance fpout into the vefi'els ; or elfe to fall down into the
farther, other (loppings are regularly made. ftore-houfe, as occafion may require.
In fome of thofe (loppings, on the fide of the main This kind of ftore-houfe is well adapted to difpatch'
headway, there mud be doors to admit a paifage for and faving expence 5 for a waggon load of coals may be
the bringing out of the coals from the rooms to the pit, * delivered either into the ftore-houfe or velfels inftantly
as at 5 5 : thefe doors mud be conftantly (hut, except with very little trouble : and if the coals were expofed
at the time of pafting through them. to the effe&s of the fun and rain, they would be greatly
There are other methods of difpofing the (loppings injured in their quality ; but being lodged under cover
fo as to ventilate the pit 5 but none which will (o ef- of the ftore-houfe, they are preferved.
COALESCENCE, the union or growing together
of two bodies before feparate. It is principally applied
to fome bones in the body, which are feparate during
infancy, but afterwards grow together; or to fome
morbid union of parts, which (hould naturally be dif-
tinft from each other. Thus there is a coalefcence»
the fides of the vulva, anus, and nares $ of the eye lid*
fe6lually difperfe the damps as that defcribed above.
If the damps are not very abundant, then the courfe
of (lopping ill, &c. in the level mine, and the others
at bbb, &c. in the main headway, without any others,
may perhaps be fufficient to keep the pit clear. If at
any time the circulation of the frtftr air is not brilk
enough, then a large lamp of fire may be placed at the
bottom of the pit B, which, by rarefying the air there, fingers, toes, and many other parts.
leading
eadihip-
ping the
eoalf.
will make a quicker circulation.
Mod of the larger coaleries fend their coals to the
(hips for the coafting trade or exportation 5 and,, as the
quantity is generally very large, it would take a greater
number of carts than could conveniently be obtained at
all times to carry them ; befides the confiderable expence
of that manner of carriage : they therefore generally
ufe waggons, for carrying them along waggon-ways,
laid with-timber, by which means one liorfe will draw
from two to three tons at a time, when in a cart not
above half a ton could be drawn.
The firft thing to be done in making a waggon way
is to level the ground in fuch a manner as to take off
all fudden afcents and defcents, to effect which, it is
fometimes neceffary to cut through hills, and to raife
an embankment to carry the road through hollows.
The road (hould be formed about 12 feet wide, and
no part (hould have a greater defcent than of one yard
perpendicular in 10 of a horizontal line, nor a greater
afcent than one yard in 30. After the road is formed,
pieces of timber, about fix feet long, and fix inches
diameter, called /fee/Jerr, are laid acrofs it, being 18 or
24 inches diftant from each other. Upon thefe (leepers
other pieces of timber, called rai/s, of four or five inches
fquare, are laid in a lateral direction, four feet diftant
from each other, for the waggon-wheels to run upon y
which being firmly pinned to the fleepers, the road may
then be filled with gravel and finifhed.
The waggons have four wheels, either made of fo-
lid wood or of caft iron. The body of the carriage is
longer and wider at the top than at the bottom ; and
ufually has a kind of trap-door at the bottom, which,
being loofed, permits the coals to run out without any
trouble. The fize of a waggon to carry 50 hundred
weight of coals is as follows :
Length of the top
Breadth of the top,
Length of the bottom,
Breadth of the bottom,
Perpendicular height,
Feet.
7 .
5
S
Inches.
9
COALLIER, a veflel employed to carry coals from
one port to another, chiefly fiom the northern parts
of England to the capital, and more foutherly parts,
as well as to foreign markets. This trade is known
to be an excellent nurfery for feamen, although they
are often found’, from the conftitution of their cli¬
mate, not to be fo well calculated for fouthern navi¬
gation.
COAMINGS, in (hip-buildings, are thofe planks,
or that frame, forming a border round the hatches,
which raife them up higher that the reft of the deck.
Loop-holes for mulkets to (hoot out at are often made in
the coamings, in order to clear the deck of the enemy
when the fhip is boarded.
COANE, among the Greeks, a name given to a
peculiar fpecies of tutia or tutty, which was always
found in a tubular form. It had its name from
a word ufed to exprefs a fort of cylindric tube, into
which the melted brafs was received from the furnace,
and in which it wfas fuffered to cool. In cooling, it
always depofited a fort of recrement on the fides
of the vefftl or tube, and this was the tutty called
coane.
CO AST, a fea-(hore, or the country adjoining to
the edge of the fea. Dr Campbell, in his Political
Survey of Great Britain, confiders an extenfive fea-
coaft as of great advantage to any kingdom j and con-
fequently that this ifland hath many conveniencies re-
fulting from the extent of its coafts, fuperior to other
kingdoms which are much larger. The chief advan¬
tages arrfing from an extenfive fea-coaft are, that
thus there is a convenient opportunity for exportation
and importation to or from all parts of the kingdom.
Thus, a number of cities are formed on the coafts ;
by this means the internal parts are improved, &c.
The extent of the fea-coafls of Arabia, he looks upon
as the genuine fouree of wealth and fplendour to the
ancient inhabitants of that peninfula ; the fame was
the inftrument of the greatnefs of ancient Egypt, of
Phoenicia, &c. In fliort, according to him, no coun¬
try or city can for any. length of time be flouriftiing^
unlefs
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C O A [
eoaft unlefs it hath confiderable connexion with the fea.
lape-Coaft. “ It is indeed true (fays he) that the wifdom and in-
—~ duttry of man, taking hold of fome particular circum-
ftances, may have rendered a few inland cities and
countries very fair and flourifhing. In ancient hiflory
we read of Palmyra and the diitrift round it, becom¬
ing a luxuriant paradife in the midil of inhofpitable
deferts. But this was no more than a temporary gran¬
deur ; and it has now lain for fome ages in ruins.
The city and principality of Candahar was in like
manner rendered rich and famous, in confequence of
its being made the centre of the Indian commerce ;
but long ago declining, its deftru£tion has been com¬
pleted in our days, from that dreadful defolation
which Thamas Kouli Khan fpread through Perfia and
the Indies. Here, in Europe, many of the large ci¬
ties in Germany, which for a time made a great figure
from the freedom and induflry of the inhabitants, and
diffufed eafe, plenty, and profperity, through the di-
ftridls dependent on them, which of courfe rendered
them populous, are now fo much funk through inevi¬
table accidents, as to be but lhadows of what they
were j and though they ftill continue to fubfift, fubfift
only as the melancholy monuments of their own mif-
fortunes. We may therefore, from hence, with great
certainty difcern, that all the pains and labour that
can be beftowed in fupplying the defeat of fituation,
in this refpeft, proves, upon the whole, but a tedious,
difficult, and precarious expedient. But, however,
we muft at the fame time admit, that it is not barely
the poffeffion even of an extended coall that can pro¬
duce all thefe defirable effects. That coaft muft like-
wife be diftinguiftied by other natural advantages,
fueh as capes and promontories, favourably difpofed
to break the fury of the winds j deep bays, fafe roads,
and convenient harbours. For, without thefe, an ex¬
tended coaft is no more than a maritime barrier againft
the maritime force of other nations 5 as is the cafe in
many parts of Europe, and is one of the principal
reafons why Africa derives fo little benefit from a fitua¬
tion which has fo promifing an appearance j there
being many confiderable trafls upon its coafts equally
void of havens and inhabitants, and which afford not
the fmalleft encouragement to the attempting any
thing that might alter their prefent defolate condition.
It is, however, a lefs inconvenience, and in fome cafes,
no inconvenience at all, if, in the compafs of a very
extended coaft, there ftiould be fome parts difficult or
dangerous of accefs, provided they are not altogether
inacceffible.—The fea-coaft of Britain, from the figure,
in fome meafure, of the ifland, but chiefly from the
inlets of the fea, and the very irregular indented line
which forms its fhore, comp ehends, allowing for thofe
finuofities, at leaft 800 marine leagues : we may, from
hence, therefore, with fafety affirm, that in this refpedf
it is fuperior to France, though that be a much larger
country; and equal to Spain and Portugal in this cir-
cumftance, though Britain is not half the fize of that
noble peninfula, which is alfo Angularly happy in this
very particular.”
Cape-Coast, the name of the chief Britifti fettle-
ment on the coaft of Guinea, in Africa. The name is
thought to be a corruption of Cabo Corfo, the ancient
Frtrtuguefe appellation. This cape is formed by an
angular point, wafhed on the fouth and eaft by the
237 ] C O A
fea, on which Hands the Englifh fort. Here the Por- Cape-Coaft
tuguefe fettled in 1610, and built the citadel of Cape- H
Coaft upon a large rock that projects into the fea. A
few years afterwards they were diflodged by the Dutch, .
to whom this place is principally indebted for its
ftrength. In 1664 it was demolifhed by Admiral
Holmes, and in 1665 the famous Dutch Admiral De*
Ruyter was ordered by the ftates to revenge the in-
fults of the Englifti. With a fquadron of 13 men of
war, he attacked all the Englifti fettlements along the
coaft ; ruined the faftories ; and took, burnt, and funk
all the ihipping of the Englifti Company : however,
after all his efforts, he was baffled in his attempts on
Cape-Coaft. By the treaty of Breda it was confirm¬
ed to the Englifti, and the king granted a new char¬
ter in 1672 ; on which the Company applied all their
attention to the fortifying and rendering it commo¬
dious.
COASTING, in Navigation, the aft of making a
progrefs along the fea-coaft of any country. The
principal articles relating to this part of navigation are,
the obferving the time and direftion of the tide ; know¬
ledge of the reigning winds ; of the roads and havens ;
of the different depths of the water, and qualities of the
ground.
COASTING-Pi/ot, a pilot who by long experience has
become fufficiently acquainted with the nature of any
particular coaft, and of the requifites mentioned in the
preceding article, to conduft a ftiip or fleet from one
part of it to another.
COAT, or Coat of Arms, in Heraldry, a habit
worn by the ancient knights over their arms, both in
war and tournaments, and ftill borne by heralds at
arms. It was a kind of fur-coat, reaching as low as
the navel, open at the fides, with (hort fleeves, fome-
times furred with ermine and hair, upon which were
applied the armories of the knights embroidered in
gold and filver, and enamelled with beaten tin colour¬
ed black, green, red, and blue ; whence the rule ne¬
ver to apply colour on colour, nor metal on metal.
The coats of arms were frequently open, and diverfi-
fied with bands and fillets of ftveral colours, alternate¬
ly placed, as we ftill fee cloths fcarleted, watered, &c.
Hence they were called devices, as being divided and
compofed of feveral pieces fewed together; whence the
words fefs, pale, chevron, bend, crofs, faltier, lozenge,
&c. which have fince become honourable pieces, or
ordinaries of the Ihield. See Cross, Bend, Chev¬
ron, &c.
Coats of arms and banners were never allowed to be
worn by any but knights and ancient nobles.
Coat, in Anatomy. See Tunic and Eye.
Coat of Mail; a kind of armour made in form of
a (hirt; confifting of iron rings wove together netwife.
See Mail.
COATI, in Zoology; a fynonyme of a fpecies of
Viverra and Ursus. See Mammalia Index.
COATIMUNDI, a variety of the above.
COATING of Phials, Panes of Glafs, &c. among '
eleftricians, is ufually performed by covering the out-
fide of the phial with tinfoil, brafs, or gold-leaf, &c.
and filling its infide with loofe pieces of brafs-leaf, by
which means it becomes capable of being charged. See
Electricit y.
COATZONTECOXOCHITL, or Tlower with ■
thee
COB r 238 ] € O C
Xoatzonte- the viper'1 s head, is the Mexican name of a flower of
coxochitl incomparable beauty. It is compofed of five petals or
Coboofe ^eaves> purple in the intiermoft part, white in the mid-
> die, the reft red but elegantly ftained with yellow and
white fpots. The plant which bears it has leaves re-
lembling thofe of the iris, but longer ami larger ; its
trunk is fmall and Aim : This flower was one of the
moft efteemed among the Mexicans. The Lincean
academicians of Rome, who commented on and pub-
liflied the Hiftory of Hernandez in 1651, and faw the
paintings of this flower, with its colours, executed in
Mexico, conceived fuch an idea of its beauty, that they
adopted it as the emblem of their very learned acade¬
my, denominating it Fior di Lince.
COBALT, a metallic fubftance which was former¬
ly clafled with the femimetals. See Chemistry and
Mineralogy Index.
COBBING, a puniftnnent fometimes inflifted at
fea. It is performed by ftriking the offender a certain
number of times on the breech with a flat piece of
wood called the cobbing-board. It is chiefly ufed as a
punilhment to thofe who quit their ftation during the
period of the night-watch-.
COBITIS, the Loache, in Ichthyology, a genus
of fifties belonging to the order of abdominales. See
Ichthyology Index. It is frequent in the ftream
near Amefbury in Wiltftiire, where the fportfmen,
through frolic, fwatlow it down alive in a glafs of
white-wine.
COBLE, a boat ufed in the turbot fifhery, twenty
feet fix inches long, and five feet broad. It is about
one ton burthen, rowed with three pair of oars, and
admirably conftru&td for encountering a mountainous
fea.
COBLENTZ, an ancient, handfome, and ftrong
town of Germany, in the ele£lorate of Triers or
Treves, feated at the confluence of the rivers Rhine and
Mofelle, in a fertile country, with mountains covered
with vineyards. It is the ufual refidence of the elec¬
tor of Treves, to whom it belongs. Over the Rhine
is a bridge of twelve arches, built for the convenience
of the inhabitants of Coblentz and the adjacent places.
A ferry machine is conftantly going from the city to
the other fide of the Rhine, where there is a little
town and very ftrong caftle built on an eminence
named the rock of honour. This machine is erected on
two boats, in the form of a large fquare gallery, en-
compaffed with balluftrades, and carries a tall flag-
ftaff, on which are difplayed the arms of the eleftorate
of Treves. It is put in motion by the ferry-man’s
pulling a rope, which is fixed to a fiandard on each
fide the river. The caftle appears to be almoft inac-
cefible to an enemy, and entirely commands the city
of Coblenz. The archbifhop’s palace ftands at the
foot of this rock, and the arfenal at a little diftance.
E, Long. 7. 32. N. Lat. 50. 24.
COBOB, the name of a dilh among the Moors. It
is made of feveral pieces of mutton wrapt up in the
caw!, and afterwards roafted in it *, the poorer people,
inftend of the meat, ufe the heart, liver, and other
parts of the entrails, and make a good difti, though
not equal to the former.
CO BOOSE, in fea-language, is derived from the
Dutch kambuis, and denotes a fort of box, refembling
a fentry-box, ufed to cover the chimneys of fome mer¬
chant fhips. It generally ftands againft the barricade, Coboofe
on the fore-part of the quarter-deck. It is called in [1
the Weft Indies cobre vega. Cochin.
COBURG, a town of Germany in the circle of 'r~“
Franconia, and capital of a territory of the fame name,
with a famous college, a fort, and a caftle. This town,
with its principality, belongs to the houfe of Saxony,
and the inhabitants are Proteftants. It is feated on
the river Itch, in E. Long. 11. 18. N. Lat. 50. 21.
COBWEB, in Phy/iology, the fine net-work which
fpiders fpin out of their own bowels, in order to catch
their prey. See Aranea.
COCCEIUS, John, profeffor of theology at Bre¬
men, was founder of a fed! called Cocceians : they held,
amongft other Angular opinions, that of a vifible reign
of Chrift in this world, after a general converfion of
the Jews and all other people to the true Chriftian
faith, as laid down in the voluminous works of Coc-
ceius. He died in 1699, aged 66.
COCCINELLA, in "Zoology, a genus of infedls of
the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
COCCOLOBO, in Botany, a genus of the trigy-
nia order, belonging to the odlandria clafs of plants $
and in the natural method ranking under the 12th or¬
der. Holoracecr. See Botany Index.
COCCOTHRAUSTES, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of Loxia. See Ornithology Index.
COCCULUS Indicus, the name of a poifonous
berry, too frequently mixed with malt-liquors in order
to make them intoxicating ; but this practice is ex-
prefsly forbidden by adt of parliament. It is the
fruit of the MenISPERMUM Coccu/us. Fiftiermen have
a way of mixing it with pafte, which the fiih fwallow
greedily, and are thereby rendered lifelefs for a time,
and float on the water. It is fometimes ufed with
ftavefacre, for deftroying vermine in children’s heads.
COCCUS, in Zoology, a genus of infedls belonging
to the order of hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
COCCYG/EUS musculus. See Anatomy, Ttf-
ble of the Muffles.
COCCYX, or Goccygis os. See Anatomy In¬
dex.
COCHIN, a Dutch fettlement on the coaft of Ma¬
labar, in N. Lat. ro. O. E. Long. 75. 30. The town
is not unpleafant, though it falls far fhort of their fet¬
tlement at Columbo in the ifland of Ceylon. The for¬
tification is irregular, but ftrong enough to refill any
of the Indian powers, and has 40 or 50 cannon facing
the fea. The people in this town and the country
adjacent are fubjedl to a ftrange diforder of the legs,
called Cochin or elephant legs, in which the fwelled
limb is fometimes of fuch an enormous bulk as to have
greatly the appearance both in fliape and fize of the
leg of an elephant. According to Mr Ives, this dif¬
order fee ms to be merely an oedematous fwelling, oc-
cafioned by an impoveriftied ftate of the blood and
juices. The perfons afflidled with this diftemper very
feldom apply to European furgeons, and thus are
rarely, if ever, cured. Indeed, our author obferves,
that their application would probably be of little avail,
as the only thing that could be prefctibed would be an
alteration from the pooreft to the rr.oft cordial and
nutritious diet; and the Indians are fo invincibly wed¬
ded to their own cuftoms, that they would fooner die
than break through them. Of this he fays there were
feveral
C O C r 239 ] C o c
Cochin, Several infiances in their long paflage to Bengal, during
Cochin- which forae of the Sepoys perilhed for want of food,
China, rather than fave themfelves by partaking of the fhip’s
provifions after their own had been expended. Moft of
thofe affli£ted with the diforder we fpeak ot, are unable
to call any afliftance, being the very pooreft of the peo¬
ple, who live entirely upon a kind of filh called fardi-
nias, without being able to purchafe even the Imallett
quantity of rice to eat along with it j their drink is alfo
mere water, unlefs they fometimes procure a draught of
the fimple unfermented juice called toddy. Cochin is
the principal place from whence the Dutch import their
pepper into Europe.
Cochin-China, a kingdom of Afia, bounded on the
north by Tonquin •, on the eaft, by the fea of China j
on the fouth by the Indian ocean •, and on the welt by
Cambodia, and a ridge of mountains inhabited by a fa-
vage people called Kemois, who live independent of
any government. Little of the hiftory of this kingdom
is known. M. le Poivre, a French traveller, informs
us, that about half a century before the French firlt ar¬
rived m thefe ditlant regions, a prince of Tonquin, as
he fled from his fovereign, by whom he w*as purfued as
a rebel, had with his foldiers and adherents crofled the
river, which ferves as a barrier between Tonquin and
Cochin-China. The fugitives, who were warlike and
civilized men, foon expelled the fcattered inhabitants,
who wandered about without any fociety or form of go¬
vernment, and founded a new kingdom, which foon
grew rich and populous. During the reigns of the firft
fix kings, no nation could be happier than the Cochin-
Chinefe. Their monarchs governed them as a father
does his family, eftablilhing no laws but thofe of na¬
ture, to which they themfelves were the firft to pay
obedience. They honoured and encouraged agricul¬
ture, as the moft ufeful employment of mankind j and
required from their fubje&s only a fmall annual free-
gift to defray the expence of their defenfive war againft
the Tonquinefe, who were their enemies. This impo-
fition was regulated, by way of poll-tax, with the great-
eft equity. Every man, able to till the ground, paid
in to the prince a fmall fum proportioned to the ftrength
of his conftitution, and the vigour of his arm, and
nothing more.
Cochin-China continued happy under thefe princes
for more than a century $ but the difcovery of gold¬
mines put a flop to the above mild regulations. Luxu¬
ry immediately took place. The prince began to de-
fpife the fimple habitation of his anceftors, and caufed
a fuperb palace to be built a league in circumference,
furrounded with a wall of brick on the model of that
of Pekin, and defended by 1600 pieces of cannon.
Not content with this, he would needs have a winter
palace, an autumn palace, and a fummer palace. The
old taxes were by no means fufficient to defray thefe
expences ; new ones were devifed ; and oppreflion
and tyranny everywhere took place. His courtiers,
to flatter their prince, gave him the title of the king
of heaven, which he ftill continues to aiTume. When
fpeaking of his fubjedls, he ftyles them his chil¬
dren, but by no means behaves as if he was their fa¬
ther ; for our author informs us, that he has feen
whole villages newly abandoned by their inhabitants,
who were harafled with toil and infupportable ex¬
actions j the ncceflary confequence of which was,
that their lands returned to their former uncultivated Coihin.
ftate. China.
M. le Poivre reprefents the Cochin-Chinefe as gentle, —'
hofpitable, frugal, and induftrious. There is not a
beggar in the country, and robbery and murder are
ablolutely unknown. A ftranger may wander over
the kingdom from one end to the other (the capital
excepted) without meeting with the flighteft infait.
He will be everywhere received with the moft eager
curiofity, but at the fame time with the greateft bene¬
volence. A Cochin-Chinefe traveller, who has not
money fufficient to defray his expences at an inn, en¬
ters the firft houfe of the town or village he arrives at,
and waiting the hour of dinner, takes part with the
family, and goes away when he thinks proper, without
fpeaking a word, or any perfon’s putting to him a
fingle queftion.
The country of Cochin-China is much of the fame
temperature with that of Tonquin j though rather
milder, as lying near the fea. Like Tonquin, it is an¬
nually overflowed, and confequently fruitful in rice,
which requires no other manure than the mud left by
the inundations. They have fugar-canes, and the
fame kinds of fruits common to other parts of India.
The country produces no grapes, and therefore they
drink a liquor brewed from rice. They have vaft
woods of mulberry-trees, wljich run up as fall as our
hemp. Their filk is ftronger than that of China, but
not fo fine. They have the beft timber in the ivorld,
particularly a fort which abounds in the mountains, and
is called the incorruptible tree, becaufe it never rots un¬
der earth or water, and is fo folid that it ferves for an¬
chors. There are two kinds, black and red. The
trees are very tall, ftraight, and fo big that two men
can fcarce grafp them. They have alfo on the moun¬
tains of the Kemois a tree of the moft fragrant fcent,
which is fuppofed to be the fame with lignum aloes.
This, being reckoned the beft product of the country,
is engroffed by the king, and is fold from five to 16
ducats per pound. It is highly valued both in China
and Japan, where the logs of it are fold for 200 ducats
a pound, to make pillows for the king and nobility 5
and among thofe Indians which continue to burn their
dead, great quantities of it are ufed in the funeral piles.
The young trees called aqwla, or eagle-wood, are eve¬
ry one’s property, which make the old ones called ca-
lamba fo fcarce and dear. They have oak, and large
pines, for the building of (hips, fo that this country is
of the fame ufe to China that Norway is to Britain.
In general, they have the fame kind of trees and plants
that are to be met with in Tonquin. They have mines
of gold, as well as diamonds ; but the laft they do not
value fo high as pearl. They alfo efteem their coral
and amber very much. In all the provinces there are
great granaries filled with rice, in fome of which that
grain is kept upwards of 30 years. One of the great-
eft rarities of thefe parts, efpecially in grand entertain¬
ments, is a ragout made of the eatable birds-nefts,
which fome fay are found only in Cochin-China, and
others in four iflands that lie fouth of its coaft. See
BlRDS-NeJls.
The merchants of Cambodia, Tonquin, China, Ma¬
cao, Manila, Japan, and Malacca, trade to Cochin-
China with plate, which they exchange for the com*
modities of the country. The Portuguefe are the moft
4 favoured
C O C [ 240 ] c 0 c
Cochin- favoured here of any Europeans. The Cochin Chinefe
China, themfelvcs, not being inclined to travel, feldom fail out
”l" ^ ©f fight of their own ftiore, but purchafe many trifles
from foreigners at great rates, particularly combs, nee¬
dles, bracelets, glafs pendants, &c. They are very
fond of our hats, caps, girdles, fliirts, and other clothes $
and, above all, fet a great value on coral. The coun¬
try is laid to have 700 miles of coaft, with many large
inlets of the fea, and above 60 convenient landing
places *, which, however, according to Captain Hamil¬
ton, are but fe ldom vifited by ft rangers.
The people of this country have a great affinity
with thofe of Tonquin, with whom they have a com¬
mon origin, and from whom they differ very little in
their manner- of living, as well as their manners and
cuftoms, all of which they have in a great meafure
borrowed from the Chinefe. The principal exports
of the country are filk, fugar, ebony, and calamba
wood } gold in duft or in bars, which is fold for only
ten times its weight in filver ; and copper and porce¬
lain brought from China and Japan. From this coun¬
try alfo are exported the birds-nefts efteemed fuch
a delicacy at the table. They are found in four iflands
fituated near the coafts of Cochin-China, to the eaft-
ward of which are five other fmaller ones, where are
found prodigious numbers of turtles, the flefh of which
is fo delicate that the Tonquinefe and people of Co-
• chin-China frequently fight defperate battles, in order
to take them from one another. The commodities
which fell moft readily in this country are, faltpetre,
fulphur, lead, fine cloth, and barred or flowered
chintz. Pearls, amber, and coral, were formerly in
great requeft, but at prefent only the two laft are fale-
able ; and even thefe will not anfwer unlefs the
beads of coral be round, well polifhed, and of a beau¬
tiful red colour ) the amber muft alfo be extremely
clear, the beads of an equal fize, and not larger than
a hazel nut.
The only money current in Cochin-China is that of
Japan, which is paid and received by weight. The
money of the country is of copper and as large as our
countries *, of a round figure, and having a hole in
the middle by which the pieces may be ftrung like
beads. Three hundred of thefe are put on one fide,
and as many on the other, which in Cochin-China
pafs for a thoufand *, becaufe in 600 are found ten
times 60, which make a century among almoft all the
people of the eaft. There is, however, fcarce any
country in which merchants are more apt to be de¬
ceived with regard to the value of money than Cochin-
China, owing to the pieces being unequal in figure
and quality, and the difficulty of determining their va¬
lue, w-hich is regulated only by a few charafters damp¬
ed upon them. The dealers muft therefore be at pains
to have honeft and Ikilful people to afeertain the va¬
lue of the pieces they receive, otherwife they run a
great rifk of being deceived in their value, as the Co-
chin-Chinefe make a great merit of being able to cheat
an European.
European merchants complain, according to M.
Grofier, unjuftly of the demands made in Cochin-Chi¬
na for entrance, clearance, and anchorage. The du¬
ties, indeed, are very trifling, amounting only, even
s. thofe of the cuftomhoufe, to 4 per cent.; but nothing
can be removed from a ffiip which arrives there until
(he has firft been infpedted, w'hen the cuftomhoufe Cochin-
officers unload her, weigh and count the fmalleft pieces, China,
and generally take what they look upon to be moft Cochineal,
valuable, in order to fend it to the king. The mo- 'fmm*
narch takes what he thinks proper, and returns the va¬
lue j but the grandees are faid to keep part of the goods
alfo, without paying any thing for them. Thus the
ordinary goods, which, had they been accompanied
with the more valuable part of the cargo, would have
found a ready market, can now fcarcely be difpofid
-of j though our author is of opinion, that the matter
is not altogether without remedy. When the Dutch
fent to this country veflels loaded with cloths, lead,
and -faltpetre, their cargoes were fuflfered to remain
entire, becaufe they had taken the precaution to pay
every year a certain fum for each veffel that entered.
Other nations, by endeavouring to avoid the payment
of this duty, entirely deftroyed their commerce : the
people of Cochin-China, however, for fome years part,
have been much more moderate in their demands ; and
whatever their exa&ions may be, they are far lefs ex¬
orbitant than thofe of the Tonquinefe.
M. Grofier obferves, that a falfe report has gained
ground in Europe, that when a trading veflel happens
to run aground in Cochin-China, or to be driven into
any of its harbours by ftrefs of weather, the king feizes
the cargo if the rudder be broken. He affures us,
however, that, fo far from this being the cafe, a vef¬
fel in diftrefs is much fafer on the coafts of Cochin-
China than almoft anywhere elfe. Barks are imme¬
diately fent to the relief of the crew, and people em¬
ployed to drag the fea with nets in order to recover
the goods that are loft 5 and, in (hort, neither labour
nor expences are fpared to put the {hips in the bed
condition poffible. Only two things can hurt the
trade of foreigners at Cochin-China, one of which
may he eafily avoided. This regards the clearing out
of veflels. Thus, while the mafter is waiting on the
evening before his departure, or on the day fixed for
failing, in order to receive his difpatches, it often hap¬
pens that he lofes his voyage, which may prove the
ruin of a trader. For this reafon, care muft be taken
to folicit a clearance a month before $ by. which means
one is always certain of obtaining it, and departing
on the day appointed. The other difficulty is occafion-
ed by the neceffity of felling goods on credit, which are
feldom paid at the ftipulated time. This, however, is
contrary to the inclination of the prince $ for every
merchant who can convey to him an account of thefe
unjuft delays, is fore to be paid, and fometimes even
with intereft.
COCHINEAL, or Cochineel, a drug ufed by
the dyers, &c. for giving red colours, efpecially crim-
fons and fcarlets, and for making carmine ; and like-
Avife in medicine as a cardiac, cordial, fudorific, alexi-
pharmac, and febrifuge.
The cochineal, in the ftate in which it is brought
to us, is in fmall bodies of an irregular figure, ufually
convex, ridged and furrowed on one fide, and con¬
cave on the other. The colour of the beft is a purplifli
gray, powdered over with a fort of white duft. All
that the world knew of it for a long time was, that
it was gathered from certain plants in Mexico} and
therefore it was naturally fuppofed to be a feed, till
in the year 1692 Father Plumier gave Pomet an ac¬
count
C O C [ 241 1 c o c
Cochineal count of its being an animal. And this, though then
lj difregarded, has been confirmed by fubfequent obfer-
Cock-pit. vations. Indeed, to determine the point, we have
now the means in our owTn hands, even in this part of
the world.—We need only moiften and foak in wa¬
ter, or in vinegar, a number of cochineals till they
are fwelled and diftended, to know that every one is
the more or lefs perfect body of an infeft •, the moll
imperfect and mutilated fpecimens always (how the
rings of the body ; and from obferving others, it will
be eafy to find the number and difpofition of the legs,
parts, or even whole ones, being left on feveral, and
often complete pairs. In this way the leg«, anten¬
nae, and probofeis, may be difeovered. See Coccus
above, and Dyeing.
M. Macquer obferves, that the cochineal of Sylvef-
ter is gathered in the woods of Old and New Mexico.
The infeft lives, grows, and multiplies on the unculti¬
vated opuntias, which grow there in great abundance.
It is there expofed to the inclemencies of the weather,
and dies naturally. The colour is more durable than
that of the common cochineal, but lefs bright : but
there is no advantage in ufing it j for, though cheaper,
a greater quantity is requifite.
COCHLEA, the Shell-snail. See Helix, Con-
CHOLOGY Index.
Cochlea, in Anatomy. See Anatomy Index.
COCHLEARIA, Scurvy-grass. See Botany
Index.
COCHLITES, in Natural Hijlory, an appellation
given to the petrified Ihells of the cochleae or fnails.
COCINTUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
©f the Bruttii, reckoned the longeft in Italy, and which
Holftenius and Voffius have reftored to Ovid, reading
Cocintia for Ceurania, Metam. xv. v. 704.—Cocint::m,
alfo a town 22 miles to the fouth of Scylaceum, al-
moft on the fpot where now Stilo Hands, from which
the oppofite promontory Cocintum is commonly called
Capo de Stilo.
COCK, in Zoology, the Englilh name of the males of
gallinaceous birds, but more efpecially ufed for the com¬
mon dunghill cock. See Phasianus, Ornithology
-Index.
Black-Cock. 1 See Tetrao, Ornithology
COCK of the Wood, j Index.
CocK-Chaffer. See Scarabacus, Entomology In¬
dex.
COCK-Paddle, Lump-fifh or Sea-owl. See Cyclop-
terus, Ichthyology Index.
CocK-Pit, a fort of theatre upon which game-cocks
fight.
It muft appear aftonifhing to every reflefling mind,
that a mode of diverfion fo cruel and inhuman as that
of cock-fighting Ihould fo generally prevail ; that not
only the ancients, barbarians, Greeks, and Romans,
fliould have adopted it ; but that a pra&ice fo favage
Bnd heathenilh fhould be continued by Chriftians of all
■forts, and even purfued in thefe better and more en¬
lightened times. •
The ancient Greeks and Romans, as is well known,
were wont to call all the nations in the world barba¬
rians ; yet certainly, if we confider the many inftances
of cruelty pra61ifed among them, there was very little
reafon for the diflindlion. Human facrifices were com¬
mon both to them and the barbarians j and with them
Vol. VI. Part I.
the expofing of infants, the combats of men with wild Cock-pit.
beads, and of men with men in the gladiatorial feenes, s-—'v*— J
were fpeftacles of delight and feftivity.
The illanders of Delos, it feems, were great lovers
of cock-fighting •, and Tanagra a city in Boeotia, the
ifle of Rhodes, Chalcis in Euboea, and the country of
Media, were famous for their generous and magnani¬
mous race of chickens. The kingdom of Perfia was
probably included in the laft, from whence this kind
of poultry was firlt brought into Greece ; and if one
may judge of the reft from the fowls of Rhodes and
Media, the excellency of the broods at that time con-
fifted in their weight and largenefs (as the fowls of
thofe countries were heavy and bulky), and of the na¬
ture ot what our fportfmen call fhakebags or turnpokes.
The Greeks, moreover, had fome method of prepa¬
ring the birds for battle, by feeding j as may be col-
lefted from Columella.
It fhould feem, that at firft cock-fighting W'as partly
a religious and partly a political inftitution at Athens j
and was there continued for the purpofe of improving
the feeds of valour in the minds of their youth ; but
was afterwards abufed and perverted both here and in
the other parts of Greece to a common paftime, with¬
out any moral, political, or religious intention, and as
it is now followed and pra-ftifed among us.
At Rome, as the Romans were prone to imitate the
Greeks, we may expe£l to find them following their
example in this mode of diverfion, and in the worft
way, viz. without any good or laudable motives, fince
when they took and brought it to Rome, the Greeks
had forgotten every thing that was commendable in it,
and had already perverted it to a low and unmeaning
fport. Signior Hyam thinks the Romans borrowed
the paflime from Dardanus, in Alia ; but there is little
reafon for making them go fo far from it, when it was
fo generally followed in Greece, whofe cuftoms the Ro¬
mans were addifled to borrow and imitate. However,
it is probable, they did not adopt this opinion very
early. It may be gathered from Columella, that the
Romans did not ufe the fport in his time. This au¬
thor ftyles cock-fighting a Grecian diverjion ; and
fpeaks of it in terms of ignominy as an expenfive a-
mufement, unbecoming the frugal houfeholder, and of¬
ten attended with the ruin of the parties that followed
it. The words are remarkable. “ Nos enim cenfe-
mus inftituere vefligal indufirii patris familias, non ri-
xofarum avium laniftie, cujus plerumque tolum patrimo-
nium pignus aleae, viftor gallinaceus pyfles abftulit
When he deferibes, as we think, the manner not of
the Romans, but of the Greeks, who had in his time
converted the diverfion of cock-fighting into a fpecies
of gaming, and even to the total ruin of their families,
as happens but too often in England at this day. The
Romans, however, at laft gave into the cuftom, though
not till the decline of the empire. The firft caufe of
contention between the two brothers Baffianus and
Geta, fons of the emperor Septimus Severus, happen¬
ed, according to Herodian, in their youth, about
the fighting of their cocks ; and if the battling be¬
tween thofe two princes was the firft: inftance of it, .
probably they had feen and learned it in Greece, whi¬
ther th&ry had often accompanied the emperor their fa¬
ther.
It is obfervable, that cocks and quails pitted for the
H h purpofo
c o c
Cock pit. purpofe of engaging one another, a outrance, or to the
——v—laft gafp, for diverfion, are frequently compared, and
with much propriety, to gladiators. Hence Pliny’s
expreflion, Gallorum ceu gladiatorum ■ and that of
Columella, rixofarum avium laniftce ; lanijia being the
proper term for the mailer of the gladiators. Confe-
quently one would expe£l, that when the bloody
fcenes of the amphitheatre were difcarded, as they
were foon after the Chriftian religion became the
eftablifhment of the empire, the wanton {bedding of
men’s blood in fport, being of too cruel and favage
a nature to be patronized and encouraged in an in-
ilitution fo harmlefs and innocent as the Chriftian
was, one might juftly expe£l that the egruye^sevia and
the u'KiK[eivoiAxnx would have ceafed of courfe. The
fathers of the church are continually inveighing
againft the fpeclacles of the arena, and upbraiding
their adverfaries Avith them. Thefe indeed were more
unnatural and {hocking than a main of cocks; but
this, however, had a tendency towards infufing the like
ferocity and implacability in the breafts and difpofi-
tions of men.
Befides, this mode of diverfion has been in fa£l the
bane and deftru£tion of thoufands here, as well as of
thofe lanijlcv avium, ’“ cock-feeders,” mentioned by Co¬
lumella, whofe patrimonial fortunes Avere totally difli-
pated and deftroyed by it.
The cock is not only an ufeful animal, but {lately in
his figure, and magnificent in his plumage. “ hnpen-
iant fuo generi, fays Pliny, et regnum in quacunque funt
domo, exercenty Ariftophanes compares him to the
king of Perfia j moft authors alfo take notice of the
“ fpe6latiflimum infigne, ferratum, quod eorum verti-
cem regies coronce modo exornat.” His tendernefs to¬
wards his brood is fuch, that, contrary to the cuftom
of many other males, he will fcratch and provide for
them Avith an aftiduity almoft equal to that of the hen ;
and his generofity is fo great, that, on finding a hoard
of meat, he Avill chuckle the hens together, and Avith-
out touching one bit himfelf Avill relinquifh the Avhole
«£ it to them. He Avas called the bird, xxx' £!«%»)», by
many of the ancients j he Avas highly efteemed in fome
countries, and in others Avas even held facred, info-
much that one cannot but regret that a creature fo ufe¬
ful and noble, ftiould, by a ftrange fatality, be fo enor-
moufly abufed by us. It is true, our xXixxgutfAxyix, or
the maflacre of Shrove Tuefday, is noAV in a declining
way } and, in a feAV years, it is to be hoped, will be
totally difufed 5 but the cock-pit ftill continues a re¬
proach to the humanity of Engliftimen, and to their
religion $ the pureft, the tendereft, and moft compaC-
fionate, of all others, not excepting even the Brach-
mannic.
It is unknoAvn Avhen the pitched battle firft entered
England, but it Avas probably brought hither by the
Romans. This bird Avas here before Ceefar’s arrival,
but no notice of his fighting occurs earlier than the
time of William Fitz-Stephen, Avho Avrote the life of
Archbiftiop Becket, fome time in the reign of Henry II.
and deferibes the cocking as a fport of fchool-boys on
Shrove Tuefday. From this time at lead the diver¬
fion, hoAvever abfurd and even impiouB, was continued
amongft us. It Avas folloAved, though difapproved and
prohibited, 39 Edward III. ; alfo in the reign of
Henry VIII. and A. D. 1569. It has by fome been
c 0 c
called a roijal diverjion ; and, as every one knows, the Cock pit,
cock-pit at Whitehall Avas erefted by a crowned head, Cockburne,
for the more magnificent celebration of it. There was —Y'-"*
another pit in Drury-lane, and another in Javin-ftreet.
It Avas prohibited, hoAvever, by one of Oliver’s a£ls,
March 31. 1664. What aggravates the reproach and
difgrace upon Englifhmen, are thofe fpecies of fight¬
ing Avhich are called the battle-royal and the Weljh-main,
known nowhere in the Avorld but there j neither in
China, nor in Perfia, nor in Malacca, nor among the
favage tribes in America. Thefe are fcenes fo bloody
as almoft to be too {hocking to relate *, and yet, as
many may not be acquainted Avith the horrible nature
of them, it may be proper for the excitement of our
averfion and deteft^tion to deferibe them in a few
words. In the formeu, an unlimited number of foAvls
are pitted, and when they have flaughtered one ano¬
ther for the diverfion {Diiboni!) of the othenvife ge¬
nerous and humane Englilhman, the fingle furviving
bird is to be efteemed the vidlor, and carries away the
prize. The Welfh-main confifts we Avill fuppofe of
16 pairs of cocks; of thefe, the 16 conquerors are pit¬
ted a fecond time; the 8 conquerors of thefe are pitted
a third time ; the 4 conquerors the fourth time ; and
laftly, the two conquerors of thefe are pitted the fifth
time; fo that (incredible barbarity) 31 cocks are
fure to be moft inhumanly murdered for the fport and
pleafure, the noife and nonfenfe, the profane curling
and fwearing, of thofe who have the effrontery to call
themfelves, Avith all thefe bloody doings, and Avith all
this impiety about them, Chri/lians ; nay, Avhat Avith
many is a fuperior and diftinft charadler, men of be¬
nevolence and morality. But let the morality and be-,
nevolence of fuch be appreciated from the following
inftance recorded as authentic in the obituary of the
Gentleman’s Magazine for ‘April 1789. “ Died
April 4. at Tottenham, John Ardefoif, Efq. a young
man of large fortune, and in the fplendwur of his
carriages and horfes rivalled by few country gentle¬
men. His table Avas that of hofpitality, Avhere it may
be faid he facrificed too much to conviviality ; but if
he had his foibles, he had his merits alfo that far out¬
weighed them. Mr Ardefoif was very fond of cock-
fighting, and had a favourite cock upon Avhich he had
Avon many profitable matches. The laft bet he laid
upon this cock he loft ; which fo enraged him, that he
had the bird tied to a fpit and roafted alive before a
large fire. The fereams of the miferable animal were
fo affedling, that fome gentlemen who Avere prefent
attempted to interfere, Avhich fo enraged Mr Ardefoif,
that he feized a poker, and with the moft furious ve¬
hemence declared, that he Avould kill the firft man Avho
interpofed ; but, in the midft of his paflionate affevera-
tions, he fell doAvn dead upon the fpot. Such, we are
affured, Avere the circumftances Avhich attended the
death of this great pillar of humanity.”
Cock-pit, of a {hip of war, the apartment of the.
furgeon and his mates, being the place Avhere the
Avounded men are dreffed in time of battle, or other-
Avife. It is fituated under the lower deck.
COCKBURNE, Mrs Catharine, a moft accom-
pliftied lady and celebrated Avriter, was the daughter of
Captain David Trotter, a native of Scotland, and a fea-
commander in the reign of King Charles II. She was
born in London, Auguft 16. 1679, and baptized in
' the.
[ 242 ]
COG
ockburne. the Proteftant church, according to which (he was bred
i.i" y- i.' Up. She gave early marks of her genius j and learned
to write, and alfo made herfelf miftrefs of the French
language, by her own application and diligence with¬
out any inftruftor; but ihe had fome affiitance in the
iludy of the Latin grammar and logic, ol which latter
fhe drew up an abltraft for her own ufe. The molt
ferious and important fubje&s, and efpeeially religion,
foon engaged her attention.—But notwithftanding her
education, her intimacy with feveral families of diitinc-
tion of the Rorailh perfuafion, expofed her, while very
young, to impreffions in favour of that church, which
not being removed by her conferences with fome emi¬
nent and learned members of the church of England,
fhe embraced the Romifh communion, in which (he con¬
tinued till the year 1707. In 1695 (he produced a tra¬
gedy called Agnes de Cajlro, which was a6ted at the
theatre-royal when Ihe was only in her 17th year. The
reputation of this performance, and the verfes which
fhe addrefled to Mr Congreve upon his Mourning Bride
in 1697, were probably the foundation of her acquaint¬
ance with that celebrated writer. Her fecond tragedy,
Fatal Friendlhip, was a&ed in 1698, at the new theatre
in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, This tragedy met with great
applaufe, and is ftill thought the moft perfect of her
dramatic performances. Her dramatic talents not be¬
ing confined to tragedy, fhe brought upon the ftage, in
1707, a comedy called hove at a Lofs, or Mqfi votes
carry it. In the fame year fhe gave the public her
third tragedy, entitled the Unhappy Penitent, adted at
the theatre-royal in Drury-lane. But poetry and dra¬
matic writing did not fo far engrofs the thoughts
of our author, but that fhe fometimes turned them to
fubjefts of a very different nature, and diftinguifhed
herfelf in an extraordinary manner in defence of Mr
Locke’s writings, a female metaphyfieian being a re¬
markable phenomenon in the republic of letters.
She returned to the exercife of her dramatic genius
in 1703, and fixed upon the revolution of Sweden, un¬
der Guftavus Erickfon, for the fubjeft of a tragedy.
This tragedy was a£ted in 1706, at the queen’s theatre
in the Hay-Market. In 1707, her doubts concerning
the Romifh religion, which (he had fo many years pro-
feffed, having led her to a thorough examination of
the grounds of it, by confulting the bell books on both
fides of the queflion, and advifing with men of the bed
judgment, the refult was a conviction of the falfenefs
of the pretenfions of that church, and a return to that
of England, to which fhe adhered during the remain¬
der of her life. In 1708 fhe was married to the Rev.
Mr Cockburne, then curate of St Dunftan’s in Fleet-
ftreet, but he afterwards obtained the living of Long*-
Horfely, near Morpeth in Northumberland. He was
a man of confiderable abilities 5 and, among feveral
other things, wrote an account of the Mnfaic Deluge,
which was much approved by the learned.
Mrs Cockburne’s remarks upon fome writers in the
eontroverfy concerning the foundation of moral duty
and moral obligation, were introduced to the world
in Auguft 1712, in the Literary Journal, entitled. The
Hijiory of the Works of the Learned. The (Length,
clearnefs, and vivacity-fhowm in her remarks upon the
raoft abflrafl and perplexed queftions, immediately rai-
fed the curiofity of all good judges about the conceal-
c o c
ed writer $ and their admiration was greatly increafed Ccckbume
when her fex and advanced age were known. Dr Ru- !1
therford’s Effay on the Nature and Obligations of °'J‘( * ,
Virtue, publifhed in May 1744, foon engaged her “
thoughts ; and notwithftanding the afthmatic diforder
which had feized her many years before, and now left
her fmall intervals of eafe, fhe applied herfdf to the
confutation of that elaborate difcourfe, and finifhed it
with a fpirit, elegance, and perfpicuity, equal, if not
fupeiior, to all her former writings.
The lofs of her hufband in 1748, in the 71ft year of
his age, was a fevere (hock to her •, and ihe did not
long furvive him, dying on the nth of May 1749*
her 71ft year, after having long fupported a painful
diforder with a refignation to the Divine will, which
had been the governing principle of her whole life, and
her fupport under the various trials of it.
Her works are collefted into two laige volumes 8vo
by Dr Birch, who has prefixed to them an account of
her Life and Writings.
COCKERMOUTH, a town of Cumberland in
England, fituated in W. Long. 3. 12. N. Lat. 54. 35.
It is a large town, irregularly built, with broad llreets.
It is wafhed by the Derwent on the weftern fide j
divided in two by the Cocker 5 and the parts are con¬
nected by a ftone bridge of a (ingle arch. 1 he num¬
ber of inhabitants is between three and four thoufand :
the manufactures are fhalloons, worded (lockings, and
hats; the laft exported from Glaigow to the Weft;
Indies. It is a borough town, and the right of vo¬
ting is vefted by burgefs tenure in certain houfes: this
is alfo the town where the county elections are held.
—Here is a caftle feated on an artificial mount on a
bank above the Derwent. It is a fquare building,
and ftrengthened with feveral fquare towers: on each
fide of the inner gale are two deep dungeons capable
of holding 50 perfons in either. 1 hey are vaulted at
top, and have only a fmall opening in order to lower
through it the unhappy victims into this dire prifon ;
and on the outfide of each is a narrow flit" with a dope
from it, down which were put the provifions allotted
for the wretched inhabitants. Ihis caftle was found¬
ed by Waldof, firft lord of Allerdale, and fon of Gof-
patrick earl of Northumberland, cotemporary with
William the Conqueror. Waldof refided firft at Pap-
caftle, which he afterwards demoliftied ; and with the
materials built that at Cockermouth, where he and his
family long refided; but feveral arms over the gate¬
way, which Camden fays are thofe of the Muttonst
Hurnfronvilles, Lucies, and Percies, evince it to have
belonged in later times to thofe families. It appears
that it was firft granted by Edward II. to Anthony
de Lucie, fon of Thomas de Multon, who had affum-
ed that name, becaufe his mother was daughter and
co-heirefs to Richard de Lucie; and afterwards, by
marriages, this caftle and its honours defcended to the
HumfranvilleSj and finally to the Percies. In 16j8,
it was garrifoned for the king ; and being befieged and
taken by the rebels, was burnt, and never afterwards
repaired. Cockermouth is now in the pofieffion of the
Lowther family, who have here a great property in
coal-works. The town fends two members to pailia-
h^COCKET' is a feal belonging to the king’s cuftome
H h 2 koufe.
[ 243 ]
C O C [ 244 ] COD
Gocket houfe, or rather a fcroll of parchment fealed and deli-
l! vered by the officers of the cuftoms to merchants, as a
ooe°' , warrant that their merchandifes are cuftomed.
It is alfo ufed for the office where goods tranfport-
ed were firft entered, and paid their curtom, and had
a cocket or certificate of difeharge.
COCKLE, See Cardium, Coxchology Index.
Cockle, Schorl, or S/ur/e, in Mineralogy, a fpe-
cies of Hones, belonging to the filiceous clafs. See
Mineralogy Index.
COCKNEY, a very ancient nickname for a citizen
of London. Ray fays, an interpretation of it is, A
young perfon coaxed or cockered, made a wanton, or
neftle-coek, delicately bred and brought up, fo as when
arrived at man’s effate to be unable to bear the leaft
hardfhip. Another, A perfon ignorant of the terms
of country economy, fuch as a young citizen, who ha¬
ving been ridiculed for calling the neighing of a horfe
laughing, and told that it v'as called neighing, next
morning, on hearing the cock crow, to (how inftru&ion
was not thrown away upon him, exclaimed to his for¬
mer inftru&or, How that cock neighs ! whence the
citizens of London have ever fince been called cock-
neighs, or cockneys. Whatever may be the origin of
this term, Ave at leaft learn from the following verfes,
attributed to Hugh Bagot earl of Norfolk, that it was
in ufe in the time of King Henry II.
Was I in my caftle at Bungay,
Faft by the river Waveney,
I would not care for the king of Cockney.
(1. e. the king of London.^
The king of the cockney occurs among the regula¬
tions for the fports and fhoivs formerly held in the
Middle Temple, on Childermas day, where he had
his officers, a marfhal, conftable, butler, &c. Seo
Dugdale’s Origines Juridicales, p. 247.
COCKROACH. See Blatta. In Captain Cook’s
laft voyage, the (hips, while at Huaheine, were infeft-
ed with incredible numbers of thefe creatures, whom
it Avas found impoffible by any means to deftroy. E-
very kind of food, when expofed only for a few mi¬
nutes, Avas covered Avith thefe noxious infe&s, and pier¬
ced fo full of holes, that it refembled a honey comb.
They were particularly deftruftive to birds which had
been fluffed for curiofities, and Avere fo fond of ink,
that they ate out the Avriting on labels. Books, horv-
ever, Avere fecured from their ravages by the clofenefs
of the binding, which prevented them from getting
in between the leaves. They were of two kinds, the
Blatta Orientalis and Germanica.
COCKSWAIN, or Cockson, an officer on board
a man of Avar, Avho hath the care of the boat or {loop,
and all things belonging to it. He is to be ahvays
ready Avith his boat’s gang or creAV, and to man the
boat on all occafions. He fits in the ftern of the boat,
and fleers; and hath a whiffle to call and encourage
his men.
COCLES, Pub. Horatius, a celebrated Roman,
AA’ho alone oppofed the Avhole army of Porfenna at
the head of a bridge, Avhile his companions behind
him Avere cutting off the communication Avith the
other fliore. When the bridge was deftroyed, Codes,
though Avounded by the darts of the enemy, leapt
into the Tiber, and Lvam acrofs it with his arms.
A brazen flatue was raifed to him in the temple Coder
of Vulcan, by the conful Publicola, for his eminent jj
fervices. Codex.
COCOA. See Cocos, Botany Index. ■v—
COCONATO, a town of Piedmont in Italy, fa¬
mous for being the birth-place of Columbus, who
firft difcovered America. E. Long. 8. o. N. Lati
44. 50.
COCOS, in Botany, a genus belonging to the na¬
tural order of Palmce. See Botany Index.
COCTION, a general term for all alterations made
in bodies by the application of fire or heat.
COCYTUS, one of the rivers of hell, according to
the theology of the poets-. It has its name awo rsf
xwkvm, from groaning and lamenting. Hence Milton,
Cocytus nam’d of lamentation loud,
Heard on the rueful ftream.
It was a branch of the river Styx : and floAved, ac¬
cording to Horace, Avith a dull and languid ftream.
COD, in Ichthyology. See Gadus and Fishery.
Cod is alio a term ufed, in fome parts of the. king¬
dom, for a pod. See Pod.
COD-Cape, a promontory on the coaft of New Eng¬
land, near the entrance of Bofton harbour. W. Long..
69. 50. N. Lat. 42. o.
CODDY moddy, the Englifh name of a fpecies o£
Larus.
CODE [codex'), a colleclion of the laivs and confti-
tutions of the Roman emperors, made by order of
Juftinian. The word comes from the Latin codex,
“ a paper book fo called a codicibus, or caudicibus ar~
borum, “ the trunks of trees the bark Avhereof be¬
ing flripped off, ferved the ancients to write their
books on.
The code is accounted the fecond volume of the ci¬
vil Ihav, and contains twelvre books y the matter of
which is nearly the fame Avith that of the drgefts, ef-
pecially the firft eight books j but the flyle is neither
fo pure, nor the method fo accurate, as that of the di-
gefts j and it determines matters of daily ufe, Avhere-
as the digefts difcufs the more abftrufe and fubtle
queftions of the law, giving the various opinions of
the ancient lawyers. Although Juftinian’s code is
diftinguiflied by the appellation of code, by Avay of emi¬
nence, yet there Avere codes before bis time:-fuch.
Avere, 1. The Gregorian code, and Hermogenean code,
colleftions of the Reman laws, made by tAvo famous
laAvyers, Gregorius and Hermogenes, Avhich included
the conftitutions of the emperors from Adrian to Dio-
clefian and Maximinus. 2. The Theodofian code, com-
prifed in 16 books, formed out of the conftitutions of
the emperors from Conftantine the Great to Theodo-
fius the Younger : this Avas obferved almoft over all the
Aveft, till it Avas abrogated by the Juftinian code. There
are alfo feveral later codes, particularly the ancient Go¬
thic, and thofe of the French kings ; as the code of
Euridic, code-Lewis, code-Henry, code-Marchande,
code des Eaux, &c.; and the prefent king of Pruffia
has lately publifbed a code, Avhicb comprifes the laAVS
of his kingdom in a very fmall volume.
CODEX, in antiquity, denotes a book or tablet on
Avhich the ancients wrote. See Code.
Codex alfo denoted a kind of punifhment by means-
of a clog or block of wood, to Avhich flaves who had of¬
fended
COE C 245 ] COE
Codex fended were tied faft, and obliged to drag it along with
|| them 5 and fometinaes they fat on it clofely bound.
Soecum. CODIA, among botanifts, fignifies the head of any
—V—^ plant, but more particularly a poppy head j whence its
fyrup is called diacodium.
CODICIL, is a writing, by way of fupplement to a
will, when any thing is omitted that the teilator would
have added, or wants to be explained, altered, or re¬
called.
CODLIN, an apple ufeful in the kitchen, being the
moft proper for baking.
CODLING, an appellation given to the young
cod-fifh. See Gadus, Ichthyology Index.
CODON (K*^a»)» in antiquity, a cymbal, or rather
little brafs bell, refembling the head of a poppy. They
were faflened to the trappings and bridoles of horfes.
CODRINGTON, Christopher, a brave Englifh
officer, and not lefs diftinguilhed for his learning and
benevolence, was born at Barbadoes in the year 1668,
and educated at Oxford j after which he betook him-
felf to the army j and by his merit and courage, foon
recommending himfelf to the favour of King William,
was made a captain in the firif regiment of foot-guards.
He was at the fiege of Namur in 1695 ', and, upon the
conclufion of the peace of Ryfwick, was made captain-
general and “governor in chief of the Leeward and
Caribbee iflands. However, in 1701, feveral articles
were exhibited againft him to the houfe of commons
in England j to which he publilhed a diftinft and par¬
ticular anfwer, and was honourably acquitted of all
imputations. In 1703, he ffiowed great bravery at the
attack of Guadaloupe, but at lad he refigned his go¬
vernment, and lived a ftudious retired life ; for a few
years before his death, he chiefly applied himfelf to
church-hiftory and metaphyfics. He died at Barba-
does on the 7th of April 1710, and was buried there
the day following 5 but his body was afterwards brought
over to England, and interred on the 19th of June
1716, in the chapel of All-Souls College, Oxford. By
his laft will, he bequeathed his plantations in Barba¬
does, and part of the ifland of Barbuda, to the fociety
for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts j and left a
noble legacy to All-Souls College, of which he had
been a fellow. This legacy confifted of his library,
which was valued at 6oool.; and io,oool. to be laid
out, 6000 in building a library, and 4000 in furnifli-
ing it with books. He wrote fume of the poems in the
Mufce Anglicance, printed at London in 1741.
CODRUS, the 17th and laft king of Athens, fon
ofMelanthus. When the Heraclidse made war againft
Athens, the oracle faid that the viftory would be
granted to that nation whofe king was killed in battle.
The Heraclidae upon this gave ftri£I orders to fpare
the life of Codrus j but the patriotic king difguifed
himfelf and attacked one of the enemy, by whom he
was killed. The Athenians obtained the viflory, and
Codrus was defervedly called the father of his coun¬
try. He reigned 21 years, about 2153 years before
the Chriflian era. To pay more honour to his me¬
mory, the Athenians made a refolution that no man
after Codrus fhould reign in Athens under the name of
king.
COECUM, or Blind Gut. See Anatomy Index.
Dr Mulgrave gives us an account, in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaflions, of the ccecum of a dog being cut
out without any prejudice to the animal* Mr Giles Coeca®
gives us another of the coecum of a lady being diftend- 11
ed, fo as to form a tumour that held almoft fix pints of Coelus.
a thin grayiffi, almoll liquid fubftance, of which flie
died. And Mr Knowler a third, of a boy’s coecum
being vafily extended and fluffed with cherry-ftones,
which likewife proved mortal.
COEFFICIENTS, in Algebra^ are fuch numbers or
known quantities as are put before letters or quanti¬
ties, whether known or unknown, and into which they
are fuppofed to be multiplied. Thus in 3 a?, a xx or
b x ; 3, a and are the coefficients of x ; and in 6 a,
9 £ ; 6 and 9 are the coefficients of a and b. See
Algebra.
COELESTIAL, or Celestial, in general, de¬
notes any thing belonging to the heavens: thus ive fay,
celejlial obfervalions, the celejiialglobe, Id’c.
COELI AC artery, in Anatomy, that artery which
iffues from the aorta, juft below the diaphragm. See
Anatomy Index.
COELIAC Vein, in Anatomy, that running through the
inteftinum redtum, along with tlie cceiiac artery.
COELIMONTANA Porta (Pliny), one of the
gates of Rome, fituated at the foot of Mount Ccelius ;
and hence its name, thought to be the ancient Ajinaria
by fome ; but this others doubt. By this gate Alaric
with his Goths is faid to have entered and plundered
Rome..
COELIOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Bracari in the Hither Spain, to the fouth of
Bracara Augufta, the north of the Durius, and not
far from the Atlantic ; a municipium (Coin). Now
thought to be Barce/os, a town of Entre Minho y
Duero. W. Long. 9. 15. Lat. 41. 20.
COEL1US MONS, one of the feven hills of Rome,
fo called from Codes, a Tufcan captain, who came to
the affiftance of Romulus againft the Sabines, (Diony-
fius Halicarnaffus). Called alio ^uerculanus or ^uer.
cetu/anus, from the oaks growing on it ; and Augujlus,
by Tiberius (Tacitus, Suetonius). To the eaft it had
the city walls, on the fouth the Coeliolus, to the welt
the Palatine, and on the north the Efquiliae.
COELIOLUS, a part of Mount Coelius to the
fouth, called Minor Ccdius (Martial) j having the city
walls on the eaft, the Aventine to the fouth, and on
the weft and north the valley through which the rivulet
of the Appia runs.
COELOM A,, among phyficians, a hollow ulcer,
feated in the tunica cornea of the eye.
COELOS portus, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Cherfonefus of Thrace, to the fouth of Soft os,
where the Athenians eredled a trophy, after a fea vic¬
tory over the Lacedaemonians (Diodorus Siculus).
COELOSYRIA, in the larger fenfe of the word,
was the name of the whole country lying fouthward
of Seleucia, and extending as far as Egypt and Arabia;
but this word is principally applied to the valley lying
between Libanus and Antilibanus. This word occurs
only in the apocryphal writings of the Old Tefta-
ment.
COELUS (Heaven), in Pagan mythology, the fon
of /Ether and Dies, or Air and Day. According to
Hefiod, he married Terra or the Earth, on whom he
begat Aurea or the Mountains, the Ocean, &c. But
having at length iroprifoned the Cyclops, who were
C O F [2
alio his children, his wife, being offended, incited her
fon Saturn to revenge the injury done to his brothers ;
and by her afliftance, he bound and caftrated Ccelus,
when the blood that flowed from the wound produced
the three furies, the giants, and the wood-nymphs j
and the genital parts being thrown into the fea, im¬
pregnated the waters and formed the goddefs Venus.
This deity was called by the Greeks Uranus.
COEMETERY. See Cemetery.
COEMP riONALES, among the Romans, an ap¬
pellation given to old flaves, which were fold in a lot
with others, becaufe they could not be fold alone.
COENOBITE, a religious who lives in a convent,
or in community, under a certain rule j in oppofition
to anchoret or hermit, who lives in folitude. The
word comes from the Greek communis ; and /8<«y,
vita, u life.” Caflian makes this difference between a
convent and a monajlery, that the latter may be applied
to the refidence of a Angle religious or reclufe, whereas
the convent implies coenobites, or numbers of religious
living in common. Fleury fpeaks of three kinds of
monks in Egyptj anchorets, who live in folitude;
coenobites, who continue to live in community-; and fa-
rabaites, who are a kind of monks-errant, that ftroll
from place to place. He refers the inftitution of coe¬
nobites to the times of the apoftles, and makes it a kind
of imitation of the ordinary lives of the faithful at Je-
rufalem. Though St Pachomius is ordinarily owned
the inftitutor of the coenobite life, as being the flrft who
gave a rule to any community.
COENOBIUM, (xo/ve/S/ey), the ftate of living in a
fociety or community, where all things are common.
Pythagoras is thought to be the author or flrft infti¬
tutor of this kind of life ; his difciples, though fame
hundreds in number, being obliged to give up all their
private eftates, in order to be annexed to the joint
ftock of the whole. The Effenians among the Jews,
and Platonifts, are faid to have lived in the fame man¬
ner. Many of the Chriftians alfo have thought this
the moft perfefl kind of fociety, as being that in which
Chrift and his apoftles chofe to live.
COESFELDT, a town of Germany, in Weftphalia,
and in the territories of the biftiop of Munfter, where
he often reAdes. It is near the river Burkel. E. Long.
64. 2. N. Lat. 51. 58.
COEVORDEN, one of the ftrongeft towns in the
United Provinces, in Overyffel, fortifled by the fa¬
mous Cohorn. It was taken by the biftiop of Munfter,
1673 ; and the Dutch retook it the fame year. It is
furrounded by a morafs. E. Long. 6. 41. N. Lat. 52.
40.
COFFEA, the Coffee-tree. See Botany Index.
The flowers, which are produced in clufters at the root
of the leaves, are of a pure white, and have a very
grateful odour. The fruit, which is the only ufeful
part, refembles a cherry. When it comes to be of
a deep red, it is gathered for the mill, in order to be
manufa£tured into thofe coffee-beans now fo generally
known. The mill is compofed of two wooden rollers
furnifhed with iron plates 18 inches long, and 10 or
12 in diameter. Thefe moveable rollers are made to
approach a third which is Axed, and which they call
the chops. Above the rollers is a hopper, in which
they put the coffee, from whence it falls between the
Toilers and the chops, where it is ftripped of its flrft:
3
+6 ] C O F
fld*, and divided into two parts, as may be feen by the
form of it after it has undergone this operation ; being
flat on the one flde and round on the other. From this
machine it falls into a brafs fleve, where the Ikin drops
between the wires, while the fruit Aides over them into
balkets placed ready to receive it: it is then thrown
into a veffel full of water, where it foaks for one night,
and is afterwards thoroughly waftied. When the
whole is flniftied, and well dried, it is put into an¬
other machine called the peeling-mill. This is a wood¬
en grinder, turned vertically upon its trendle by a
mule or horfe. In pafling over the coffee it takes off
the parchment, which is nothing but a thin Ikin that
detaches itfelf from the berry in proportion as it growrs
dry. The parchment being removed, it is taken out
of this mill to be put into another, which is called the
’winnowing-mil/. This machine is provided with four
pieces of tin Axed upon an axle, which is turned by a
flave with conflderable force ; and the wind that is
made by the motion of thefe plates clears the coffee
of all the pellicles that are mixed with it. It is after¬
wards put upon a table, where the broken berries,
and any fllth that may remain among them, are fepa-
rated by negroes, after which the coffee is At for
fale.
The coffee-tree is cultivated in Arabia, Perfla, the
Eaft Indies, the ifle of Bourbon, and feveral parts of
America. It is alfo raifed in botanic gardens in feve¬
ral parts of Europe. Prince Eugene’s garden at Vi¬
enna produced more coffee than was fufficient for his
own confumption. It delights particularly in hills and
mountains, where its root is almoft always dry, and
its head frequently watered with gentle {howers. It
prefers a weftern afpeft, and ploughed ground with¬
out any appearance of grafs. The plants ftiould be
placed at eight feet diftance from each other, and in
holes twelve or flfteen inches deep. If left to them-
felves, they would rife to the height of 16 or 18 feet,
as already obferved ; but they are generally ftinted
to Ave, for the conveniency of gathering their fruit
with the greater eafe. Thus dwarft, they extend
their branches fo, that they cover the whole fpot round
about them. They begin to yield fruit the third year,
but are not in full bearing till the Afth. Writh the
fame inflrmities that moft other trees are fubjeft to,
thefe are likewife in danger of being deftroyed by a
worm or by the fcorching rays of the fun. The hills
where the coffee-trees are found have generally a
gravelly or chalky bottom. In the laft, it languifties
for fome time and then dies ; in the former, its roots,
which feldom fail of ftriking between ftones, obtain
nouriftiment, and keep the tree alive and fruitful for
30 years. This is nearly the period for plants of the
coffee-tree. The proprietor, at the end of this period,
not only flnds himfelf without trees, but has his land ‘
reduced that it is not At for any kind of culture ; and
unlefs he is fo fltuated, that he can break up a fpct of
virgin land, to make himfelf amends for that which is
totally exhaufted by the coffee-trees, his lofs is irrepa¬
rable.
The coffee produced in Arabia is found fo greatly
to excel that raifed in the American plantations or
elfewhere, that the cultivation of the tree is now but
feldom praflifed in any of the Britifti colonies. Large
plantations of this kind were formerly made in fome
of
C O F [ 247 ] C O F
eoffea, of them } and it was propofed to the parliament to
Coffee, give a proper encouragement for cultivating this com-
—yr—1 modity there, fo as to enable the planters to under¬
fell the importers from Arabia. Accordingly, there
was an abatement of the duty payable on ail coffee
imported from our colonies in America, which at that
-time was fuppofed to be fufficient encouragement for
this kind of commerce ; but the inferiority of the A-
merican coffee to the Arabian hath almoft ruined the
projeft. Mr Miller propofes fome improvements in
the method of cultivation. According to him, the
trees are planted in too moifl a foil, and the berries
are gathered too foon. They ought, he fays, to be
permitted to remain on the trees till their fkins are
fhrivelled, and they fall from the trees when fhaken.
This will indeed greatly diminifh their weight, but
the value of the commodity will thereby be increafed
to more than double of that which is gathered fooner.
In Arabia, they always fhake the berries off the trees,
fpreading cloths to receive them, and only take fuch as
readily fall at each time. Another caufe may be
the method of drying the berries. They are, he ob-
ferves, very apt to imbibe moifture, or the flavour of
any thing placed near them. A bottle of rum placed
in a clofet, in which a canifter of coffee-berries clofely
flopped, was Handing on a fhelf at a confiderable di-
ftance, in a few days fo impregnated the berries as to
render them very difagreeable. Some years ago, a
coffee-fhip from India had a few bags of pepper put on
board, the flavour of which was imbibed by the coffee,
and the whole cargo fpoiled. For thefe reafons coffee-
berries ftiould never be brought over in fhips freighted
with rum, or laid to dry in the houfes where fugars are
boiled or rum diftilled. When they are fully ripe,
they fliould be taken off when the trees are perfeftly
dry, and fpread upon cloths to dry in the fun, carry¬
ing them every evening under cover, to prevent the
dews or rain from falling on them. When perfectly
dry, they fhould have their outer fkins beaten off, and
then be carefully packed up in cloths or bags three or
four times double.
Coffee alfo denotes a kind of drink, prepared from
thofe berries j very familiar in Europe for thefe lOO
years, and among the Turks for 170.
Its origin is not well known. Some afcribe it to
the prior of a monaftery, who being informed by a
goat-herd, that his cattle fometimes browzing on the
tree would wake and caper all night, became curious
to prove its virtue : accordingly he firft tried it
on his monks, to prevent their fleeping at matins.
Others, from Schehabeddin, refer the invention of
coffee to the Perfians, from whom it was learned in
the 15th century by Gemaleddin, mufti of Aden, a city
near the mouth of the Red fea, and who having tried
its virtues himfelf, and found that it diflipated the
fumes which oppreffed the head, infpired joy, opened
the bowels, and prevented fleep, without being in¬
commoded by it, recommended it firft to his der-
vifes, with whom he ufed to fpend the night in prayer.
Their example brought coffee into vogue at Aden ;
the profeffors of the law for ftudy, artifans to work,
travellers to walk in the night, in fine every body
at Aden, drank coffee. Hence it paffed to Mecca,
where firft the devotees, then the reft of the people,
fccok it. From Arabia Felix it paffed to Cairo. In
1511, Kahie Beg prohibited it, from a perfuafion that Coffee,
it inebriated, and inclined to things forbidden. But y——
Sultan Caufon immediately after took off the prohibi¬
tion, and coffee advanced from Egypt to Syria, and
Conftantinople. The dervifes declaimed againft it
from the Alcoran, which declares, that coal is not of
the number of things created by God for food. Ac¬
cordingly the mufti ordered the coffee-houfes to be
(hut; but his fucceffor declaring coffee not to be coo/,
they were again opened. During the war in Candia
the affemblies of news mongers making too free with
flate affairs, the grand vifir Cuproli fuppreffed the cof¬
fee-houfes at Conftantinople, which fuppreflion, though
ftill on foot, does not prevent the public ufe of the li¬
quor there. Thevenot the traveller, was the firft who
brought it into France *, and a Greek fervant, named
Pafqua, brought into England by Mr Dan. Edwards,
a Turkey merchant, in 1652, to make his coffee, firft:
fet up the profeflion of ccjf'ee-man, and introduced the
drink into this ifland.
The word coffee is originally Arabic : the Turks pro¬
nounce it caheub, and the Arabians ; which fome
authors maintain to be a general name for any thing
that takes away the appetite, others for any thing that
promotes appetite, and others again for any thing that
gives ftrength and vigour.—The Mahometans, it is
obferved, diftinguifti three kinds of cahuah. The firft
is wine, or any liquor that inebriates ; the fecond is
made of the pods that contain the coffee-berry ; this
they call the Sultan's coffee, from their having firft
introduced it on account of its heating lefs than the
berry, as well as its keeping the bowels open 5 the
third is that made with the berry itfelf, which alone
is ufed in Europe, the pods being found improper for
tranfportation. Some Europeans who imported the
pods, called them the Jlower of the coffee-tree. The
deep brown colour of the liquor occafioned its being
called fyrup of the Indian mulberry, under which fpe-
cious name it firft gained ground in Europe.
The preparation of coffee confifts in roafting, or gi¬
ving it a juft degree of torrefadlion on an earthen or
metalline plate, till it has acquired a brownifti hue
equally deep on all fides. It is then ground in a mill,
as much as ferves the prefent occafion. A proper quan¬
tity of water is next boiled, and the ground coffee put
into it. After it has juft boiled, it is taken from the
fire, and the deco&ion having flood a while to fettle
and fine, they pour or decant it into difhes. The or¬
dinary method of roafting coffee among us is in a tin
cylindrical box full of holes, through the middle
whereof runs a fpit. Under this is a femicircular hearth,
whereon is a large charcoal-fire : by help of a jack the
fpit turns fwift, ai\d fo roafts the berry, being now
and then taken up to be fhaken. When the oil rifes,
and it is grown of a dark brown colour, it is emptied
into two receivers made with large hoops, whofe bot¬
toms are iron plates : there the coffee is fhaken, and
left till almoft cold *, and if it look bright and oily, it
is a fign it is well done.
Very different accounts have been given of the me¬
dicinal qualities of this berry. To determine its real
effe&s on the human body, Dr Percival has made fe-
veral experiments, the refult of which he gives in the
following words4 “ From thefe obfervations we may
infer, that coffee is flightly aftringent and antifeplic ;
C O F [ 248 ] C O F
Ccffiee, that it moderates alimentary fermentation, and is
Coffer, powerfully fedative. Its a&ion on the nervous fyftem
■"-""V" probably depends on the oil it contains ; which re¬
ceives its flavour, and is rendered mildly empyreu-
matie, by the procefs of roafling. Neumann obtained
by diftillation from one pound of coffee, five ounces
five drachms and a half of water, fix ounces and half
a drachm of thick fetid oil, and four ounces and two
drachms of a caput mortuum. And it is well known,
that rye, torrefied with a few almonds, which furnifli
the neceffary proportion of oil, is now frequently em¬
ployed as a fubflitute for thefe berries.
“ The medicinal qualities of coffee feem to be de¬
rived from the grateful fenfation which it produces in
the ftomach, and from the fedative powers it exerts on
the vis vitce. Hence it affifts digettion, and re¬
lieves the headach 5 and is taken in large quantities,
with peculiar propriety by the Turks and Arabians, be-
caufe it countera&s the narcotic effedts of opium, to
the ufe of which thofe nations are much addidled.
“ In delicate habits, it often occafions watchfulnefs,
tremors, and many of thofe complaints which are de¬
nominated nervous. It has been even fufpedted of
producing palfies $ and from my own obfervation, I
fhould apprehend, not entirely without foundation.
Slare affirms, that he became paralytic by the too li¬
beral ufe of coffee, and that this diforder was removed
by abftinence from that liquor.
“ The following curious and important obferva¬
tion is extradled from a letter with which I was ho¬
noured by Sir John Pringle, in April 1773 : ‘ On
reading your fedlion concerning coffee, one quality
occurred to me which I had obferved of that liquor,
confirming what you have faid of its fedative virtues.
It is the beft abater of the paroxyfms of the periodic
afthma that I have feen. The coffee ought to be of the
beft Mocco, newly burnt, and made very ftrong imme¬
diately after grinding it. I have commonly ordered
an ounce for one diffi ; which is to be repeated frelh
after the interval of a quarter or half an hour ; and
which I direfl to be taken without milk or fugar. The
medicine in general is mentioned by Mufgrave, in his
treatife De arthritide anomola *, but I firft heard of it
from a phyfician in this place, who having once praflif-
-ed in Litchfield, had been informed by the old people
of that place, that Sir John Floyer, during the latter
years of his life, kept free from, or at leaft lived eafy
under, his afthma, from the ufe of very ftrong coffee.
This difeovery, it feems, he made after the publica¬
tion of his book upon that difeafe. Since the receipt of
that letter, I have frequently directed coffee in the
afthma with great fuccefs.”
COFFER, in ArchiteBurc, a fquare depreffure or
finking in each interval between the modillions of the
Corinthian cornice *, ordinarily filled up with a rofe j
fometimes with a pomegranate, or other enrichment.
Coffer, in Fortification, denotes a hollow lodge¬
ment, athwart a dry moat, from 6 to 7 feet deep,
and from 16 to 18 broad; the upper part made of
pieces of timber raifed two feet above the level of
the moat, which little elevation has hurdles laden
with earth for its covering, and ferves as a parapet
■with embrafures : the coffer is nearly the fame with
the caponiere, excepting that this laft is fometimes
made beyond the counterfearp on the glacis, and the
coffer always in the moat, taking up its whole breadth, ceffet
which the caponiere does not. It differs from the jl
traverfe and gallery, in that thefe latter are made by Coffin,
the befiegers, and the coffer by the befieged. The ,"rTT-t -1
befieged generally make ufe of coffers to repulfe the
befiegers when they endeavour to pais the ditch. To
fave themfelves from the fire of thefe coffers, the be¬
fiegers throw up the earth on that fide towards the
coffer.
COFFERER of the King's Household, a princi¬
pal officer in the court, next under the comptroller.
He was likewife a white-ftaff officer, and always a
member of the privy council. He had a fpecial charge
and overfight of the other officers of the houfehold.
Fie paid the wages of the king’s fervants below flairs,
and for provifions as dire61ed by the board of green
cloth. This office is now fuppreffed, and the bufinefs
of it is tranfa6fed by the lord Reward, and paymafter
of the houfehold. He had icol. a-year wages, and
400I. a-year board wages.
COFFIN, the cheft in which dead bodies are put
into the ground.
The fepulchral honours paid to the manes of de¬
parted friends in ancient times, demand attention,
and are extremely curious. Their being put into a
coffin has been particularly confidered as a mark of
the higheft diftinftion. With us the pooreft people
have their coffins. If the relations cannot afford them,
the parifh is at the expence. On the contrary, in
the eaft they are not at all made ufe of in our times ;
Turks and Chriftians, as Thevenot affures us, agree
in this. The ancient Jews feem to have buried their
dead in the fame manner : neither was the body of
our Lord, it fhould feem, put into a coffin ; nor that
of Eliffia, 2 Kings xiii. 21. whofe bones were touched
by the corpfe that was let down a little after into his
fepulchre. However, that they were anciently made
ufe of in Egypt, all agree ; and antique coffins of fone
and fycamore wood, are ft ill to be feen in that country ;
not to mention thofe faid to be made of a kind of
pafteboard; formed by folding or glueing cloth to¬
gether a great many times, curioufly plaftered, and
then painted with hieroglyphics. Its being an ancient
Egyptian cuftom, and not pra£lifed in the neighbouring
countries, were, doubtlefs, the caufe that the facred
hiftorian exprefsly obferves of Jufepb, that he was not
only embalmed, but put into a coffin too * ; both being ^ ^ ^
managements peculiar to the Egyptians. 26>
Bifhop Patrick, in his commentary on this paffage,
takes notice of thefe Egyptian coffins of fycamore
wood and of pafteboard ; but he doth not mention
the contrary ufage in the neighbouring countries,
which was requifite, one might fuppofe, in order fully
to illuftrate the place; but even this perhaps would
not have conveyed the whole idea of the facred au¬
thor. Maillet apprehends that all were not inclofed
in coffins who were laid in the Egyptian repofitories
of the dead ; but that it was an honour appropriated
to perfons of figure : for after having given an ac¬
count of feveral riches found in thofe chambers of
death, he addsf, “But it muft not be imagined tEat | Let. vii.
the bodies depofited in thefe gloomy apartments were p_ jg,,
all inclofed in chefs, and placed in niches. The
greateft part were fimply embalmed and fwathed af¬
ter that manner which every one hath feme notion
of;
COG [2
Coffin of $ after which they laid them one by the fide of
II another without any ceremony. Some were even laid
_.('gnac. tombs without any embalming at all ; or fuch
a flight one, that there remains nothing of them in
the linen in which they were wrapped, but the bones,
and thofe half rotten. It is probable, that each con-
fiderable family had one of thefe burial-places to
themfelves; that the niches were defigned for the
bodies of the heads of the families ; and that thofe of
their domeftics or flaves had no other care taken of
them than the laying them on the ground, after ha¬
ving been embalmed, or even without that $ which,
undoubtedly, was alfo all that was done even to the
heads of families of lefs diftioftion.” After this he
gives an account of a way of burial, praftifed anci¬
ently in that country, which had been but lately dif-
covered, and which confifted in placing the bodies, af¬
ter they were fwathed, upon a layer of charcoal, and
covering them with a mat, under a depth of fand of
feven or eight feet.
That coffins then were not univerfally ufed in E-
gypt, is undoubted from thefe accounts : and probably
they were only perfms of diflindlion who were buried
in them. It is alfo reafonable to believe, that in times
fo remote as that of Jofeph, they might be much lefs
common than afterwards } and confequently, that Jo-
feph’s being put in a coffin in Egypt, might be men¬
tioned with a defign to' exprefs the great honours
which the Egyptians did him at his death, as well as
in life, being interred after the moll fumptuous man¬
ner of the Egyptians, embalmed and put into a coffin.
Agreeably to this, the Septuagint verfion, which was
made for Egyptians, feems to reprefent coffins as a
mark of grandeur. Job xxi. 32.
It is no objedtion to this account, that the widow
of Nain’s fon is reprefented as carried forth to be
buried in a rogo?, or “ on a bier for the prefent in¬
habitants of the Levant, who are well known to
lay their dead bodies in the earth uninclofed, carry
them frequently out to burial in a kind of coffin. So
Dr Ruffel, in particular, defcribes the bier ufed for
the Turks at Aleppo, as a kind of coffin much in the
form of ours, only that the lid rifes with a ledge in
the middle. Chriftians, indeed, as he tells us, are car¬
ried to the grave on an open bier: but as the moll
•common kind of bier refembles our coffins, that ufed
by the people of Nain might very poffibly be of the
fame kind ; in which cale the word c-ogoj was very
proper.
GOGGLE, or Cog, a fmall fiffiing-boat upon the
coalls of Yorklhire : and cogs (cogones') are a kind of
little ffiips or veflfels ufed in the rivers Oufe and Hum¬
ber ; (Stat. 23 Hen. VIII. c. 18.) P rceparatis co-
gonibus, gal/eis, et alns nambus, is’c. (Mat. Paris,
ann. 1066.) And hence the cogmen, boatmen, and
feamen, who, after Ihipwreck or Ioffes by fea, travel¬
led and wandered about to defraud the people, by
begging and Healing, until they were reftrained by
proper laws.
COGITATION, a term ufed by fome for the aft
©f thinking.
COGN AC, a town of France in Angoumois, with
a caftle, where Francis I. was born. It is feated on the
river Charante, in a very pleafant country, abounding
Vgl. VI. Part I.
Cognac
II
Cohtfion.
49 ] C O H
in wine, and remarkable for excellent brandy. W.
Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 45. 44.
COGNATE, in Scots Law, any male relation by
the mother. v
COGNATION, in the civil law, a term for that
line of confanguinity which is between males and fe¬
males, both defcended from the fame father 5 as ag¬
nation is for the line of parentage between males only
defcended from the fame Hock.
COGNI, an ancient and Hrong town of Caramania,
in Turkey in Alia, and the refidence of a beglerbeg.
It is feated in a pleafant country, abounding in corn,
fruits, pulfe, and cattle. Here are Iheep whofe tails
weigh 30 pounds. E. Long. 35. 36. N. Lat. 37. 56.
COGNITIONIS causa, in Scots Law. When a
creditor charges the heir of his debtor to enter, in
order to conflitute the debt againfl him, and the heir
renounces the fucceffion, the creditor can obtain no
decreet of conflitution of that debt againll the heir;
but only a decreet fubjedHing the hcereditas jacens, or
the eflate which belonged to the debtor, to his dili¬
gence : and this is called a decreet cognitionis caufa.
COGNIZANCE, or Connusance, in Zctu, has
divers fignifications. Sometimes it is an acknowledg¬
ment of a fine, or confeffion of fomething done ; fome-
times the hearing of a matter judicially, as to take cog¬
nizance of a caufe; and fometimes a particular jurif-
diftion, as cognizance of pleas is an authority to call
a caufe or plea out of another court, which no perfon
can do but the king, except he can Ihow a charter for
it. This cognizance is a privilege granted to a city
oPa town to hold plea of all contrafts, &c. within the
liberty ; and if any one is impleaded for fuch matters-
in the courts at Weflminfier, the mayor, &c. of fuch.
franchife may demand cognizance of the plea, and that
it may be determined before them.
Cognizance is alfo ufed for a badge on a water¬
man’s or ferving-man’s fleeve, which is commonly the
giver’s crefl, whereby he is decerned to belong to this
or that nobleman or gentleman.
COGGS. See Goggle.
COHABITATION, denotes the Hate of a man
and a wornaij who live together without being legally
married. By the common law of Scotland, cohabita¬
tion for year and day, or a complete twelvemonth, is
deemed equivalent to matrimony.
CO-HEIR, one who fucceeds to a fliare of an in¬
heritance, to be divided among feveral.
COHESION, one of the four fpecies of attraftion,
denoting that force by which the parts of bodies ad¬
here or Hick together. r
This power was firfl confidered by Sir Ifaac New- Confidered
ton as one of the properties effential to all matter, and by s,r Ifaac
the caufe of all that variety we obferve in the texture
of different terreffrial bodies. He did not, however, pr0perty 0f
abfolutely determine that the power of cohefion was matter,
an immaterial one j but thought it might poffibly arife,
as well as that of gravitation, from the a&ion of an a
ether. His account of the original conflitution of mat-His account
ter is as follows : It feems probable, that God in thefftheori-
beginning formed matter in folid, maffy, impenetrable,
moveable particles; of fuch fizes, figures, and othermatter>
properties, and in fuch proportion to fpace, as mofl
conduced to the end for which he formed them j and
I i that
C O H [ 250
Ciliefion. tliefe primitive particles being folid, are incom- to a
v  parably harder than any porous bodies compofed of
them j even fo very hard as never to wear or break
in pieces j no ordinary power being able to divide
what God himfelf made one at the firft creation. While
the particles continue entire, they may compofe bodies
of one and the fame nature and texture in all ages ;
Jaut fhould they wear away, or break in pieces, the
nature of all things depending on them would be chan-
.ged. Water and earth compofed of old worn particles
end fragments of particles, would not now be of the
fame texture with water and earth compofed of en-
,tire particles in the beginning. And therefore, that
nature may be lading, the changes of corporeal things
;-are. to be placed in the various feparations and new
vaflociations and motions of thefe permanent particles j
compound bodies being apt to break, not in the midft
. of folid particles, but where thefe particles are laid to¬
gether, and touch in a few points.” It feems farther,
•“ That thefe particles have not only a vis inerticr, ac¬
companied with fuch paflive laws of motion as naturally
refult from that force $ but alfo that they are moved
jby certain adtive principles, fuch as that of gravity,
.and that which caufeth fermentation and the cohefion
of bodies. Thefe principles are to be confidered not
as occult qualities, fuppofed to refult from the fpecific
forms of things, but as general laws of nature by which
the things themfelves are formed ; their truth appear-
,ing to us by phenomena, though their caufe is not yet
3 difcovered.”
Attraction The general law of nature, by which all the differ-
the general ent bodies in the univerfe are compofed, according
tiire°f na* t0 Ifaac Newton, is that of attraction : i. e. “ Eve¬
ry particle of matter has an attractive force, or a
tendency to every other particle •, which power is
ftrongeft in the point of contadt, and fuddenly de-
creafes, infomuch that it adts no more at the lead: fen-
dible diftance ; and at a greater diflance is converted
-into a repellent force, whereby the parts fly from
each other. On this principle of attraction may we
account for the cohefion of bodies, otherwife inexpli-
4 ' jcable.
Formation “ The fmallefl: particles may cohere by the ftrong-
of particles eft.attractions, and compofe bigger particles of weaker
of different vjrtue . aruj many Df thefe may cohere, and compofe
bigger particles, whofe virtue is ftill lefs : and fo on
. for divers fucceffions, until the progreflion end in the
biggeft particles, on which the operations in chemiftry,
and the colours of natural bodies, depend *, and which,
5 by cohering, compofe bodies of a fenfible magnitude.
Diftindtion Jf the body is compact, and bends or yields inward to
qf bodies preflbre vvithout any Aiding of its parts, it is hard and
tbX humid, elaftic, returning to its figure with a force arifing
^c.
from the mutual attraction of its parts. If the parts
Hide from one another, the body is malleable or foft.
If they flip eafily, and are of a fit fize to be agita¬
ted by heat, and the heat is great enough to keep
them in agitation, the body is fluid : and if it be apt
to flick to things, it is humid j and the drops-of every
fluid affefl: a round figure by the mutual attractions of
their parts, as the globe of the earth and fea affeCts a
round figure from the mutual attraction and gravity of
its parts.
“ Since metals diflblved in acids attraCt but a fmall
quantity of the acid, their attractive force reaches but
] c o H
fmall diflance. Now, as in algebra, where af- Cohefion.
firmative quantities ceafe, there negative ones begin j v—j
fo in mechanics, where attraction ceafes, there a re- <5
pulfive virtue muft fucceed. That there really is iuch Exiftence
a virtue feems to follow from the reflections and in- rePullh'«
fleCtions of the rays of light j the rays being repelledP1**
by bodies in both thefe cafes without the immediate
contaCt of the reflecting and infleCting body. The fame
thing feems alfo to follow from the emiflion of light j
*3 ray, as foon as fliaken off from a body by the vibra¬
ting motion of the parts of the body, and got beyond
the reach of attraction, being driven away with ex¬
ceeding great velocity *, for that force which is luffi-
cient to turn it back in reflection may be fuffieient to
emit it. From the fame repelling power it teems to
be that flies walk upon the water without wetting their
feet ; that the objeCt-glaffes of long telefcopes lie up¬
on one another without touching; and that dry pow-
-ders are difficultly made to touch one another fo as to
flick together, without melting them or wetting them
with water, which, by exhaling, may bring them to¬
gether.
“ The particles of all hard homogeneous bodies
which touch one another, cohere with a great force ;
to account for which, fome philofophers have reeourfe
to a kind of hooked atoms, which in effeCt is nothing
elfe but to beg the queftion. Others imagine, that
the particles of bodies are connected by reft, i. e. in
effeCt by nothing at all 5 and others, by confpiring mo¬
tions, i. e. by a relative reft among themfelves. For
myfelf, it rather appears to me, that the particles of
bodies cohere by an attractive force, whereby they tend
mutually to each other.” » 7
From this account of the formation and conftitution No coh-
of bodies, we can conclude nothing, except that they
are compofed of an infinite number of little particles,{rom tllis
kept together by a force or power j but of what na-account.
ture that power is, whether material or immaterial,
we muft remain ignorant till farther experiments are
made. Some of the Newtonian philofophers, how¬
ever, have pofitively determined thefe powers to be
immaterial. In confequence of this fuppofition, they
have fo refined upon attractions and repulfions, that
their fy Items feem not far from downright fcepticifm,
or denying the exiftence of matter altogether. A
fyftem of this kind we find adopted by Dr Prieltley*, # 0j 1
from Meffrs Bofcovich and Michell, in order to folve Vtfum,voliJ
fome difficulties concerning the Newtonian doCtrine ofp.392.
light. “ The eafieft method (fays he) of folving all ^
difficulties, is to adopt the hypothefis of Mr Bofcovich, }1V_
who fuppofes that matter is not impenetrable, as has,p0t|)t,f!S'a.
been perhaps univerfally taken for granted; but thatdopted by
it confifts of phyfical points only, endued with powers Pr
of attraction and repulfion in the fame manner as folid1
matter is generally fuppofed to be : provided, there¬
fore, that any body moves with a fufficient degree of
velocity, or has a fufficient momentum to overcome
any powers of repulfion that it may meet with, it will
find no difficulty in making its way through any body
whatever; for nothing elfe will penetrate one another
but powers, fuch as we know do in faft exift in the
fame place, and counterbalance or overrule one ano¬
ther. The moft obvious difficulty, and indeed almoft
the only one that attends this hypothefis, as it fuppofes
the mutual penetrability of matter, arifes from the
idea
C O H
Cohefion. idea of the nature of matter, and the difficulty we
——^— meet with in attempting to force two bodies into the
9 fame fpace. But it is demonffrable that the firft ob-
ofeearh" ftru&i°n arifes from no aftual contaff of matter, but
,ther not from mere powers of repulfion. The difficulty we
rom ac- can overcome j and having got within one fphere of
ual con- repulfion, we fancy that we are now impeded by the
folid matter itfelf. But the very fame is the opinion
of the generality of mankind with refpe6f to the firft
obftrudlion. Why, therefore, may not the next be
only another fphere of repulfion, which may only re¬
quire a greater force than we can apply to overcome
it, without difordering the arrangement of the confti-
tuent particles •, but which may be overcome by a body
moving with the amazing velocity of light.
“ This fcheme of the immateriality of matter as it
may be called, or rather the mutual penetration of mat-
10 ter, firft occurred to Mr Michell on reading Baxter on
Hr Baxter’s ^ie immateriality of the foul. He found that this au-
jpinion. thor’s idea of matter was, that it confifted, as it were
of bricks cemented together with immaterial mortar.
Thefe bricks, if he would be confiftent with his own
feafoning, were again compofed of lefs bricks, ce¬
mented likewife by an immaterial mortar j and fo on
ad infinitum. This putting Mr Michell upon the con-
fideration of the feveral appearances of nature, he be¬
gan to perceive that the bricks were fo covered with
this immaterial mortar, that if they had any exiftence
at all, it could not poffibly be perceived j every ef-
fe<5! being produced, in nine inftances of ten certainly,
and probably in the tenth alfo, by this immaterial fpi-
ritual, and penetrable mortar. Inftead therefore of pla¬
cing the world upon the giant, the giant upon the tor-
toife, and the tortoife upon, he could not tell what, he
n placed the world at once upon itfelf.”
lohefion Other philofophers have fuppofed the powers both of
uppoied gravitation and cohefion to be material j and to be
lem^ t0 on’y different adfions of the ethereal fluid, or elemen-
ire, ^ tary fire. In fupport of this it has been urged, that
before we have recourfe to a fpiritual and immaterial
power as the caufe of any natural phenomenon, we
ought to be well affured that there is no material fub-
ftance with which we are acquainted, that is capable
of producing fuch effefls. In the prefent cafe, w7e
are fo far from having fuch affurance, that the contra¬
ry is manifeft to our fenfes. One inftance of this is
in the experiment with the Magdeburg hemifpheres,
as they are called. Thefe are two hollow hemifpheres
of brafs, exa6tly fitted to one another, fo as to form
one globe when joined together, without admitting any
air at the joining. In this ftate, if the air within
them is exhaufted by means of a pump, they will co¬
here with fuch force, if they are five or fix inches dia¬
meter, as to require a weight of fume hundreds of
pounds to feparate them. The preffure of the at-
mofphere, we fee, is in this cafe capable of produ¬
cing a very ftrong cohefion ; and if there is in nature
any fluid more penetrating, as w7ell as more power¬
ful in its effefts, than the air we breathe, it is pofiible
that what is called the attraflion of cohefion may fome
how or other be an effeft of the aflion of that fluid.
Such a fluid as this, is the element of fire. Its a&ivity
is fuch as to penetrate all bodies whatever; and in the
ftate in which it is commonly called fire, it a&s accord¬
ing to the quantity of folid matter contained in the
C O H
body. In this flate, it is capable of diffolving the Cohefiart.
ftrongeft cohefions obferved in nature; but whatever '•'—■“Sr"’—
is capable of diffolving any cohefion, muft neceffarily
be endued with greater power than that by which the
cohefion is caufed. Fire, therefore, being able to *
diffolve cohefions, muft alfo be capable of caufing
them, provided its power is exerted for that purpofe.
Nor will it feem at all ftrange that this fluid fhould aft
in two fuch oppofite ways, when we confider the dif¬
ferent appearances which it affumes. Thefe are
three, viz. fire or heat, in which it confumes, de-
ftroys, and diffolves : light, in which it feems deprived
of all deftrudiive or diffolvent power, and to be the
moft mild, quiet, and placid being in nature. The
third ftate of this element is, when it becomes what
is called the eleBric fluid; and then it attrafts, re¬
pels, and moves bodies, in a vaft variety of ways,
without either burning or rendering them vifible by
its light. In this ftate it is not lefs powerful than in
either of the other two ; for a violent fhock of elec¬
tricity will difplace and tear in pieces the moft heavy
and folid bodies. The feeming capricious nature of
this fluid, however, probably renders it lefs fufpedted
as the caufe of cohefion than it otherwife would be,
were the attractions regular and permanent, which
we obferve it to occafion. But here we muft obferve,
that the fluid has an exiftence in all bodies before the
experiments are tried which make its effeCts vifible to
us, and is aCling in them according to its fettled and
eftablifhed laws. While aCling in this manner it is
perfedly invifible ; and all we can do is, to produce
fome little infringement of thefe regular laws accord¬
ing to which it commonly aCts. In fome cafes, how¬
ever, the eleCtrical attractions produced by art aie found
to be pretty permanent and ftrong. Thus, Mr Symmer, ,
in fome experiments upon filk ftockings, found their at¬
traction fo ftrong, that it required upwards of 15 pounds
weight to feparate them from each other j and this at¬
traction would continue for more than an hour. In »
plates of glafs, too, he obferved a remarkable cohe¬
fion when eleCtrified. In the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions for 1777, we find this hypothefis taken notice of,
and in fome meafure adopted, by Mr Henley. “ Some
gentlemen (fays he) have fuppofed that the electric mat- '
ter is the caufe of the cohefion of the particles of bo¬
dies. If the eleCtric matter be, as I fufpeCt, a real
elementary fire inherent in all bodies, that opinion <
may probably be well founded $ and perhaps the fol-
dering of metals, and the cementation of iron, by fire, ,
may be confidered as ftrong proofs of the truth of their
hypothefis.”
On this laft hypothefis ive muft obferve, that if the
eleCtric, or any other fluid, is fuppofed to be the caufe'
of the attraction of cohefion univerfally, the pa;tides
of that fluid muft be deftitute of all cohefion between
themfelves $ otherwife we ftiould be at as great a lofs
to account for the cohefion of thefe particles, as for
that of terreftrial matter. Philofophers, indeed, do not
fuppofe any cohefion between the particles of the elec¬
tric fluid themfelves j it is generally believed that the
particles of this fluid are repulfive of one another, though
attraCled by all other matter. If this is a fad, we
cannot fuppofe the eleCtric fluid to be the caufe of co¬
hefion. The probability or improbability of the hy--
pothefis, juft mentioned, muft greatly depend on its be-
I i 2 ing
[ 251 ]
c o i r 2
Gohefion >ng afcertained whether the particles of the ele&ric
U fluid do really repel one another, and attraft all other
Coimbra, kinds of matter, or not ; but for this we mull refer to
article ELECTRICITY.
COHOBATION, in Chemijlryy an operation by
which the fame liquor is frequently diftilled from the
fame body, either with an intention to diffolve this
body, or to produce fome change upon it. This is one
of thofe operations which the ancient chemifts prac-
tifed with great patience and zeal, but which is now
negle£led. To make the operation eafier, and to pre¬
vent the trouble of frequently changing the vefftls, a
particular kind of alembic, called a pelican, was in¬
vented. This velTel was made in the form of a cucur¬
bit with an alembic-head, but had two fpouts commu¬
nicating with the body. As the vapour rofe up into
the head, it was gradually condenfed, and ran down
the fpouts into the body of the pelican, from whence it
was again diftilled ; and fo on.
COHORN (N.) the greateft engineer Holland has
produced. Among his other works, which are efteem-
ed mafterpieces of Ikill, he fortified Bergen-op-zoom ;
which, to the furprife of all Europe, was taken by the
French in 1747 j but that, it is believed, was the ef¬
fect of treachery. He wrote a treatife on fortification,
and died in 1704.
COHORT, in Roman antiquity, the name of part
of the Roman legion, comprehending about 6c0 men.
There were ten cohorts in a legion, the firft of which
' exceeded all the reft both in dignity and number of
men. When the army was ranged in order of battle,
the firft cohort took up the right of the firft linej
the reft followed in their natural order j fo that the
third was in the centre of the firft line of the legion,
and the fifth on the left j the fecond between the firft
and third ; and the fourth between the third and fifth :
the five remaining cohorts formed a fecond line in their
natural order.
COIF, the badge of a fergeant of law, who is call¬
ed fergeant of the coif, from the lawn coif they
wear under their caps when they are created fer-
geants.
The chief ufe of the coif was to cover the clerical
tonfure. See TON&URE.
COILING, on (hipboard, implies a fort of ferpen-
tine winding of a cable or other rope, that it may oc¬
cupy a fmall fpace in the (hip. Each of the wind¬
ings of this fort is called a fake; and one range of
fakes upon the fame line is called a tier. There are
generally from five to feven fakes in a tier ; and three
or four tiers in the whole length of the cable. This,
however, depends on the extent of the fakes. The
fmaller ropes employed about the fails are coiled upon
cleats at fea, to prevent their being entangled amongft
one another in traverfing, contracting, or extending the
fails.
COILON, in the ancient Grecian theatres, the
fame with the cavea of the Romans.
COIMBRA, a handfome, large, and celebrated
town of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira,
with a bilhop’s fee, and a famous univerfity. The
cathedral and the fountains are very magnificent. It
is feated in a very pleafant country abounding in vine¬
yards, olive-trees, and fruits. It Hands on a mountain,
2 ] C O I
by the fide of the river Mondego. W. Long. 8. 17. e0imtra
N. Lat. 40. 12. Coin.'
COIN, a piece of metal converted into money by the
impreflion oi certain marks or figures thereon.
Coin differs from Money as the fpecies from the
genus. Money is any matter, whether metal, wood,
leather, glafs, horn, paper, fruits, (hells, or kernels,
which have currency as a medium in Commerce.
Coin is a particular fpecies, always made of metal, and
(truck according to a certain procefs called Coining.
The precife epocha of the invention of money is too
ancient (or our annals j and, if we might argue from
the neceffity and obvioufnefs of the thing, muft be
nearly coeval with the world.
Whether coins be of equal antiquity, may admit of
fome doubt ; efptcially as moft of the ancient writers
are fo frequent and exprefs in their mention of leathern-
moneys, paper-moneys, wooden-moneys, &c. Some,
however, notwithftanding this, are of opinion, that
the firft moneys were of metal: the reafons they give,
and the firmnefs, neatnefs, cleannefs, durablenefs, and
univerfality of metals j which, however, do rather con¬
clude they ought to have been fo, than that they adlu-
ally were fo.
In effedl, the very commodities themfelves were
the firft moneys, i. e. were current for one -another
by way of exchange j and it was the difficulty of cut¬
ting or dividing certain commodities, and the impof-
fibility of doing it without great lofs, that firft put men
on the expedient of a general medium. See Ex¬
change.
Indeed, thus much may be faid in behalf of coins,
that, on this view, it was natural for men to have their
firft reeourfe to metals, as being almoft the only things
whofe goodnefs, and as it were integrity, is not dimi-
niftied by partition j befides the advantages above ex-
preffed, and the conveniences of melting and returning
them into a mafs of any fize or weight.
It was probably, then, this property of metals which
firft accuftomed people, who traded together, to ac¬
count them in lieu of quantities of other merchandifes
in their exchanges, and at length to fubftitufce them
wholly in their (lead ’, and thus arofe money $ as it
was their other property to preferve any mark or im-
preffion a long time, which confirmed them in the
right 5 and thus was the firft rife of coins.
In the firft ages, each perfon cut his metal into
pieces of different fizes and forms, according to the
quantity to be given for any merchandife, or accord¬
ing to the demand of the feller, or the quantity ftipu-
lated between them. To this end they went to mar¬
ket loaded with metal in proportion to the purchafe
to be made, and furniftied with inftruments for por¬
tioning it, and fcales for dealing it out, according as
occafion required. By degrees, it was found more
commodious to have pieces ready weighed} and as
there were different weights required according to the
value of the different wares, all thofe of the fame weight
began to bediftinguiftied with the fame mark or figure:
thus were coins carried one (tep further. At length
the growing commerce of money beginning to be di-
fturbed with frauds, both in the weights and the mat¬
ter, the public authority interpofed } and hence the
firft (lamps or impreffions of money } to which fucceed-
I
C O I [ 253
ed the names of the moniers ; and at length the effigy
of the prince, the date, legend, and other precautions
to prevent the alterations of the fpecies j and thus were
coins completed.
Modern COINS. In England the current fpecies of
gold are the guinea, half-guinea, feven-fhillings piece,
Jacobus, laureat, angel, and rofe noble j the four laft
of which are now feldom to be met with j having been
moft of them converted into guineas, chiefly during the
reign of Charles II. and James II. The filver coins
are the crown, half-crown, (hilling, and fixpence. Cop¬
per coins are the farthing, half-penny, penny and two¬
penny pieces.
In Scotland, by the articles of the Union, it is ap¬
pointed that all the coins be reduced to the Englifh,
and the fame accounts obferved throughout. Till then
the Scots had their pounds, (hillings, and pence, as in
England ; but their pound was but 20 pence Englifh,
and the others in proportion : accordingly, their merk
was 13-5-s. Scots, current in England at I34d.", their
noble in proportion. Befides thefe they had their tur-
norer pence and half-pence j their penny TfT of that of
England : befides bafe money of achifons, babees, and
placks. The bodle ^ of the penny, £ of the achifon,
of the babee, and \ of the plack.
In Ireland, the coins are as in England, viz. (hil¬
lings, pence, &c. with this difference, that their (hil¬
ling is but equal to ii^J-^-d. fterling : whence their
pound is only 183 j^d.
But, for a view of all the coins prefently current
in the four quarters of the globe, with their values
and proportions, fee the table fubioined to the article
Money.
In many places (hells are current for coins; particu¬
larly a fmall white kind dug out of the ground in the
Maldives, and fome parts of America, called in the In¬
dies cowries or cor is s on the coaft of Africa bonges, and
in America porce/aines; of which it takes a vaft number
to be equivalent in value to a penny. Of zimbis, an¬
other kind of (hell current, particularly in the kingdoms
of Angola and Congo, two thoufand make what the ne¬
groes call a macoute, which is no real money ; for of this
there is none in this part of Africa, but a manner of reck¬
oning : thus, two Flemifli knives they efteem a macoute j
a copper bafon two pounds weight, and 12 inches dia¬
meter, they reckon three macoutes; a fufee 10, &c.
In fome places fruits are current for coins. Of thefe
there are three forts ufed $ two in America, particu¬
larly among the Mexicans, which are the cacao and
maize ; the other in the Eaft Indies, viz. almonds
brought thither from Lar, and growing in the defarts of
Arabia. Of cacao 15 are efteemed equivalent to a Spa-
ni(h rial, or feven pence fterling. Maize has ceafed to
be a common money fince the difcovery of America by
the Europeans. Almonds are chiefly ufed where the
cowries are not current. As the year proves more or
lefs favourable to this fruit, the value of the money is
higher or lower. In a common year 40 almoft are fet
againft a pefcha, or halfpenny fterling ; which brings
each almond to of a farthing.
Ancient COINS are tbofe chiefly which have been
current among the Jews, Greeks and Romans. Their
’"values and proportions are as follow :
c o
JEWISH.
I
fterl.
Gerah
s.
o
20
1200
60000
Becah
120
6000
Shekel
Maneh
Mina hebraica
6o|Talent
5°
3000
}
5 14
Solidus aureus, or fextula, worth
Siculus aureus, worth
A talent of gold, worth
GRECIAN.
pton
Chalcus
Dichalcus
Hemiobolum
Obolus
342
o
I
5475
3
12
16
o
fter. s. d.
9
o-a-
6
o
qrs.
M
28
56
224
336
662
MM
1660
0 0 0-2
16
32
48
.96
384
o o
1A
16
24
48
96
120
O O 2-j-tjt
6c
011
1 2
24
3°
Diobolum
Tetrobolum
Drachma
Didrachmon
Tetrardftat.
1 2
.7?
24
i-jJPentrad. 323
O 2
° 5
o 7
1 3
7
2
s
2-r
°T
3
2
Note: Of thefe the drachma, didrachma, &c. were of
filver, the reft for the moft part of brafs. The other
parts, as tridrachm, tribolus, &c. were fometimes
coined.
Note alfo : The drachma is here, with the generality
of authors, fuppofed equal to the denarius ; though
there is reafon to believe that the drachma was fome-
what the weightier. See Drachma and Denari¬
us.
fter.
The Grecian gold coin v.r.s the ftater"!
aureus, weighing two Attic drachms, |
or half of the (later argenteus, and ex- o
changing ufually for 25 Attic drachms of
filver in our money. J
According to our proportion of gold 7
to filver - - - \
/. s. d.
16 i|
There were likewife the (later Cyzice-7
nus, exchanging for 28 Attic drachms, or 3
Stater Philippicus, and (later Alexan-
drinus, of the fame value.
Stater Daricus, according to Jofephus,
worth 50 Attic drachms, or
Stater Croefius, of the fame value.
ROMAN.
fter. s
18
12 34-
Teruncius
Semilibella
Lobelia ^
ic
20
40
20
As
Seftertius
jQuinarius
jVidloriatU!1
4I 2|Denarius
■}
qrs.
n 7 7 5
0Toer
3tto
3i
3i
3
Note*
CGI [2
Coin. Note. Of thefe the denarius, viftariatus, feftertius,
Coinage, and fometimes the as, were of filver, the relt of brafs.
See As, &c.
There were fometimes alfo coined of brafs the triens,
fextans, uncia, fextula, and dupondius.
54 ]
C O I
• 1 4 3i
/.
J1.
A
1
O 12 II
o 16
The Roman gold coin was the aureus,'
which weighed generally double the dena¬
rius; the value of which, according to the
firft proportion of coinage, mentioned by
Pliny, was
According to the proportion that ob
tains now amongft us, worth
According to the decuple proportion,
mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux
worth
According to the proportion mention¬
ed by Tacitus, and which afterwards ob
tained, whereby the aureus exchanged for
25 denarii, its value,
Coin, in ArchiteEiure, a kind of dye cut diagonal¬
ly, after the manner of a flight of a ftaircafe, ferving
at bottom to fupport columns in a level, and at top to
correct the inclination of an entablature fupporting a ,
vault.
Coin is alfo ufed for a folid angle compofed of two
furfaces inclined towards each other, whether that
angle be exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, &c. or
interior, as the coin of a chamber or chimney. See
Quoin.
COINAGE, or Coining, the art of making mo¬
ney, as performed either by the hammer or mill.
Formerly the fabric of coins was different from
what it is at prefent. They cut a large plate of metal
into feveral little fquares, the corners of which were
cut off with fciffars. After having fhaped thefe pieces,
fo as to render them perfe&ly conformable, in point of
weight, to the ftandard piece, they took each piece
in hand again, to make it exadlly round by a gentle
hammering. This was called a plancket, and was fit
for immediate coining. Then engravers prepared, as
they ftill do, a couple of fteel maffes in form of dyes,
cut and terminated by a flat furface, rounded off at the
edges. They engraved or (lamped oti it the hollow of
a head, a cro£>, a fcutcheon, or any other figure, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the times, within a (hort le¬
gend. As one of thefe dyes was to remain dormant,
and the other moveable, the former ended in a fquare
prifm, that it might be introduced into the fquare hole
of the block, which, being fixed very fad, kept the
dye as fteady as any vice could have done. The plan-
chet of metal was horizontally laid upon this inferior
mafs, to receive the (lamp of it on one fide, and that
of the upper dye, wherewith it was covered, on the
other. This moveable dye, having its round engraved
furface reding upon the planchet, had at its oppofite
extremity a flat, fquare, and larger furface, upon which
they gave feveral heavy blows, with a hammer of an
enormous fize, till the double (lamp was diffidently,
in relievo, impreffed on each fide of the planchet.
This being finiibed, was immediately fucceeded by an¬
other, and they thus became a ftandard coin, which
had the degree of finenefs of the weight and mark de¬
termined by the judgment of the infpeffors, to make it
good current money; the ftrong tempering which
was and is ftill given to the two dyes, rendering them c '
capable of bearing thofe repeated blows. Coining has ■
been confiderably improved and rendered expeditious
by feveral ingenious machines, and by a wife applica*
tion of the fureft phyfical experiments to the method*
of fining, dyeing, and (lamping the different metals.
1 he three fined inftruments the mint-man ufes are
the laminating engine; the machine for makino-’the
impreffions on the edges of coins ; and the mill. 45
After they have taken the laminae, or plates of me¬
tal, out of the mould into which they are call, they do
not beat them on the anvil, as was formerly done
but make them pafs and repafs between -the fe¬
veral rollers of the laminating engine, which being
gradually brought clofer and clofer, to each other, pre-
fently give the lamina its uniform and exaft thicknefs.
Inftead of dividing the lamina into fmall fquares, they
at once cut clean out of it as many planchets as it can
contain, by means of a (harp fteel trepan, of a roun-
di(h figure, hollow within, and of a proportionable
diameter, to ffiape and cut off the piece at one and the
lame time. Alter thofe planchets have been prepared
and weighed with ftandard pieces, filed or (craped, to
get off the fuperfluous part of the metal, and then
boiled and made clean, they arrive, at laft, at the ma¬
chine (fig. i.), which marks them upon the edge;
and finally, the mill (fig. 2), which, fqueezing eachp;ateCL
of them fingly between the two dyes, brought near
each other with one blow, forces the two furfaces or
fields of the piece to fill exadlly all the vacancies of the
two figures engraved hollow. The engine which ferves
to laminate lead, gives a fufficient notion of that which
ferves to flatten gold and filver laminae between rollers
of a leffer fize.
The principal pieces of the machine (fig. 1.), top;- u
(lamp coins on the edge, are two fteel laminae, about a S’
line thick. One half of the legend, or of the ring, is
engraved on the thickneis of one of the laminae, and
the other half on the thicknefs of the other ; and thefe
two laminae are ftraight, although the planchet mark¬
ed with them be circular.
When they (lamp a planchet, they firft put it be¬
tween the laminae in fuch a manner, as that thefe be¬
ing each of them laid flat upon a copperplate, which
is fattened upon a very thick wooden table, and the
planchet being likewife laid flat upon the fame plate,
the edge of the planchet may touch the two laminje
on each fide, and in their thick part.
One of thefe laminae is immoveable, and faftened
with feveral fcrews; the other Aides by means of a
dented wheel, which takes into the teeth that are on
the furface of the lamina. This Aiding lamina makes
the planchet turn in fuch a manner, that it remains
(lamped on the edge, when it has made one turn. On¬
ly crown and half-crown pieces can bear the imprtffion
of letters on the thicknefs of their edges.
The coining engine or mill is fo fitted for difpatch,F.
(fig. 2.), that a fingle man may (lamp 20,000 planch- 8* *’
ets in one day : gold, filver, and copper planchets, are
all of them coined with a mill, to which the coining
fquares (fig. 3.) commonly called dyes are fallened ;
that of the face under, in a fquare box furnilhed with
male and female fcrews, to fix and keep it fteady ; and
the other above, in a little box garniffied with the
fame fcrews, to fatten the coining fquare. The plan¬
chet
c o i r 2
Jotnage. diet !s laid flat on the fquare of the effigy, which is
dormant 5 and they immediately pull the bar of the
mill by its cords, which caufes the fcrew fet within it
to turn. This enters into the female fcrew, which is
in the body of the mill, and turns with fo much ftrengtb,
4;hat by pulling the upper Square upon that of the effi¬
gy, the planchet, violently prefled between both fquares,
receives the impreffion of both at one pull, and in the
twinkling of an eye.
The planchet thus ftamped and coined, goes through
e final examination of tne mint wardens, from whufe
■hands it goes into the world.
In the COINING of Medals, theprocefs is the fame in
jeffeft with that of money, the principal difference con-
iifiing in this, that money having but a fmall relievo,
receives its impreffion at a Angle ftroke of the engine :
•whereas for medals, the height of their relievo makes
it neceffary that the ftroke be repeated feveral times :
to this end the piece is taken out from between the
-dyes, heated, and returned again } which procefs, in
medallions and large medals, is repeated 15 or 20
times before the full impreffion be given : care muft be
taken, every time the planchet is removed, to take off
the fuperfluous metal ftretched beyond the circumfe¬
rence with a file. Medallions, and medals of a high
-relievo, are ufually firft caft in fand, by reafon of the
difficulty of ftamping them in the prefs, where they
are put only to pede£t them ; in regard the fand does
not leave them clear, fmootb, and accurate enough.
Therefore we may fee that medals receive their form
and impreffion by degrees, whereas money receives
them all at once.
Briti/h COINAGE, both by the beauty of the engra¬
ving, and by the invention of the impreffions on the
edges, that admirable expedient for preventing the al¬
teration of the fpecies, is carried to the utmoft perfec-
•tion.
It was only in the reign of King William III. that
the hammer money ceafed to be current in England,
where till then it was llruck in that manner, as in
other nations. Before the hammer fpecie was called
in, the Englilh money was in a wretched condition,
having been filed and clipped by natives as well as fo¬
reigners, infomuch that it was fcarce left of half the
value : the retrieving this diftrefled ftate of the Eng-
lifh money is looked upon as one of the glories of King
William’s reign.
I he Britiffi coinage is now wholly performed in the
Tower of London, where there is a corporation for it,
under the title of the mint. Formerly there were here,
as there are ftill in other countries, the rights of fein-
orage and braffage j but fince the eighteenth year of
King Charles II. there is nothing taken either for the
king or for the expenees of coining j fo that weight is
returned for weight to any perfon who carries their
gold and filver to the Tower.
The fpecies coin d in Great Britain are efteemed
contraband goods, and not to be exported. All foreign
fpecies are allowed to be lent out of the realm, as well
as gold and filver in bars, ingots, duft, &.c.
_ Barbary COINAGE, particularly that of Fez and Tu¬
nis, is under no proper regulations, as every goldfmith,
lew, or even private perfon, undertakes it at pleafure j
which praflice renders their money exceedingly bad,
and their commerce very unfafe.
>5 l C O K
Mufcovite Coinage. In Mufcovy there is no other Coinage
coin ftruck but filver, and that only in the cities of 1!
Moicow, Novogorod, Twere, and Plelkow, to which < oke.
may be added Peterfburgh. The coinage of each of v"""J
thefe cities is let out to farm, and makes part of the
royal revenue.
Perjian COINAGE. All the money made in Perfia
is ftruck with a hammer, as is that of the reft of Afia j
and the fame may be underftood of America, and the
coafts of Africa, and even Mufcovy: the king’s duty,
in Perfia, is feven and a half per cent, for all the mo¬
neys coined, which are lately reduced to filver and
copper, there being no gold coin there except a kind
of medals, at the acceffion of a new fophi.
Spanijh COINAGE is efteemed one of the lead perfe&
in Europe. It is fettled at Seville and Segovia, the
only cities where gold and filver are ftruck.
COIRE, or, as the Germans call it, Chur, a large
and handfome town of Switzerland, and capital of the
country of the Grifons, with a bifhop’s fee vvhofe pre¬
late has the right of coining money. It is divided
into two parts j the leaft of which is of the Roman
Catholic religion, and the greatelt of the Proteftant.
It is governed by its own laws, and feated in a plain,
abounding in vineyards and game, on the river Pief-
fure, half a mile from the Rhine. E. Long. 9. 25.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
COITION, the intercourfe between male and fe¬
male in the aft of generation.
It is obferved that frogs are forty days in the aft of
coition. Bartholine, &c. relate, that butterflies make
130 vibrations of the wings in one aft of coition.
COIX, Job’s-tears. See Botany Index. In
Spain and Portugal the poor people grind the feeds
of this plant in times of fcarcity, and make a coarfe
kind of bread of them. The feeds are inclofed in
fmall capfules about the bignefs of an Engliih pea, and
of different colours. Thefe are ftrung upon filk, and
ufed inltead of bracelets by fome of the poorer fort in
the Weft Indies, but efpecially by the negroes.
COKE, or Cooke, Sir Edward, lord chief juftice
of the king’s bench in the reign of James I. was de-
feended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and born
at Milcham in 1549. When he was a ftudent in the
Inner-Temple, the firft occafion of his diftinguifhing
himfelf was the ftating the cafe of a cook belonging to
the Temple fo exaftly, that all the houfe, who were
puzzled with it, admired him and his pleading, and the
whole bench took notice of him. After his marriage
with a lady of great fortune, preferments flowed in
upon him. The cities of Norwich and Coventry chofe
him for their recorder •, the county of Norfolk, for
one of their knights in parliament $ and the houfe of
commons, for their fpeaker, in the 35th year of Queen
Elizabeth. The queen appointed him folicitor-general
in 1592, and attorney-general the next year. In
1603, he was knighted by King James I. ; and in No¬
vember the fame year, upon the trial of Sir Walter
Raleigh, &c. at Winchefter, he treated that gentle¬
man with a feurrility of language hardly to be paral¬
leled. June 27. he was appointed lord chief juftice
of the common pleas j and in 1613, lord chief juftice
of the king’s bench, and fworn one of the privy coun¬
cil. In 1615, he was very vigorous in the dileovery
and profecution of the perfons employed in poifoning
Sir
COL [ 256 1 COL
Coke Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower in 1612. His
li conteft not long after with the lord chancellor Egerton,
Colbert. with fome other cafes, haftened the ruin of his inte-
" ^_v reft at court ; fo that he was fequeftrated from the
council-table and the office of lord chief juftice. In
1621, he vigoroufly maintained in the houfe of com¬
mons, that no proclamation is of any force againft the
parliament. The fame year, being looked upon as
one of the great incendiaries in the houfe of commons,
he was removed from the council of ftate with dif-
grace j the king faying, “ that he was the fitteft in-
ftrument for a tyrant that ever was in England he
was aifo committed to the Tower, and his papers were
feized. Upon the calling of a new parliament in
1625, the court-party, to prevent his being elefted a
member, got him appointed (heriff of Buckingham-
(liire } to avoid the office, if poffible, he drew up ex¬
ceptions againft the oath of a fheriff, but was obliged
to undertake the office. In 1628 he fpoke vigoroufly
upon grievances, and made a fpeech, in which he af¬
firmed, that “ the duke of Buckingham was the caufe
of all our miferies” While he lay upon his death¬
bed, his papers and laft will were feized by an order
of council. He died in 1634, and publiftied many
works : the moft remarkable are his Inftitutes of the
Laws of England ; the firft part of which is only a
tranflation and comment of Sir Thomas Littleton, one
of the chief juftices of the common pleas in the reign
of Edward IV.
COKENHAUSEN, a ftrong town of Livonia in
Ruffia on the river Dwina. E. Long. 25. 50. N. Lat.
56. 30.
COL, one of the weftern iflands of Scotland, is an¬
nexed to the county of Argyle. It is 13 miles long,
and 9 broad. It abounds in corn, pafture, falmon,
eels, and cod. The inhabitants are chiefly employed
in the fiflieries. W. Long. 7. 15. N. Lat. 57.
COLAPIS, CoLOPS, ir. /indent Geography, a river
of Liburnia, which after a winding north-eaft courfe,
falls into the Savus at the Infula Segeftica. Now the
Culpe, the boundary of the Alps, running through Cro¬
atia into the Save. Colapiani, the people living on it
(Pliny).
COLARBASIANS, or Colorbasians, a fet of
Chriftians in the fecond century •, fo called from their
leader Colarbafus, a difciple of Valentinus $ who, with
M arcus, another difciple of the fame mafter, maintain¬
ed the whole plenitude and perfection of truth and re¬
ligion to be contained in the Greek alphabet •, and that
it was upon this account that Jefus Chrift was called
the alpha and omega. This feCt was a branch of the
Valentinians. See alfo Marcosians.
COL BERG, a ftrong, handfome fea-port town of
Germany in Pomerania, belonging to the king of Pruf-
fia. It is remarkable for its fait works ; and is feated
at the mouth of the river Perfant, on the Baltic fea, 60
miles north-eaft of Stetin, and 30 north-eaft of Camin.
It was taken by the Ruffians in 1761, but reftored at
the fubfequent peace. E. Long., 15. 39. N. Lat.
54. 22.
COLBERT, John Baptist, Marquis of Segnelai,
one of the greateft ftatefmen that France ever had,
was born at Paris in 1619 ; and defcended from a fa¬
mily that lived at Rheims in Champagne, no way
confiderable for its fplendour and antiquity. His
grandfather is faid to have been a wine merchant, and Colbert
his father at firft followed the fame occupa ion •, but ——
afterwards became clerk to a notary. In 1648, his
relation John Baptift Colbert, lord of S. Pouange, pre¬
ferred him to the fervice of Michael le Tellier, fecre-
tary of ftate, whofe filler b* iiad married $ and here he
diicovered fuch diligence, and exaClnefs in executing
all the commiffions that were entrufted to his care, that
he quickly grew diltinguifhed. One day his mailer
fent him to Cardinal Mazarine, who was then at Se¬
dan, with a letter written by the queen-mother j and
ordered him to bring it back, after that minifter had
feen it. Colbert carried the letter, and would not re¬
turn without it, though the cardinal treated him rough¬
ly, ufed feveral arts t® deceive him, and obliged him
to wait for it feveral days. Some time after, the car¬
dinal returning to court, and wanting one to write his
agenda, or memoranda, defired Le Tellier to furnilk
him with a fit perfon for that employment : and Col¬
bert being prefented to him, the cardinal had fome re¬
membrance of him, and defired to know where he had
feen him. Colbert was afraid of putting him in mind
of Sedan, left the remembrance of his importunacy, in
demanding the queen’s letter, fhould renew the cardi¬
nal’s anger. But his eminency was fo far from hating
him for his faithfulnefs to his late mafter, that he re¬
ceived him on condition that he ftiould ferve him with
the like zeal and fidelity.
Colbert applied himfelf wholly to the advancement
of his matter’s interefts, and gave him fo many marks
of his diligence and fkill, that afterwards he made him
his intendant. He accommodated himfelf fo dexte-
roufly to the inclinations of that miniiler, by retrench¬
ing his fuperfluous expences, that he was entrufted
with the management of that gainful trade of felling
benefices and governments. It was by Colbert’s coun-
fel, that the cardinal obliged the governors of frontier
places to maintain their garrifons with the contribu¬
tions they exacted j with which advice his eminency
was extremely pleafed. He was fent to Rome to ne-
gociate the reconciliation of Cardinal de Retz, for
which the pope had ffiovved fome concern ; and to per-
fuade his holinefs to confent to the difincamerating of
Cafto, according to the treaty concluded with his pre-
deceffor Urban VIII. Upon the whole Mazarine had
fo high an opinion of Colbert’s abilities, and withal
fuch a regard for his faithful fervices, that at his death,
which happened in 1661, he earneftly recommended
him to Louis XIV. as the propereft perfon to regulate
the finances, which at that time ftood in much need
of reformation. Louis accepted the recommendation,
and made Colbert intendant of the finances. He ap¬
plied himfelf to their regulation, and fucceeded,
though it procured him many enemies, and fome af¬
fronts. France is alfo obliged to this minifter for efta-
blilhing at that time her trade with the Eaft and Weft
Indies: a great defign, and from which ftie has reaped
innumerable advantages.
In 1664, he became fuperintendant of the build¬
ings y and from that time applied himfelf fo earneftly to
the enlarging and adorning of the royal edifices, that
they are at prefent fo many mafterpieces of architec¬
ture : witnefs the palaee of the Thuilleries, the Lou¬
vre, St Germain, Fountainbleau, and Chambord. As
for Verfailles, it may be faid that he raifed it from the
COL [2
ground. It was formerly a dog-kennel, where Louis
XIII. kept his hunting furniture : it is now a palace
fit for the greateft monarch. But royal palaces were
not Colbert’s only care ; he formed feveral defigns for
increafing the beauty and convenience of the capital
city, and he did it with great magnificence and gran¬
deur. The public vras obliged to this fame minifter for
the eftablifhment of the academy for painting and fculp-
ture in 1664. The king’s painters and fculptors, with
other fkilful profeffors of thofe arts, being profecuted
at law by the mafter-painters at Pari*., joined together,
and began to form a fociety, under the name of the
Royal Academy for Sculpture and Painting. Their
defign was to keep public exercifes for the fake of
improving thofe fine arts, and advancing them to the
higheft degree of perfe&ion. They put themfelves un¬
der the prote&ion of Mazarine, and chofe Chancellor
Seguier their vice-proteflor; and after Mazarine’s
death chofe Seguier their protestor, and Colbert their
vice-proteftor. It was at his folicitation that they
were finally eftablifhed by a patent, containing new pri¬
vileges, 1664. Colbert, being made proteflor af¬
ter the death of Seguier, thought fit that a hiftorjo-
grapher fhould be appointed, whofe bufinefs it fliould
tie to colled all curious and ufeful obfervations that
might be made at their conferences. This was ac¬
cordingly done *, and his majefty was pleafed to fettle
on him a falary of 300 livres. To Colbert alfo the
lovers of naval knowledge are obliged for the ere&ion
of the Academy of Sciences, for the making of which
the more ufeful, he caufed to be ereded, in 1667, the
royal obfervatory at Paris, which was firft inhabited
by Caffini. But thefe are not the only obligations
France has to that minifter. She owes to him all the
advantages (he receives by the union of the two feas ; a
prodigious work, begun in 1666 and finiftied in 1680.
Colbert was alfo very intent upon matters of a more
private nature, fuch as regarded the order, decency,
and well-being of fociety. He undertook to reform
the courts of juftice, and to put a ftop to the ufurpa-
tion of noble titles, which it feems was then very
common in France. In the former of thefe attempts
he failed, in the latter he fucceeded.
In 1669, he was made fecretary of ftate, and en-
trufted with the management of affairs relating to the
fea $ and his performances in this province were an-
fwerable to the confidence his majefty repofed in him.
He fuppreffed feveral offices, which were chargeable,
but ufelefs ; and in the mean time, perceiving the
king’s zeal for the extirpation of herefy, he fhut up
the chamber inftituted by the edids of Paris and Roan.
He propofed feveral new regulations concerning cri¬
minal courts, and was extremely fevere with the par¬
liament of Thouloufe for obftruding the meafures he
took to carry the fame into execution. His main de¬
fign in reforming the tedious methods of proceeding at
law, was to give the people more leifure to apply them¬
felves to trading ; for the advancement of which he
procured an edid, to ered a general infurance-office
at Paris, for merchants, &c. In 1672, he was made
minifter of ftate *, for how bufied fo'ever he was in the
regulation of public affairs, yet Ire never negleded his
own or his family’s intereft and grandeur, or miffed any
opportunity of advancing either. He had been mar-
Vol. VI. Part I.
37 1 COL
ried many years, had Tons and daughters grotvn up, Colbert,
all of which, as occafion ferved, he took care to marry Colchetter.
to great perfons. For though he had no reafon to
doubt of his mafter’s favour, yet he wifely fecured his
fortune by powerful alliances. However, bufinefs was
certainly Colbert’s natural turn, and he not only loved
it, but was very impatient to be interrupted in it, as
the following anecdote may ferve to fljow. A lady of
great quality was one day urging him, when he was in
the height of his power, to do her fome piece of fer-
vice, and perceiving him inattentive and inflexible,
threw herfelf at his feet, in the prefence of above 100
perfons, crying, “ I beg your greatnefs, in the name
of God, to grant me this favour.” Upon which Col¬
bert, kneeling down over againft her, replied, in the
fame mournful tone, “ I conjure you madam, in the
name of God, not to difturb me.”
This great minifter died of the ftone, September 6.
1683, in his 65th year, leaving behind him fix fons
and three daughters. He was of a middle ftature, ra¬
ther lean than fat. His mien was low and dejedted,
his air gloomy, and his afpeft ftern. He flept little,
and was very fober. Though naturally four and mo-
rofe, he knew how to aft the lover, and had miftreffes.
He was of a flow conception, but fpoke judici-
oufly of every thing after he had once comprehended
it. He underftood bufinefs pretty well, and he pur-
fued it with unwearied application. Thus he filled
the moft important places with high reputation and
credit; and his influence diffufed itfelf through every
part of the government. He reftored the finances,
the navy, the commerce $ and he erefted thofe various
works of art, which have ever fince been monuments
of his tafte and magnificence. He was a lover of
learning, though he never applied to it himfelf; and
therefore conferred donations and penfions upon fcho*
lars in other countries, while he eftablifhed and pro-
tefted academies in his own. He invited into France
painters, ftatuaries, mathematicians, and artifts of all
kinds, who were any way eminent, thus giving new
life to the fciences, and making them flourifh, as they
did, exceedingly. Upon the whole, he was a wife, ac¬
tive, generous-fpirited minifter ; ever attentive to the
interefts of his mafter, the happinefs of the people, the
progrefs of arts and manufaftures, and in fhort to
every thing that could advance the credit and intereft
of his country. He was a pattern for all minifters of
ftate j and every nation may wifh themfelves bleffed
with a Colbert.
COLCHESTER, the chief town of Effex, is plea-
fantly fituated upon an eminence, gradually rifing on
the fouth fide of the river Colne. It is the ancient
Colonia Camuioclunum, from which word, Colonia, both
the town and the river Colne received their names.
The Saxons called it Colneceafter. That it flourifhed
under the Romans, feveral buildings full of their bricks,
and innumerable quantities of coin dug in and about
it, fully evince. In the year 1763, a curious teffe-
lated or mofaic pavement was found in a garden three
feet under the furface of the earth. The emperor
Conftantine the Great was born here, his mother He¬
len being daughter of Cool, governor or king of this
diftrift under the Romans. She is faid to have found
out the crofs of Chrift at Jerufalem j and on that ac-
K k count
COL [ 258 ] COL
Colchefter count the arms of this town are a crofs regulee between
II three ducal coronets, two in chief and one in bafe,
, Colchis. tj)e coronet ;n bafe palling through the crofs.
The walls of the town are ftill tolerably entire on
the fouth, eaft, and weft fides, but much decayed on
the north fide; they are generally about nine feet
thick. By a ftatute of Henry VIII. this town was
made the fee of a fuffragan bilhop.
This town is the moft noted in England for making
of baize $ it is alfo of fpecial note for candying the
eringo roots, and for oyfters.
In the conclufion of the civil war 1648, this town
fuftained a fevere fiege of 10 weeks-, and the befieged
making a very gallant defence, it was changed into a
blockade, wherein the garrifon and inhabitants fuffer-
ed the utmoft extremity of hunger, being reduced to
the neceffity of eating horfe-flefti, dogs, and cats, and
were at laft obliged to furrender at difcretion, when
their two valiant chief officers, Sir Charles Lucas, and
Sir George Lifle, were (hot under the caftle walls in
cold blood. Colchefter is a borough by prefcription,
and under that right fends two members to parliament,
all their charters being filent on that head. The
charter was renewed in 1763. The town is now go¬
verned by a mayor, recorder, 12 aldermen, 18 affif-
tants, 18 common-council men. Quarter feffions are
held here four times in the year.
The famous abbey-gate of St John is ftill (landing,
and allowed to be a furprifing, curious, and beautiful
piece of Gothic architeflure, great numbers of per-
fons coming from diftant places to fee it. It was
built, together with the abbey, in 1097 ? aT1^ Guido,
fteward to King William Rufus, laid the firft (lone.
St Ann’s chapel, (landing at the eaft end of the
town, is valuable in the efteem of antiquarians as a
building of great note in the early days of Chriftianity,
and made no fmall figure in hiftory many centuries
pad. It is ftill pretty entire. St Botoph’s priory
was founded by Ernulphus, in the reign of Henry I.
in the year mo. It was demolilhed in the wars of
Charles I. by the parliament army under Sir Thomas
Fairfax. The ruins ftill exhibit a beautiful (ketch of
^ncien^ mafonry, much admired by the lovers of anti¬
quities. The caftle is ftill pretty entire, and is a mag¬
nificent ftrufture, in which great improvements have
of late been made. Here is an excellent and valuable
library.
The markefs, which are on Wednefday and Satur¬
day, are very well fupplied with all kinds of provi-
fions. There are no fewer than fix diffenting meet¬
ing houfes in this town. Colchefter is 51 miles from
London, and 22 ENE of Chelmsford. It had 16
parifh churches, in and out of the walls, only 12 of
which are now ufed, the reffi being damaged at the
fiege in 1648. E. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 51. 55.
COLCHI (Arrian, Ptolemy), a town of the Hi¬
ther India, thought to be Cochin, on the coaft of Ma¬
labar now a faflory and ftrong fort of the Dutch.
E. Long. 75. o. N. Lat. 10. o.
COLCHICUM, Meadow-saffron. See Botany
Index.
COLCHIS, a country of Afia, at the fouth of
Afiatic Sarmatia, eaft of the Euxine fea, north of Ar¬
menia, and weft of Iberia. It is famous for the expe¬
dition of the Argonauts, and as the birth-place of Me-
3
dea. It was fruitful in poifonous herbs, and produced Colchis
excellent flax. The inhabitants were originally Egyp- ||
tians, who fettled there when Sefoftris king of Egypt CoM.
extended his conquefts in the north. *r"*"
COLCOTHAR, the fubftance remaining after the
diftillation or calcination of martial vitriol or fulphate
of iron. See Chemistry Index.
COLD, in a relative fenfe, fignifies the fenfation
produced by the abftraflion of heat from the body.
The nature of cold, and the methods of producing
it artificially, have been treated of under the article
Chemistry, to which we refer the reader.
Great degrees of cold occur naturally in many parts
of the globe in the winter-time. In the winter of
1780, Mr Wilfon of Glafgow obferved, that a ther¬
mometer laid on the fnow funk to 2 j° below o; but
this was only for a (hort time $ and in general our at-
mofphere does not admit of very great degrees of cold
for any length of time. In 1732, the thermometer at
Peterlburg flood at 28° below o and in 1737, when
the French academicians wintered at the north polar
circle, or near it, the thermometer funk to 330 below
O; and in the Afiatic and American continent, ftill
greater degrees of cold are very common.
The effects of thefe extreme degrees of cold are
very furprifing. Trees are burft, rocks rent, and ri¬
vers and lakes frozen feveral feet deep $ metallic fub-
ftances blifter the (kin like red-hot iron : the air, when
drawn in by refpiration, hurts the lungs, and excites a
cough: even the effedls of fire in a great meafure
feem to ceafe j and it is obferved, that though metals
are kept for a confiderable time before a ftrong fire,
they will ftill freeze water when thrown upon them.
When the French mathematicians wintered at Torneo
in Lapland, the external air, when fuddenly admitted
into their rooms, converted the moifture of the air
into whirls of (how ; ' their breads feemed to be
rent when they breathed it, and the conta£l of it
was intolerable to their bodies; and the alcohol,
which had not been highly re&ified, burft fome of
their thermometers by the congelation of the aqueous
part.
Extreme cold very often proves fatal to animals in
thofe countries where the winters are very fevere $ and
thus 7000 Swedes perifhed at once in attempting to
pafs the mountains which divide Norway from Sweden.
It is not neceffary indeed, that the cold, in order to
prove fatal to the human life, (hould be fo very intenfe
as has been juft mentioned. There is only requifite a
degree fome what below 3 2° of Fahrenheit, accompa¬
nied with fnow or hail, from which (belter cannot be
obtained. The fnow which falls upon the clothes, or
the uncovered parts of the body, then melts, and by
a continual evaporation carries off the animal heat to
fuch a degree, that a fufficient quantity is not left for
the fupport of life. In fuch cafes, the perfon firft feels
himfelf extremely chill and uneafy j he begins to turn
liftlefs, unwilling to walk or ufe exercife to keep him¬
felf warm and at laft, turns drowfy, fits down to re-
freffi himfelf with deep* but wakes no more. An in-
ftance of this was' feen not many years ago at Terra
del Fuego, when Dr Solander, with fome others, ha¬
ving taken an excurfion up the country, the cold was
fo intenfe, that one of their number died. The Doc¬
tor himfelf, though he had warned his companions of
COL [ 259 ] COL
Cold the danger of fleeping in that fituation, yet could not
|| be prevented from making that dangerous experiment
•jld-fincli. • and though he was awakened with all pofiible
v-"” expedition, his body was fo much ihrunk in bulk, that
hi:> (hoes fell off his feet, and it was with the utmoft
difficulty that he was recovered.
In thofe parts of the world where vaft maiTes of ice
are produced, the accumulation of it, by abforbing the
heat of the atmofphere, occafxons an abfolute llerility
in the adjacent countries, as is particularly the cafe
with the ifland of Iceland, where the vaft collections
of ice floating out from the northern ocean, and
flopped on that coaft, are fometimes feveral years in
thawing. Indeed, where great quantities of ice are
colledled, it would feem to have a power like fire,
both augmenting its own cold and that of the adjacent
bodies. ’An inftance of this is related under the article
Evaporation, in Mr Wedgewood’s experiment,
where the true caufe of this phenomenon is alfo pointed
out.
Cold, in Medicine. See Medicine Index.
Cold. See Farriery Index.
COL DENI A. See Botany Index.
COLDINGHAM, fuppofed to be the Colonia of
Ptolemy, and called by Bede the city Coldana and of
Colud (Co/udum), fituated on the borders of Scot¬
land, about two miles from Eyemouth, was a place
famous many ages ago for its convent. I his was the
oldeft nunnery in Scotland, for here the virgin-wife
Etheldreda took the veil in 670 ; but by the ancient
name Coludum it ffiould feera that it had before been
inhabited by the religious called Culdees. In 870 it
was deftroyed by the Danes, but its name rendered
immortal by the heroifm of its nuns j who, to pre-
ferve themfelves inviolate from thofe invaders, cut off
their lips and nofes •, and thus rendering themfelves
objedls of horror, were, with their abbefs Ebba, burnt
in the monaftery by the difappointed favages. After
this it lay deferted till the year 1098, when King
Edgar founded on its fite a priory of Benedi&ines in
honour of St Cuthbert, and beftowed it on the monk of
Durham.
Mr Pennant’s defcription of the black, joylefs,
heathy moor where it was fituated, might be fufficient
to guard the fair inhabitants of the nunnery were it
ftill fubfifting. That defcription, however, is now al¬
together inapplicable: The whole trait, five miles
over, has been fince improved, and converted into corn
fields } the cheerlefs village of Old Cambus is no more j
a decent inn with good accommodations has been efta-
bliftied at a convenient diftance ; and the paffage of
the fteep glen called the Veafe, which terminates the
moor on the road towards Edinburgh, and was former¬
ly the terror of travellers, is now rendered fafe and
eafy by means of a bridge extending from one fide of
the chafm to the other.
COLDINGUEN, a town of Denmark, in North
Jutland, and diocefe of Ripen. It is remarkable for
its bridge, over which pafs all the oxen and other cat¬
tle that go from Jutland into Germany, which brings
in a confiderable revenue to the king. It is feated on
an eminence, in a pleafant country abounding with
game. E. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 55. 35.
COLD-finch, a fpecies of Motacilla. See Or-
nithology Index.
COLD-SHIRE Iron, that which is brittle when Cold-flure
cold. - # B .
COLE, William, the moft famous botanift of his ,( o eiain-,
time, was born at Adderbury in Oxfordlhire about
the year 1626, and ftudied at Merton college in Ox¬
ford. He at length removed to Putney, near London j
and publiffied “ The Art of Simpling j and Adam in
Eden, or Nature's Paradife.” Upon the reftoration ol
King Charles II. he was made fecretary to Dr Dup-
pa, biffiop of Winchefter ; but died two years after,
aged 37.
COLE-fish, a fpecies of Gadus. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
COLE-Seed, the feed of the napus fativa, or long-
rooted, narrow-leaved rapa, called in Englifti nuveiO,
and reckoned by Linnaeus among the brafficas, or cab¬
bage kind. See Brassica.
This plant is cultivated to great advantage in many
parts of England, on account of the rape oil exprefled
from its feeds. The pra&ice of fowing it was firft in¬
troduced by the Germans and Dutchmen who drain¬
ed the fens of Lincolnfture j and hence the notion
hath generally prevailed, that it will thrive only in-a
marffiy foil j but this is now found to be a miftake. In
preparing the land which is to receive it, care mull
be taken to plough it in May, and again about mid-
fummer, making the ground as fine and even as pof-
fible. It is to be fown the very day of the laft plough¬
ing, about a gallon on an acre. In the months of Ja¬
nuary, February, and March, it affords very good food
for cattle, and will fprout again when cut 5 after which
it is excellent nouriffiment for ffieep. After all, if it
is not too clofely fed, it will bear feed againft next
July. The fame caution, however, is requifite with
this food as with clover, till cattle are accuftomed to
it, otherwife it is apt to fwell them. When this plant
is cultivated folely with a view to the feed, it muft
be fown on deep ftrong land without dung, and muft
be fuffered to (land till one-half of the feeds at leaft
are turned brown ; which, according to the feafons, will
be fometimes fooner, fometimes later. In this ftate
it is to be cut in the fame manner and with the fame
care as wheat j and every handful as it is cut is to be
regularly ranged on (beets, that it may dry leifurely
in the fun, which will commonly be in a fortnight j
after which it is to be carefully tbrelhed out, and car¬
ried to the mill for expreffing the oil. The produce
of cole-feed is generally from five to eight quarters
on an acre $ and is commonly fold at 20s. per quar¬
ter.
COLEOPTERA, or Beetle, the name of Lin¬
naeus’s firft order of infefts. See Entomology Index.
COLEWORT. See Brassica.
COLERAIN, a large town of Ireland, in the
county of Londonderry and province of Ulfter ; feated
on the river Bann, four miles fouth of the ocean, in
W. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 55. 10. It was formerly a
place of great confideration, being the chief town of a
county ere&ed by Sir John Perrot, during his govern¬
ment of Ireland 5 whereas it is now only the head of
one of the baronies in the county of Londonderry j
but it is ftill a corporation, and fends two members
to parliament. It is of a tolerable fize, and very ele¬
gantly built. The port is very indifferent, occafioned
by the extreme rapidity of the river, which repels the
K k 2 tide,
COL [ 260 ] COL
Golerain tide, and makes the coming up to the town difficult y
II fo that it has but little trade, and might perhaps have
Colct. jefs, if it was not for the valuable falmon-fifhery, which
amounts to fome thoufand pounds a-year. If the na¬
vigation of the Bann could be opened, which is total¬
ly obftrufted by a ridge of rocks, it would quickly
change the face of things j for then, by the help of
this river, and the Newry canal, there would be a di-
reft communication acrofs the kingdom, and, with the
affiflance of the Black-water river, which likewife falls
into Lough Neagh, almoft all the counties of the pro¬
vince of Ulfter might have a correfpondence with each
other by water-carriage, to their reciprocal and very
great emolument.
COLES, Elisha, author of the well known Latin
and Englifli diflionary, was born in Northamptonfhire
about the year 1640 } and was entered of Magdalene
College Oxford, which he left without taking a de¬
gree ; and taught Latin to young people, and Englilh
to foreigners, in London, about the year 1663. He
afterwards became an ufher in Merchant-taylors fchool j
but for fome great fault, nowhere exprefsly mentioned,
be was forced to withdraw to Ireland, whence he never
returned. He -was, however, a good critic in the
Englifh and Latin tongues ; and wrote feveral ufeful
books of inftru£lion in his profefTion.
COLET, John, dean of St Paul’s, the fon of Hen¬
ry Colet, knight, was born in London in the year 1466.
His education began in St Anthony’s fchool in that
city, from whence, in 1483, he was fent to Oxford,
and probably to Magdalene college. After feven years
ftudy of logic and philofophy, he took his degrees in
arts. About the year 1493, Mr Colet went to Paris
and thence to Italy, probably with a dellgn to improve
himfelf-in the Greek and Latin languages, which at
this time were imperfedlly taught in our univerfities.
On his return to England in 1497, he took orders -, and
returned to Oxford, where he read le&ures gratis, on
the epiftles of St Paul. At this time he poffefied the
reflory of St Dennington in Suffolk, to which he had
been inftituted at the age of 19. He was alfo pre¬
bendary of York, and canon of St Martin’s le Grand
in London. In 1502 he became prebendary of Sarum ;
prebendary of St Paul’s in 1505 •, and immediately af¬
ter dean of that cathedral, having previoufly taken
the degree of doftor of divinity. He was no fooner
railed to this dignity, than he introduced the practice
of preaching and expounding the feriptures-, and foon
after eftablilhed a perpetual divinity lefture in St Paul’s
church, three days in every week ; an inftitution which
gradually made way for the reformation. About the
year 1508, Dean Colet formed his plan for the foun¬
dation of St Paul’s fchool, which he completed in 1512,
and endowed with eftates to the amount of 122I. and
upwards. The celebrated grammarian, William Lyle,
was his firfl mafter, and the company of mercers were
appointed truftees. The dean’s notions of religion
were fo much more rational than thofe ef his contem¬
porary priefts, that they deemed him little better than
a heretic j and on that account he was fo frequently
molefted, that he at laft determined to fpend the reft
of his days in peaceful retirement. With this inten-
ti m he built a houfe near the palace of Richmond
but being feized with the fweating ficknefs, he died
In 1519? in the 53d year of his age, .He was buried
on the fouth fide of the choir of St Paul’s; and a c0kt
ftone was laid over his grave, with no other infeription ||
than his name. Befides the preferments above mep- Colifeun*
tioned, he was re&or of the guild of Jefus at St
Paul’s, and chaplain to King Henry VIII. Dean Co-
let, though a Papift, was an enemy to the grofs fuper-
ftitions of the church of Rome. He difapproved auri¬
cular confeflion, the celibacy of the priefts, and fuch
other ridiculous tenets and ceremonies as have ever
been condemned by men of found underftanding in
every age and country. He wrote, 1. Rudimenta
grammatices. 2. The con ft ruction of the eight parts of
i'peech. 3. Daily devotions. 4. EpifioLe ad Era/mum,.
5. Several fermons : and other works which ftill remain
in manufeript.
COL1BERTS (Coliherti'), in Law, were tenants in
foccage, and particularly fuch villeins as were manu¬
mitted or made freemen. But they had not an abfo-
lute freedom ; for though they were better than fer-
vants, yet they had fuperior lords to whom they paid
certain duties, and in that refpe6t might be called fer-
vants, though they were of middle condition between
freemen and fervants.
COLIC, a fevere pain in the lower venter, fo called
becaufe the colon was formerly fuppofed to be the part,
affeded. See Medicine Index.
Colic, in Farriery.. See Farriery Index.
COLIGNI, Gaspard de, admiral of France, was
born in 1516. He fignalized himfelf in his youth, in
the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. and was made
colonel of infantry and admiral of France in i?52.
Henry II. employed him in the moft important affairs;
but after the death of that pnnee, he embraced the
reformed religion, and became the chief of the Prote-
flant party : he ftrongly onpofed the houfe of Guife,
and rendered this oppofttion fo powerful, that it was
thought he would have overturned the French go¬
vernment. On the peace made after the battles of
Jarnac and Montcontour, Charles IX. deluded Coligni
into feciirity by his deceitful favours ; and though he
recovered one attempt on his life, when he attended
the nuptials of the prince of Navarre, yet he was in¬
cluded in the dreadful maffacre of the Proteftants on St
Bartholomew’s day 1572, and his body treated with
wantdn brutality by a mifguxded Popiih populace.
COLIMA, a fea-port town of Mexico in North
America, and capital of a fertile valley of the fame
name. It is feated at the mouth •of a river, in W„
Long, icp, 6. N. Lat. 18. 30.
COLIOURE, a fmall, but ancient and ftrong town
of France, in Roulillon, feated at the foot of the Py¬
renean mountains, with a fmall harbour. E. Long. 3.
10. N. Lat. 43. 24.
COLIR, an officer in China, who may properly be
called an infpe&or, having an eye over what paffes in
every court or tribunal of the empire. In order to
render him impartial, he is kept independent, by
having his poll for life.. The power of the colirs is
fuch, that they make even the princes of the blood
tremble.
COLISEUM, or Coliseum, in the ancient archi-
tefture, an oval amphitheatre, built at Rome by Vef-
pafian, in the place where flood the bafon of Nero’s
gilded houfe. The word is formed from eolofeeum, on
account of the coloffus of Nero that flood near it ;
COL [ 261 ] COL
Coliftmn or» According to NardinI, from the Italian colifeo. In
|| this were placed flatues, reprefenting all the provinces
Collateral, 0f the empire ; in the middle whereof itood that of
Rome, holding a golden apple in her hand. The fame
term, colifeum, is alfo given to another amphitheatre of
the emperor Severus. In thefe colifea were repre-
fented games, and combats of men and wild beads j
but there is now little remaining of either of them,
time and war having reduced them to ruins.
COLLAERT, Adrian, an eminent engraver who
flourilhed about 1550, was born at Antwerp. After
having learned in his own country the firft principles
of engraving, he went to Italy, where he refided fome
time to perfect himfelf in drawing. He wrought en¬
tirely with the graver, in a firm neat ftyle, but rather
Riff and dry. The vaft number of plates executed by
his hand fufficienlly evince the facility with which he
engraved ; and though exceedingly neat, yet they are
feldom highly finifhed.
Collaert, Hans or John, fon to the foregoing,
was alfo an excellent artift. He drew and engraved
exaftly in the Ryle of his father, and was in every
refpedt equal to him in merit. He muft have been
very old when he died ; for his prints are dated from
1 555 to 1622. He aflifted his father in all his great
works, and engraved befides a prodigious number of
plates of various fubjedls. One of his beft prints is
Mofes Jlriking the rock, a large print, lengthwife, from
Lambert Lombard. A great number of fmall figures
are introduced into this print •, and they are admirably
well executed : the heads are fine, and the drawing
very correfl.
COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a fort of chain put
generally round the neck of Raves that had run away,
after they were taken, with an infcription round it, in¬
timating their being deferters, and requiring their be¬
ing reRored to their proper owners, &c.
Collar, in a more modern fenfe, an ornament con¬
fiding of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently fet
with ciphers or other devices, with the badge of the
order hanging at the bottom, were by the knights of
feveral military orders over their (houlders, on the
mantle, and its figure drawn round their armories.
Thus, the collar of the order of the Garter confiRs
of S. S. with rofes enamelled red, within a garter en¬
amelled blue, and the george at the bottom.
Lord Mayor's CoLLAfi is more ufually called chain.
See Chain.
Knights of the COLLAB, a military order in the re¬
public of Venice, called alfo the order of St Mark, or
the Medal. It is the doge and the fenate that confer
this order ; the knights wear no particular habit, only
the collar, which the doge puts around their neck,
with a medal, wherein is reprefented the winged lion
of the republic.
COLLAR of a Draught-horfe, a part of harnefs made
of leather and canvas, and Ruffed with Rraw or wool,
to be put about the horfes neck.
COLLARAGE, a tax or fine laid for the collars
of wine-drawing horfes.
COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, &c.
fituated by the fide of another.
Collateral, in genealogy, thofe relations which
proceed from the fame flock, but not in the fame line
of afeendants or defeendants, but being, as it were, afide
of each other. Thus, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, Collateral
and coufins, are collaterals, or in the lame collateral H
line : thofe in a higher degree, and nearer the common Collation.
root, reprefent a kind of paternity with regard to thofe “’Y"”
more remote. See Consanguinity.
Collateral Succcjfion. When a defunft, for want
of heirs defeended of himfelf, is fucceeded in his eftate
by a brother or fifler, or their defeendants, the eflate
is faid to have gone to collateral heirs?
COLL ATI A, \n Ancient Geography, a town of the
Sabines, thought to be diftant between four and five
miles from Rome to the eaft j fituated on an eminence
(Virgil.) Of this place was Tarquinius Collatinus,
married to Lucretia, ravifhed by Sextus Tarquinius
(Livy) j fituated on this or on the left fide of thejAnio
(Pliny). Extant in Cicero’s time, but in Strabo’s
day only a village ; now no trace of it remains.—An¬
other fuppofed Coliatia of Apulia, near Mount Gar-
ganus, becaufe Pliny mentions the Collatini in Apulia,
and Frontinus the Ager Collatinus.
COLLATINA porta, a gate of Rome, at the
Collis Hortulorum, afterwards called Ptnciana, from
the Pincii, a noble family. Its name Gollatina is from
Coliatia, to the right of which was the Via Collatina,
which led to that town.
COLLINA, a gate of Rome at the Collis Ouiri-
nalis not far from the temple of Venus Erycina (Ovid) j
called alfo Solaria, becaufe the Sabines carried their
fait through it (Tacitus). Now Solar0.
COLLATION, in the canon law, the giving or
bellowing of a benefice on a clergyman by a bifiiop,
who has it in his own gift or patronage. It differs
from inflitution in this, that inflitution is performed
by the biffiop, upon the prefentation of another ; and
collation is his own gift or prefentation •, and it dif¬
fers from a common prefentation, as it is the giving
of the church to the perfon, and prefentation is the
giving or offering of the perfon to the church. But
collation fupplies the place of prefentation and inffi-
tution, and amounts to the fame as inflitution where
the bilhop is both patron and ordinary. Anciently the
right of prefentation to all churches was in the bi-
fhop and now if the patron neglects to prefent to a
church, this right returns to the bilhop by collation.
If the bifhop neglefts to collate within fix months after
the elapfe of the patron, then the archbilhop hath a
right to do it •, and if the archbilhop negle&s, then it
devolves to the king ; the one as fuperior, to fupply
the defedls of bilhops, the other as fupreme, to fupply
all defeats of government.
Collation, in common law, the eomparifon or
prefentation of a copy to its original, to fee whether
or not it be conformable j or the report or a6t of the
officer who made the comparifon. A collated a£l is
equivalent to its original, provided all the parties con¬
cerned were prefent at the collation.
Collation, in Scots that right which an heir
has of throwing the whole heritable and moveable
©Rates of the deceafed into one roafs, and lharing it
equally with the others in the fame degree of kindred,
when he thinks Rich ffiare will be more than the value
of the heritage to which he had an exclufive title.
Collation is alfo ufed among the Romanifts for
the meal or repafl made on a fad day, in lie if'of a (up¬
per. Only fruits are allowed in a collation : F. Lobi-
neau
COL l 262 ] COL
Collation neau obferves, that anciently there was not allovyed
11 even bread in the collations in Lent, nor any thing
^Collector, befides a few comfits and dried herbs and fruits ; which
cuftom, he adds, obtained till the year 1513. _ Cardi¬
nal Humbert obferves farther, that in the middle of
the nth century there were no collations at all allow¬
ed in the Latin church in the lime of Lent ; and
that the cuftom of collations was borrowed from the
Greeks, who themfelves did not take it up till about
the nth century.
Collation is alfo popularly ufed for a repaft be¬
tween meals, particularly between dinner and fupper.
The word collation, in this fenfe, Du Cange derives
from collocutio, “ conference,” and maintains, that ori¬
ginally collation was only a conference, or converlation
on fubje&s of piety, held on faft days in monafteries ;
but that, by degrees, the cuftom was introduced of
bringing in a few refrefhments •, and that by the ex-
ceffes to which thofe fober repafts were at length car¬
ried, the name of the abufe was retained, but that of
the thing loft.
COLL ATION of Seals, denotes one feal feton the fame
abel, on the reverfe of another.
COLLEAGUE, a partner or aflbciate in the fame
office or magiftrature. See ADJUNCT.
COLLECT, Collection, a voluntary gathering
of money, for fome pious or charitable purpofe. Some
fay, the name colled, or colletlion, was ufed, by rea
fon thofe gatherings were anciently made on the days
of coile&s, and in colle&s, i. e. in aflemblies of Chrifti-
ans; but, more probably, quia colligebatur pecunia.
Collect, is fometimes alfo ufed for a tax, or impo-
fition, raifed by a prince for any pious defign. Thus,
hiftories fay, that in 1166, the king of England com¬
ing into Normandy appointed a colledl for the relief
of the holy land, at the defire and after the example of
the king of France. See Croisade.
Collect, in the liturgy of the church of England,
and the mafs of the Romanifts, denotes a prayer accom¬
modated to any particular day, occafion, or the like,
See Liturgy and Mass.
In the general, all the prayers in each office are
called co lie Els; either becaufe the prieft fpeaks in the
name of the whole affembly, whofe fentiments and de¬
fires he fums up by the word oremus, “ let us pray,”
as is obferved by Pope Innocent III. or, becaufe thofe
prayers are offered when the people are affembled to¬
gether, which is the opinion of Pamelius on Tertul-
lian.
The congregation itfelf is in fome ancient authors
called colleEl, The popes Gelafius and Gregory are
faid to have been the firft whoeftabliffied collects. De-
fpence, a doftor of the faculty of Paris, has an exprefs
treatife on colleEls, their origin, antiquity, authors,
&c.
COLLECTIVE, among grammarians, a term ap¬
plied to a noun expreffing a multitude, though itfelf
be only Angular ; as an army, company, troop, &c. cal¬
led colleEiive nouns.
COLLECTOR, in general, denotes a perfon who
gets or brings together things formerly difperfed and
feparated. Hence,
Collector, in ma er- of civi1 polity, is a perfon
appointed by the commiffioners of any duty, the inha¬
bitants of a pariffi, &c. to raife or gather any kind of Colledlor
tax. |1
Collector, among botanifts, one who gets toge- College,
ther as many plants as he can, without ftudying botany 'r~''
in a fcientifical manner.
COLLEGATORY, in the Civil Law, a perfon
who has a legacy left him in common with one or more
other perfons.
COLLEGE, an affemblage of feveral bodies or fo-
cieties, or of feveral perfons into one fociety.
College, among the Romans, ferved indifferently
for thofe employed in the offices of religion, of go¬
vernment, the liberal and even mechanical arts and
trades j fo that, with them, the word fignified what we
call a corporation or company.
In the Roman empire, there were not only the col¬
lege of augurs, and the college of capitolini, i. e. of thofe
who had the fuperintendance of the capitoline games j
but alfo colleges of artificers, collegium artifcum.; col¬
lege of carpenters,or fabrorum tignariorum ;
of potters, fgulorutn; of founders, cerariorum; the
college of lockfmiths, fabrorum ferrariorum ; of engi¬
neers of the army, tignariorum; of butchers, lanio-
rum ; of dendrophori, dendrophororum ; of centenaries,
centonariorum ; of makers of military cafques, y^arz-
orum; of tent-makers, tabernaculariorum; of bakers,
piforum ; of muficians, tibicinum, &c. Plutarch ob¬
ferves, that it was Numa who firft divided the people
into colleges, which he did to the end that each con-
fulting the interefts of their colleges, whereby they
were divided from the citizens of the other colleges,
they might not enter into any general confpiracy a-
gainft the public repofe.
Each of thefe colleges had diftintR meeting places or
halls j and likewife, in imitation of the ftate, a trea-
fury and common cheft, a regifter, and one to repre-
fent them, upon public occafions, and a£ts of govern¬
ment. Thefe colleges had the privilege of manumit¬
ting Haves, of being legates, and making by-laws for
their own body, provided they did not claffi with thofe
of the government*
There are various colleges on foot among the mo¬
derns, founded on the model of thofe of the ancients.
Such are the three colleges of the empire, viz.
COLLEGE of KleBors, or their Deputies, affembled in
the diet of Ratifbon.
COLLEGE of Princes; the body of princes, or their
deputies at the diet of Ratifbon.
COLLEGE of Cities, is, in like manner, the body of
deputies which the imperial cities fend to the diet.
COLLEGE of Cardinals, or the Sacred COLLEGE; a
body compofed of the three orders of cardinals. See
Cardinals.
College, is alfo ufed for a public place endowed
with certain revenues, where the feveral parts of learn¬
ing are taught.
An affemblage of feveral of thefe colleges confti-
tutes an univerfity. The ere&ion of colleges is part of
the royal prerogative, and not to be done without the
king’s licenfe.
The eftabliffiment of colleges or univerfities is a
remarkable period in literary hiftory. The fchools
in cathedrals and monafteries confined themfelves
chiefly to the teaching of grammar. There were on¬
ly
I
COL [ 263 ] COL
Jolfege. Iy one or two matters employed in that office. But,
■ v " 1 jn colleges, pro£effors are appointed to teach all the
different parts of fcience. The firft obfcure mention
of academical degrees in the univerfity of Paris (from
which the other univerfitjes in Europe have borrowed
moft of their cuftoms and inftitutions), occurs A. D.
121$.
COLLEGE of Civilians, commonly called DoEiors Com¬
mons ; a college founded by Dr Harvey, dean of the
arches, for the profeffors of the civil law refiding in
London *, where ufually, likewife, refide the judge of
the arches court of Canterbury, judge of the admi¬
ralty, of the prerogative court, &c. with other civi¬
lians j who all live, as to diet and lodging, in a col-
| legiate manner, commoning together ; whence, the ap¬
pellation of DoEiors Commons. Their houfe being
confumed in the great fire, they all refided at Exeter-
houfe in the Strand till 1672 j when their former houfe
was rebuilt, at their own expence, in a very fplendid
manner. To this college belong 34 proftors, who
I make themfelves parties for their clients, manage their
caufes, &c.
COLLEGE of Physicians, a corporation of phyficians
in London, who, by feveral charters and a£ts of par¬
liament of Henry VIII. and his fueceffors, have cer¬
tain privileges, whereby no man, though a graduate
in phyfic of any univerfity, may, without licenfe, un¬
der the faid college-feal, pra&ife phyfic in or within
feven miles of Londonwith power to adminifter
oaths, fine and imprifon offenders in that and feveral
other particulars 5 to fearch the apothecaries (hops, &c.
in and about London, to fee if their drugs, &c. be
Iwholefome, and their compofitions according to the
form prefcribed by the faid college in their difpenfa-
tory. By the faid charter they are alfo freed from all
troublefome offices, as to ferve on juries, be conftable,
keep watch, provide arms, &c.
The fociety had anciently a college in Knight-rider-,
ftreet, the gift of Dr Linacre, phyfician to King Hen¬
ry VIII. Since that time they have had a houfe built
them by the famous Dr Harvey, in 1652, at the end
of Amen-corner, which he endowed with his whole in¬
heritance in his lifetime j but this being burnt in the
great fire in 1666, a new one was erefted at the ex¬
pence of the fellows, in War wick-lane, with a noble
library, given partly by the marquis of Dorchefter,
and partly by Sir Theodore Mayerne.
Of this college there are at prefent a prefident, four
cenfors, eight electors, a regifter, and a treafurer chp-
fen annually in Odtober ; the cenfors have, by charter,
power to furvey, govern, and arreft, all phyficians, or
others praftifing phyfic, in or within feven miles of
London, and to fine, amerce, and imprifon them, at
difcretion. The number of fellows was anciently thir¬
ty, till King Charles II. increafed their number to
forty j and King James II. giving them a new charter,
allowed the number of fellows to be enlarged fo as not
to exceed fourfcore ; referving to himfelf and fuccef-
fors the power of placing and difplacing any of them
for the future.
The college is not very rigorous in afferting their
privileges $ there being a great number of phyficians,
fame of very good abilities, who pradlife in London,
&c. without their licenfe, and are connived at by the
college 5 yet, by law, if any perfon not exprefsly al¬
lowed to pradlife, take on him the cure of any difeafe, College,
and the patient die under his hand, it is deemed felo- -v——
ny in the pradliler. In 1696, the college made a fub-
fcription, to the number of forty-two of their mem¬
bers, to fet on foot a difpenfatory for the relief of the
fick poor: fince that they have eredted two other dif-
penfatories.
Edinburgh COLLEGE of Physicians was eredted on the
26th November 1681. The defign of this inftitution
was, to prevent the abufes daily committed by foreign
and illiterate impoftors, quacks, &c. For this reafon,
his majefty, at the time above mentioned, granted let¬
ters patent to eredl into a body corporate and politic,
certain phyficians in Edinburgh and their fucceffors,
by the title of “ the Prefident and Royal College of
Phyficians at Edinburgh,” with power to choofe an¬
nually a council of feven, on© whereof to be prefident:
thefe are to eledt a treafurer, clerk, and other officers $
to have a common feal $ to fue and be fued 5 to make
laws for promoting the art of phyfic, and regulating
the pradlice thereof within the city of Edinburgh,
town of Leith, and diftridts of the Canongate, Weft-
port, Pleafance, and Potterrow : through all which
the jurifdidtion of the college extends. Throughout
this jurifdidlion, no perfon is allowed to pradtife phy¬
fic, without a warrant from the college, under the pe¬
nalty of 5I. fterling the firft month, to be doubled
monthly afterwards while the offence is continued j
one-half the money arifing from fuch fines to go to
the poor, the other to the ufe of the college. They are
alfo empowered to punifti all licentiates in phyfic with¬
in the above-mentioned bounds, for faults committed
againft the inftitutions of the college j and to fine them
of fums not exceeding 40s. On luch occafions, how¬
ever, they muft have one of the bailies of the city to
fit in judgment along with them, otherwife their feir-
tence will not be valid. They are alfo empowered to
fearch and infpedt all medicines within their jurifdic-
tion, and throw out into the ftreet all fuch as are bad
or unwholefome. That they may the better attend
their patients, they are exempted from watching,
warding, and ferving on juries. They are, however,
reftrained from eredting fchools for teaching the art of
phyfic, or conferring degrees on any perfon qualified
for the office of a phyfician j but are obliged to licenfe
all fueh as have taken their degrees in any other uni¬
verfity, and to admit as honorary members all the pro¬
feffors of phyfic in the reft of the univerfities of Scotland.
Thefe privileges and immunities are not, however, to
interfere with the rights and privileges of the apothe-
cary-furgeons, in their pradtice of curing wounds, con-
tufions, fradlures, and other external operations.
Edinburgh COLLEGE of Surgeons. This is but a
very late inftitution, by which the furgeons of Edin¬
burgh are incorporated into a Royal College, and au¬
thorized to carry into execution a fcheme for making
provifion for their widows and children, &c. They
have alfo the privilege of examining and licenfing, if
found qualified, all pradlitioners in furgery within cer¬
tain bounds.
COLLEGE of Jufiice, the fupreme civil court of Scot¬
land ; otherwife called Court of SeJJion, or of Council and
Se/Jion. See Law Index.
Sion COLLEGE, or the college of the London clergy,
which has been a religious houfe time out of mind,
fometimes
COL [ 264 ] COL
"College, fo me times under the denomination of a priory, fome-
Y times under that of a fpital or hofpital : at its diflolu-
tion under 31ft Henry VIII. it was called Elfon's S/>i-
tnlt from the name of its founder, a mercer, in 1329.
At prefent it is a compofition of both, viz. a college
for the clergy of London, who were incorporated in
1630, in purfuance to the will of Dr White, under
the name of the Prejtdcnt and Fel/olus of Sion College ;
and an hofpital for ten poor men and as many wo¬
men. The officers of the corporation are the preir-
dent, two deans, and four affittants, who are annually
chdfen from among the reftors and vicars of London ;
and are fubjedl to the vifitation of the biihop. They
have a good library, built and flocked by Mr Simpfun,
-and furniffied by feveral other benefaftors, chiefly for
the clergy of the city, without excluding other ftudents
on certain terms j and a hall, with chambers for ftu¬
dents, generally occupied by the minifters of the
neighbouring pariffies.
Gref mm COLLEGE, or COLLEGE of Philofophy ; a
college founded by Sir Thomas Grefham, and endowed
with the revenue of the Royal Exchange. One moiety
of this endowment the founder bequeathed to the
mayor and aldermen of London and their fucceflors,
in truft, that they fhould find four able perfons to read
within the college, divinity, geometry, aftronomy, and
mufic ; who are chofen by a committee of the common
council, confiding of the lord mayor, three aldermen,
and eight commoners, and allowed each, befides lodg-
ing, 50I. per annum. The other moiety he left to
the company of mercers, to find three more able per¬
fons, ehofen by a committee of that company, confift-
ing of the mafter and three wardens, during their of¬
fice, and eight of the court of affiftants, to read law,
phyfic, and rhetoric, on the fame terms j with this li¬
mitation, that the feveral lefturers ffiould read in term-
time, every day in the week, except Sundays j in the
morning in Latin, in the afternoon the fame in Eng-
lifh j but that in mufic to be read only in Englifh.
By 8th Geo. III. cap. 32. the building appropriated
to this college was taken down, and the excife office
erefted in its room. Each of the profeflors is allowed
50I. per annum, in lieu of the apartments, &c. relin-
quilhed by them in the college, and is permitted to
marry, notwithftanding the reftriftion of Sir Thomas
Grefliam’s will. The le&ures are now read in a room
over the Royal Exchange and the city and mercer’s
company are required to provide a proper place for this
purpofe.
In this college formerly met the Royal Society, that
noble academy, inftituted by King Charles II. and ce¬
lebrated throughout the world for their improvements
in natural knowledge. See their hiftory and policy
under Society.
College de Propaganda Fide, was founded at Rome
in 1622 by Gregory XV. and enriched with ample re¬
venues. It confifts of thirteen cardinals, two priefts,
and a fecretary ; and was defigned for the propagation
and maintenance of the Romilh religion in all parts of
the world. The funds of this college have been very
confiderably augmented by Urban VIII. and many
private donations. Miffionaries are fupplied by this
inftitution, together with a variety of books fuited to
their feveral appointments. Seminaries for their in-
ftrudtion are fupported by it, and a number of charita- Collet
ble eftablifirments connected with and conducive to the ||
main objedl of its inftitution. Collegiate.
Another college of the fame denomination was efta-*-
bliftied by Urban VIII. in 1627, in conftquence of the
liberality of John Baptift Viles, a Spaniih nobleman.
This is fet apart for the inftrudtion of thofe who are
defigned for the foreign miffions. It was at firft com¬
mitted to the care of three canons of the patriarchal
churches; but ever fince the year 1641 it is under the
fame government with the former inftitution.
COLLEGE of Heralds, commonly called the Herald's
Office; a corporation founded by charter of King
Richard III. who granted them feveral privileges, as
to be free from fubfidies, tolls, offices, &c. They had
a fecond charter from King Henry VI. ; and a houfe
built near Doctors Commons, by the earl of Derby, in
the reign of King Henry VII. was given them by the
duke of Norfolk, in the reign of Queen Mary, which
houfe is now rebuilt.
This college is fubordinate to the earl marlhal of
England. They are affiftants to him in his court of
chivalry, ufually held in the common hall of the col-
lege, where they fit in their rich coats of his majef-
ty’s arms. See Herald.
College of Heralds in Scotland, confifts of Lyon
king at arms, fix heralds, and fix purfuivants, and a
number of meffengers. See Lyon.
COLLEGIANS, Collegiani, Collegiants, a
religious fedt formed among the Arminians and Ana-
baptifts in Holland, about the beginning of the feven-
teenth century ; fo called becaufe of their colleges, or
meetings, twice every week, where every one, females
excepted, has the fame liberty of expounding the
Scripture, praying, &c. They are faid to be all ei¬
ther Arians or Socinians; they never communicate in
the college, but meet twice a-year from all parts of
Holland at Rhinffiergh, whence they are alfo called
Rhinfberghers, a village two miles from Leyden, where
they communicate together ; admitting every one that
prefents himfelf, profeffing his faith in the divinity of
the Holy Scriptures, and refolution to live fuitably to
their precepts and dodlrines, without regard to his fed!
or opinion. They have no particular minifters, but
each officiates as he is difpufed. They never baptize
without dipping.
COLLEGIikTE, or Collegial, churches, are
tbofe which have no bifhop’s fee, yet have the ancient
retinue of the bifhop, the canons and prebends. Such
are Weftminfter, Rippon, Windfor, Stc. governed by
deans and chapters.
Of thefe collegiate churches there are two kinds ;
fome of royal, and others of ecclefiaftical foundation ;
each of them, in matters of divine fervice, regulated
in the fame manner as the cathedrals. There are
even fome collegiate churches that have the epifcopal
rights. Some of thefe churches were anciently abbeys,
which in time were fecularized. The church of St
Peter’s, Weftminfter, was anciently a cathedral ; but
the revenues of the monaftery being by aft of parlia¬
ment, I Elizabeth, veiled in the dean and chapter,
it commenced a collegiate church. In feveral caufes
the ftyling it cathedral, inftead of collegiate church of
Weftminfter, has occafioned error in the pleadings.
COLLET,
COL [ 265 ] COL
,0i]et COLLET, among jewellers, denotes the horizontal
|| face or plane at the bottom of brilliants. See BriL-
Jollms. liakt.
CoRLET, in glafs-making, is that part of glafs vef-
fels which (licks to the iron inffrument whferevvith the
metal was taken out of the melting-pot s thefe are af¬
terwards ufed for making green glafs.
COLLETICS, in Pharmacy, denotes much the
fame with Agglutinants or Vulneraries.
COLLIER, JerEmy, a learned EngliiTi nonjuring
divine, born in 1650, and educated in Caius college
Cambridge. He had firft the fmall reflory of Amp-
ton near St Edmund’s Bury in Suffolk, which in fix
years he refigned, to come to London, in 1685,
where he was made leiflurer of Gray’s Inn 5 but the
change of government that followed, foon rendered
the public exercife of his fundlion impraflicable. He
was committed to Newgate for writing againft the
revolution ; and again, for carrying on a correfpon-
dence which that change of events made treafonable ;
but was releafed both times, without trial, by the in¬
tervention of friends. It is obfervable that he carried
his fcruples fo far, as to prefer confinement to the ta¬
cit acknowledgment of the jurifdi&ion of the court by
accepting his liberty upon bail. Suitable to thefe
principles, he next a£fed a very extraordinary part
with two other clergymen of his own way of think¬
ing, at the execution of Sir John Friend and Sir Wil¬
liam Perkins for the affaflination plot; by giving them
folemn abfolution, and by impofition of hands. Ab-
fconding for which, he continued under an outlawry
to the day of his death in 1726. Thefe proceedings
having put a flop to his activity, he employed his re¬
tired hours rather more ufefully in literary worksi
In 1698, he attempted to reform our theatrical enter¬
tainments, by publifhing his “ Short view of the im¬
morality and profanenefs of the Englifh flage,” which
engaged him in a controverfy with the wits of the time }
but as Mr Collier defended his cenfures not only with
wit, but with learning and reafon, it is allowed that
the decorum obferved, for the mofl part, by fucceed*
ing dramatic writers, has been owing to his animad-
verfions. He next undertook a tranflation of Mor-
reri’s great Hiftorical and Geographical I)i6lionary j
a work of extraordinary labour, and which appeared
in 4 vols. folio. After this he publifhed “ An Eccle-
fiaflical Hi (lory of Great Britain, chiefly of England,”
in 2 vols. folio ; which is allowed to be written with
great judgment, and even with impartiality. He was
befides engaged in feveral controverfies, which his
conduct and Writings gave rife to, not material to men¬
tion. In Queen Anrte’s reign, Mr Collier was tempt¬
ed, by offers of confiderable preferment, to a fubmif-
fion ; but as he was a nonjuror upon principle, he could
not be brought to liffen to any terms.
Collier, or C6allier. See Coallier.
COLLIERY, Coalery, or Coalliery. See
Coaler y.
COLLINS, Anthony, a polemical writer, born
at Heflen near Hounflow in the county of Middlefex
in 1676, was the fon of Henry Collins, a gentleman
of about 1500I. a-year. He was firft bred at Eton
college, and then went to King’s-college Cambridge,
where he had for his tutor Mr Francis Flare, after¬
wards bifhop of Chichefter. He was afterwards a
Vol. VI. Part I.
ftudent of the Temple j but not relifhing the law, Collins,
foon abandoned that ftudy. He was an ingenious ——y—
man, and author of feveral curious books. His tirft
remarkable piece was publifhed in ** Lflay
concerning the ufe of reafon in propofitions, the evi?
dence whereof depends on human teftimony.” In
1702, he entered into the controverfy between Mr
Clark and Dr Dodwell, concerning the immortality
of the foul. In 1713, he publifhed his difcourfe on
free-thinking, which made a prodigious noife. In
1725, he retired into the county of Effex, and afted
as a juftice of peace and deputy lieutenant for the
fame county, as he had done before for that of Mid¬
dlefex and liberty of Wtfiminfler. The fame year,
he publifhed a “ Philofophical Effay concerning hu¬
man liberty.” In 1718, he was chofen treafurer of
the county of Effex ; and this office he difcharged
with great honour* In 1724, he publifhed his “ Hi-
ftorical and critical Effay on the 39 Articles.” Soon
after, he publifhed his “ Difeourfe of the Grounds and
reafons of the Chriftian religion $” to which is prefix¬
ed, “ An Apology for free debate and liberiy of
writing 5 which piece was immediately attacked by
a great number of authors. In 1726 appeared his
“ Scheme ofliterary prophecy confidered, in a view of
the controverfy occafioned by a late book entitled, A
difcourfe of the grounds,” &c. In this difcourfe he
mentions a MS. differtation of his, to fhovv the Sibyl¬
line oracles to be a forgery made in the times of the
primitive Chriftians, who, for that reafon, were call¬
ed Siby'/jis by the Pagans 5 but it never appeared in
print. His Scheme of literary Prophecy was replied to
by feveral writers and particularly by Dr John Ro¬
gers, in his “ Neceflity of divine revelation aflerted.”
In anfwer to which our author wrote, “ A letter to the
Reverend Dr Rogers, on occafion,” &c. His health
began to decline fiime years before his death, and he
was Very much afflicted with the ftohe, which at laft
put an end to his life at his houfe in Harley fquare in
1729. He was interred in Oxford chapel, where a
monument was ere£led to him, with an epitaph in La¬
tin. His curious library was open to all men of letters,
to whom he readily communicated all the affiftance in
his power he even furnifhed his antagonifts with
books to confute himfelf, and dire&ed them how to give
their arguments all the force of which they were capa¬
ble. He was remarkably averfe to all indecency and
obfcenity of difcourfe *, and was, independent of his
fcepticifm, a fincerely good man.
Collins, John, an eminent accountant and mathe¬
matician, born in 1624, and bred a bookfeller at Ox¬
ford. Befides feveral treatifes on practical fubje&s,
he communicated fome curious papers to the Royal So-
cietv, of which he was a member, which are to be
found in the early numbers of the Philofophical Tranf-
a&ions : and was the chief promoter of many other
fcientifical publications in his time. He died in 1683 ;
and about 25 years after, all his papers coming into the
hands of the learned William Jones, Efq. F. R. S. it
appeared that Mr Collins held a conftant correfpond-
ence for many years with all the eminent mathemati¬
cians •, and that many of the late difcoveries in phyfical
knowledge, if not aftually made by him, were yet
brought forth by his endeavours.
Collins, William, an admirable poet, was born
1*1
COL £ 266 ] COL
Collins, at Chichfcfter, about the year 1724. He received his
~ clafiical education at Winchefter, after tv Inch he flu-
died at New college in Oxford, was admitted a com¬
moner of King’s college in the fame univerlity, and
was at length defied a demy of Magdalene college.
While at Oxford, he applied himfelf to the lludy of
poetry, and publilhed his Oriental Eclogues-, after
which he came to London. He was naturally pof-
feffed of an ear for all the varieties of harmony and
modulation $ his heart was fufceptible of the fineft
feelings of tendernefs and humanity, and was particu¬
larly carried away by that high enthufiafm which gives
to imagination its ftrongeft colouring; and he was at
once capable of foothing the ear with the melody of
his numbers, of influencing the paflions by the force
of the pathos, and of gratifying the fancy by the luxu-
* ry of defcription. With thefe powers, he attempted
lyric poetry j and in 1746, publiihed his Odes, de-
fcriptive and allegorical; but the fale of this work be¬
ing not at all anfvverable to its merit, he burnt the
remaining copies in indignation. Being a man of
a liberal fpirit and a fmall fortune, his pecuniary re-
fources were unhappily foon exhaufted ; and his life
became a miferable example of neceflity, indolence,
and diflipation. He projected books which he was
well able to execute ; and became in idea an hiftorian,
a critic, and a dramatic poet j but wanted the means
and encouragement to carry thefe ideas into- execu¬
tion. Day fucceeded day, for the fupport of which
he had made no provifion ; and he was obliged to fub-
fift, either by the repeated contributions of a friend
or the generofity of a cafual acquaintance. His fpi-
rits became oppreffed, and he funk into a fullen de-
fpondence. While in this gloomy Hate of mind, his
uncle Colonel Martin died, and left him a confiderable
fortune. But this came too late for enjoyment 5 he
had been fo long baraffed by anxiety and diftrefs that
he fell into a nervous diforder, which at length re¬
duced the fineft un'derftanding to the moft deplorable
childifhnefs. in the firft ftages of this diforder he en¬
deavoured to relieve himfelf by travelling, and pafled
into France j but the growing malady obliged him to
return and having continued, with ftiort intervals, in
this pitiable ftate till the year 1756, he died in the
arms of his After.
The following chara&er of the poetry of Collins is
drawn by Mrs Barbauld, and is extra&ed from an
eflay prefixed to an edition of his works publiftied in
1797. “ He will be acknowledged to pofiefs imagi¬
nation, fweetnefs, bold and figurative language. His
numbers dwell on the ear, and eafily fix themfelves in
the memory. His vein of fentiment is by turns ten¬
der and lofty, always tinged with a degree of melan¬
choly, but not poflefling any claim to originality. His
originality confifts in his manner, in the highly figu¬
rative garb in which he clothes abftraft ideas, in the
felicity of his expreflions, and his Ikill in embodying
ideal creations. He had much of the myfticifm of
poetry, and fometimes- became obfcure, by aiming at
impreffions ftronger than he had clear and well-de¬
fined ideas to fupport. Had his life been prolonged,
and with life had he enjoyed that eafe which is necef-
fary for the undifturbed exercife of the faculties, he
would probably have rifen far above moft of his contem¬
poraries’.’
COLLINSON, Peter, an eminent naturalift and Coll:nfo«
antiquarian, defcended ol an ancient family, was born , j
on the paternal eftate called Hugo/ Hal/> or Height of
Hugo!, near Windermere lake, in the parilh of Stavely,.
about ten miles from Kendal in Weftmoreland. Whilft
a youth, he difcovered his attachment to natural hiftory..
He began early to make a collection of dried fpeci-
mens of plants, and had accefs to the beft gardens at
that time in the neighbourhood of London. He be¬
came early acquainted with the moft eminent natural-
ifts of his time j the Drs Derham, Woodward, Hale,
Lloyd, and Sloane, were amongft his friends. Among
the great variety of articles which form that luperb
collection, now (by the wife difpofition of Sir Hans
and the munificence of parliament) the Britifti Mu—
feum, fmall was the number of thofe with whofe hi¬
ftory Mr Collinfon was not well acquainted $ he being
one of thofe few who vifited Sir Hans at all times fa¬
miliarly j their inclinations and purfuits in refpeCl to
natural hiftory being the lame, a firm friendlhip had
early been eftabliflied between them. Peter Collin¬
fon was eleCted a fellow of the Boyal Society on the
12th ol December 1728 ; and perhaps was one of ths
moft diligent and ufeful members, not only in fupply-
ing them with many curious obfervations himfelf, but
in promoting and preferving a moft extenfive corre-
fpondence with learned and ingenious foreigners in all
countries and on every ufeful fubjeCl. Befides his at¬
tention to natural hiftory, he minuted every ftriking
hint that occurred either in reading or converfation j,
and from this fource he derived much information, as
there were very few men of learning and ingenuity
who were not of his acquaintance at home j and molt
foreigners of eminence in natural hiftory, or in arts and
feiences, were recommended to his notice and friend¬
lhip. His diligence and economy of time were fuch,
that though he never appeared to be in a hurry, he
maintained an extenfive correfpondence with great
punCluality j acquainting the learned and ingenious in,
diftant parts of the globe with the difcoveries and im¬
provements in natural hiftory in this country, and re¬
ceiving the like information from the moft eminent
perfons in almoft every other. His correfpondence
with the ingenious Cadwallader Golden, Efq. of New-
York, and the juftly celebrated Dr Franklin of Phila¬
delphia, furnilh inftances of the benefit refulting fiorn
his attention to all improvements. The latter of thefe
gentlemen communicated his firft elfays on electricity
to Mr Collinfon, in a feries of letters, which were then
publilhed, and have been reprinted in a late edition of
the DoClor’s ingenious dilcoveries and improvements.
Perhaps, in fome future period, the account procured
of the management of ftieep in Spain, publilhed in the
Gentleman’s Magazine for May and June 1764, may
not be confidered among the leaft of the benefits ac¬
cruing from his extenfive and inquifitive correfpon¬
dence. His converfation, cheerful and ufefully enter¬
taining, rendered his acquaintance much defired by
thofe who had a relilh for natural hiftory, or were ftu-
dious in cultivating rural improvements j and fecured
him the intimate friendlhip of fome of the moft emi¬
nent perfonages in this kingdom, as diftinguilhed by
their tafte in planting and horticulture, as by their rank,
and dignity. He was the firft who introduced the
great variety of feeds and Ihrubs which are now the
principal
COL [ 267 ] CO L
ollinfon principal ornaments of every garden ; and it was ow-
II ing to his indefatigable induftry, that fo many perfons
ollybus. 0£ diftindlion are now enabled to behold groves
tranfplanted from the weftern continent flourifhing as
luxuriantly in their feveral domains as if they were
already become indigenous to Britain. He had fome
correfpondents in almotl every nation in Europe, fome
in Afia, and even at Pekin ; who all tranfmitted to
him the moft valuable feeds they could colleft, in re¬
turn for the treafures of America. The great Lin¬
naeus, during his refidence in England, contradled an
intimate friendlhip with Mr Callinfon, which was re¬
ciprocally increafed by a multitude of good offices, and
continued to the laft. Befides his attachment to na¬
tural hiftory, he was very converfant in the antiquities
of our own country, having been elefted a member of
the Society of Antiquaries April 7. 1737} and he
fupplied them often with many curious articles of in¬
telligence and obfervation, refpe&ing both our own
and other countries. He died in 1768, leaving be¬
hind him many materials for the improvement of na¬
tural hifforv.
COLLINSONIA. See Botany Index.
COLLIQU AMENTUM, in Natural an
extreme tranfparent fluid in an egg, obfervable after
two or three days incubation, containing the firft ru¬
diments of the chick. It is included in one of its own
proper membranes, diflinft from the albumen. Har¬
vey calls it the oculus.
COLLIQJJATION, in Chemijlry, is applied to
animal, vegetable, and mineral fubftances, tending to-
wards fuflon. See Fusion.
CoLLIQU AT I ON, in Pliijjic, a term applied to the
blood, when it lofes its crafis or balfamlc texture ; and
to the folid parts, when they wafte away by means of
the animal fluids flowing off through the feveral glands,
and particularly thofe of the flein, fafter than they
ought ; which occafions fluxes of many kinds, but
moftly profufe, greafy, and clammy fweats.
COLLIQUATIVE FEVER, in Phy/ic, a fever at¬
tended with a diarrhoea, or with profufe fweats.
COLLISION, the ftriking of one hard body
againfl another *, or the friclion or percuflion of bodies
moving violently with different diredlions, and dafhing
againft each other, as flint and fteel.
COLLUM, the fame with Neck.
COLLUSION, in Law, a fecret underftanding
between two parties, who plead or proceed fraudulently
againft each, to the prejudice of a third perfon.
COLLUTHIANS, a religions feft who rofe about
the beginning of the fourth century, on occafion of
the indulgence fhown to Arius by Alexander, patriarch
of Alexandria. Several people being fcandahzed at
fo much condefcenfion; and, among the reft, Colluthus,
a prieft of the fame city, he hence took a pretence for
holding feparate aflemblies, and by degrees proceeded
to the ordination of priefts, as if he had been a bifhop,
pretending a neceflity for this authority in order to op-
pofe Arius. To his fchifm he added herefy, teaching,
that God did not create the wicked •, that he was not
author of the evils that befal men, &c. He was con¬
demned by a council held at Alexandria by Ofius, in
the year 330.
COLLYBUS (RoAXvSo*), in antiquity, the fame
with what is now called the rate of exchange*
ftl
COLLYR^E, or Collyrides, in antiquity, a cer- Collyres
tain ornament of hair, worn by the women on tiieir jl
necks. It was made up in the form of the fmall ^0~inan*
roundifh cakes called eollyree. v
COLLYRIDIANS, in church hiftory, a feft, to¬
wards the clofe of the 4th century, denominated from
a little cake, called by the Greeks collyridiar
which they offered to the Virgin Maty.
This fe£I, it feems, confifted chiefly of Arabian
women, who out of an extravagance of devotion to
the Virgin, met on a certain day in the year, to cele¬
brate a folemn feaft, and to render divine honours to
Mary as to a goddefs, eating the cake which they
offered in her name. St Epiphanius, who relates the
hiftory of this fuperftitious ceremony, ridicules it.
They fprung up in oppofition to the Antidico-Ma-
rianites.
COLLYRIUM, in Pharmacy, a topical remedy for
a diforder of the eyes, defigned to cool and repel hot
fliarp humours.
COLMAN, George, a mifcellaneous and theatri¬
cal writer, was born at Florence about the year 1733.
He was the fon of Mr Colman, at that time Britilh
refident at the court of the duke of Tufcany, and of
a filter of the countefs of Bath. He received the early
part of his education at Weftminfter fchool, where
Lloyd, Churchill, Bonnel, Thornton, and fome others
who became afterwards diftingniflied literary chara£ters,
were among his intimate companions. While at fenool
he appeared in the character of a' poet, having addrefled
a copy of verfes to his coufin Lord Pulteney, which
were afterwards publifhed in the magazine of St James.
He was next fent to Chrift Church College, Oxford,
where he gave many proofs of his lively genius, unit¬
ing with Thornton in producing a weekly periodical
paper, entitled the “ Connoiffeuf,” which was con¬
tinued from January 1754, to September 1756, and
afterwards publifhed in 4 vols. I 2mo. Although this
work met not with an equal fhare of approbation with
the World, the Adventurer, and the Rambler, which
made their appearance much about the fame time, yet
it may with juftice be affirmed, that fome papers of it
are fuperior to any which thefe performances contain,
for a ludicrous delineation of the current manners,
which has always been confidered as an effential de¬
partment of every periodical work. When Mr Col¬
man took the degree of A. M. he left the college and
refided in London. He entered at Lincoln’s Inn, and
in proper time was admitted to the bar j but literary
purfuits were much more confonant to the bent of his
genius. He publithed in 1760 a dramatic piece of
great humour, called Polly Honeycombe, which vvasfuc-
cefsfully afled in Drury-Lane •, and the following year
he gave the world his comedy of the Jealous Wife,
deemed the beft which had for many years appeared.
By the demife of Lord Bath he came to the poffeffion
of a handfome fortune, and it was farther augmented,
by the death of General Pulteney, in 1767. He flill
continued to write for the ftage, and produced, along
with Garrick, that excellent comedy called the Clan-
deftine Marriage. He alfo tranflated the comedies of
Terence into a kind of blank verfe, which gained him
confiderable applaufe.
He foon after this made a purchafe of Haymarket
theatre from Mr Samuel Foote, which he fupplied with
L 1 2 pieces
COL [ 268 ] COL
Colman pieces either original or tranflations, and felefted the
|| ablofl: aclors, particularly in comedy. To a tranflation
^'olo^ne' he made of Horace’s Art of Poetry, he prefixed an
ingenious account of the intention ol its author; and
added importance to the whole work by many critical
notes. The Genius, and the Gentleman, were other
two of his performances, as alfo a number of fmall
pit ces of the humorous kind. His underftanding was
much impaired by a ilroke of the palfy, which feized
him in the year 1789, in confequence of which me¬
lancholy event, his fon was intruded with the manage¬
ment of the theatre. He died in the month of Auguft
1794, in the year of his age.
COLMAR, a confiderable town of France, in Up¬
per Alfaee, of which it is the capital. It has great
privileges, and the Protetlants have liberty of cnn-
fcience. It is feated near the river 111, in E. Long.
7. 27. N. Lat. 48. 5.
COLMARS, a town of France in Provence, and
the diocefe of Sens. It is feated near the Alps, in E.
Longr. 6. 35. N. Lat. 44 7.
COLMOGOROD, a town of the empire of Rudia,
with an archbilhop’s fee, feated in an ifland formed by
the river Dwina, in E. Long. 39. 42. N. Lat. 64. 14.
COLNBROOK, a town of Buckingbamfihire in
England, feated on the river Coin, which feparates
this county from Middlefex. It is a great thorough¬
fare on the wefiern road, and has feveral good inns.
W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 51. 30.
COLNE, a town of Lancafhire in England, feated
on a fmall hill near the confines of the county. W.
Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 53. 50.
COLOCHINA, an ancient town of the Mnrea, in
Turkey in Europe. E. Long. 23. 22. N. Lat. 36. 32.
COLOCYNTHIS, in Botany, a fpecies of Cu-
CUM1S.
COLOCZA, a town of Hungary, feated on the
Danube, and capital of the county of Bath, with an
archbilhnp’s fee. It was taken by the Turks in 1686,
but afterwards retaken by the Imperialifts. ~ E. Long.
18. 29. N. Lat. 46. 38.
COLOGNA, a town of Italy, in Padua, and in the
territory of Venice. E. Long. 17. 27. N. Lat. 45.
14-
COLOGNE, The Archbishopric or Diocese
of, one of the (fates that compofe the electoral circle
of the Rhine, in Germany. It is bounded on the north
by the duchy of Cleves and Gueldres, on the weft by
that of Juliers, on the fouth by the archbifhopric of
Cleves, and on the eaft by the duchy of Berg, from
which it is almoft wholly feparated by the Rhine.
This country is very fruitful in corn and wine, which
the inhabitants difpofe of by embarking it on the
Rhine, it extending above feventy miles along that
river. It is divided into the Higher and Lower Dio¬
cefe : the Higher Diocefe contains that part which lies
above Cologne, wherein is Bonne, the capital town
of this electorate, and where the eleClor refides; be*
fides which there are Leichnich, Andernach, Bruyl,.
Zulich, and Kerpen. The Lower Diocefe is on the
other fide of Cologne* and contains the towns of Zonz,
Neuys, Heizarwart, Rempen, Rhynberg, and Alpen.
The city of Cologne and county of Meurs, though
within the diocefe of Cologne, do not belong to it ;
£or Cologne is a free city, and Meurs belongs to the
1
houfe of Nafiau Orange ; but by way of rccotnpenfe, Cologne,
the eleffor has confiderable dominions in Weftphalia, ——y—«
which they call the Domain. It contains the duchy of
Weftphalia, and the county of Rechlinchufen. This
prelate is one of the eltCfors of the empire, and holds
alternately with that of Treves the fecond or third
rank in the eleftoral college. He is arch chancellor
of the empire in Italy, which dignity was very im¬
portant when the emperors were mafters of Italy, but
now it is next to nothing. When the emperors were
crowned at Aix-la-chapelle, the arcbbifhop of Cologne
performed the ceremony, which caufed him to pretend
to the fame right ellewhere ; but he was oppofed by
the archbilhop of Mentz. This occafioned an order,
that they (hould each of them have that honour in
his own diocefe, but if it was done el few here, they
{hould perform it alternately. The archbilhop of Co¬
logne is eleCled by the chapter in that city, which is
the moft illuftrious in all Germany. They are all
princes or counts, except eight dodors, who have no
occafion to prove their nobility.
Cologne, an ancient and celebrated town of Ger¬
many, in the diocefe of that name, with an archbifhop’s
fee, and a famous univerfity, feated on the river Rhine,
in E. Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 50. 55. In the times of
the Romans, this city was called Colonia Agrippina, and
Ubiorum, becaufe it was built by Agrippina, the wife
of Claudius I. and mother of Nero; and becaufe the
Ubii inhabited this country on the Lower Rhine. In
755 it w’as an archbiftiopric, and in 1260 entered into
the Hanfeatic league, which has now no exiftence. The
univerfity was eftablifhed in 1388 by Pope Urban VI.
The city is fortified with ftrong walls, flanked with 83
large towers, and furrounded with three ditches; but
tbefe fortifications being executed after the ancient
manner, could make but a poor defence at prefent. It
lies in the drape of a half-moon, and is faid to have
20 gates, 19 parifhes, 17 monafteries, and 365 churches
and chapels ; but the ftreets, in general, are dirty
and badly paved, the windows of the. houfes eompofed
of fmall bits of round glafs, and the inhabitants are
but few for fo large a place. It is inhabited moftly by
Papifts ; but there are alfo many Proteftants, who re¬
pair to the neighbouring town of Mulheim, in the
duchy of Berg, for public worftiip. Its trade, which
is confiderable, efpecially in Rhenifti wine, is chiefly
in the hands of Proteftants, and carried on by the
Rhine. The (hips with which they trade to the Nether¬
lands are of a particular conftru£lion, and confiderable
burden. The clergy here are very numerous, and have
large revenues. That of the archbiftiop is 130,000!.
Baron Polnitz fays, that though Cologne is one of
the greateft cities, it is one of the moft melancholy in
all Europe ; there being nothing to be feen but priefts,
friars, and ftudents, many of whom beg alms with a
fong, and nothing to be heard but the ringing of
bells; that there are very few families of quality ; that
the vulgar are very clownifti; and that the noblemen
of the chapter flay no longer in town than their duty,
obliges them. Mr Wright, in his Travels, fays, that
the women go veiled ; and that the heft gin is that
diftilled from the juniper berries which grow in this
neighbourhood. This city is perhaps the moft re¬
markable of any in the world for the great number of
precious relies it contains, of which the Popifli clergy,
no.
COL r 260 1 COL
Cologne, no doubt mike their advantage. In the church of
—Y""—' St Urfula, they pretend to (how her tomb, and the
bones of the 11,000 pretended virgin martyrs, though
^hat dory is entirely owing to a midaken infcription.
The heads of fome of thefe imaginary martyrs are kept
in cafes of filver, others are covered with ftuffs of gold,
and fome have caps of cloth of gold and velvet. Bre-
vat fays, he faw between 4000 and 5000 fkulls, decked
with garlands and coronets, ranged on (helves. The
canoneffes of St Urfula, who muft be all counteffes,
have a handfome income. In their church they pre¬
tend to (how three of the thorns of our Saviour’s
crown, and one of the veffels which contained the
water that he converted into wine at the marriage of
Cana. In the church of St Gereon are 900 heads of
Moorilh cavaliers, faid to have been in the army of
Conllantine before it was converted, and to have been
beheaded for refufing to facrifice to idols. Every
one of the heads has a cap of fcarlet, adorned with
pearls. In the magnificent cathedral of St Peter, the
three wife men who came from the eaft to vifit our
Saviour, are faid to be interred. They lie in a large
purple ihrine fpangled with gold, fet upon a pedef-
tal of brafs, in the. midft of a fquare maufoleum, faced
within and without with marble and jafper. It is
opened every morning at nine o’clock, if two of the
canons of the cathedral are prefent, when the kings
or wife men are feen lying at full length, with their
heads bedecked with a crown of gold garnilhed with
precious ftones. Their names, which are Gafper, Mel-
ckier, and Bahhafar, are in purple cbaraifters on a
little grate, which is adorned with an infinite number
of large rich pearls and precious ftones, particularly
an oriental topaz as big as a pigeon’s egg, and valued
at above 30,000 crowns. Over againft them are fix
large branches of filver, with wax candles, which burn
night and day. The bones of thefe men, we are told,
were brought to Conftantinople by Helena mother to
Conftantine, from thence to Milan by Euftorpius
bifhop of that fee, and afterwards hither by Archbilhop
Rainold. In the Jefuits college are the portraits of
the firft 13 generals of that order, with Ignatius Lo¬
yola at their head ; and in the church, which is the
fineft in Cologne, are many rich ftatues, with an ama¬
zing quantity of fine filver plate ; and the utenfils for
inafs are all of gold enriched with precious ftones. In
the Cordeliers church, is the tomb of the famous Duns
Scotus, furnamed DoSior Subti/is, with this epitaph,
“ Scotia me genuit, Anglia me fufcepit, Gallia me
docuit, Colognia me tenet.” Cologne is a free impe¬
rial city, and as fuch has a feat and voice at the diets
of the empire, and circle of the Lower Rhine. In
thofe of the empire, it has the firft place on the Rhe-
nilh bench. Towards the defence of the empire, its
affeffment is 825 florins j and towards the maintenance
of the chamber-court, 405 rix-dollars 72^ kruitzers,
each term. Its militia confifts of four companies of
foot, who keep guard at the gates. It is governed
by its own fenate, in refpeft to civil matters and
caufes $ but the criminal jurifdi&ion belongs to the
elector and his chapter *, and fo jealous are the inha¬
bitants of him, that they will not permit him to flay
in the city above three days at a time, nor to come
into it with a large retinue.. For this reafon the elec¬
tor refides commonly at Bonn. Cologne furrendered to Cologne
the French in 1794. II
COLOGNE-Earth, a kind of very light baftard ochre, Colon'
of a deep brown colour.
COLOMBO, a handfome, pleafant, and ftrong town
of Afia, feated on the eaftern fide of the ifland of
Ceylon in the Eaft Indies. It was built by the Por-
tuguefe in 1638 $ and in 1638 they were driven from
it by the natives, aflifted by the Dutch, who are now
in poffeffxon of it. It is about three quarters of a mile
long, and as much in breadth. The natives live in
the old town, without the walls of the new j the ftreets
of this laft are wide and fpacious $ and the buildings
are in the modern tafte, particularly the governor’s
houfe, which is a handfome ftfu&ure. E. Long*- 80. 25.
N. Lat. 7. 10.
COLOMEY, or Colomia, a town of Poland in
Red Ruflia, feated on the river Pruth, in E. Long. 25.
9. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLOMNA, Fabio, a very learned botanift, born
at Naples about the year 1367. He became Ikilled
in the languages, in mufic, defigning, painting, and
the mathematics j and died about the middle of the
17th century. He wrote, l. <bvTo(ict<Teiy6<;, feu Plantti-
rum aliquot (ac pifcium) hiftoria. 2. Minus cogni-
tarum rariorumque ftirpium ; itemque de aqua-
tilibus, aliifque nonnullis animalibus, libellus} and
other works.
COLON, in Anatomy, the firft and moft confider-
able of the large inteftines. See Anatomy, N° J94.
Colon, in Grammar, a point or character formed
thus [:], ferving to mark a paufe, and to divide the
members of a period. See Pointing $ fee alfo Pe¬
riod, Comma, and Semicolon. Grammarians gene¬
rally affign the ufe of a colon to be, to mark the mid¬
dle of a period ; or to conclude a fenfe lefs perfect than
the dot or period -but, a fenfe lefs perfect than the
period, is an expreffion extremely vague and indeter¬
minate. See Period.
Others fay, a colon is to be ufed when the fenfe is
perfeft, but the fentence not concluded j but neither
is this over clear and exprefs.
A late author, in a ingenious difcourfe, De ratione
interpungendi, marks the office of the colon, and where¬
in it differs from the femicolon, &c. more precifely.
A colon, on his principles, ferves to diftinguilh thofe
conjunft members of a fentence, which are capable of
being divided into other members $ whereof one, at
leaft, is conjunft. Thus, in the fentence, As we can¬
not difcern thejhadow moving along the dial-plate, fo the
advances we make in knowledge are only perceived by
the diftance gone over; the two members being both
fimple, are only feparated by a comma. In this, As
we perceive the Jhadow to have moved, but did not per¬
ceive it moving; fo our advances in underfunding, in
that they conffi of fuch minute f eps, are only perceivable
by the difance ;—the fentence being divided into two
equal parts, and thofe conjunct ones, fince they include
others; we feparate the former by a femicolon, and
the latter by commas. But in this, yds we perceive
the Jhadow to have moved along the dial, but did not
perceive it moving ; and it appears the grafs has grown,
though nobody ever faw it grow : fo the advances we
make in knowledge, as they conff of fuch minute feps^
are.
f
I
€ O L . r 270 ] COL
'Colon urs only perceivable by the dijlance—the advancement
II in knowledge is compared to the motion of a fliadow,
TiyT12 anC^ l'ie gro'vtl1 Sra^ > which comparifon divides the
.. ^ fentence into two principal parts: but fince what is faid
of the movement of the lhadow, and likewife of the
growth ef grafs, contains two fimple members, they are
to be feparated by a femicolon $ confequently a higher
pointing is required to feparate them from the other
part of the fentence, which they are oppofedto: and
this is a colon. See PUNCTUATION.
COLONEL, in military matters, the commander
in chief of a regiment, whether horfe, foot, or dra¬
goons.
Skinner derives the word from colony, being of
opinion, the chiefs of colonies, called co/onia/es, might
give the name to chiefs of forces. In the French and
Spanifh armies, colonel is confined to the infantry and
dragoons: the commanding officer of a regiment of
horfe they ufually call mejlre de camp. Formerly, in-
rftead of colonel, the French uftd the word coronel:
and this old fpelling comes nearer to our common way
of pronouncing the word colonel.
A colonel may lay any officer of his regiment in
arreft, but muft acquaint the general with it ; he is
not allowed a guard, only a fentry from the quarter-
guard.
COLONEL-Lieutenant, he who commands a regiment
of guards, whereof the king, prince, or other perfon of
the firlt eminence, is colonel. Thefe colonel-lieute¬
nants have always a colonel’s commiffion, and are ufu¬
ally general officers.
Lieutenant COLONEL, the fecond officer in a regi¬
ment, who is at the head of the captains, and commands
in the abfence of the colonel.
COLONIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Irinobantes, a little above Camelodunum. Now Col-
cheiler in Efiex, according to Camden, who fuppofes it
to take its name from the river Colne, and not that it
was a colony ; though others think Antonine’s diftance
agrees with Sudbury.
COLONIA Kquejlris, an ancient and noble colony on
the Lacus Lemanus. It appears to be the work of
Julius Caefar, who fettled there Lquites Limatenei; and
to this Lucan is thought to refer. By the Itinerary it
is fuppofed to have flood between Laufanne and Gene¬
va, 1 2 miles from the laft place by Peutinger’s map,
which directs to Nyon, placed in Cavo Lemano, ac¬
cording to Lucan’s expreffion, that is, a bay or cove of
the lake. Its ancient name was Noviodunum, (Notitia
Gallise) : hence its modern name.
COLONIA Metalhna, or Metallinenjis, a town of Lu-
fltania, fituated on the right or weft fide of the Anas,
or Guadiana \ but now on the left or eaft fide, from
the river’s ffiifting its bed or channel, and called Me-
delin, a town in Eftremadura. W. Long. 6. 12. Lat.
38. 45-
COLONIA Monnorum, a town in Belgica, thought
to be Tarvenna, the capital of the Morini. Now
Terrouen, a town of Artois. E. Long. 2. 15. Lat.
37' 5°-
COLONJA Norben/is, or Norba Ccefarea, a town of
Lufilanin, to the fouth of Trajan’s bridge on the Ta-
gm. Now Alcantara, in Eftremadura. W. Long.
10. N. Lat. 59. 'O.
COLONIA Trajana, (Antonine, Peutinger) j a town
of Belgica, furnamed alfo JJlpia, (Antonine); and Colonfo
Tricejima, from being the ftation of the thirtieth le- Trajafa
gion, (Ammian). Now Kellen, a village of the duchy II
of Cleves, a mile from the Rhine. Colony,
COLONIA Valentia, (Ptolemy, Livy) ; a town of
the Hither Spain, on the Turias; deftroyed by Pom-
pey, (Salluft) ; reftored by Julius Caefar. Still called
Valencia, on the river Guadalaviar, in Valencia. W.
Long. 35. Lat. 39. 20.
COLONNA, a town of Italy in the Campagna of
Rome, 18 miles eaftward of that city. E. Long. 12.
56. N. Lat. 41. 55.
Colonna, Pompey, cardinal afchbiffiop of Mont¬
real in Sicily, and biffiop of a very great number of
places, made a conlpicuous figure in the world. He
was equally qualified to wear the cardinal’s hat and
the helmet, and experienced more than once the re-
verfes of fortune. Julius II. removed him from all
his dignities; but Leo I. reftored him, created him
cardinal, and fent him on feveral embaffies. Cle¬
ment VII. diverted him of the purple,, and again re¬
ftored him to it. It was pretended he was obliged to
him for his exaltation to the papal throne. The pope
refufing him fome requeft, he reproached him, faying,
“ That it was by his intereft he had arrived at his
dignity.” The pope replied, “ It is true, but let me
be pope, and do not endeavour to be fo yourfelf; for
by afting as you do, you endeavour to difpoflefs me
of that you have raifed me to.” He died viceroy of
Naples in 1532. He wrote fome poems in praife of
Ifabella Filamarini, in which he protefts the chafiity
of his willies. He w'rote another work, De laudibus
mulierum.
COLONNADE, in ArcluteBure, a periftyle of a
circular figure ; or a feries of columns difpofed in a
circle, and infulated within fide.
A Polyjlyle COLONNADE, is that whofe numbers of
columns are too great to be taken in by the eye at a
fingle view. Such is the colonnade of the palace of
St Peter’s at Rome, confifting of 284 columns of the
Doric order, each above four feet and a half diameter,
all in Tiburtine marble.
COLONOS, in Ancient Geography, an eminence
near Athens, whither Oedipus, after his baniffiment
from Thebes, is faid to have retired ; and hence it is
that Sophocles calls the tragedy on the fubjeft Oedipus
Coloneus. A place facred to Neptune, and where
flood an equeftrian ftatue of him. Here alfo flood
Timon’s tower ; who, for his love of folitude, and ha¬
tred to mankind, was called Mifantbropos, (Paufa-
nias).
COLONS A V, one of the Hebrides or Weftern
I Hands belonging to Scotland. It comprehends that
of Oronfay, from which it is only feparated in time of
Hood, and both belong to the fame proprietor, viz.
Mr M‘Neil. See Oronsay.
COLONUS, a hufbandman or villager, who was
bound to pay yearly a certain tribute, or at certain
times of the year to plough fome part of the lord’s
land ; and from hence comes the word clown, who is
called by the Dutch, boor.
COLONY, a company of people tranfplanted in¬
to a remote province in order to cultivate and inha¬
bit it.
We may diftinguifti three kinds of colonies. Firft,
thofc
COL [2
f&lony. thofe ferving to eafe or difcharge the inhabitants of a
—Y—country, where the people are become too nume¬
rous, fo that they cannot any longer conveniently fub-
fift.
The fecond are thofe eflablilhed by vidlorious prin¬
ces and people, in the middle of vanquilhed nations, to
keep them in awe and obedience. ^
The third may be called colonies of commerce ; be-
eaufe, in effecft, it is trade that is the foie occafion and
objedl thereof.
It was by means of the firft kind of colonies that,
feme ages after the deluge, the eaft firft, and fuccef-
fively all the other parts of the earth, became inha¬
bited j and without mentioning any thing of the Phoe¬
nician and Grecian colonies, fo famous in ancient hi-
llory, it is notorious that it was for the eftablilhment
of fuch colonies, that, during the declenfion of the em¬
pire, thofe torrents of barbarous nations, iffuing, for
the generality, out of the north, overran the Gauls,
Italy, and the other fouthern parts of Europe j and,
after feveral bloody battles, divided it with the ancient
inhabitants.
For the fecond kind of colonies, the Romans ufed
them more than any other people y and that to fecure
the conquefts they had made from the weft to the
eaft. It is well known how many cities in Gaul,
Germany, Spain, and even England, value themfelves
on their having been of the number of Roman colo¬
nies.
There were two kinds of colonies among the Ro¬
mans : thofe fent by the fenate ; and the military ones,
eonfifting of old foldiers, broken and difabled with the
fatigues of war, who were thus provided with lands
as the reward of their fervices. See Benefice. The
colonies fent by the fenate were either Roman or La¬
tin, i. e. compofed either of Roman citizens or Latins.
The coloniae Latinae were fuch as enjoyed the Jus La-
tii; faid to confift in thofe two things j one, that
whoever was edile or praetor in a town of Latium, be¬
came for that reafon a Roman citizen ; the other, that
the Latins were fubjedl to the edicts of their own and
not to thofe of the Roman magiftrates : in the year of
the city fix hundred and fixty-two, after the Social
war, the city was granted to all Latium, by the lex
Julia. The coloniae Romance, were fuch as had the
jus Romanum, but not in its full extent j namely, in
the right of fuffrage, putting up for honours, magiftra-
cies, command in the army, &c.} but the jus Quiri-
tum only, or private right \ as right of liberty, of
gentility, or dignity of family, facrifice, marriage, &c.
For it was long a rule, never to grant the liberty of
the city in full to colonies; nor is there any inftanee
to the contrary, till after the Social war, in the year
of the city fix hundred and fixty-two. According to
Ulpian (1. D. dc Cenf), there were other colonies,
which had little more than the name, only enjoying
what they called yW Italicum, i. e. they were free from
the tributes and taxes paid by the provinces. Such
were the colonies of Tyre, Berytus, Heliopolis, Pal¬
myra, &c. M. Vaillant has filled a volume in folio
with medals ftruck by the feveral colonies, in honour
of the emperors who founded them. The ordinary
fymbol they engraved on their medals, was either an
eagle ; as when the veteran legions were diftributed in
the colonies: or a labourer, holding a plough drawn
4
i ] COL
by a pair of oxen ; as when the colony confifled of or- Colory,
dinary inhabitants. On all the medals are feen the y-—
names of the decemviri, who held the fame rank and
had the fame authority there as the confuls had at
Rome.
Laftly, the colonies of commerce are thofe efta-
blithed by the Englifti, French, Spaniards, Portuguefe,
and other nations, within thefe two laft centuries, and
which they continue ftill to eftablilh, in feveral parts
of Afia, Africa, and America : either to keep up a
regular commerce with the natives, or to cultivate the
ground, by planting fugar canes, indigo, tobacco, and
other commodities. The principal of this kind of co¬
lonies are in the one and the other America, north¬
ern and fouthern ; particularly Peru, Mexico, Canada,
(lately Virginia, New England, Carolina), la Loui-
fiana, PAcadia, Hudfon’s Bay, the Antilles iflands,.
Jamaica, Domingo, and the other iftands.—In Africa,
Madagafcar, Gape of Good Hope, Cape Verd, and its
ifiands, and all thofe vaft coafts extending thence as far
as to the Red fea. Laftly, in Afia, the famous Batavia
of the Dutch ; Goa, Diu, of the Portuguefe ; and fome
other lefs confiderable places of the Englifti, French,,
and Danes.
The practice of fettling commercial colonies in di-
ftant countries hath been adopted by the wifeft nations
of antiquity, who adted fyftematically upon maxims
of found policy. This appears to have been the cafe
with the ancient Egyptians, the Chinefe, the Phoeni¬
cians, the commercial ftates of Greece, the Carthagi¬
nians, and even the Romans ; for though the colonies
of the latter were chiefly military, it could eafily be
ftiown that they were likewife made ufe of for the pur-
pofes of trade. The favage nations who ruined the Ro¬
man empire, fought nothing but. to extirpate or hold in
vaffalage thofe whom they overcame ; and therefore,
whenever princes enlarged their dominions at the ex¬
pence of their neighbours, they had recourfe to ftrong
forts and garrifons to keep the conquered in awe.
For this they have been blamed by the famous Maehi-
avel, who labours to fhow, lhat the fettling of colonies
would have been a cheaper and better method of brid¬
ling conquered countries, than building fortrefles in
them. John de Witt, who was one of the ableft and
beft ftatefmen that ever appeared, ftrongly recom¬
mended colonies ; as affording a refuge to fuch as had
been unfortunate in trade ; as opening a field for fuch
men to exert their abilities, as through want of inte-
reft could not raife themfelves in their own country ;
and as a fupplement to hofpitals and other charitable
foundations, which he thought in time might come to
be overcharged. Some, however, have ridiculed the
fuppofed advantages of colonies, and afferted that they
muft always do mifehief by depopulating the mother-
country.
The hiftory of the Britifh colonies undoubtedly
fhows, that when colonifts become numerous and opu¬
lent, it is very difficult to retain them in proper fub-
jeftion to the parent flate. It becomes then a quef-
tion not very eafily anfwered, how far they are entit¬
led to the rights they had as inhabitants of the mother-
country, or how far they are bound by its laws ? On
this fubjedl Mr Blackflone hath the following obferva-
tions.
“ Plantations, or colonies in diftant countries, are
either
col r 2-
either fuch where the lands are claimed hy right of
occupancy only, by finding them defert and unculti¬
vated, and peopling them from the mother-country •,
br where, when already cultivated, they have either
been gained by conqueft, or ceded to us by treaties.
And both the rights are founded upon the law of na¬
ture, or at leaft" on that of nationss But there is a
difference between thefe two fpecies of colonies with
refpeil to the laws by which they are boundt For it
hath been held, that if an uninhabited Country be dif-
covered and planted by Englifh fubjefts, all the Eng-
lifh laws then in being, which are the birthright of
every fubjefl, are immediately there in force. But
this muft be underftood \Vith many and very great re-
'ftriftions. Such colonifts carry with them only fo
much of the Englifh law as is applicable to their own
fituation, and the condition of an infant colony 5 fuch,
for inftance, as the general rules of inheritance, and of
protection from perfonal injurifes. The artificial re¬
finements and diftin&ions incident to the property of a
great and commercial people, the laws of policy and
revenue (fuch efpecially as are enforced by penalties),
the mode of maintenance for the efiablifhed clergy, the
jurifdiCtion of fpiritual courts, and a multitude of other
provifions, are neither neceffary nor convenient for
them, and therefore are not in force. What fliall be
admitted, and what rejeCted, at what times, and under
what reftridions, muft, in cafes of difpute, be decid¬
ed in the firft inftance by their own provincial judica¬
ture, fubjeCf to the reVvfion and controul of the king
in council *, the whole of their conftitutioh being alfo
liable to be new-modelled and reformed by the gene¬
ral fuperintending power of the legiflature in the mo¬
ther-country. But in conquered or ceded countries
that have already laws of their own, the king may in¬
deed alter and change thofe laws ; but, till he does
a6fua!ly change them, the ancient laws of the country
remain, unleis fuch as are againft the law of God, as
in an infidel country. Our American plantations are
.principally of this latter fort, being obtained in the
laft century, either by right of conqueft and driving
out the natives (with what natural juft ice I Ihall not at
prefent inquire), or by treaties. And therefore, the
common law of England, as fuch, has no allowance or
authority there ; they being no part of the mother-
country, but diftinCf (though dependent) dominions.
They are fubjeCt, however, to the controul of the par¬
liament •, though (like Ireland, Man, and the reft)
hot bound by any aCls of parliament, unlefs particular¬
ly named.”
With refpeCl to their interior polity, our colonies,
whether thofe we formerly poffeffed or ftill poffefs,
way be d'ftinguifhed into three forts. 1. Provincial
eftablHhments, the cnnftitutions of which depend on
the refpeCHve commiffions iffued by the crown to
the governors, and the inftruftions which ufually ac¬
company thofe commiffions 5 under the authority of
which provincial aflemblies are conftituted, with the
power of making local ordinances not repugnant to
the laws of Britain. 2. Proprietary governments,
granted out by the crown to individuals, in the nature
ofTeudatory principalities, with all their inferior rega¬
lities, and fubordinate powers of legiflation, which
formerly belonged to the owners of counties palatine ;
yet ftill with th^fe exprefs conditions, that the ends
>2 1 COL
for which the grant was made be fubftantxally pursued, Colfttiy
and that nothing be attempted which may derogate I!
from the fovereignty of the mother-^country. 3. Char-ColoP^101^
ter governments, in the nature of civil corporations j *
with the power of making bye-laws for their own in¬
terior regulation, not Contrary to the laws of Britain }
and with fuch rights and authorities as are fpecially
given them in their feveral charters of incorporation*
The form of government, in moft of them, is bor¬
rowed from that of England. They have a governor
named by the king (or* in fome proprietary colonies,
hy the proprietor), who is representative or deputy.
They have courts of juftice of their own, from whofe
decifions an appeal lies to the king in council here in
England. Their general affemblies* which are their
houfe of commons, together with their council of ftate,
being their upper houfe, with the concurrence of the
king, or his reprefentative the governor, make laws
fuited to their own emergencies. But it is particu¬
larly declared, by flat. 7 and 8 W. III. c. 22. that rdl
laws, bye-laws, ufages, and cuftoms, which {hall be in
practice in any of the plantations, repugnant to any
law made or to be made in this kingdom relative to
the faid plantations, (hall be utterly void and of none
efft ff. And, becaufe feveral of the colonies had claim¬
ed the foie and exclufive right of impofing taxes upon
themfelves, the ftatute 6 Geo* III. c. l_2. exprefily
declares, that all his majefty’s colonies in America*
have been, are, and of right ought to be, fubordinate
to and dependent upon the imperial crown and par
liament of Great Britain, who have full power and
authority to make laws and ftatutes of fufficient vali¬
dity to bihd the colonies and people of America, fub-
jefts to the crown of Great Britain in all cafes what-
foever. And the attempting to enforce this by other
afts of parliament, penalties, and at laft by military
power, gave rife, as is well known, to the late revolt
and final feparation of thirteen colonies. See the arti¬
cle America. This country is now detached from
Britain, and confifts of 13 independent ftates* fome-
times denominated the United PROVINCES.
COLOPHON, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Ionia, in the Hither Afia, on a promontory on the ^E-
gean fea* and waftied by the Halefus* The ancient
Colophon was deftroyed by Lyfimacbus, in his waf
with Antigonus, in order to enlarge Ephefus. Pau-
fanias fays, it was rebuilt in the neighbourhood, in a
more commodious feite* T. his was one of the cities
that laid claim to Homer* Colophonem addere, a pro¬
verbial faying, explained by Strabo to denote, that the
Colophonian horfe turned the feales in favour of the
fide on which they fought. I he Colophonians had a
grove, a temple, and an oracle of Apollo Clanus
(Strabo). Of this town was the poet Antimacnus*
remarked on for his turgid ftyle by Catullus* He
wrote a life of Idomer, whom he makes a Colophonian
(Plutarch).
COLOPHONY, in Pharmacy, blaek refin, or tur¬
pentine, boiled in water, and afterwards dried ; or,
which is ftill better, the caput mortuutn remaining af¬
ter the diftiliation of the ethereal oil, being furthei*
urged by a more intenfe and long continued fire.^-It
receives it'' name of colophonta, from Colophon, a city
of Ionia, becaufe the beft was formerly brought from
thence. Two forts are mentioned in ancient writings;
COL T 273 ] COL
jlophony tlie one dry, the other in a liquid Hate. The latter
II feems to have been liquid pilch, which is the crude
Colour. re£n 0f pjne brought from Colophon j the other
""~v was called rejina fri£la, and confiiled only of the for¬
mer deprived of its humid parts.
COLOQUINTID A, in Botany. See CucuMIS.
COLORATURA, in Mujic, denotes all manner of
variations, trillos, diminutions, &c. ferving to make a
fong agreeable.
COLORNO, a town of Italy, in the Parmafan,
near the river Po, eight miles from Parma. The duke
of Parma has a pleafure-houfe here, one of the moft
delightful feats in all Italy, and the gardens are very
fine. E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 44. 54.
COLOSSiE, or Coloseje, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a confiderable town of Phrygia Magna, in which
thef Lycus falls into a gulf, and at the diftance of five
ftadia emerges again, and runs into the Meander (He¬
rodotus). Others fay, the genuine name is ColoJJic,
and the people ColoJJenfes, to whom St Paul wrote an
epiftle: Strabo calls them Colojfeni. In Nero’s time
the town was deffroyed by an earthquake (Orofius).
COLOSSUS, a flatue of enormous or gigantic fize.
The moft eminent of this kind was the Coloifus of
Rhodes, a ftatue of Apollo, fo high that (hips pafled
with full fails betwixt its legs. It was the workman-
fliip of Chares, a difciple of Lyfippus, who fpent 12
year? in making it: it was at length overthrown by an
earthquake, after having flood 1360 years. Its height
was fix fcore and fix feet : there were few people who
could fathom its thumb, &c. When the Saracens be¬
came polfelTed of the ifland, the ftatue was found pro-
ftrate on the ground : they fold it to a Jew, who load¬
ed 900 camels with the brafs.
The bafis that fupported it was a triangular figure ;
its extremities were fuftained with 60 pillars of marble.
There was a winding ftaircafe .to go up to the top of
it, from whence one might difcover Syria, and the
Ihips that went into Egypt, in a great looking glafs,
that was hung about the neck of the ftatue. Among
the antiquities of Rome, there are feven famous colof-
fufes •, two of Jupiter, as many of Apollo, one of Ne¬
ro, one of Domitian, and one of the Sun.
COLOSTRUM, the firft milk of any animal after
bringing forth young, called in fome places beejlings.
It is remarkable that this milk is generally cathartic,
and purges the meconium ; thus ferving both as an
aliment and medicine.
An emulfion prepared with turpentine diffolved
with the yolk of an egg, is fornetimes called by this
name.
CO LOS WAR, - a large and celebrated town of
Tranfylvania, where the fenates have their meetings.
It is feated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 21. 35.
N. Lat, 46. 53.
COLOUR, in Bhyjics, a property inherent in light,
by which, according to the various fizes of its parts,
or from fome other caufe, it excites different vibrations
in the Optic nerve *, which propagated to the fenforium,
affect the mind with different fenfations. See Chro¬
matics and Optics.
Colour, in Painting, is applied both to the drugs,
and to the tints produced by thofe drugs varioufly mix¬
ed and applied.
The principal colours ufed by painters are red and
Vol. VI. Part I.
Vvhite lead or cerufe j yellow and red ochres ; leveral Colours,
kinds of earth, umber, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt'-—v—-
ivory, black lead, cinnabar or vermilion, gamboge,
lacca, blue and green allies, verdigris, biftre, bice,
fmalt, carmine, ultramarine j each of which, with
their ufes, &c. are to be found under their proper ar¬
ticles.
Of thefe colours, fome are ufed tempered with gum-
water, fome ground with oil, others only in frefco j
and others for miniature.
Painters reduce all the colours they ufe under thefe
two claffes, of dark and light colours : dark colours
are black, and all others that are obfcure and earthy,
as umber, biftre, &c.
Under light colours are comprehended white, and all
others that approach neareft to it.
Painters alfo diftinguilh colours into fimple and
mineral.
Under fimple colours they rank all thofe which are
extracted from vegetables, and which will not bear
the fire; as the yellow made of faffron, French ber¬
ries, lacca, and other timftures extradited from flowers,
ufed by limners, illuminer^, &c.
The mineral colours are thofe which being drawn
from metals, &c. are able to bear the fire, and there¬
fore ufed by enamellers. Changeable and permanent
colours is another divifion, which, by fome, is made of
colours.
Changeable colours are fuch as depend on the fitua-
tion of the objects with refpeft to the eye, as that of
a pigeon’s neck, taffeties, &c. : the firft, however, be¬
ing attentively viewed by the microfcope, each fibre
of the feathers appears compofed of feveral little
fqaares, alternately red and green, fo that they are fix¬
ed colours.
Water-COLOURS are fuch as are ufed in painting
with gum-water ■ or fize, without being mixed with
oil.
Incapacity of dijlinguifhing COLOURS. Of this extra¬
ordinary deleft in vifion, we have the following iu-
ftances in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1777*
One of the perfons lived at Maryport in Cumberland.
The account was communicated by Mr Huddart to
Hr Prieftley, and is as follows. “ His name was
Harris, by trade a ftioemaker. I had often heard
from others, that he could difcern the form and mag¬
nitude of all objedls very diftinftly, but could not di-
ftinguifti colours. This report having excited my cu-
riofity, I converfed with him frequently on this fub-
jedt. The account he gave was this: That he had
reafon to believe other perfons faw fomething in ob¬
jects which lie could not fee ; that their language
fee me d to mark qualities with precifion and confidence,
which he could only guefs at with hefitation, and fre¬
quently with error. His firft fufpicion of this arofe
when he was about four years old. Having by acci¬
dent found in the ftreet a child’s flocking, he carried
it to a neighbouring houfe to inquire for the owner;
he obferved the people called it a red flocking, though
he did not underftand why they gave it that denomi¬
nation, as he hirnfelf thought it completely defcribed
by being called a flocking. This circumftance, how¬
ever, remained in his memory, and, together with fub-
fequent obfervations, led him to the knowledge of his
defetf.
M IR
“ He
COL [ 274 ] CO L
“ He alfo obferved, that when young, other chil¬
dren could difcern cherries on a tree, by fome pre¬
tended difference of colour, though he could only dif-
tinguilb them from the leaves by the difference of
their fize and fhape. He obferved alfo, that by means
of this difference of colour they could fee the cherries
at a greater diftance than he could, though he could
fee other objedts at as great a diftance as they, that is,
where the fight was not affifted by the colour. Large
obje&s he could fee as well as other perfons •, and
even the fmaller ones if they were not enveloped in
other things, as in the cafe of cherries among the
leaves.
“ I believe he could never do more than guefs the
name of any colour ; yet he could diftinguith white
from black, or black from any light or bright colour.
Dove or ftraw colour he called white, and different
colours he frequently called by the fame name j yet
he could difcern a difference between them when pla¬
ced together. In general, colours of an equal degree
of brightnefs, however they might otherwife differ, he
confounded together. Yet a ftriped ribbon he could
diftinguith from a plain one j but he could not tell what
the colours were with any tolerable exa£tnefs. Dark
colours, in general, he often miftook for black j but
never imagined white to be a dark colour, nor dark to
be a white colour.
“ He was an intelligent man, and very defirous of
underftanding the nature of light and colours ; for
which end he had attended a courfe of le&ures in na¬
tural philofophy.
“ He had two brothers in the fame circumftances as
to fight ; and two other brothers and fitters, who, as
well as their parents, had nothing of this defeft.
“ One of the firft mentioned brothers, who is now
living, I met with at Dublin, and wifhed to try his
capacity to diftinguith the colours in a prifm $ but not
having one by me, I atked him, Whether he had ever
feen a rainbow ? he replied, He had often, and could
diftinguith the different colours j meaning only, that
it was compofed of different colours, for he could not
tell what they were.
“ I then procured and thowed him a piece of rib¬
bon ; he immediately, and without any difficulty, pro¬
nounced it a ftriped, and not a plain, ribbon. He
then attempted to name the different ftripes : the fe-
veral ftripes of white he uniformly and without hefi-
tation called Avhite $ the four black ftripes he was de¬
ceived in } for three of them he thought brown,
though they were exaftly of the fame ffiade with the
other, which he properly called black. He fpoke,
however, with diffidence, as to all thofe ftripes 5 and
it muft be owned, that the black was not very.di-
ftin£t 5 the light green he called yellow j but he was
not very pofitive ; he faid, “ I think this is what you
call yellow.” The middle ftripe, which had a flight
tinge of red, he called a fort of blue. But he was
moft of all deceived by the orange colour, of which he
fpoke very confidently, faying, “ This is the colour of
grafs, this is green.” I alfo ffiowed him a great va¬
riety of ribbons, the colour of which he fometimes
named rightly, and fometimes as differently as poffible
from the true colour.
“ I alked him whether he imagined it poffible for
all the various colours he faw to be mere difference of
light and lhade j and that all colours could be compo- Colour
fed of thefe two mixtures only ? With fome hefitation y—■
he replied, No, he did imagine there was fome other
difference.
“ It is proper to add, that the experiment of the
ftriped ribbon was made in the day-time, and in a good
light.”
COLOURS for flaming different hinds of Stones. See
Chemistry.
Colour, in Dyeing. See Dyeing.
Colour of Plants, is an attribute found to be very
variable. Different colours are obferved, not only in
different individuals of the fame fpecies, but likewife in
different parts of the fame individual. Thus, marvel of
Peru, and fweet-william, have frequently petals of
different colours on the fame plant. Three or four
different colours are frequently found upon the fame
leaf or flower, as on the leaves of the amaranthus
tricolor, and the flowers of the tulip, auricula, three-
coloured violet and others. To produce the moft
beautiful and ftriking variety of colours in fuch
flowers, is the principal delight and bufinefs of the
florift.
The primitive colours, and their intermediate ffiades
or gradations enumerated by botanifts, are as follow :
Water-colour, hyalinus.
White.
Lead-colour, cinereus.
Black, niger..
Brown, fufcus.
Pitch-black, ater.
Yellow, luteus.
Straw-colour,
Flame-colour, fulvus.
Iron-colour, gilvus.
Red.
Fleffi-colour, incarnatus.
Scarlet, coccineus.
Purple.
Violet - colour, cceruleo-purpureus.
Blue, ceeruleus.
Green.
Thefe colours feem to be appropriated to particular
parts of the plant. Thus white is moft common in
roots, fweet berries, and the petals of fpring flowers.
Water-colour, in the filaments and ftyles. Black, in
the roots and feeds j rarely in the feed-veffel, and
fcarce ever to be found in the petals. Yellow is fre¬
quently in the antherse or tops of the ftamina ; as like¬
wife in the petals of autumnal flowers, and the com¬
pound ligulated flowers of Linnaeus. Red is common
in the petals of fummer flowers, and in the acid fruits.
Blue and violet-colour in the petals. Green in the
leaves and calyx, but rarely in the petals. In the in¬
terchanging of colours, which in plants is found to
depend upon differences in heat, climate, foil, and cul¬
ture, a fort of eleftive attra&ion is obferved to take
place. Thus, red is more eafily changed into white
and blue $ blue into white and yellow 5 yellow into
white 5 and white into purple. A red colour is often
changed into a white, in the flowers of heath, mother
of thyme, betony, pink, vifcous campion, cucubalus,
trefoil, orchis, foxglove, thiftle, cudweed, faw-wort,
rofe,,
COL [27
rofe, poppy, fumitory, and geranium. Red pafles into
blue in pimpernel. Blue is changed into white in
bell-flower, greek-valerian, bind-weed, columbine, vi¬
olet vetch, milk-wort, goat’s rue, viper’s buglofs, com-
frey, borrage, hyflbp, dragon’s head, fcabious, blue¬
bottle, and fuccory. Blue is changed into yellow in
crocus. Yellow pafles eafily into white in melilot, agri¬
mony, mullein, tulip, blattaria or moth-mullein, and
corn marigold. White is changed into purple in wood*
forrel, thorn-apple, peafe, and daify.
Although plants are fometimes obferved to change
their colour upon being moiftened with coloured juices,
yet that quality in vegetables feems not fo much
owing to the nature of their nourifhment, as to the ac¬
tion of the internal and external air, heat, light, and
the primitive organization of the parts. In fupport of
this opinion, we' may obferve with Dr Grew, that
there is a far lefs variety in the colours of roots, than
of the other parts of the plant ; the pulp within the
Ikin, being ufually white, fometimes yellow', rarely
red. That this effeft is produced by their fmall inter-
courfe with the external air, appears from this circum-
ftance, that the upper parts of roots, when they hap¬
pen to Hand naked above the ground, are often dyed
with feveral colours : thus the tops of forrel roots
turn red j thofe of turnips, mullein, and radilhes,
purple ; and many others green $ whillt thofe parts of
the fame roots which lie more under ground, are com¬
monly white. The green colour is fo proper to leaves,
that many, as thofe of fage, the young fprouts of St
John’s wort, and others which are reddilh when in the
bud, acquire a perfect green upon being fully expand¬
ed. In like manner, the leaves of the fea-fide grape (po¬
lygonum), which when young are entirely red, become,
as they advance in growth, perfe£tly green, except the
middle and tranfverfe ribs, which retain their former
colour.
As flowers gradually open and are expofed to the
air, they throw oflf their old colour and acquire a new
one. In fadl, no flower has its proper colour till it is
fully expanded. Thus the purple ftock julyflowers
are white or pale in the bud. In like manner ba¬
chelor’s buttons, blue-bottle, poppy, red daifies, and
many other flowers, though of divers colours when
blown, are all white in the bud. Nay, many flowers
change their colour thrice fucceflively j thus, the very
young buds of lady’s looking-glafs, buglofs, and the
like, are all white j the larger buds purple or murrey j
and the open flowers blue.
With refpe£t to the colours of the juices of plants,
we may obferve, that molt refinous gums are tinftured;
fome, however, are limpid j that which drops from the
domeftic pine is clear as rock-water. The milk of
fome plants is pale, as in burdock ; of others white, as
in dandelion, euphorbium, and fcorzonera $ and of
others yellow, as in lovage, and greater celandine.
Moll mucilages have little colour, tafte, or fmell. Of
all the colours above enumerated, green is the moft
common to plants, black is the moft rare.
Colour being a quality in plants fo apt to change,
ought never to be employed in diftinguifhing their
fpecies. Thefe ought to be characterized from cir-
cumftances not liable to alteration by culture or other
accidents. The fame inconftancy of colour obferved
in the flowers, is likewife to be found in the other
5 ] COL
parts of plants. Berries frequently change from green Colour.
to red, and from red to white. Even in ripe fruits,    —
the colour, whether white, red, or blue, is apt to vary •,
particularly in apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees.
Seeds are more conftant in point of colour than the
veflfel which contains them. In the feeds, however,
of the poppy, oats, pea, bean, and kidney-bean, va¬
riations are frequently obferved. The root, too, al¬
though not remarkably fubjeft to change, is found to
vary in fome fpecies of carrot and raddifti. Leaves
frequently become fpotted, as in a fpecies of orchis,
hawk-weed, ranunculus, knot-grafs, and lettuce ; but
feldom relinquilh their green colour altogether. Thofe
of fome fpecies of amaranthus, or flower-gentle, are
beautifully coloured. The fpots that appear on the
furface of the leaves are of diflerent colours, liable to
vary, and not feldom difappear altogether. The
leaves of officinal lung-wort, and fome fpecies of fow-
bread, forrel, trefoil, and ranunculus, are covered with
white fpots. Thofe of dog’s-tooth violet, with purple
and white. Thofe of feveral fpecies of ranunculus, and
orchis, with black and purple. Thofe of amaranthus tri¬
color, with green, red, and yellow. Thofe of ranunculus
acris, and a fpecies of bog-bean, with red or purple. The
under furface of the leaves of fome fpecies of pimpernel
and the fea-plantain is marked with a number of dots or
points j a white line runs through the leaves of Indian
reed, black-berried heath, and a fpecies of Canary
grafs: and the margin or brim of the leaf, in fome fpe¬
cies of box, honeyfuckle, ground-ivy, and the ever¬
green oak, is of a lilver-white colour. The whole plant
is often found to aflume a colour that is unnatural or
foreign to it. The varieties in fome fpecies of eryngo,
mug-wort, orrach, amaranthus, purflane, and lettuce,
furnilh examples.
Such being the inconftancy of colours in all the parts
of the plant, fpecific names derived from that quality
are very properly, by Linnaeus, deemed erroneous y
whether they refpedl the colour of the flower, fruit,
feeds, roots, leaves, or exprefs in general the beauty
or deformity of the entire plant, with a particular
view to that circumftance. Of this impropriety, com¬
mitted by former botanifts, Linnaeus himfelf is not
always guiltlefs. Thus the two fpecies offarracena, or
the fide-faddle flower, are diftinguiffied by the colour
of their petals into the yellow and purple farracena ;
although the ftiapes and figure of the leaves afforded
much more conftant as well as ftriking chara&ers. The
fame may be faid of his lupinus albus and luteus; re-
feda alba, glauca, and lutea; angelica atro-purpurea j
diftamnus albusj lamium album j felago coccinea j fida
alba; paffiflora rubra, lutea, incarnata, and coerulea}
and of many others, in which the fpecific name is de¬
rived from a charafler or quality that is fo liable to vary
in the fame fpecies.
We (hall conclude this article with obferving, that
of all fenfible qualities, colour is the leaft ufeful in in¬
dicating the virtues and powers of vegetables. The
following general pofitions on this fubje6l are laid down
by Linnaeus, and feem fufficiently confirmed by expe¬
riment. A yellow colour generally indicates a bitter
tafte ; as in gentian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and
other yellow flowers. Red indicates an acid or four
tafte j as in cranberries, barberries, currants, rafpberries,
mulberries, cherries, the fruit of the rofe, fea-buck-
M m 2 thorn,
COL [2
Colours, thorn, and fervice-tree. Herbs that turn red towards
Colour- autumn, have like wife a four tafte j as forrel, wood-
making. forj-gj^ an(l bloody dock. Green indicates a crude al¬
kaline tafte, as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale co¬
lour denotes an infipid tafte, as in endive, afparagus,
and lettuce. White promifes a fweet lufcious tafte j
as in white currants and plums, fweet apples, &c.
Laftly, black indicates a harfti, naufeous, difagreeable
tafte ; as in the berries of deadly nightlhade, myrtle¬
leaved fumacb, herb-chriftopher, and others $ many of
which are not only unpleafant to the tafte, but perni¬
cious and deadly in their eft'efts.
To be afcertained of the acid or alkaline property
of any plant, exprefs fome of the juice, and rub it up¬
on a piece of blue paper ; which, if the plant in que-
ftion is of an acid nature, will turn red ; if of an alka¬
line, green. For the methods of extradftinp- colours
from the different parts of plants, fee the article CO¬
LOUR Makitig.
Difference of COLOUR in the Human Species. See
Complexion.
Colour, in Heraldry. The colours generally ufed
in heraldry are, red, blue, black, green, and purple ;
which the heralds ca\\gules, a%ure, fable, vert orfinople,
and purpure; tenne or tawny, and fanguine, are not
id common as to yellow and white, called or and ar¬
gent, they are metals, not colours.
The metals and colours are fometimes expreffed in
blazon by the names of precious ftones, and fometimes
by thofe of planets or ftars. See Blazoning.
Oenomaus is faid firft to have invented the diftinc-
tions of colours, to diftinguifti the gundillae of comba¬
tants at the Circenfian games ; the green for thofe who
reprefen ted the earth, and blue for thofe who repre-
fented the fea,
Colours, in the military art, include the banners,
flags, enfigns, &c. of all kinds, borne in the army or
fleet. See Flag and Standard.
Colours, in the Latin and Greek churches, are
ufed to diftinguifh feveral myfteries and feafts celebra¬
ted therein.
Five colours only are regularly admitted in the
Latin church : thefe are white, green, red, violet, and
black. The white is for the mytteries of our Saviour,
the feaft of the Virgin, thofe of the angels, faints, and
confeffors : the red is for the myfteries and folemnities
of the holy facrament, the feafts of the apoftles and
martyrs ; the green for the time between pentecoft and
advent, and from epiphany to feptuagefima j the violet
in advent and Chriftmas, in vigils, rogations, &c. and
in votive mafles in time of war $ laftly, the black is for
the dead, and the ceremonies thereto belonging.
In the Greek church, the ufe of colours is almoft
aboliflied, as well as among us. Red was, in the Greek
church, the colour for Chriftmas and the dead, as black
among us. i
To COLOUR Strangers Goods, is when a freeman al¬
lows a foreigner to enter goods at the cuftomhoufe in
his name.
COLOUR-Mahing, the art of preparing the different
kinds of colours ufed in painting.
This art properly belongs to chemiftry ; and is one
of the moft curious, though leaft underftood, parts of
it. The principles on which colour-making depends
Z
COL
Colsrar.
making.
76 ]
are entirely different from thofe on which the theory
of other parts of chemiftry is founded ; and the practi¬
cal part being in the hands of thofe who find it their
intereft to conceal their methods as much as polfible,
it thence happens, that there is not only no diftinft
theory of this art, but fcarce a fingle good receipt for
making any one colour hath ever yet appeared. r
The firft general divifion of colours is into opaque Divifion of
and tranfparent. By the firft are meant fuch colourscol°urs'n.
as, when laid over paper, tvood, &c. cover them fully,
fo as to efface any other painting or ftain that mightyarenti
have been there before j the others are of fuch a na¬
ture as to leave the ground on which they are laid
vifible through them. Of the firft kind are white-
lead, red-lead, vermilion, &c. ; of the latter kind are
the colours ufed for illuminating maps, Sec.
Another divifion is into oil-colours and water-co-on and wa*
lours j by which is meant fuch as are appropriated to ter colours,
painting in oil and in water. Moft of thofe which
are proper for painting in water, are alfo proper for
being ufed in oil. There is, however, this remarkable
difference betwixt colours when mixed with water and
with oil, that fuch as are quite opaque in water will
become perfectly tranfparent in oil. Thus, blue ver-
diter, though exceedingly opaque in tvater, if ground
with oil, feems totally to diffolve, and will become
very tranfparent. The fame thing happens to fuch
colours as have for their balls the oxide of tin, alabafter,
or calcareous earth. The moft perfeCtly opaque co¬
lours in oil are fuch as have lead, mercury, or iron, for
their balls: to the latter, however, Pruffian blue is
an exception ; for though the bafis of that colour is
iron, it proves quite tranfparent when ground with oil.
In water colours, thofe prepared from metals, Pruf¬
fian blue alone excepted, are always opaque *, from ve¬
getables or animals, tranfparent. Coals, however,
whether vegetable or animal, are opaque both in water
and oil. ^
Colours, again, may be confidered as either Ample orsimple and
compound. The Ample ones are fuch as require no-compound
thing to be fuperadded to them, in order to make aones'
full ftrong colour, without regarding whether they are
formed of many or few ingredients ; and in this view,
white-lead, red-lead, vermilion, oxides of iron, &c. are
Ample colours. The compound ones are formed by
the union of two or more colouring fubftances j as blue
and yellow united together to form a green, red and
yellow to form an orange, a white earth or oxide with
the red colour of cochineal or brazil to form a lake,
&.c. j and thus carmine, lake, rofe-pink, Dutch-pink,
Englilh-pink, &c. are compound colours. 4
The luft and moft important divifion of colours isTrueand
into true and falfe. By the former are meant thofe falie c0"
which retain their colour under every poffible varietylours*
of circumftances, without fading in the leaft: the others
are fuch as do not •, but either lofe their colour alto¬
gether, or change to fome other. What is chiefly apt
to affeft colours, is their being expofed to the fun in
fummer, and to the cold air in winter : but to this
there is one exception, viz. white-lead ; which, when
ground with oil, retains its whitenefs if expofed to the
weather, but degenerates into a brownifh or yellowifh
colour if clofe kept. In water this fubftance is very
apt to lofe its colour, whether expofed to the air or
not.
COL
[ 2?7 ]
COL
^oiour-
uking.
\ancesof
ours pro-
ced by
oofure to
: fun and
6
■ the mix-
re of two
actable
ces.
7
lefts of
ids and
valies on
lours.
not. The great defideratum In colour-making is to
produce the firft kind of colours, viz. fuch as will not
fade by expofure to the weather ; and indeed it is to
be regretted, that the moll beautiful are in general the
lead permanent. It may, for the molt part, however,
be expefted, that the more Ample any colour is, the
lefs liable will it be to change upon expofure to the
air.
The great difficulty of knowing a priori whether a
colour will fade or not, is owing to our ignorance con¬
cerning the nature of colouring fubftances. With all
our difadvantages, however, we may obferve, that
whatever change of colour is produced in any fubftance
by expoiure to the fun and air, that colour to which
it changes will bid fair for being permanent, and
therefore ought to be employed where it can be done.
Of thefe changes the inllances are but very rare.
One is the purple of the ancients, which affumed
its colour by expofure to the fun, and confequently
was exceedingly permanent. Another is in the folu-
tion of filver ; which, being mixed with chalk, the
precipitate turns to purpliffi black where it is expofed
to the fun. A third is in folutions of indigo by alka¬
line fubftances, which conftantly appear green till ex¬
pofed to the air by fpreading them very thin, upon
which they become almoft inftantaneoufly blue, and
continue fo ever after. Sometimes, though ftill more
rarely, a very remarkable change of colour happens,
upon mixing two vegetable juices together. Almoft
the only inftance of this we have on the authority of
Mr George Forfter, who informs us, that the inhabi¬
tants of Otaheite dye their cloth of a crimfon colour,
by mixing together the yellow juice of a fmall fpecies
of fig with the greenifh juice of a kind of fern. But
the moft remarkable alterations of colour are effetled
by different metallic and faline folutions mixed with
certain animal or vegetable fubftances ; and with thefe
the colour-maker will be principally converfant.
It is a common obfervation in chemiftry, that acids
mixed with blue vegetable juices turn them red, and
alkalies green. It is equally certain, though not fo
generally known, that acids of all kinds generally tend
to heighten red colours, fo as to make them approach
to the fcarlet or true crimfon ; and alkalies to darken,
or make them approach to blue or purple. Mixed
with yellow colours, acids alfo univerfally tend to
brighten the yellow •, and alkalies to turn it to an
orange, and make it become more dull. But though
this is very generally the cafe, we are not to expe*5l
that all acids are equally powerful in this refpedt. The
nitric acid is found to heighten the moft of any, and
the muriatic acid the leall of the mineral ones. The
vegetable, as might be expelled, are lefs powerful
than the mineral acids. Thus, if with a tin&ure of
cochineal, either in water or alcohol, is mixed the
pure nitrous acid, it will change the colour to an ex¬
ceeding high orange or flame colour, which it will
impait to cloth. If fulphuric acid is ufed, a full
fcarlet, inclining to crimfon rather than orange, is
produced. With muriatic acid, a true crimfon colour,
bordering on purple, is the confequence. Alkalies,
both fixed and volatile, change the colour to a purple,’
which is brighter with the volatile than the fixed al¬
kalies.
Here it is obvious, that whatever colours are pro¬
duced by the mixture of different fubftances together } Colon**
the permanency of thefe colours can only be in pro- | making. ^
portion to the ability of fuch mixtures to refill the g
weather. Thus, fuppofe a high fcarlet or orange co-permanen_
lour is produced by means of fpirit of nitre, it is plain ey of co-
that, wTas fuch a colour expofed to the air, it could re-lours, by
main no longer than the fpirit of nitre which producedw!iat,clet9i^
it remained. In proportion, therefore, as the Ipint
of nitre was exhaled into the air, or otherwife deftroy-
ed, the colour behoved to fade, and at laft to be total¬
ly deftroyed j and thus, in proportion to the deftruedi-
bility of the fubftances by which colours are produced,
will be the difpofition of fuch colours to fade, or the
contrary. In this refpe£l alkalies are much more de-
ftruflible than acids, and confequently lefs proper for
the preparation of colours. With regard to acids, the
nitric feems moft deftruftihle, the fulphuric lefs fo, and
the muriatic the leaft of all. From the extreme ^fixity
of the phofphoric acid and fedative fait, perhaps they
might be of fervice in preferving colours.
As all colours, whether derived from the animal or
vegetable kingdom, muft be extrafled either by pure
water or fome other liquid menftruum, they cannot
be ufed for the purpofes of painting till the colouring
fubftance is united with fome earthy or folid matter p
capable of giving h a body, as the workmen call it j Opaque or
and, according to the nature of this fubftance, the co-tr^n’Parent
lour will be tranfparent or otherwife. This bafisform,
ought to be of the moft fixed and durable nature 5 ecj,
unalterable by the weather, by acids, or by alkalies.
It ought alfo to be of a pure white colour, and eafily
reducible into an impalpable powder. For this reafon
all earthy fubftances ftiould be avoided as being adled
upon by acids j and therefore, if any of thefe were
added to heighten the colour, they would not fail to
be deftroyed, and their effedft totally loft. Precipitates
of lead, bifmuth, &c. though exceedingly fine and
white, ought alfo to be avoided, as being apt to turn IO
black by expofure. The only fubftance to be chofen Oxide of
in preference to all others, is oxide of tin, prepared til)> ^
either by fire or the nitric acid. This is fo exceed-1110.^0"
mgly refractory as not only to be unalterable by al-f0rfinecc.
kalies, acids, or the fun and weather, but even by louts,
the focus of a very large burning mirror. It is be-
fides white as fnow, and capable of being reduced to
an extreme degree of finenefs, infomuch that it is
made ufe of for polifhing metallic fpeculums. For
thefe reafons, it is the moft proper bafis for all fine co- n
lours. For coarfe ones, the white precipitate of lead, Precipitate'
mentioned under the article Chemistry, will anfwerieac^mo^
very well. It hath a very ftrong body, i. e. is very
opaque*, and will cover well ; may be eafily ground
fine, and is much lefs apt to turn black than white
lead j it is befides very cheap, and may be prepared at
the fraall expence of 3d. per pound. l2
If what we have juft mnv obferved is attended to, General
the general method of extrafling colours from anymet^0^°f
vegetable or animal fubftance, and fixing them on a^'^n^
proper bafis, muft be very eafily underftcod. For
this purpofe, a quantity of oxide of tin is to be procu¬
red in proportion to the quantity of colour defired.
This muft be well rubbed in a glafs mortar, with a
little of the fubftance defigned for brightening the
colour, as alum, cream of tartar, fpirit of nitre, &c.
after which it muft be dried, and left for fome time,
that
13
Effects ot
different
kinds of
falls.
COL f 278 ]
Golouri tliat tlie union between the two fubftanees may be eye-bright, iris, &c,
making, as perfect as poflible. If the colour is to be a very
fine one, fuppofe from cochineal, the colouring mat¬
ter muft be extraded with alcohol without heat.
When the fpirit is fufficiently impregnated, it is to
be poured by little and little upon the oxide, rub¬
bing it conftantly, in order to diftribute the colour
equally through all parts of the oxide. The fpirit foon
evaporates, and leaves the oxide coloured with the co¬
chineal. More of the tin&ure is then to be poured
on, rubbing the mixture conftantly as before 5 and
thus, with proper management, may very beautiful
colours, not inferior to the beft carmine, be prepared
at a moderate expence. If, inftead of cochineal, we
fubftitute brazil-wood, turmeric, logwood, &c. differ¬
ent kinds of red, yellow, and purple, will be produced.
For the coarfer colours, aqueous decoftions aje to be
ufed in a fimilar manner j only, as thefe are much
longer in evaporating than the alcohol, very little
muft be poured on at a time, and the colours ought
to be made in large quantity, on account of the tedi-
oufnefs of the procefs.
Hitherto we have confidered only the effe&s of the
pure and fimple falls, viz. acids and alkalies, on differ¬
ent colours; but by combining the acids with alka¬
lies, earths, or metals, thefe effects may be varied
almoft in infinitum ; neither is there any rule yet laid
down by which we can judge a priori of the changes
of colour that will happen on the admixture of this or
that particular fait with any colouring fubftance. In
general, the perfeft neutrals a£t weakly $ the imper-
fe& ones, efpecially thofe formed from metals, much
more powerfully. Alum and fal ammoniac confider-
ably heighten the colour of cochineal, brazil, turme¬
ric, fuftic, madder, logwood, &c. The fame thing
is done, though in a lefs degree, by common fait,
Glauber’s fait, nitre, and many other neutrals. So¬
lutions of iron in all the acids ftrike a black with
every one of the above-mentioned fubftances $ and
likewife with fumach, galls, and other aftringents.
Solutions of lead, or faccharum faturni, univerfally
debafe red colours to a dull purple. Solution of cop¬
per changes the purple colour of logwood to a pretty
good blue \ and, in general, folutions of this metal are
friendly to blue colours. The effe61:s of folutions of
gold, filver, and mercury, are not fo well known $
they feem to produce dark colours of no great beauty.
Solution of mo^ Powerful folution, however, with regard to
tin the moft a great number of colours, is that of tin, made in ni-
powerful. tro-muriatic acid. Hence we may fee the fallacy of
* See CAro-Mr Delaval’s hypothefis concerning colours*, that
matics, the leaft refrangible ones are produced by the moft
denfe metals: for tin, which hath the leaft denfity of
any metal, hath yet, in a ftate of folution, the moft ex¬
traordinary effe&s upon the leaft refrangible colours as
well as thofe that are moft fo. The colour of cochi¬
neal is changed by it into the moft beautiful fcarlet j
a fimilar change is made upon the colouring matter
of gum-lac. Brazil-wood is made to yield a fine pur-
plifti crimfon j logwood, a beautiful dark purple ; tur¬
meric, fuftic, weld, and all yellow-colouring woods and
flowers, are made to communicate colours far more
beautiful than can be got from them by any other me¬
thod. The blue colour of the flowers of violets,
N'
e o l
are heightened fo as to equal, Colom. 11
if not excel, the blue produced by a folution of cop- making, i|
per in volatile alkali. In ftiort, this folution feems 1
to be of much more extenfive ufe in colour-making,
when properly applied, than any thing hitherto thought
of. It is not, however, univerfally lerviceable. The
colour of madder it totally deftroys, and likewife that
of faf-flower, changing them both to a dull orange.
It likewife fpoils the colour of archil $ and what is ' |l
very remarkable, the fine red colour of tin&ure of rofes
made with fulphuric acid is by folution of tin changed
to a dirty green. J5 j
The moft: important confideration in colour-making Diredions
is to make choice of fuch materials as produce the for the
moft durable colours *, and if thefe can be produeed, ch°ice of I
an ordinary colour from them is to be preferred to
a bright one from thofe which fade fooner. In what
the difference confifts between the colours that fade
and thofe which do not, is not known with any de¬
gree of certainty. From fome appearances it would
feem, that thofe fubftances which are moft remarkable
for keeping their colour, contain a vifcous glutinous
matter, fo combined with a refinous one as to be fo-
luble both in water and alcohol. The moft durable
red colour is prepared from gum-lac. This is very
ftrongly refinous, though at the fame time fo far
glutinous, that the colouring matter can be extra&ed
from it by water. Next to gum-lac are madder-roots
and cochineal. The madder is an exceedingly pene¬
trating fubftance, infomuch that, when given to ani¬
mals along with their food, it tinges their bones of a
deep red colour. Its colouring matter is foluble both
in water and alcohol. Along with the pure red, how¬
ever, there is in madder a kind of vifcous aftringent
fubftance, of a dark brown colour, which feems to
give the durability to the whole. The colouring
matter of cochineal, though foluble both in water and
alcohol, is very tenacious and mucilaginous, in which
it bears fome refemblance to the purpura of the an¬
cients, which kept its colour exceedingly well. Where
the colours are fugitive, the tinging fubftance feems to
be too refinous or too mucilaginous. Thus the colours
of brazil, turmeric, &c. are very refinous, efpecially
the latter, infomuch that the colouring matter of tur¬
meric can fcarcely be extra&ed by water. Both thefe
are periftiable, though beautiful colours j and much
more are the red, purple, and blue flowers, commonly
to be met with. Thefe feem to be entirely mucila¬
ginous, without the leaft quantity of refinous matter.
The yellow flowers are different, and in general keep
their colour pretty well. rWhether it would be pofli¬
ble, by adding occafionally a proper quantity of gum
or refin, to make the fugitive colours more durable,
hath not yet been tried, but feems to have fome proba-
bility. What tends a little to confirm this, is a pro- Mi Hellotl
cefs given by M. Hellot for imparting durability to method oi
the colour of brazil. It confifts only in letting decoc-
tions of the wood ftand for fome time in wooden calks o“r£ra]
till they grow ftale and ropy. Pieces of woollen cloth zli.WOod.
now dyed in the liquor acquired a colour fo durable,
that they were not in the leaft altered by expofure to
the air during four months in the winter feafon.
Whether this change in the durability of the colour
was effe&ed by the ropinefs following the fermenta¬
tion,
lolour-
laking.
>9 .
r Lew.s’s
iferva-
JBS.
COL [ 279
tion, or by fome other caufe, or whether the experi¬
ment can be at all depended upon, muft be referred to
future obfervation.
Having thus collected all that can as yet be de¬
pended upon for eftablilhing a general theory of co¬
lour-making, we fhall now proceed to give an account
of the different pigments generally to be met with in
the colour-fhops.
I. Black. Thefe are lamp-black, ivory-black, blue-
black, and Indian-ink. The firft is the fineft of what
are called the foot-blacks, and is more ufed than any
other. Its preparation is defcribed in the Swedifh
Tranfaflions for the year 1754, as a procefs dependent
on the making of common refin : the impure refinous
juice colledted from incifions made in pine and fir
trees, is boiled down with a little water, and drained
whilft hot through a bag $ the dregs and pieces of
bark left in the drainer are burnt in a low oven,
from which the fmoke is conveyed through a long
palfage into a fquare chamber, having an opening on
the top on which is a large fack made of thin woollen
duff: the foot, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the
chamber, from whence it is fwept out once in two or
three days, and partly in the fack, which is now and
then gently druck upon, both for fhaking down the
foot, and for clearing the interdices betwixt the
threads, fo as to procure a fufficient draught of air
through it. In this manner lamp-black is prepared at
the turpentine houfes in England, from the dregs and
refufe of the refinous matters which are there manu-
fa6!ured.
On this fubjeft Dr Lewis hath fome curious obfer-
vations. “ The foot (fays he) arifing in common
chimneys, from the more oily or refinous woods, as the
fir and pine, is obferved to contain more diffoluble
matter than that from the other woods j and this dif¬
foluble matter appears, in the former, to be more of
an oily or refinous nature than in the latter, alcohol
extradling it mod powerfully from the one, and water
from the other. The oilinefs and folubility of the
foot feeming therefore to depend on thofe of the
fubjefl it is made from, it has been thought that lamp¬
black mud poflefs thefe qualities in a greater degree
than any kind of common foot. Neverthelefs, on ex¬
amining feveral parcels of lamp-black, procured from
different diops, I could not find that it gave any tinc¬
ture at all, either to alcohol or to water.
Sufpefting fome midake or fophidication, or that
the lamp-black had been burnt or charred, as it is to
fit it for fome particular ules, I prepared myfelf fome
foot from linfeed-oil, by hanging a large copper pan
over the flame of a lamp to receive its fmoke. In this
manner the more curious artids prepare lamp-black
for the nicer purpofes j and from this collection of it
from the flame of a lamp, the pigment probably recei¬
ved its name. The foot fo prepared gave no tinCture
either to water or to alcohol, any more than the com¬
mon lamp-black of the fhops. I tried different kinds
of oily and refinous bodies with the fame refult $ even
the foots obtained from fifb oils and tallow did not ap¬
pear to differ from thofe of the vegetable oils and re¬
fins. They were all of a finer colour than the lamp¬
black commonly fold.
“ Some foot was colleded in like manner from fir
and other woods, by burning fmall pieces of them
■3
]
Colour-
making.
COL
flovvly under a copper-pan. All the foots were of a
deeper black colour than thofe obtained from the fame
kinds of wood in a common chimney $ and very little, y
if at all, inferior to thofe of the oils : they gave only
a juft difcernible tinfture to water and alcohol, while
the foots of the chimney imparted a ftrong deep one
to both. The foot of mineral bitumens, in this clofe
ivay of burning, appears to be of the fame qualities with
thofe of woods, oil, and refins : in fome parts of Ger¬
many, great quantities of good lamp-black are pre¬
pared from a kind of pit-coal.
“ It appears, therefore, that the differences of foots
do not depend altogether on the qualities of the fub-
je£ls, but in a great meafure on the manner in which
the fubjeft is burnt, or the foot caught. The foots
produced in common chimneys, from different kinds of
wood, refinous and not refinous, dry and green, do
not differ near fo much from one another, as thofe
which are produced from one kind of wood in a com¬
mon chimney, and in the confined way of burning
above mentioned. 20
Ivory-black is prepared from ivory or bones burnt Ivory-
in a clofe veffel. This, when finely ground, forms atlack’
more beautiful and deeper colour than lamp-black $
but in the common methods of manufacturing, it is fo
much adulterated with charcoal-dud, and fo grofsly le¬
vigated, as to be unfit for ufe. An opaque deep black
for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory-black
with gum water, or with the liquor which fettles from
the whites of eggs after they have been fuffered to
ftand a little. Some ufe gum water and the whites
of eggs together, and report, that a fmall addition of
the latter makes the mixture flow more freely from
the pencil, and improves its gloflinefs. It may be ob¬
ferved, however, that though ivory-black makes the
deepeft colour in W'ater as well as in oil painting, yet
it is not on this account always to be preferred to
other black pigments. A deep jet-black colour is fel-
dom wanted in painting 5 and in the lighter ftiades,
whether obtained by diluting the black with w'hite
bodies, or by applying it thin on a white ground, the
particular beauty of the ivory-black is in a great mea¬
fure loft. 21
Blue black is faid to be prepared from the burnt Blue-Mack.
ftalks and tendrils of the vine. Thefe, however, the
colour-makers feldom give themfelves the trouble of
procuring, but fubftitute in its place a mixture of ivory-
black, and the common blue ufed for clothes. 22
Indian-ink is an excellent black for water-colours. Indian-ink.
It hath been difcovered by Dr Lewis to confift of a
mixture of lamp-black and common glue. Ivory black,
or charcoal, he found to anfwer equally well, provided
they w'ere levigated to a fufficient degree of finenefs,
which indeed requires no fmall trouble. 2.
2. White. The white colours commonly to be met White-
with are, white-flake, white-lead, calcined hartffiorn, G0l°urs*
pearl-white, Spaniffi-white, egg-fliell-white, and ni¬
trate of bifmuth. The flake-white and white-lead are
properly the fame. The preparation of the former is
kept a fecret; the method of preparing the latter is
defcribed under Chemistry, N° 1856. Thefe are the
only whites that can be ufed in oil, all the reft being
tranfparent unlefs they are laid on with water. Cal¬
cined hartdiorn is the mod ufeful of the earthy whites,
as being the lead alkaline. Spanifti white is only
finely
•Colour-
making.
c o
finely prepared chalk.
24
?te<i co¬
lours.
L
Pearl-white is
oyfter-ftiells 5 and egg-thell white from the (hells of
' eggs. All thefe, by their attraftion for acids, mull
neceflarily dellroy fuch colours as have any acid or
metallic fait in their compofition. The nitrate of bif-
muth is apt to turn black, as are alfo flake-white and
white-lead, when ufed in water. The white precipi¬
tate of lead recommended under Chemistry, N° 1856.
is greatly fuperior as a water-colour to all thefe, being
perfeflly free of any alkaline quality, and not at all
apt to lofe its own colour, or to injure that of other fub-
ffances. It is a carbonate of lead.
3. Red. The red colours ufed in painting are of
two forts, viz. thofe which incline to the purple, and
fuch as are of a full fcarlet, and tend rather to the orange.
The firlt are carmine, lake, rofe-pink, red-ochre, and
Venetian-red. The fecond are vermilion, red-lead,
fcarlet-ochre, common Indian red, Spanifli-brown, and
terra di Sienna, burnt.
We have already laid down fome general rules for
the preparation of carmine and lake. Particular re¬
ceipts have been delivered with the greateft confidence
for making thefe fine colours ; but all of them muft
neceflarily prove ineffectual, becaufe an earthy balls
is recommended for ftriking the colour upon. From
the principles of chemiftry, however, we are certain,
that if nitric acid, or folution of tin, is made ufe of
for brightening a colour made with any earthy bafis, it
muft infallibly be deftroyed by that bafis, by reafon of
its alkaline quality. Carmine is the brighteft and molt
beautiful red colour known at prefent j the belt comes
from France. Lake differs from it in being capable
of mixture with oil, which carmine is not, unlefs with
great difficulty. The former is alfo much more in¬
clined to purple than carmine. This laff quality, how¬
ever, is reckoned a defeat j and accordingly, the more
that lake approaches to the fcarlet or true crimfon, the
more it is valued. On dropping folution of tin into
an aqueous timffure of brazil wood, a beautiful preci¬
pitate falls, of a purplifli crimfon colour. This may
be very well fubftituted in place of the dearer lakes on
many occafions.
Rofe-pink is a very beautiful colour, inclining more
to the purple than fcarlet. It feems to be made of chalk,
coloured with a decoflion of brazil-wood, heightened
by an alkaline fait ; for which reafon it is exceedingly
perifhable, and but little effeemed. The colour might
be made much more durable, as well as better, by em¬
ploying for a bafis the white precipitate of lead above-
mentioned, and brightening it with folution of tin.
Red ochre and Venetian red differ in nothing from
the colcothar of vitriol well calcined. The oxides of
iron may be made to appear either purplifli, or in¬
clining to the fcarlet, according to the manner in which
the calcination is performed. If the matter is per-
fe&ly deprived of its phlogifton, and uibjefted to an
intenfe fire, it always turns out red ; but the. mixture
of a fmall quantity of inflammable matter gives it a pur¬
plifli caff. Hence various paints are kept in the (hops
under different names, which yet differ from each other
only in the flight circumftances above mentioned j and
fuch are the fcarlet-ochre, Spanifli brown, and terra
di Sienna burnt. It is remarkable, that the oxides of
iron never (how their colour till they become cold.
Colour-
making.
25
[ 280 ] ' CO L
made from Colcothar of vitriol, while hot, always appears of a
very dark dulky purple.
Of the preparation of vermilion and red-lead, an ac¬
count is given under the article Chemistry, N° 1701.
1832. Thefe are very durable colours : the firft is the
belt red ufed in oil painting, but does not anfwer well
in water 5 the other is rather an orange •, and, like
other preparations of lead, is in fome cafes apt to turn
black.
4. Orange. The only true orange-coloured paints Orange
are red orpiment and orange lake. The firff is a fub-00^01115,
limate formed of arfenic and fulphur j the other may
be prepared from turmeric infilled in alcohol having
its colour ftruck upon oxide of tin, and brightened
by a folution of that metal. All the lhades of orange,
however, may be extemporaneoufiy prepared by mix¬
ing red and yellow colours together, in due propor¬
tions. -
5. Yellow. The yellow paints moft commonly in Yellow
ufe are, king’s-yellow, Naples-yellow, Dutch-pink,colouIS*
Englifti-pink, mafticot, common orpiment, yellow-
ochre, terra di Sienna unburnt, and turpith mineral.
King’s-yellow is evidently an arfenical preparation.
Its colour is exceedingly beautiful, but apt to fade ;
on which account, and its great price, it is feldom
ufed.
Naples-yellow was for a long time thought to be a
preparation of arfenic, but is now difcovered to have
lead for its bafis. It is therefore apt to turn black and
lofe its colour, which makes it the lefs valuable. It is
neverthelefs ufed in preference to king’s-yellow, on ac¬
count of its inferiority in price. This colour is parti¬
cularly liable to be fpoiled by iron when moiff, and
therefore fliould never be touched by that metal unlefs -
previoufly ground in oil.
Dutch-pink is faid to be prepared by ftriking the
colour of yellow berries upon finely levigated chalk.
But of this there is great reafon to doubt ; the bafis
of Dutch-pink feems much more hard and gritty than
chalk, and its colour more durable than thofe ftruck
upon that earth ufually are. Very good yellows may
be prepared with the white precipitate of lead, for¬
merly mentioned, by ufing either yellow berries, fuftic,
or any other fubflance capable of yielding that colour.
Englifti pink is paler than the Dutch, and keeps its
colour greatly worfe.
Mallicot is prepared by calcining white-lead till it
aflumes a yellowifh colour. It is not apt to change,
but the colour is fo dull that it is feldom ufed either in
oil or water.
Common orpiment is a pretty bright greenifti yel¬
low, prepared by fubliming arfenic with fulphur. Its
naufeous fmell, which is greatly increafed by grinding
in oil, makes it very difagreeable j nor does it keep its
colour for any length of time. That kind of orpiment
leaft inclined to green is to be preferred for the pur-
pofes of painting.
Yellow-ochre and terra di Sienna are ferruginous
earths, capable of becoming red by calcination. Green
vitriol precipitated by lime may be advantageoufly fub¬
ftituted for either of them. See Chemistry.
Turpith mineral is but little ufed in painting, though
its fine yellow colour feems greatly to recommend it.
This preparation is in all probability very durable ;
. , and
COL [2
Catour- and Hiould feem therefore worthy of a preference either
making, to king’s or Naples yellow’. See CHEMISTRY Index.
“—v  Gamboge is a paint that can only be ufed in water,
and is the mod common yellow’ made ufe of for co¬
louring maps, &c.; but for this it is not very proper)
being neither quite tranfparent, nor very durable,
ireenco- 6. Green. The only fimple green colour that hath
mrs. a tolerable degree of brightnefs is verdigris, or pre¬
parations of it. This, however, though a very beau¬
tiful colour, is far from being durable. It is improved
in colour, though not in durability, by ditTolution and
cryftallization in diftilled vinegar, in which date it is
called dijlilled verdigris. A mere durable water colour
is made by diffolving the verdigris in cream of tar¬
tar, or rather the pure tartaric acid ; but in oil this is
found to be equally fugitive with the verdigris itfelf.
See Chemistry Index.
Compound greens are either made of Pruffian or
fome other blue, mixed with yellow ; but in whatever
way thefe colours can be compounded, the beauty of
the green produced is greatly inferior to diddled, or
even common verdigris. The tartaric folution of
verdigris, mixed with a little gamboge, is the bed
traufparent green water-colour we have had an oppor¬
tunity of trying; and a mixture of Pruffian blue and
turpith-mineral is probably the bed opaque one.
Sap-green is a fimple colour, but exceedinglv infe¬
rior to diddled verdigris, or even to the tartaric
folution of verdigris with gamboge. It is prepared
from the juice of unripe buckthorn berries evaporated
to the confidence of a gum. Its green colour is greatly
inclined to yellow. A kind of compound green has
been fometimes ufed, called Pruffian. green, which con-
fids only of Prudian blue and yellow ochre. It has
no beauty, nor is it durable. It is prepared as Pruf¬
fian blue, only not pouring on any muriatic acid to
diffolve the ochreous fediment which falls at the fame
time.
Another green fometimes ufed is called ierre verte.
This is a native earth, probably impregnated with cop¬
per. It is of a bluidi-green colour, much of that tint
called fea-green. It is gritty, and therefore mud be
well levigated before it is uled. Its colour is durable,
2j but not very bright.
Blue co- 7. B/ue. The blue colours are ultramarine, Pruf-
tmrs. fian blue, verditer, fmalt, bice, and indigo. Of thefe
the ultramarine is the fined, but its great price hin¬
ders it being much ufed. It is a preparation from
lapis lazuli ; is an exceeding bright colour, and never
fades with whatever fubdance it is mixed. It is now,
however, in a great meafure fuptrfeded by Pruffian
blue, to the difadvantage of painting in general 5 as
Prufiian blue, though very beautiful, is far from being
durable. For an account of its preparations iee the
article Ultramarine.
The procefs for making Pruffian blue is defcribed,
and its nature fully confidered, under CHEMISTRY,
N° 774 •, fo that it is fufficient here to obferve, that
Pruffian blue is to be accounted of the bed quality
when it is deep, bright, and not inclined to purple.
It ought to be tried by mixture with white lead, as
the brightnefs of the colour will appear much more
when diluted than when concentrated in the! lumps of
the blue itfelf.
The preparation of blue verditer is kept a fecret, and
Vol. VI. Part I.
81 1 COL
the bed chemids have been puzzled to find out the Colour-
method. The colour is exceedingly bright, and has a | i' ak-'1g- <
confiderable tinge of green. A method of preparing ' * ' 1 J
a colour equally beautiful, and agreeing in all refpe&s
with what is lold in the (hops, except that of effer-
vefcing with acids, we have found to be as follows :
Diffolve copper in drong caudic alkali, until the liquid
has affumed a very deep blue colour 5 and the deeper
this colour is, the finer will your verditer be. When
the mendruum has diffolved as much of the metal as it
can take up, it is to be poured out into a broad and
well glazed earthen pan, held over a very gentle fire j
and from the moment it is put on, the liquor is to be
continually agitated with a wooden fpatula, fo that the
liquor may be heated as equally as poffible. The
whole fecret confids in properly regulating the degree
of heat j for if it exceeds the due proportion ever fo
little, the verditer will turn out of a dirty green. The
proper degree is about 90° of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter. In this gentle heat the alkali ilowly evaporates j
and in proportion to its doing fo the verditer falls to
the bottom. After it is once formed, freed from the
alkaline liquor, and dried, it can bear the effufion of
boiling water- without the lead injury. Dr Prieltley,
in his fixth volume, takes notice, that a folution of
copper in volatile alkali affords a blue precipitate by
heat, but without taking notice of the requifites for its
fuccel-. In making this preparation it is neceffary to
diffolve copper in its metallic date j for the folution of
any oxide will not yield a blue but a green colour.
This colour is durable in water, but diffolves in oil,
and has then all the inconveniences of verdigris above
mentioned.
Smalt is g’afs coloured with zaffre, a preparation
from cobalt *. It is commonly fo grofsly powdered * See Zaf*
that it cannot be ufed in painting, and its texture is fo/reand
hard that it cannot eafily be levigated. Its colour Smalt.
exceedingly bright and durable $ lo that when, finely
levigated it is ufed indead of ultramarine. The mod
proper materials for levigating this fubdance feem to
be the plates of M. Reaumur’s porcelain recommended
by Dr Lrwis. See Chemistry Index. For the pre-
para’ion and qualities of bice, fee the articles AEMENUS
Lapis and BlCE.
Indigo is but little ufed in painting either in oil or
water, on account of the dulnefs of the colour. It re¬
quires no other preparation than being wadted over.
Its goodnefs is know n by the darknefs and brightnefs of
the colour. See INDIGO.
8. Purple. The only fimple colour of this kind ufed Purple co¬
at prefent is colcothar of vitriol. A beautiful purple‘ours*
lake may be prepared from logwood by means of folu¬
tion of tin ; but this method of preparing colours is
very little known as yet. ^
9. Brown. The brown colours are, bidre, brown- Brown ca-
ochre, Cologne-earth, umber, and brown-pink. Under lours.
the article Bistre is given a procefs for making that
colour, by infufing f_>ot in water, pouring off the tine- 31
ture, and then evaporating it to an extrafl j but Dr ^eWis’s
Lewi- is of opinion, with M. Landois in the French
Encyclopedie, that the foot is either boiled in water,biftre™1^
or grourd . :th a little liquid of fome kind into a fmooth
pafte ; it hen d luted with more water, and after
danding t r about half an hour till the groffer fub-
ftance of the foot has fettled, the liquor is poured off
N n into
COL [28
Colour- into another veffe], and fet by for two or three days,
making that the finer parts may fall to the bottom, and this
fine matter is the biftre. This is a very ufeful colour
in water, being exceedingly fine, durable, and not apt
to fpoil any other colours with which it is mixed. The
brown pink is faid to confift of chalk tinged with the
colouring matter of fuflic, heightened by fixed alka¬
line falls. It is therefore very perithable, and is fel-
dom ufed. The other browns are a kind of ochreous
earths; for a defcription of which fee their proper ar¬
ticles.
Having now confidered moll of the colouring fub-
ftances ufually to be met with in the {hops, we {hall
next take notice of fome attempts that have been made
to produce all the different colours from vegetables,
after the manner of lakes •, which, though the methods
hitherto tried have for the moll part failed of fuccefs,
may perhaps fome time or other be found applicable to
valuable purpofes.
Black from From infufions of aftringent vegetables mixed with
gri?en vitriol, is produced a deep black liquor of very
^ extenfive ufe in dyeing*. The fubftances which pro¬
duce the deepeft blacks are galls and logwood. When
a deco6Mon or infufion of the galls is dropped into a
folution of the vitriol largely diluted with water, the
fir ft drops produce bluifh or purplifti red clouds, which
foon mingling with the liquor, turn it uniformly of
their own colour. It feems to be on the quality of
the water that this difference in the colour depends.
With diftilled water, or the common fpring waters,
the mixture is always blue. If we previoully diflblve
in the water the moft minute quantity of any alkaline
fait, too fmall to be difcovered by any of the common
means by which waters are ufually tried, or if the
water is in the lead; putrid, the colour of the mixture
proves purple or reddifti. Rain-water, caught as it
falls from the clouds in an open field in clean glafs-
veffels, gives a blue ; but fuch as is collected from the
tops of the houfes, grows purple with the mixture of
vitriol and galls : from whence it may be prefumed,
that this laft has contracted a putrid tendency, or re¬
ceived an alkaline impregnation, though fo flight as not
to be fenfible on other ways of trial.
Both the purple and blue liquors, on adding more
of the aftringent infufion, deepen to a black, more
or lefs intenfe according to the nature of dilution : if
the mixture proves of a deep opaque blacknefs, it again
becomes bluifh or purplifti when further diluted. If
fuffered to ftand in this diluted ftate for two or three
days, the colouring matter fettles to the bottom in
form of a fine black mud, which by {lightly {baking
the veffel is diffufed again through the liquor, and
tinges it of its former colour. When the mixture is
of a full blacknefs, this feparation does not happen, or
in a far lefs degree ; for though a part of the black mat¬
ter precipitates in (landing, yet fo much remains dif-
folved, that the liquor continues black. This fufpen-
fion of the colouring fubftance, in the black liquid,
mav be attributed in part to the gummy matter of the
aftringent infufion increafing the confiftence of the
watery fluid ", for the feparation is retarded in the
diluted mixture by a fmall addition of gum arabic.
If the mixture either in its black or diluted ftate is
poured into a filter, the liquor paffes through colour¬
ed } only a part of the black matter remaining on the
32
Attempts
to make
lake of all
colours.
33
2 ] COL
filter. The filtered liquor on flanding for fome time Colour,
becomes turbid and full of fine black flakes : being making,
freed from thefe by a fecond filtration, it again puts —Y'—'
on the fame appearance: and thus repeatedly till all
the colouring parts are feparated, and the liquor has be¬
come colourlefs.
Dr Lewis, from whofe Philofophieal Commerce of
Arts this account is taken, further informs us, that this
colouring matter, when feparated from the liquor and
dried, appeared of a deep black, which did not feem
to have fuffered any change from the air by expofure
for upwards of four months. Made red hot, it glowed
and burnt, but did not flame, and became a rufty
brown powder, which was readily attradled by a mag¬
netic bar j though in its black ftate the magnet had
no a61 ion upon it. Sulphuric acid, diluted with wa¬
ter and digefted on the black powder, diffolved the
greateft part of it, leaving only a very fmall quantity
of whitiflx matter. Solution of pure fixed alkaline
fait diffolved very little of it : the liquor received a
reddifti brown colour, and the powder became blackiflv
brown. This refiduum was attracted by the magnet
after being red hot, though not before : the alkaline
tinfture, paffed through a filter, and mixed %vith a
folution of green vitriol, {truck a deep brownifti black
colour, nearly the fame with that which refults from
mixing with the vitriolic folution an alkaline tinflure
of galls. ^
It hath alfo been attempted to produce black from Black from
a combination of other colours 5 as green may be pro-a eombina.
duced from a mixture of blue and yellow. M. le Blon,1*011 °^0-
in his Harmony of Colours, gives a method of forming ^^c0”
blaek, by mixing together the three colours called
primitive, viz. blue, red, and yellow ; and M. Caftel,
in his Optique des Couleurs, publilhed in 1740, fays
that this compound black has an advantage in paint¬
ing, above the fimple ones, of anfvvering better for
the darkening of other colours. Thus, if blue, by the
addition of black, is to be darkened into the colour
called blue-blach, the fimple blacks, according to him,
if ufed in fufficient quantity to produce the requifite
deepnefs, conceal the blue, while the compound blacks
leave it diftinguiftiable. Le Blon does not mention
the proportion of the three colours neeeffary for pro¬
ducing black. Caftel direfls 15 parts of blue, five of
red, and three of yellow ; but takes notice that thefs
proportions are rather fpeculatively than practical¬
ly juft, and that the eye only can be the true judge j
our colours all being very imperfeCt, and our pigments
or other bodies of one denomination of colour being
very unequal in their degree of intenfity. He ob-
ferves, that the pigments ftiould all be of the deepeft
and darkeft kind j and that inftead of taking one pig¬
ment for each colour, it is better to take as many as
can be got; for the greater difcord there is of hete¬
rogeneous and difcordant drugs, the more true and
beautiful, he fays, will the black be, and the more
capable of uniting with all other colours, without
fupprefling them, and even without making them
tawny.
Dr Lewis acquaints us, that by mixing different
blue, red, and yellow colours, he has not been able to
produce a perfedl black; but has often obtained from
them very dark colours, fuch as may be called brown-
blacks} or gray-blacks ; fuch as we commonly fee in the
dark
COL [ 283 ] COL
Colour- dark parts of paintings, and fuch as the charcoal and
nuking, foot black* appear when diluted a little. The ingre-
» 1 dients being each of a dark deep colour is a very necef-
fary condition ; for bright blues, bright reds, and bright
yellows, mixed in fuch proportions that neither colour
prevailed, produced only a gray. In effe£t, all com-
pofitions of this kind, phyfically confidered, can be no
other than grays, or fome of the intermediate tints
betwreen whitenef* and da>-knefs } and thefe grays will
be fo much the lighter or darker as the component co¬
lours of themfelves are bright or dark.
With regard to the extra&ion of the colouring
matter from the different kinds of vegetables com¬
monly to be met with of all colours, this would cer¬
tainly be a very valuable acquifition, could the colours
fo procured be made durable. On this fubjeft nothing
hath yet appeared more fatisfadlory than what is de¬
livered by Dr Lewis in his notes on Neumann’s cbe-
miftry. His obfervations are curious, but promife very
little fuccefs to any who fhall attempt to fix thefe
vegetable colours.
3r Lewis’s “ Among the infinite variety of colours (fays he),
xperi- which glow in the flowers of plants, there are very
nentson £evy w^ich have any durability, or whofe fugitive
ofours. 6 beauty can be arrefted by art, fo as to be applied to
any valuable purpofes. The only permanent ones are
the yellow, the red, the blue ; and all the intermediate
(hades of purple, crimfon, violet, &c. are extremely
perilhable. Many of thefe flowers lofe their colours
on being barely dried •, efpecially if they are dried
(lowly, as has been ufually dire£ted, in a fliady, and
not warm place. The colours of all of them perifh
on keeping even in the clofeft veflels. The more
haflily they are dried, and the more perfeflly they
are fecured from the air, the longer they retain their
beauty. The colouring matter extra&ed and ap¬
plied on other bodies is ftill more perifhable : often¬
times it is changed or deftroyed in the hands of the
operator.
“ The colour of many blue flowers is extra£led by
infufion in water; but there are fome from which water
gains only reddifh or purplifh blue. Of thofe that have
been tried there is not one which gives any blue tinc¬
ture to fpirituous liquors : fome give no colour at all,
and fome a reddifli one. The juice prefled out from
the frefh flowers is for the moft part blue. The blue
juices and infufions are changed red by all acids. The
muriatic acid feems to ftrike the moft florid red. The
flowers themfelves, macerated in acid liquors, impart
alfo a deep red tindlure. Alkalies, both fixed and
volatile, and lime-water, change them to a green.
Thofe infufions of the juices which have nothing of
the native colour of the flowers, fuffer the fame changes
from the addition of acid and alkaline liquors : even
when the flowers have been kept till their colour is
loft, infufions made from them acquire ftill a red co¬
lour from the one, and a green from the other, though
in a lefs degree than when the flowers were frefti.
The red colour produced by acids is fcarcely more
durable than the original blue : applied upon other
bodies and expofed to the air, it gradually degenerates
into a faintifh purple, and at length difappears, leaving
hardly any ftain behind. The green produced by
alkalies changes to a yellow, which does not fade fo
fbon. The green, by lime-water, is more permanent
and more beautiful *, green lakes, prepared from thefe Colour-
flowers by lime-water, have been ufed as pigments by making,
the painter. The flowers of cyanus have been greatly " v""
recommended, as affording elegant and durable blue
pigments j but I have never been able to extract from
them any blue colour at all. They retain their colour
indeed, when haftily dried, longer than fome other
blue flowers j but they communicate nothing of it to
any kind of menftruum. Infufions of them in watery,
fpirituous, and oily liquors, are all of them more or
Ids of a reddilh call, without any tendency to blue.
Alum, which is faid to heighten and preferve their
blue colour, changes it, like that of other blue flowers,
to a purpiifh red j acids to a deep red ; alkalies and
lime-water to a green : folution of tin added to the
watery infufinn, turns it to a fine crimfon j on Hand¬
ing, a beautiful red faecula fubfides, but it lofes all
its colour as foon as it is dry. The watery infufion,
infpiffated to the confiftence of an extradl, appears of
a dark reddilh brown : an extraft made with rectified
fpirit is of a purplifh colour. The colour of both ex-
tradts fpread thin, and expofed to the air, quickly
fades. The flowers employed in thefe experiments
were thofe of the common blue-bottle of the corn¬
fields.
“ Red flowers readily communicate their own red
colour to watery menftrua ; among thofe that have
been tried, there is not one exception. Thofe of a
full red colour give to rediified fpirit alfo a deep red
tin&ure, brighter, though fomewhat paler, than the
watery infufion' but the lighter red flowers, and
thofe which have a tendency to purplifh, impart very
little colour to fpirit, and feem to partake more of the
nature of the blue flowers than of the pure red. Infu¬
fions of red flowers are fuppofed to be heightened by
acids, and turn green by alkalies, like thofe of the
blue ; but this is far from being univerfal. Among
thefe I have examined, the rofe-colours and purplifh
reds were changed nearly in the fame manner as the
blues ; but the full deep reds were not. The deep
infufion of red poppies is changed by alkalies, not -to a
green, but to dulky purple.
“ The colours of yellow flowers, whether pale or
deep, are in general durable. Many of them are as
much fo, perhaps, as any of the native colours of ve¬
getables. The colour is extrafled both by water and
by fpirit. The watery infufions are the deepeft. Nei¬
ther alkalies nor acids alter the fpecies of the colour ;
though both of them vary its fhade ; acids rendering
it paler, and alkalies deeper •, alum likewife confider-
ably heightens it, though not fo much as alkalies.
An infufion of the flowers, made in alkaline ley, pre¬
cipitated by alum, gives a durable yellow lake. In fome
of the deep reddifh yellow, or orange-coloured flowers,
the yellow matter feems to be of the fame kind with
that of the pure yellow flowered, but the red to be of
a different kind from the pure red ones j watery men¬
ftrua take up only the yellow, and leave the red,
which may afterwards be exfradted by alcohol, or
by water acuated by fixed alkaline fait. Such par¬
ticularly are the faffron-coloured flowers of carthamus.
Thefe, after the yellow matter has been extrafted by
water, are faid to give a red tindhire to ley j from
which, on {landing at reft for fome time, a deep
bright red fsecula fubfidescalled from one of the
N n 2 names
COL [ 284 I COL
Colour- names of the plant which produces it, fajflower ; and
f making, from the countries whence it is commonly brought to
- v •— SpaniJh-red, and China lake. This pigment im¬
pregnates alcohol with a beautiful red tin&ure, but
communicates no colour to water. I have endea-
voured to feparate, by the fame treatment, the red
matter of fume of the other reddilh yellow flowers,
as thofe of garden marigold, but without fuccefs.
Plain water extracted a yellow colour, and alkaline
ley extra&ed afterwards only a paler yellow : though
the digeflions were continued till the flowers had lort
their colour, the tindures were no other than yellow,
and not fo deep as thofe obtained from the pure yel¬
low flowers. The little yellow floeculi, which in fome
kinds of flowers are colleded into a compact round
difc, as in the daify and corn marigold, agree, fo far as
they have been examined, with the expanded yellow
petala. Their colour is affeded in the fame manner
by acids, by alkalies, and by alum j and equally ex-
traded by water and by fpirit, But the yellow farina,
or fine duft, lodged on the tips of the fiamina of flowers,
appears to be of a different kind. It gives a fine
bright yellow to fpirit, and a duller yellow to water}
the undifl'olved part proving in both cafes of a pale
yellowifh white. Beth the watery and fpirituous tinc¬
tures were heightened by alkaline liquors, turned red
by acids, and again to a deep yellow on adding more
of the alkali : I know no other vegetable yellow that
is turned red by acids.
“ White flowers are by no means deftitute of co¬
louring matter. Alkaline lixivia extrad from fome
of them a green tindure, and change their colourlefs
expreffed juices to the fame colour } but I have not
obferved that they are turned red by acids. The
flowers of the common wild convolvulus or bind-weed,
which in all their parts are white, give a deep yellow
or orange tindure to plain water} which, like the tinc¬
tures of flowers that are naturally of that colour, is
rendered paler by acids, heightened a little by alum,
and more cunfiderably by alkaline falts. The vapours
of the volatile fulphuric acid, or of burning fulphur,
which whiten or deftroy the colour of the coloured
35 flowers, make no change in the white.
Colours “ The red juices of fruits, as currants, mulberries,
fcom fruits. ejc|er_|3erries^ morello, black cherries, &c. gently in-
fpiflated to drvnefs, diffolve again almoft totally in
water, and appear nearly of the fame red colour as at
firft. Redified fpirit extrads the tinging particles,
leaving a confiderable portion of mucilaginous matter
undiffolved } and hence the fpirituous tindure proves
of a brighter colour than the watery. The red folu-
tions, and the juices themfelves, are fometimes made
dull, and fometimes more florid by acids, and gene¬
rally turned purplifb by alkalies. The colours of thefe
juices are for the moft part perilhable. They refill,
indeed, the power of fermentation, and continue al¬
moft unchanged, after the liquor has been converted
into wine } but when the juice is fpread thin upon
other bodies, exficcated, and expofed to. the air, the
colour quickly alters and decays } the bright lively red
changes the fooneft : the dark dull red ftain from the
juice of the black cherry, is of confiderable durability.
The fruit of the American opuntia or prickly pear,
the plant upon which the cochineal infedl is produced,
is perhaps an exception : This bright red fruit, ae-
I
cording to Labat, gives a beautiful red dye. Some Colour,
experiments, however, made upon the juice of that making-.
fruit, as brought into England, did not protnife to be  V”—J
of any great advantage 5 but the particulars I cannot
now recolledl.
“ The ripe berries of buckthorn ftain paper of a
green colour. From thefe is prepared the fubftance
called fap green, a pigment fufficiently durable, rea¬
dily folubie in water, jbut not mifcible with oil. The
berries dried while green, and macerated in alum-
water, are faid to yield a yellow pigment } and when
they have grown over ripe fo as to fall off fpontane-
oufiy, a purple one. It is faid that the berry of the
heliotropum tricoccum, which grows wild about Mont¬
pelier, llains paper of a green colour, and that this
green turns prefently to a blue : that the common blue
paper receives its colour from this juice : and that the
red rags called turnfol, employed for colouring wines
and other liquors, are tin&ured by the fame juice
turned red by acids. According to M. Niflole of the
French academy of fciences (as quoted by Savary in
his Didlionnaire de Commerce), the following juice is
obtained, not from the berries, but from tops of the
plant gathered in Auguft, ground in mills, and then
committed to the prefs. '1 he juice is expofed to the
fun about an hour, the rags dipt in it, dried in the
fun, moiftened by the vapour which arifes during the
flacking of quicklime with urine, then dried again in
the fun, and dipped again in the juice. The Dutch
and others are faid to prepare turnfol rags, and turnfol
in the mals, from different ingredients, among which
archil is a principal one.
“ In fome plants, peony for inftance, the feeds at
a certain point of maturity are covered with a fine
ftiining red membrane. The pellicles of the feeds of
a certain American tree afford the red maffes brought
into Europe under the names of annotto, or/ean, and
raucou*. Mr Pott, in the Berlin Memoirs for the * ^ee An*
year 1752, mentions a very extraordinary property o{n0tt0‘
this concrete. ‘ With fulphuric acid it produces a
blue colour, of extreme beauty ; but with this capital
defeft, that all falts and liquors, and even common
water, deftroy it.’ The fpecimen of annotto, which I
examined, was not fenfibly afted upon by fulphuric
acid; it received no change in its own colour, and
communicated none to the liquor. Not did any vifible
changes enfue upon dropping the acid into tindlure of
annotto made in water, or in fpirit. 37
“ The green colour of the leaves of plants is ex-Colours
tradled by rectified fpirit of wine and by oils. Thefrom
fpirituous tinftures are generally of a fine deep green,^e‘tVes*
even when the leaves themfelves are dull-coloured, or
yellowifti, or hoary. The colour, however, feldom
continues long even in the liquor} much lefs when the
tinging matter is feparated in a folid form} and expo-
fed with a large furface to the air. The editor of the
Wirtemberg Pharmacopoeia obferves, that the leaves
of acanthus, brankurfine, or bear’s-breach, give a
more durable green tindlure to fpirit than thofe of any
other herb. Alkalies heighten the colour both of the
tin6lures and green juices} acids weaken, deftroy, or
change it to a brownifh : lime water improves both
the colour and durability : by means of lime, not in¬
elegant green lakes are procurable from the leaves of
acanthus, lily of the valley, and feveral other plants.
There,
COL [ :
"'oknir- There are very few. herbs which communicate any
making lliare of their green colour to water •, perhaps none
—v that give a green of any confiderable deepnefs. It is
faid, however, that the leaves of fome plants give a
green dye to woollen, without the addition of any
other colouring matter ; particularly thofe of the wild
cervil, or cow-weed, the common ragwort, and de-
vil’s-bit. The leaves of many kinds of herbs and
trees give a yellow dye to wool or woollen cloth that
has been previoufly boiled with a fblution of alum and
tartar. Weld, in particular, affords a fine yellow,
and is commonly made ufe of for this purpofe by the
dyers, and cultivated in large quantity in fome parts of
England. There is no colour for which we have
fucb plenty of materials as for yellow. M. Hellot
obferves that all leaves, barks, and roots, which on
being chewed difcover a flight aftringency, as the
leaves of the almond, peach, and pear trees, afh bark,
(efpecially that taken off after the firft rifing of the
fap in the fpring), the roots of wild patience, &c.
yield durable yellows, more or lefs beautiful accord-
ding to the length of time that the boiling is conti¬
nued, and the proportions of alum and tartar in the
preparatory liquor : that a large quantity of alum
makes thefe yellows approach to the elegant yellow
of weld : that if the tartar is made to prevail, it in¬
clines them to an orange ; that if the roots, barks, or
leaves be too long boiled, the yellow proves tarnifh-
ed, and acquires (hades of brown.” See the article
Dyeing.
The moft capital preparations from the leaves of
plants are thofe of indigo, and weld ; which are both
very much ufed in dyeing, though the firft only in
painting *. Both the indigo and woad plants, give
3g ’ out their colour, by proper management, to water,
adudHon in form of a blue faecula or lake. M. Hellot fufpedts
indigo that a like blue faecula is procurable from many other
-ounted vegetables. Blue and yellow blended together, com-
pofe a green. He fuppofes the natural greens in ve¬
getables to be compounded in like manner of thefe
two colours •, and that the blue is oftentimes the moft
permanent, fo as to remain entire after the putrefac¬
tion or deftruflion of the yellow. The theory is fpe-
cious, and perhaps juft : we know of no other that
accounts in any degree for the production of the indigo
and woad blue. Dr Lewis, however, informs us, that
he never was able to produce the leaf! appearance of
either blue or yellow from any of the plants he tried
by treating them in the manner ufed for the prepara-
39 tion of indigo.
lours There are fundry moffes, which in their natural
>ffes ftate) like the indigo and woad plants, promife nothing
of the elegant colours that can be extracted from them
by art. The moft remarkable of thefe is archil j for
the preparation of which, and the colours that may
be produced from it,.fee the article. Linnaeus fu-
fpefts that there are feveral other more common
moffes from which valuable colours might be extract¬
ed : a quantity of fea-mofs, having rotted in heaps on
the fhore, he obferved the liquor in the heaps to be
as red as blood ; the fea-water, the fun, and the
putrefaCtion, having brought out the colour. Mr
Kalm, in an appendix to Linnaeus’s paper, in 1745,
mentions two forts of moffes aCtually employed in
Sweden for dyeing woollen red : one is the lichenoides
t
85 ] COL
coral li for me apicibus coccineis of Ray’s Synopfis ; the Colour-
other the lichenoides tartareum, farinaceum, fcutel- making. ^
larum umbone fufco, of Dillenius. This lalt fs a white ' "
fubftance like meal clotted together, found on the fides
and tops of hills. It is fliaved off from the rocks
after rain, purified from the ftony matters intermixed
with it by waffling with water, then dried in the
fun, ground in mills, and again wafhed and dried : it
is then put into a veffel with urine, and fet by for a
month : a little of this tinfture added to boiling water
makes the dyeing colour. In the fame TranfaClions
for the year 1754, there is an account of another mofs
which, prepared with urine, gives a beautiful and
durable red or violet dye to wool and filk. This is the
lichen foliaceus umbilicatus fubtus lacunenfis, Linn,
flor. Suec. It grows upon rocks, and is readily dif*
tinguifbable from others of that clafs, by looking as if
burnt or parched, confiding of leaves as thin as
paper, convex all over on the upper fide, with corre-
fponding cavities underneath, adhering firmly to the
ftones by a little root under the leaves, and coming
afunder, when dry, as foon as touched. It is gathered
after rain, as it then holds beft together, and parts
eafieft from the done. In France, a cruftaceous mofs,
growing upon rocks in Auvergne, is prepared with
lime and urine, and employed by the dyers as a fuc-
cedaneum for the Canary archil, to which it is faid to
be very little inferior. M. Hellot relates, that he
has met with feveral other moffes, vwhich on being
prepared in the fame manner, acquire the fame co¬
lour. The moft expeditious way, he fays, of trying
whether a mofs will yield an archil or not, is to moiften
a little of it with a mixture of equal parts of fpirit
of fal ammoniac and ftrong lime water, and add a
fmall proportion of crude fal ammoniac. The glafs
is then to be tied over with a piece of bladder, and
fel by for three or four days. If the mofs is of the
proper kind, the little liquor which runs from it. upon
inclining the veffel, will appear of a deep crimfon
colour ; and this afterwards evaporating, the plant
itfelf acquires the fame colour. Dr Lewis informs us,
that he has tried a good number of the common
moffes, many both of the cruftaceous and foliaceous
kind, and not a few of the fungi j as alfo the herbs cha-i
momile and milfoil, which yield a blue effential oil; and
thyme, whofe oil becomes blue by digeftion with vola¬
tile fpirits; but never met with any that yielded a co¬
lour like archil. Moft of them gave a yellow or
reddiftt brown tin6Iure. A few gave a deep red co¬
lour to the liquor : but when diluted, it (bowed a yel-
lowifti caft, and when applied on cloth it gave only a
yellowifti red.
To thefe obfervations we (hall only add, that though Some* lug
in general the blue colours of flowers are exceedingly flower* .nay-
perilhable, there feem to be at lead two exceptions probably
to this Nrule 5 for the blue flowers of iris, or flower-yleld Per-
deduce, and thofe of columbine, when treated with c0"
folution of tin, yielded a colour tolerably permanent.
Indeed when experiments are made with a view to
extradl the colour from any part of a vegetable, it
will always be proper to try whether it can bear a
mixture with this folution. If the colour is not de-
ftroyed by it, there is a very great probability that the
folution will, by proper management, preferve, and
give a durability to it, which could fcarce be obtained
bjy
C olour-
making
II
Colt.
4i
Colours
4*
Colours
for maps.
COL f 286 ]
by any other method. It mud, however, be obferved, judges
that there are feveral fubftances ufed in colour-making,
which folution of tin cannot bear to be mixed with.
Thefe are principally fugar of lead and cream of
tartar, as well as all the calcareous earths and alka- 1
line falls. With alum it may be mixed very fafely,
and is in many cafes the better for it. The roots of
fiom roots, plants, however, feem to promife more durability of
colour than the upper parts. We have feen a blue
colour of confiderable durability and brightnefs prepar¬
ed from the roots of common radifhes by expreffing the
juice, combining it with tobacco-pipe clay, and bright¬
ening it with a little alum. The root of the red beet
is alfo faid to yield a durable colour of a beautiful red,
inclining to fcarlet j but this we cannot affirm from our
own experience.
With regard to liquid colours for maps, &.c. we
apprehend there can be very little difficulty in pre¬
paring all the poffible varieties of them, if what we
have above laid down is attended to. The only co¬
lour with which there can be any difficulty is £/w;
but the common folution of indigo in alkalies or acids
may be made to anfwer this purpofe, though, on ac¬
count of their ftrongly faline quality, they are not very
proper. A very curious method of procuring a beau¬
tiful tranfparent blue colour is by extrafling the colour¬
ing matter from Pruffian blue, by means of a cauflic
alkali. This, when laid upon paper, appears of a dirty
brown colour; but if waffied over with a weak folution
of green vitriol, is inftantly changed to a moft beauti¬
ful blue. This feems to afford a method of procuring
blue tranfparent colours of greater beauty than they
are ufually met with.—See fpecimens of tranfparent
colours prepared according to the above rules, on the
C/iar/ fubjoined to History.
COLOURING, among painters, the manner of ap¬
plying and conducing the colour of a piflure ; or the
mixtures of light and ffiade, formed by the various co¬
lours employed in painting. See PAINTING.
Colouring of Glafs. See Glass.
Colouring of 'Porcelain. See Porcelain.
COLT, in Zoology, a general name for the young of
the horfe kind : the male being likewife, for diftinc-
tion’s fake, called a horfe-colt; the female, zflly.
r , After the colts have been foaled, you may fuffer
Dictionary, them to run with the mare till about Michaelmas,
fooner or later, according as the cold weather comes in j
then they mull be weaned ; though fome perfons are for
having them weaned after Martinmas, or the middle of
November The author of the Complete Horfemnn is of
opinion, that the reafon why moft foals advance fo (low¬
ly, and are not capable of fervice till they are fix or
feven years old, is becaufe they have not fuckled long
enough ; whereas, if they had fucked the whole winter
over, they would be as good at four or five years old
as they are now at eight.
They ought now to be kept in a convenient houfe,
with a low rack and manger for their hay and oats,
which muft be fweet and good j with a little wheaten
bran mixed with the oats to caufe them to drink, and
to keep their bodies open. But, fince there are fome
who allege, that oats make foals become blind, or
their teeth crooked j the fame author is of opinion,
that oats will wear their teeth, and make them the
fooner to change, and alfo to raze; therefore he
C O L
it to be the beft way to break them in a mill,
becaufe, that by endeavouring with their jaws to bruife s-
and chew them, they ftretch and fwell their eye and
nether-jaw veins, which fo attraft the blood and hu¬
mours that they fall down upon the eyes, and frequently
occafion the lofs of them ; fo that it is not the heating
quality of the oats, but the difficulty in chewing, that
is the caufe of their blindnefs.
Further, colts thus fed with grain do not grow
thickifti upon their legs, but grow broader and better
knit than if they had eaten nothing but hay and bran,
and will endure fatigue the better. But above all
they muft be kept from wet and cold, which are hurt¬
ful to them, nothing being more tender than they are.
For proof of this, take a Spanifh ftallion, and let him
cover two mares, which for age, beauty, and comeli-
nefs may admit of no difference between them ; and
if they produce both horfe-colts, or both fillies, which
is one and the fame thing, let one run abroad, and the
other be houfed every winter, kept warm, and ordinari¬
ly attended; and that colt which has been kept abroad
ffiall have la’ge fleftiy ffioulders, flabby and gnuty
legs, weak patterns, and ill hoofs ; and fhall be a dull
heavy jade, in comparifon to the other which is houfed,
and orderly kept; and which will have a fine forehead,
be fine ffiaped, and have good legs and hoofs, and be
of good ftrength and fpirit ; by which you may know,
that to have the fineft ftallion, and the moft beautiful
mare, is nothing, if they are fpoiled in the breeding
up. It is worth obfervation, that fome foals, under
fix months old, though their dams yield plenty of milk,
yet decay daily, and have a cough, proceeding from
certain pellicles or fkins that breed in their ftomachs,
which obftru£l; their breathing, and at laft deftroy
them entirely. To remedy this malady, take the bag
wherein the colt was foaled, dry it, and give him as
much of it in milk as you can take up with three fin¬
gers ; but if you have not preferved the bag, procure
the lungs of a young fox, and ufe it inftead of the
aforefaid powder.
It will be proper to let the colts play an hour or
two in fome court-yard, &c. when it is fair weather,
provided you put them up again carefully, and fee
that they take no harm. When the winter is fpent,
turn them into fome dry ground, where the grals is
ftiort and fweet, and where there is good water,
that they may drink at pleafure ; for it is not necef-
fary that a colt ffiould fill his belly immediately, like
a horfe that labours hard. The next winter you may
take them into the houfe, and ufe them juft as you do
your other horfes; but let not your horfe-colts and
fillies be kept together after the firft year. This me¬
thod may be obferved every fummer and winter till
you break them, which you may do after they have
been three years old ; and it will be a very eafy thing,
if you obferve the aforefaid method of houfing them ;
for ordering them the fecond year as you do your
other horfes, they will be fo tame and gentle, that
you need not fear their leaping, plunging, kicking,
or the like ; for they will take the faddle quietly. As
for all thofe ridiculous methods of beating and curbing
them, they are in effefl fpoiling them, whatever they
call it, in ploughed fields, deep ways, or the like ;
inftead of which, let the rider ftrive to win them by
gentle ufage, never corredting them but when it is
neceffary,
Colt.
C O L
neceflavy, and then with judgment and moderation.
You will not need a caveffon of cord, which is a head
drain, nor a pad of draw ; but only a common faddle*
and a common caveffon on his nofe, fuch as other
horfes are ridden with •, but it ought to be well lined
with double leather ; and, if you pleafe, you may put
on his mouth a watering bit, but without reins, -only
the head-dall, and this but for a few days; and then
put on fuch a bit as he (hould be always ridden with ;
and be fure not to ufe fpurs for fome time after back¬
ing. Take notice, that as yearlings mud be kept a-
broad together, fo thofe of two years old together ;
and the like for thofe of three yearlings j which order¬
ing is mod agreeable to them.
In order to make him endure the faddle the better,
the way to make it familiar to him will be by clap¬
ping the faddle wdth your hand as it dands upon his
back, by driking it, and fwaying upon it, dangling
the dirrups by his fides, rubbing them againd his tides,
and making much of them, and bringing him to be fa¬
miliar with all things about him ; as draining the
crupper, fattening and loofening the girth*, and tak¬
ing up and letting out the dirrups. Then, as to his
motion, when he will trot with the faddle obe¬
diently, you may wa(h a trench of a full mouth, and
put the fame into his mouth, throwing the reins over
the forepart of the faddle, fo that he may have a full
feeling of it •, then put on a martingale, buckled at
fuch a length that he may but jud feel it when he
jerks up his head ; then take a broad piece of leather,
and put it about his neck, and make the ends of it
fad by plaiting it, or fome other way, at the withers,
and the middle part before his vveafands, about two
handfuls below the thropple, betwixt the leather and
his neck ; let the martingale pafs fo, that when at any
time he offers to duck, or throw down his head, the
caveffon being placed upon the tender gridle. of his
nofe, may correft and puniffi him j which will make
him bring his head to, and form him to an abfolute
rein ; trot him abroad, and if you find the reins or mar¬
tingale grow Hack, draiten them, for when there is
no feeling, there is no virtue.
Colt Evi/, among farriers. See Farriery.
COLT-Taming, is the breaking of a colt fo as to en¬
dure a rider. Colts are mod eafily broken at thr.ee
or four years of age ; but he who will have patience
to fee his horfe at full five, will have him much more
free of difeafes and infirmities than if he was broken
fooner.
Preparatory to their breaking for the faddle, they
ffnuld be ufed to familiar a&ion*, as rubbing, clawing,
h Itering, leading to water, taking up their feet,
knocking their hoofs, &c. In order to bridle and
faddle a colt, when he is made a little gentle, take a
fweet watering trench, walked and anointed with
honey and fait, which put into his mafh, and fo place
it that it may hang about his tudi ; then offer him the
faddle, but take care not to frightea him with it. Suf¬
fer him to fmell at it, to be rubbed with it, and then to
feel it ; after that fix it, and gird it fad, and make that
motion the mod familiar to him to which he feems
mod averfe. Being thus faddled and bridled, lead
him out to water, and bring him in again $ when he
has dood reined upon the trench an hour or more,
take off the bridle and faddle, and let him go to his
COL
meat till the evening, and then lead him out as be- Colt
fore ; and when you carry him in again to fet him ^ H
up, take off his faddle gently, clothing him for the , Conunba.
night.
COLTIE, a term ufed by timber-merchants, for a
defeiff or blemiih in fome of the annular circles of a
tree, whereby its value is much diminidied.
COLUBER, in Zoofogy, a genus of ferpents be¬
longing to the order of amphibia. See Ophiology
Index.
COLUMB-KILL. See Iona.
COLUMBA, the Pigeon, in Ornithology, a genus
of birds belonging to the order of pafferes. See Or¬
nithology Index.-
COLUMBA, St, in allufion to whofe name the
iOand of Jona (one of the Hebrides), received its
name ; Jona being derived from a Hebrew word fig-
nifying a dove. This holy man, indigated by his zeal,
left his native country, Ireland, in the. year 565, with
the pious defign of preaching the gofpel to the Puffs.
It appears that he left hi* native foil with warm refent-
ment, vowing never to make a fettlement within fight
of that hated idand. He made his fird trial at Oran-
fay •, and finding that place too near to Ireland, tuc-
ceeded to his wifh at Hy, for that was the name of
Jona at the time of his arrival. He repeated here the
experiment on feveral hills, ere£ting on each a heap of
dones; and that which he lad afeended is to thi* day
called Carnan chul-reh-Einuni, or “ The eminence of
the back turned to Ireland.
Columba was foon didinguidied by the fan<ffity of
his manners: a miracle that he wrought fo operated
on the Piffidi king Bradeus, that he immediately made
a prefent of the little ide to the faint. It feems that
his majedy had refufed Columba an audience ; and
even proceeded fo far as to order the palace-gates to be
diut againd him : but the faint, by the power of his
word, indantly caufed them to dy open. As foon as
he was in poffeflion of Jona, he founded a cell of monks,
borrowing his inditutions from a certain oriental mo¬
nadic order. It is faid that the fird religious were
canons regular, of whom the founder was the fird:
abbot; and that his monks, till the year 716, differed
from thofe of the church of Rome, both in the obfer-
vation of Eader, and in the clerical tonfure. Columba
led here an exemplary life, and was highly refpefted
for the fan<ffity of his manners for a confiderable num- *
ber of years. He is the fird on record who had the
faculty of fecondfight, for he told the vi<ffory of Aidan
over the Pi£!s and Saxons on the very indant it hap¬
pened. He had the honour of burying in bis ifland,
Convallius and Kinnatil, two kings of Scotland, and
of crowning a third. At length, worn out with age,
he died in Jona in the arms of his difciples ; was in¬
terred there, but (as the Irifh pretend) in after times
trandated to Down ; where, according to the epitaph,
his remains were depofited with thofe of St Bridget
and St Patrick.
Hi tre* in Duno tumulo tumulantur in uno ;
Brigida, P atria us, atque Columba pius.
But this is totally denied by the Scots ; who af¬
firm, that the contrary is fhown in the life of the
faint, ext raffed out of the Pope’s library, and tranda¬
ted out of the Latin into Erfe, by Father Cail 0 haran j
which
C 287 ]
COL [ m ) COL
Coluttoba which decides in favour of Jotia the momentous dif-
II pute.
COlro™b0' COLUMBANUS, a faint and a poet, was born in
Ireland, and brought up to a religious life among the
difciples of St Columba. He made uncommon pro-
grefs in learning ; and very early in life dillinguilhed
himfelf for poetical abilities, by the compofition of a
book of pfaltns, and a number of moral poems, intend¬
ed alfo to be fet to mufic. Jonas, a writer of eccle-
fiallical hiftory, mentions, that Columbanus belonged
originally to a monaftery of the name of Benchor. The
fame monaftery is mentioned by St Bernard in his life
of his friend St Malachi ; and he relates that it lent
out a great number of monks, who fpread over Eu¬
rope. Columbanus palled from Britain into France,
and founded the monaftery of Lu.xeville near Befan^on.
He had been kindly received and patronized by King
Childebert j but he was afterwards expelled out of
France by the wicked queen Brunichild. He retired
to Lombardy in Italy, and was well received by King
Argulphus. In Lombardy he again founded the mo¬
naftery of Bobio. The Regula Ccenobialis and Beni-
tentia/is, which he eftabh’fhed in that monaftery, have
been publiftied in the Codex Regularum compiled by the
learned Holftenius. He was contemporary with St
BenedidL It was in the year 589 he went into
France.
COLUMBARIA, in Ancient Ge«graplvj, an iftand
:iike a rock on the weft of Sicily, oppofite to Drepa-
num ; faid by Zonares to have been taken from the
"Carthaginians by Numerius Fabius the conful. Now
‘Columbara, with a very ftrong and almoft impregnable
-citadel (Cluverius).
’COLUMB1C acid. See Chemistry Index.
COLUMBINE. See Aquilegia, Botany In¬
dex.
COLUMBIUM, a new metal which was difeover-
ed in a mineral from North America. See Chemis¬
try Index.
COLUMBO ROOT, an article lately introduced in¬
to the materia medica, the natural hiftory of which is
not yet well known. According to Dr Percival’s ac¬
count, it grew originally on the continent of America,
from whence it was tranfplanted to Columbo, a town
in Ceylon, which gives name to, and fupplies all
India with it. The inhabitants of thefe countries have
for a long time ufed it in diforders of the ftomach and
bowels. They carry it about with them, and take it
fliced or feraped in Madeira wine. This root comes
to us in circular pieces, which are from half an inch
or an inch to three inches in diameter ; and divided in-
tofriijla, which mesfure from two inches to one quar¬
ter of an inch. The fides are covered with a thick
corrugated bark, of a dark brown hue on its external
furface, but internally of a light yellow colour. The
furfaces of the tranfverfe fe&ions appear very unequal,
higheft at the edges, and forming a concavity towards
the centre. On feparating this furface, the root is
obferved to confift of three lamina, viz. the cortical,
which in the larger roots, is a quarter of an inch
thick ; the ligneous, about half an inch ; and the me¬
dullary, which forms the centre, and is near an inch
in diameter. This laft is much fofter than the other
parts, and, when chewed, feems mucilaginous ; a num¬
ber of fmall fibres run longitudinally through it, and
appear on the furface. The cortical and ligneous parts Columb#.
are divided Jby a black circular line. All the thicker rout,
pieces have Imail holes drilled through them, for the 'T*--
convenience of drying. Columbo-root has an aroma¬
tic fmtll, but is difagreeably bitter, and ilightly pun¬
gent to the tafte, fomewhat refembling muitard leed,
when it has loft, by long keeping, part of its effential
oil. Yet, though ungrateful to the tafte, when recei¬
ved into the ftomach, it appears to be corroborant,
antifeptic, fedative, and powerfully antiemetic. In
the cholera morbus it alleviates the violent tormina^
checks the purging and vomiting, corrects the putrid
tendency of the bile, quiets the inordinate motions of
the bowels, and fpeedily recruits the exhaufted ftrength
of the patient. It was adminiftered to a great number
of patients, fometimes upwards of 20 in a day, aiftidt-
ed with the cholera morbus, by Mr Johnfon of Che-
fter, in 1756. He generally found that it foon flopped
the vomiting, which was the moft fatal fymptom, and
that the purging and remaining complaints quickly
yielded to the fame remedy. The dole he gave was
from half a drachm* to two drachms of the powder,
every three or four hours, more or lefs according to
the urgency of the fymptoms Though this medi¬
cine poffeffes little or no aftringency, it has been ob¬
ferved to be of great fervice in diarrhoeas, and even in
the dyfentery. In the firft ftage of thefe diforders, *
where aftringents would be hurtful, Columbo-root may
be preferibed with fafety ; as, by its antilpafmodic
powers, the irregular adlions of the primse viee are cor-
redled. But as a cordial, tonic, and antifeptic remedy,
it anfwers better when given towards their decline. Its
efficacy has alfo been obferved in the vomitings which
attend the bilious cholic j and in fuch cafes, where an
emetic is thought neceflary, after adminiftering a fmall
dofe of ipecacuan, the ftomach may be waflied with an
infufion of Columbo-root. This will tend to prevent
thofe violent and convulfive retchings which in irrita¬
ble habits abounding with bile are fometimes excited
by the mildeft emetic. In bilious fevers, 15 or 20
grains of this root, with an equal or double quantity
of vitriolated tartar, given every four, five, or fix
hours, produce very beneficial effedls. From its effi¬
cacy in thefe bilious difeafes of this country, it is pro¬
bable that it may be ufeful in the yellow fever of the
Weft Indies, which is always attended with great fick-
nefs, violent retchings, and a copious difeharge of bile.
The vomiting recurs at ffiort intervals, often becomes
almoft inceffant, and an incredible quantity of bile is
fometimes evacuated in a few hours. Children during
dentition are often fubjefl to fevere vomitings and di¬
arrhoeas. In thefe cafes the Columbo-root is an ufe¬
ful remedy, and hath often procured almoft inftant re¬
lief, when other remedies often efficacious have been
tried in vain. This root is alfo extremely beneficial in
a languid ftate of the ftomach, attended with want of
appetite, indigeftion, naufea, and flatulence. It may
be given either in fubftance, with fome grateful aro¬
matic, or infufed in Madeira wine. Habitual vomi¬
ting, when it proceeds from a weaknefs or irritability
of the ftomach, from an irregular gout, acidities, acri¬
monious bile, or an increafed and depraved fecretion of
the pancreatic juice, is greatly relieved by the ufe of
Columbo-root, in conjunftion with aromatics, chaly-
beates, or the tettaceous powders. In the naufta and
vomiting
)!unl!>o-
root
II,
jlumbus.
COL [2
vohiltlng occafioned by pregnancy, an infufion of Co-
lumbo-root fucceeds better than any other medicine
that hath been tried.
From Dr Percival’s experiments on this root, it ap¬
pears, that redtified fpirit of wine extracts its virtues
in the greateft perfedlion. The watery infufion is
more peri (liable than that of other bitters. In 24
hours a copious precipitation takes place j and in two
days it becomes ropy, and even mully. The addition
of orange peel renders the infufion of Columbo-root
lefs ungrateful to the palate. An ounce of the powder¬
ed root, half an ounce of orange peel, two ounces of
French brandy, and 14 ounces of water, macerated 12
hours without heat, and then filtrated through paper,
afford a fufficiently ftrong and tolerably pleafant infu-
iion. The extradl made firft by fpirit and then with
water, and reduced by evaporation to a pilular confid¬
ence, is found to be equal, if not fuperior, in efficacy to
the powder. As an antifeptic, Columbo root is infe¬
rior to the bark j but, as a corredlor of putrid gall, it
is much fuperior •, whence alfo it is probable that it
would be of fervice in the Weft India yellow fever.
It alfo reftrains alimentary fermentation, without im¬
pairing digeftion, in which property it refembles muf-
tard. Hence its great fervice in preventing acidities.
It hath alfo a remarkable power of neutralizing acids
already formed. It doth not appear to have the leaft
heating quality j and therefore may be ufed with pro¬
priety and advantage in the phthifis pulmonalis and in
heftical cafes, to correft acrimony and ftrengthen di¬
geftion. It occafions no difturbance, and agrees very
well with a milk diet, as it abates flatulence, and is in-
difpofed to acidity.
Colombo, a maritime town of the ifland of Ceylon
in the Eaft Indies, feated on the fouth-weft part of its
coaft, and fubjeft to the Dutch. E. Long. 68. 10.
N. Lat. 7. 5.
COLUMBUS, or Congregation of St COLUMBUS, a
fociety of regular canons, who formerly had 100 abbeys
or monafteries in the Britiffi ifles.
Columbus, Chrifopher, a Genoefe, the celebrated
navigator, and firft difcoverer of the idands of Ameri¬
ca, was a fubjedl of the republic of Genoa. Neither
the time nor the place of his birth, however, are known
with certainty ; only he was defcended of an honour¬
able family, who, by various misfortunes, had been
reduced to indigence. His parents were feafaring peo¬
ple ; and Columbus having difcovered, in his early
youth, a capacity and inclination for that way of life,
was encouraged by them to follow the fame profeffion.
He went to fea at the age of 14 : his firft voyages
were to thofe ports in the Mediterranean frequented by
the Gqnoefe, after which he took a voyage to Iceland;
and proceeding (till further north, advanced feveral de¬
grees within the polar circle. After this, Columbus
entered into the fervice of a famous fea captain of his
own name and family. This man commanded a fmall
fquadron, fitted out at his own expence ; and by cruif-
ing, fometimes againft the Mahometans, and fometimes
againft the Venetians, the rivals of his countrv in trade,
had acquired both wealth and reputation. With him
Columbus continued for feveral years, no lefs diftin-
guilhed for his courage than his experience as a failor.
At length, in an obftinate engagement off the coaft of
Portugal, with fome Venetian caravals returning richly
Voe. VI. Part I.
89 ] CO
laden from the Low' Countrie
the veffel on board Columbus.
   7        ~
which he ferved took fire, together with one of the
enemies {hips to which it was fall grappled. Colum¬
bus threw himfelf into the fea, laid hold of a floating
oar, and by the fupport of it, and his dexterity in fwiril-
ming, he reached the ihore, though above two leagues
diftant.
After this difafter, Columbus repaired to Lifoon,
where he married a daughter of Bartholomew Pere-
ftrello, one of the captains employed by Prince Henry
in his early navigations, and who had difcovered and
planted the iflands of Porto Santo and Madeira. Hav-
ing got poffeffion of the journals and charts of this ex¬
perienced navigator, Columbus was feized -with an ir-
refiftible defire of vifiting unknown countries. In order
to indulge it, he made a Voyage to Madeira, and con¬
tinued during feveral years to trade with that ifland,
the Canaries, Azores, the fettlements in Guinea, and
all the other places which the Portuguefe had difcover¬
ed on the continent of Africa.
By the experience acquired in fuch a number of
voyages, Columbus now became one of the moft Ikil-
ful navigators in Europe. At this time the great ob-
jedl of difcovery was a paffage by fea to the Eaft
Indies. This was attempted, and at laft accompliflied,
by the Portuguefe, by doubling the Cape of Good
Hope. The danger and tedioufnefs of the paffage,
ho wever, fuppofing it to be really accompliffied, which
as yet it was not, let Columbus on confidering whe¬
ther a ffiorter and more direfl paffage to thefe regions
might not be found out 5 and, after long confideration,
he became thoroughly convinced, that, by failing
acrofs the Atlantic ocean, direflly towards the weft,
new countries, which probably formed a part of the
vaft continent of India, muft infallibly be difcovered.
His reafons for this were, in the firft place, a know¬
ledge he had acquired of the true figure of the earth.
The continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, as far as
then known, form but a fmall part of the globe. It
was fuitable to our ideas, concerning the wifdom and
beneficence of the Author of Nature, to believe, that
the vaft fpace, ftill unexplored, was not entirely cover¬
ed by a wafte and barren ocean, but occupied by
countries fit for the habitation of man. It appeared
likewife extremely probable, that the continent on
this fide the globe1 was balanced by a proportional
quantity of land in the other hemifphere. Thefe
conje&ures were confirmed by the obfervations of mo¬
dern navigators. A Portuguefe pilot having ftretch-
ed farther to the weft than was ufual at that time,
took up a piece of timber, artificially carved, floating
upon the fea ; and as it was driven towards him by a
wefterly wind, he concluded that it came from fome
unknown land fituated in that quarter. Columbus’s
brother-in-law had found to the weft of the Madeira
ifles a piece of timber faftiioned in the fame manner,
and brought by the fame wind; and had feen alfo
canes of an enormous fize floating upon the waves,
which refembled thofe defcribed by Ptolemy as pro-
duftions peculiar to the Eaft Indies. After a courfe
of wefterly winds, trees torn up by the roots were
often driven upon the coaft of the Azores ; and at
one time the dead bodies of two men, with Angular
features, which refembled neither the inhabitants of
Europe nor Africa, were caft afliore there. The moft
O o cogent
COL [ 290 ] COL
Columbus, cogent reafon, however, was a tniftaken notion of
v ■y-.i"■' the ancient geographers concerning the immenfe ex¬
tent of the continent of India. Though hardly any
of them had penetrated beyond the river Ganges, fome
Greek writers had ventured to defcribe the provinces
beyond that river, which they reprefented as regions
of an immenfe extent. Ctefias affirmed that India
was as large as all the reft of Afia. Oneficritus, whom
Pliny the naturalift follows, contended that it was equal
to a third part of the habitable earth. Nearchus af-
ferted that it would take four months to march from
one extremity of it to the other in a ftraight line. The
journal of Marco Polo, who travelled into Afia in the
13th century, and who had proceeded towards the eaft
far beyond the limits to which any European had ever
advanced, feemed alfo fo much to confirm thefe ac¬
counts, that Columbus was perfuaded that the diftance
from the moft wefterly part of Europe to the moft
eafterly part of Afia was not very confiderable; and
that the fhorteft, as well as moft direft courfe to the
remote regions of the eaft, w’as to be found by failing
due weft.
In 1474, Columbus communicated his ideas on this
fubje£t to one Paul a phyfician in Florence, a man
eminent for his knowledge in cofmography. He
approved of the plan, fuggefted feveral fafts in con¬
firmation of it, and warmly encouraged Columbus
to perfevere in an undertaking fo laudable, and which
muft redound fo much to the honour of this country
and the benefit of Europe. Columbus, fully fatisfied
of the truth of his fyftem, was impatient to fet out on
a voyage of difeovery. The firft ftep towards this
was to fecure the patronage of fome of the confidera¬
ble powers of Europe capable of undertaking fuch an
enterprife. He applied firft to the republic of Genoa ;
but his countrymen, ftrangers to his abilities, incon-
fiderately rejected his propofal as the dream of a chi¬
merical projeftor, and thus loft for ever the opportu¬
nity of reftoring their commonwealth to its ancient
luftre. His next application was to the court of Por¬
tugal, where King John II. liftened to him in the
moft gracious manner, and referred the confideration
of his plan to Diego Ortiz, bilhop of Ceuta, and two
Jewifti phyficians, eminent cofmographers, whom he
was accuftomed to confult in matters of this kind.
Unhappily thefe were the perfons who had been the
chief direttors of the Portuguefe navigations, and had
advifed to fearch for a paffage to India by fleering a
courfe direflly oppofite to that which Columbus had
. . recommended as fhorter and more certain. They
could not therefore approve of his propefal, without
fubmitting to the double mortification of condemning
their own theory, and of acknowledging his fuperio-
rity. The refult of their conferences was, that they
advifed the king to fit out a veffel privately, in order
to attempt the propofed difeovery, by following exadl-
ly the courfe which Columbus feemed to point out.
John, forgetting on this occafion the fentiments of a
monarch, meanly adopted this perfidious counfel. But
the pilot chofen to execute Columbus’s plan had nei¬
ther the genius nor fortitude of its author. Contrary
winds arofe j no fign of approaching land appear¬
ed ; his courage failed j and he returned to Liihon,
execrating the projeft as equally extravagant and dan¬
gerous.
On difeovering this diftionourable tranfa&ion, Co- Columbus,
lumbus immediately quitted Portugal, and applied to y
the king of Spain 5 but left he ftiould be here again
difappointed, he fent his brother Bartholomew into
England, to whom he had fully communicated his ideas,
in order that he might negociate at the fame time
with Henry VII. who was reckoned one of the moft
fagacious as well as opulent princes of Europe. Bar¬
tholomew was very unfortunate in his voyage : he fell
into the hands of pirates, who ftripped him of every
thing, and detained him a prifoner for feveral years.
At laft he made his efcape, and arrived in Lon¬
don, but in fuch extreme indigence that he was obli¬
ged to employ himfelf, during a confiderable time,
in drawing and felling maps, in order to pick up as
much money as would purchafe a decent drefs in
which he might venture to appear at court. The pro-
pofals were received by Henry with more approbation
than by any monarch to whom they had hitherto been
prefented.
Columbus himfelf made his propofals to the king of
Spain, not without many doubts of fuccefs, which
foon appeared to be well founded. True fcience had
as yet made fo little progrefs in the kingdom of Spain,
that moft of thofe to whom the confideration of his
plan was referred were utterly ignorant of the firft
principles on which he founded his hopes. Some,
from miftaken notions concerning the dimenfions of the
globe, contended that a voyage to thofe remote re¬
gions of the eaft which Columbus expedled to dif-
cover, could not be performed in lefs than three
years. Others concluded, that either he would find
the ocean of infinite extent, according to the opinion
of fome ancient philofophers; or that if he (hould per-
fift in fleering weftwards beyond a certain point,
the convex figure of the globe muft infallibly pre¬
vent his return j and he muft perilh in the vain at¬
tempt to unite the two oppofite hemifpheres, which
nature had for ever disjoined. Even without deign¬
ing to enter into any particular difeuflion, fome re¬
jected the fcheme in general, upon-the credit of a
maxim made ufe of by the ignorant in all ages, “ That
it is prefumptuous in any perfon to fuppofe that he
alone poflefles knowledge fuperior to all the reft of
mankind united.” By continual difappointments and
delays, he was at laft wearied out, and refolved to
repair to the court of England in perfon, in hopes
of meeting with a favourable reception there. He
had already made preparations for this purpofe, and
taken meafures for the difpofal of his children during
his abfence, when Juan Perez, the prior of the mo-
naftery of Rabida near Palos, in which they had been
educated, earneftly folieited him to defer his journey
for a fhort time. Perez was a man of confiderable
learning, and iome credit with Queen Ifabella. To
her therefore he applied ; and the confequence of his
application was a gracious invitation to Columbus back
to court, accompanied with the prefent of a fmall
fum to equip him for the journey. Ferdinand, how¬
ever, ftill regarded the projeft as chimerical j and had
the addrefs to employ, in this new negotiation with
him, ftime of the perfons who had formerly pro¬
nounced his fcheme to be impraClicable. To their
aftoniftiment, Columbus appeared before them with
the fame confident hopes of fuccefs as formerly, and
infilled
COL [ 29i ] COL
tlumbus. Infifted on the fame high recompenfe. He propofed
that a fmall fleet ftiould be fitted out, under his com¬
mand, to attempt the difcovery j and demanded to
be appointed perpetual and hereditary admiral and
viceroy @f all the feas and lands which he ftiould difco-
ver; and to have the tenth of the profits arifing from
them fettled irrevocably upon him and his defcendants
for ever. At the fame time he offered to advance
the eighth part of the fura neceflary for accompliihing
his defign, on condition that he flrould be entitled to a
proportional (hare in the adventure. If the enterprife
fhould totally mifcarry, he made no ftipulation for any
reward or emolument whatever. Thefe demands
were thought unreafonable ; Ifabella broke off the
treaty the had begun, and Columbus was once more
difappointed. He now refolved finally to leave Spain ;
and had a&ually proceeded fome leagues on his jour¬
ney, when he was overtaken by a meifenger from
Ifabella, who had been prevailed upon by the argu¬
ments of Quintanilla and Santangel, two of Colum¬
bus’s patrons, again to favour his undertakings. The
negociation now went forward with all manner of fa¬
cility and difpatch j and a treaty with Columbus was
ligned on the 17th of April 1492. The chief articles
of it were, that Columbus fhould be conflituted high
admiral in all the feas, iflands, and continents he fhould
difcover, with the fame powers and prerogatives that
belonged to the high admiral of Caftile within the li¬
mits of his jurifdi6tion. He was alfo appointed vice¬
roy in all thofe countries to be difcovered; and a
tenth of the produ&s accruing from their produ&ions
and commerce was granted to him for ever. All con-
troverfies or law-fuits with refpedl to mercantile tranf-
aftions were to be determined by the foie authority of
Columbus, or of judges to be appointed by him. He
was alfo permitted to advance one eighth part of the
expence of the expedition, and of carrying on com¬
merce with the new countries j and was entitled, in re¬
turn, to an eighth part of the profit. But though the
name of Ferdinand was joined with Ifabella in this
tranfaflion, his diflrufl of Columbus was ftill fo violent,
that he refufed to take any part in the enterprife as
king of Arragon $ and as the whole expence of the
expedition was to be defrayed by the crown of Caftile,
Ifabella referved for her fubjefts of that kingdom an
exclufive right to all the benefits which might accrue
from its fuccefs.
At laft our adventurer fet fail with three fmall fhips,
the whole expence of which did not exceed 4000I.
During his voyage he met with many difficulties from
the mutinous and timid difpofition of his men. He
was the firft who obferved the variation of the com-
pafs, which threw the failors into the utmoft terror.
For this phenomenon Columbus was obliged to invent
a reafon, which, though it did not fatisfy himfelf, yet
ferved to difpel their fears, or filence their murmurs.
At laft, however, the failors loft all patience ; and
the admiral was obliged to promife folemnly, that in
cafe land was not difcovered in three days he fhould
return to Europe. That very night, however, the
ifland of San Salvador was difcovered, which quickly
put an end to all their fears. The failors were then as
extravagant in the praife of Columbus as they had be¬
fore been infolent in reviling and threatening him.
They threw themfelves at his feet, implored his pardon,
and pronounced him to be a perfon infpired by heaven Coluir,bust
with more than human fagacity and fortitude, in order Columella,
to accomplifh a defign fo far beyond the ideas and con- v"~’ '
ception of all former ages. Having vifited feveral of
the Weft India iflands, and fettled a colony in Hifpa-
niola *, he again fet fail for Spain j and after escaping* See Hif-
great dangers from violent tempefts, arrived at the port/’^”®^
of Palos on the 15th of March 1493.
As foon as Columbus’s fhip was difcovered ap¬
proaching, all the inhabitants of Palos ran eagerly
to the fhore, where they received the admiral with
royal honours. The court was then at Barcelona,
and Columbus took care immediately to acquaint
the king and queen of his arrival. They were no
lefs delighted than aftonifhed with this unexpedled
event. They gave orders for conducing him into the
city with all imaginable pomp. They received him
clad in their royal robes, and feated on a throne under
a magnificent canopy. When he approached, they
flood up j and, raifing him as he kneeled to kifs their
hands, commanded him to take his feat Upon a chair
prepared for him, and give a circumftantial account
of his voyage. When he had finifhed his oration,
which he delivered with much modefty and fimplicity,
the king and queen, kneeling down, offered up folemn
thanks to God for the difcovery. Every poflible mark
of honour that could be fuggefted by gratitude or
admiration was conferred on Columbus j the former
capitulation was confirmed, his family was ennobled,
and a fleet was ordered to be equipped, to enable him
to go in quell of thofe more opulent countries which he
ftill confidently expected to find.
Notwithftanding all this refpe£t, however, Colum¬
bus was no longer regarded than he was fuccefsful.
The colonifts he carried over with him wTere to the
laft degree unreafonable and unmanageable ; fo that
he was obliged to ufe fome feverities with them; and
complaints were made to the court of Spain againft
him for cruelty. On this, Francis de Bovadilla, a
knight of Calatrava, was appointed to inquire into the
condufl of Columbus ; with orders, in cafe he found
the charge of maladminiftration proved, to fuperfede
him, and affume the office of governor of Hifpaniola.
The confequence of this was, that Columbus was fent
to Spain in chains. From thefe, however, he was
freed immediately on his arrival, and had an opportu¬
nity granted him of vindicating his innocence. He
was, however, deprived of all power ; and notwith¬
ftanding his great fervices, and the folemnity of the
agreement between him and Ferdinand, Columbus ne¬
ver could obtain the fulfilment of any part of that trea¬
ty. At laft, difgufted with the ingratitude of a mo¬
narch whom he had ferved with fuch fidelity and fuc¬
cefs, and exhaufted with fatigues, he ended his life on
the 29th of May 1506.
Columbus, Bartholomew, brother to Chriftopher,
famous for his marine charts and fpheres, which he
prefented to Henry VII. of England. He died in
ISI4*
Columbus, Don Ferdinand, fon of Chriftopher,
and writer of his life. He entered into the ecclefiafti-
cal ftate ; and founded a library, which he bequeathed
to the church of Seville, to this day called the Colum¬
bine library. He died in 1560.
COLUMELLA, Lucius Junius Moderatus, a
O o 2 Homan
COL
Column.
Columella Roman philofopher, was a native of Cadiz, and lived
under the emperor Claudius, about the year 42. He
wrote a book on agriculture, entitled De Re Rujlica,
and another De Arboribus.
COLUMEY, a town of Red Ruffia in Poland, feat-
ed on the river Pruth, towards the confines of Mol¬
davia, about 38 miles from Halicz, and 63 fouth of
Leopol. This town has been very ill treated by the
Coffacks, infomuch that it is now inconfiderable,
though there are feveral mines of fait in its diftrift.
E. Long. 16. 25. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLUMN, in Archite&ure, a round pillar made
to fupport and adorn a building, and compofed of a
bafe, a fnaft, and capital. See Architecture, N°
33-
Columns, denominated from their ufe.—Aflronomi-
cal column is a kind of obfervatory, in form of a very
high tower built hollow, and with a fpiral afcent to an
arm illary fphere placed a-top for obferving the motions
of the heavenly bodies. Such is that of the Doric or¬
der ere&ed at the Hotel de Soiffons at Paris, by Catha¬
rine de Medicis, for the obfervations of Orontius Fine-
us, a celebrated aftronomer of that time.
Chronological COLUMN, that which bears fome hifto-
rical infcription digefted according to the order of time •,
as by luftres, olympiads, falli, epochas, annals, &c. At
Athens, there were columns of this kind, whereon was
infcribed the whole hillory of Greece digefted into
olympiads.
Funeral COLUMN, that which bears an urn, wherein
are fuppofed to be inclofed the alhes of fome dpceafed
hero 5 and whofe (haft is fometimes overfpread with
tears and flames, which are fymbols of grief and of
immortality.
Gnomonic COLUMN, a cylinder whereon the hour of
the day is reprefented by the fhadow of a ftile. See
Dial.
Hifloncal COLUMN, is that whofe {haft is adorned
•with a baflo-relievo, running in a fpiral line its whole
length, and containing the hiftory of fome great perfo-
nage : fuch are the Trajan and Antonine columns at
Rome.
Hollow COLUMN, that which has a fpiral ftaircafe
withinfide for the convenience of afcending to the top •,
as the Trajan column, the ftaircafe whereof confifts of
jSjfteps, and is illuminated by 43 little windows, each
of which is divided by tambours of white marble. The
monument, or fire-column at London, has alfo a
ftaircafe j but it does not reach to the top. Thefe
kinds of columns are alfo called columnce, coclideee, or
cochlidece.
Indicative COLUMN, that which ferves to fliow the
tides, &c. along the fea-coafts. Of this kind there is
one at Grand Cairo of marble, on which the overflow¬
ings of the Nile are exprefled j by this they form a
judgment of the fucOeeding feafons j when the w'ater,
for inftance, afcends to 23 feet, it is a fign of great fer¬
tility in Egypt. See Nilometer.
InJlruBive COLUMN, that raifed, according to Jofe-
phus, lib. i. cap. 3. by the fons of Adam, whereon
were engraven the principles of arts and fciences.
Baudelot tells us, that the fon of Pififtratus raifed ano¬
ther of this kind, of ftone,. containing the rules and
precepts of agriculture.
.Itinerary COLUMN, a column with feveral faces, pla-
2
[ 292 ]
cot
ced in the crofs ways in large roads j ferving to fhow
the different routes by infcriptions thereon. '
LaElary COLUMN, at Rome, according to Feftus,
was a column erected in the herb-market, now the
place Montanara, which had a cavity in its pedeftal,
wherein young children abandoned by their parents,
out of poverty or inhumanity, were expofed, to be
brought up at the public expence.
Legal COLUMN. Among the Lacedaemonians there
were columns raifed in public places, whereon were en¬
graven the fundamental laws of the ftate.
Limitrophous ox Boundary COLUMN, that which (hows
the limits of a kingdom or country conquered. Such
was that which Pliny fays Alexander the Great erect¬
ed at the extremity of the Indies.
Manubiary COLUMN,ixoxa the Latin wzfl«z/^/Vp, “fpoils
of the enemy a column adorned with trophies built
in imitation of trees, whereon the fpoils of enemies were
anciently hung. See Trophy.
Memorial COLUMN, that raifed on occafion of any
remarkable event, as the monument of London, built
to perpetuate the memory of the burning of that city-
in 1666. It is of the Doric order, fluted, hollow,
with a winding ftaircafe j and terminated a-tep with
waving flames. There is alfo another of the kind, in
form of an obelifk, on the banks of the Rhine in the
Palatinate, in memory of the famous paffage of that ri¬
ver by the great Guftavus Adolphus and his army.
Aleman COLUMN, any column which fupports a bal¬
cony or meniana. The origin of this kind of column,
Suetonius and Afcanius refer to one Menias; who ha¬
ving fold his houfe to Cato and Flaccus, confuls, to be
converted into a public edifice, referved to bimfelf the
right of raifing a column withoutfide, to bear a balco¬
ny, whence he might fee the ftiows.
Ahiitury COLUMN, among the Romans, a column
whereon was engraven a lift of the forces in the Roman
army, ranged by legions, in their proper order j with
defign to preferve the memory of the number of fol-
diers, and of the order preferred in any military ex¬
pedition. They had another kind of military column,
which they called columna belliea, (landing before the
temple of Janus *, at the foot whereof the conful decla¬
red war by throwing a javelin towards the enemies
countries.
Mil/iary COLUMN, wTas a column of marble raifed
by order of Auguftus in the middle of the Roman fo¬
rum ; from whence, in the centre, the diftances of the
feveral cities, &c. of the empire -were reckoned, by
other milliary columns difpofed at equal diftances on
all the grand roads. This column was of white mar¬
ble, the fame with that which is now feen on the bal-
luftrade of the perron of the capitol at Rome. Its
proportion is maflive, being a fllort cylinder, the fym-
bol of the globe of the earth. It was called milliarium
aureum, as having been gilt, at leaft the ball, by or¬
der of Auguflus. It was reftored by the emperors Ve-
fpafian and Adrian, as appears by the infcriptions.
Sepulchral COLUMN, anciently was a column erefted
on a tomb or fepulchre, with an infcription on its bafe.
Thofe over the tombs of perfons of diftin<ftion were
very large ; thofe for the common people fmall ; thefe
laft are cdWeA Jlelce and cippi.
Statuary COLUMN, that which fupports a ftatue. Such
was that erected by Pope Paul V. on a pedeftal before
the.
Column,
COL [ 293 ] COM
iSumn the church of St Maria at Rome ; £0 fupport a ftatue
il of the Virgin, which is of gilt brafs. This column was
. '^ba' , dug up in the temple of Peace ; its fhaft is a fingle
block of white marble 49! feet high, and five feet eight
inches diameter, of the Corinthian order.
The term Jlatuary column may likevvife be applied
to Caryatides, Perfians, termini, and other human fi¬
gures, which do the office of columns j and which Vi¬
truvius calls telamones and atlantes. See Architec¬
ture, N° 54.
Triumphal COLUMN, a column erefted among the
ancients in honour of a hero j the joints of the Hones,
or courfes whereof, were covered with as many crowns
as he had made different military expeditions. Each
crown had its particular name, as va/laris, which was
befet with fpikes, in memory of having forced a pali-
fade. Muralis, adorned with little turrets, or battle¬
ments, for having mounted an affault. Navahs, of
prows and beaks of veffels; for having overcome at
lea. Obftdionalis, or graminalis, of grafs \ for having
raifed a fiege. Ovans, of myrtle 5 which expreffed an
ovation, or little triumph ; and triumphalis, of laurel,
for a grand triumph. See Crown.
COLUMNARIUM, in Roman antiquity, a heavy
tribute demanded for every pillar of a houfe. It was
firft laid on by Julius Caefar, in order to put a flop to
the extravagant expences laid out on fumptuous build-
ings,
COLUMNEA. See Botany Index.
COLUMNIFERI, in Botany, an order of plants
in the fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus. See
Botany Index.
COLQRES, in Ajlronomy and Geography, two great
circles fuppofed to interfetl each other at right angles
in the poles of the world, and to pafs through the fol-
ftitial and equinodlial points of the ecliptic. See Geo~
craphy.
COLURI, a little ifland in the gulf of Engia, in
the Archipelago, formerly called Salamis. The prin¬
cipal town is of the fame name, and feated to the fouth
fide, at the bottom of the harbour, which is one of the
fineft in the world. The famous Grecian hero, Ajax,
who makes fuch a figure in Homer’s Iliad, was king
of this illand. It is now, however, but a poor place y
its commodities confift of wheat, barley, tar, rofin,
pit-coal, fponges, and pot-affies, which they carry to
Athens. It is feven miles fouth from Athens, and is
feparated from the continent by a ftrait about a mile
over.
COLUTE A, Bastard-sena. See Botany Index.
COLYBA, or CoLYBUS ; a term in the Greek li¬
turgy, fignifying an offering of corn and boiled pulfe,
made in honour of the faints, and for the fake of the
dead.
Balfamon, P. Goar, Leo Allatius, and others, have
written on the fubjeR: of colybee ; the fubftance of what
they have faid is as follows: The Greeks boil a quan¬
tity of wheat, and lay it in little heaps, on a plate $
adding beaten peas,, nuts cut fmall, and grape-ftones,
which they divide into fevrral compartments, fepa¬
rated from each other by leaves of parfley. A little
heap of wheat, thus feafoned, they call KoXv&ct. They
have a particular formula, for the benedidlion of the
colybee, wherein, praying that the children of Babylon
may be fed with pulfe, and that they may be in better
condition than other people, they defire God to blefs coiyba
thofe fruits, and thofe who eat them, becaufe offered [.}
to his glory, to the honour of fuch a faint, and in me- Combina*
mory of the faithful deceafed. Balfamon refers the tl^n' .
inftitution of this ceremony to St Athanafius j but
the Greek Synaxary to the time of Julian the ape¬
llate.
COLYMBUS, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of anferes. See Ornithology Index.
COM, a town of Afia in the empire of Perfia, and
province of Irac-agemi. It is a large populous place,
but has fuffered greatly by the civil wars. E. Long.
51. 56. N. Lat. 34. 5.
COMA, or Coma-vigil, a preternatural propen-
fity to fleep, when, neverthelefs, the patient does not
fleep, or if he does, awakes immediately without any
relief. See Medicine Index.
COMA Berenices, Berenice’s hair, in Ajlronomy, a
modern conllellation of the northern hemifphere, com-
pofed of unformed liars between the Lion’s tail and
Bootes. This conftellation is faid to have been form¬
ed by Conon, an altronomer, in order to confole the
queen of Ptolemy Euergetes for the lofs of a lock of
her hair, which was ftolen out of the temple ef Venus,
where (he had dedicated it on account of a vi<5tory ob¬
tained by her hulband.. The liars of this vconitella-
tion, in Tycho’s Catalogue, are fourteen j in Heveli-
us’s, twenty-one j and in the Britannic Catalogue, for¬
ty-three.
COMA Somnolentum, is when the patient continues in
a profound lleep ; and, when awakened, immedi¬
ately relapfes, without being able to keep open his
eyes.
COMARUM, Marsh-cinquefoil. See Botany
Index.
COMB, an inftrumentto clean, untangle, and drefs
flax, wool,, hair, &c.
Combs for wool are prohibited to be imported into
England.
Comb is alfo the creft, or red flelhy tuft, growing
upon a cock’s head.
COMBAT, in a general fenfe, denotes an engage¬
ment, or a difference decided by arms. See Battle.
Combat, in our ancient law, was a formal trial of
fome doubtful caufe or quarrel, by the fwords or ba¬
llons of two champions. This form of proceeding was
very frequent, not only in criminal but in civil caufes 5
being built on a fuppolition that God would never
grant the victory but to him who had the bell right.
The lall trial of this kind in England V’as between
Donald Lord Reay appellant, and David Ramfay, Efq.
defendant, when, after many formalities, the matter
was referred to the king’s pleafure. See the article
Battle,
COMBINATION, properly denotes an affemblage
of feveral things, two by two.
Combination, in Mathematics, is the variation or
alteration of any number of quantities, letters, or
the like, in all the different manners poffible. See
Changes.
Aphorifms. I. In all combinations, if from an arith¬
metic decreafing feries, whofe firll term is the number
out of which the combinations are to be formed, and
whofe common difference is 1, there be taken as many
terms as there are quantities to be combined, and thefe.
* terms
€ O M [ 294 ] COM
* Combina- terms be multiplied into each other 5 and if from the
tion« feries, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. there may be taken the fame
V * number of terms, and they be multiplied into each
other ; and the firft product be divided by the fecond $
the quotient will be the number of combinations re¬
quired. Therefore, if you would know how many
ways four quantities can be combined in feven, multi¬
ply the firft four terms of the feries, 7, 6, 5, 4, &c.
together, and divide the produft, which will be 840,
by the product of the firft four terms of the feries, I,
2, 3, 4, &c. which is 24, and the quotient 35 will
be the combination of 4 in 7. II. In all permutations,
if the feries 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. be continued to as many
terms as there are quantities to be changed, and thofe
terms be multiplied into each other j the produft will
be the number of permutations fought. Thus, if you
would know how many permutations can be formed
with five quantities, multiply the terms 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
together, and the produdl 120 will be the number of
all the permutations.
Problems. I. To find the number of changes that
may be rung on 12 bells. It appears by the fecond
aphorifm, that nothing more is neceffary here than to
multiply the numbers from 1 to 12 continually into
each other, in the following manner, and the laft pro-
dutt will be the number fought.
1
2
2
_3
6
4
24
5
120
6
the quotient, which is 478,741,050,720,092,160, will Combina.
be the number of yards required, to contain the tion.
above-mentioned number of permutations. But as all
the 24 letters are contained in every permutation,
it will require a fpace 24 times as large j that is,
11,489,785,2175282,211,840. Now the number of
fquare yards contained on the furface of the whole
earth is but 617,197,435,008,000, therefore it would
require a furface 18620 times as large as that of the
earth to write all the permutations of the 24 letters in
the fize above mentioned.
III. To find how many different ways the eldeft
hand at picquet may take in his five cards. The eldeft
hand having 12 cards dealt him, there remain 20
cards, any five of which may be in thofe he takes in j
confequently we are here to find how many ways five
cards may be taken out of 20. Therefore, by apho¬
rifm I. if we multiply 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, into each
other, which will make 1860480, and that number be
divided by I, 2, 3, 4, 5, multiplied into each other,
will make 120, the quotient, which is 15504, will be
the number of ways five cards may be taken out of
20. From hence it follows, that it is 15503 to 1,
that the eldeft hand does not take in any five certain
cards.
IV. To find the number of deals a perfon may play
at the game of whift, without ever holding the fame
cards twice. The number of cards played with at
whift being 52, and the number dealt to each perfon
being 13, it follows, that by taking the fame me¬
thod as in the laft experiment, that is, by multiplying
52 by 51, 50, &c, fo on to 41, which will make
3,954,242,643,911,239,680,000, and then dividing
that fum by 1, 2, 3, &c. to 13, which will make
6,227,020,800, the quotient, which is 635,013,559,600
will be the number of different ways 13 cards may be
taken out of 52, and confequently the number fought.
720
 7
5040
  8
40320
 9
362880
10
3628800
11
3991680©
  12
479,001,600
II. Suppofe the letters of the alphabet to be wrote
fo fmall that no one of them fliall take up more fpace
than the hundredth part of a fquare inch : to find how
many fquare yards it would require to write all the
permutations of the 24 letters in that fize. By fol¬
lowing the fame method as in the laft problem, the
number of permutations of the 24 letters will be found
to be 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000. Now the
inches in a fquare yard being 1296, that number mul¬
tiplied by 100 gives 129,600, which is the number of
letters each fquare yard will contain; therefore if we
divide 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000 by 129600,
3
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COM [ 295 ] COM
’ombina- The conftru6Hon of this table is very Ample. The
tion. line A a confifts of the firft 12 numbers. The line
—' A b confifts everywhere of units ; the fecond term 3,
of the line B c, is compofed of the two terms 1 and 2
in the preceding rank : the third term 7, in that line,
is formed of the two terms 3 and 3 in the preceding
rank : and fo of the reft j every term, after the firft,
being compofed of the two next terms in the preced¬
ing rank : and by the fame method it may be conti¬
nued to any number of ranks. To find by this table
how often any number of things can be combined in
another number, under 13, as fuppofe five cards out of
8 : in the eighth rank look for the fifth term, which is
56, and that is the number required.
Though we have ftiown in the foregoing problems
the manner of finding the combination of all numbers
whatever, yet as this table anfwers the fame purpofe,
for fmall numbers, by infpeftion only, it will be found
ufeful on many occafions j as will appear by the follow¬
ing examples.
V. To find how many different founds may be pro¬
duced by ftriking on a harpfichord two or more of
the feven' natural notes at the fame time. 1. The
combinations of two in feven, by the foregoing tri¬
angle are, - 21
2. The combinations of 3 in 7, are - - 35
3. The combinations of 4 in 7, are - " 35
4. The combinations of 5, are - - - 21
?. The combinations of 6, are - - . 7
6. The feven notes altogether once, _ _ 1
Therefore the number of all the founds will be 120
VI. Take four fquare pieces of pafteboard, of the
fame diraenfions, and divide them diagonally, that is,
by drawing a line from two oppofite angles, as in the
figures, into 8 triangles j paint 7 of thefe triangles
with the primitive colours, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet, and let the eighth be white. To
find how many chequers or regular four-fided figures,
different either in form or colour, may be made out
of thofe eight triangles. Firft, by combining two of
thefe triangles, there may be formed either the trian¬
gular fquare A, or the inclined fquare B called a rhomb.
Secondly, by combining four of the triangles, the large
fquare C may be formed; or the long fquare D, called
a parallelogram.
Now the firft two fquares, confifting of two parts Combina-
out of 8, they may each of them, by the eighth rank tion.
of the triangle, be taken 28 different ways, which
makes 56. And the laft two Iquares, confifting of
four parts, may each be taken by the fame rank of the
triangle 70 times, which makes - - 140
To which add the foregoing number - - j6
And the number of the different fquares that
may be formed of the 8 triangles will be
VII. A man has 12 different forts of flowers, and a
large number of each fort. He is defirous of fetting
them in beds or flourifhes in his parterre : Six flowers
in fome, 7 in others, and 8 in others j fo as to have
the greateft variety poflible $ the flowers in no two
beds to be the fame. To find how many beds he muft
have. I. The combinations of 6 in 12 by the laft rank
of the triangle, are
2. The combinations of 7 in 12, are
3. The combinations of 8 in 12, are
Therefore the number of beds muft be
924
792
495
2211
VIII. To find the number of chances that may be
thrown on two dice. As each die has fix faces, and as
each face of one die may be combined with all the
faces of the others, it follows that 6 multiplied by 6,
that is, 36, will be the number of all the chances j as
is alfo evident from the following table :
Points.
2
3
4
54-1
63-3
1.1
2.1
2.2
6.1
4
96-3
10
11
126.6
5
6-5
46
1.2
3*1
1.4
5a
1.6
.2
3-6
4
5-6
5^
r-3
3-2
I*5
5-2
2
5-4
4.6
65
2.4
4-3
3-5
3-4
Numb, of
chances.
3 6
Numb, of
points.
20
3°
42
40
36
3°
22
252
It appears by this table, I. That the number of
chances for each point continually increafes to the point
of feven, and then continually decreafes till 12 : there¬
fore if two points are propofed to be thrown, the equa¬
lity, or the advantage of one over the other, is clearly'
vifible (a). 2. The whole number of chances on the
dice being 252, if that number be divided by 36, the
number of different throws on the dice, the quotient is
7 : it follows therefore, that at every throw there is
an equal chance of bringing feven points. 3. As there
are 36 chances on the dice, and only 6 of them
doublets, it is 5 to I, at any one throw, againft throw¬
ing a doublet.
By
(a) It is eafy from hence to determine whether a bet propofed at hazard, or any other jrame with the dice,
be advantageous or not 5 if the dice be true (which, by the way, is rarely the cafe fot any long time together,
as it is fo eafy for thofe that are ppffeffed of a dexterity of hand to change the true dice for falfe).
COM
C O M f 2
By the fame method the number of chances upon
any number of dice may be found : for if 36 be mul¬
tiplied by 6, that product, which is 216, will be the
chances on 3 dice $ and if that number be multiplied
by 6, the product will be the chances of 4 dice, &c.
COMBINATIONS of the Cards. The following expe¬
riments, founded on the doftrine of combinations, may
poffibly amufe a number of our readers. The tables
given are the bafis of many experiments, as well on
numbers, letters, and other fubjefts, as on the cards j
but the effeft produced by them with the laft is the
moft furprifing, as that which Ihould feem to prevent
any collufion, that is, the Ihuffling of the cards, is on
the contrary the caufe from whence it proceeds.
It is a matter of indifference what numbers are made
ufe of in forming thefe tables. We (ball here confine
ourfelves to fueh as are applicable to the fubfequent
experiments. Any one may conftrudl: them in fuch
manner as is agreeable to the purpofes he intends they
flrall anfwer.
To make them, for example, correfpond to the nine
digits and a cipher, there muft be ten cards, and at
the top of nine of them muft be written one of the
digits, and on the tenth a cipher. Thefe cards muft
be placed upon each other in the regular order, the
number 1 being on the firft, and the cipher at bottom.
You then take the cards in your left hand, as is com¬
monly done in ftmffling, and taking off the two top
cards 1 and 2, you place the two following, 3 and 4,
upon them $ and under thofe four cards the three fol¬
lowing 5, 6, and 7 ; at the top you put the cards 8
and 9, and at the bottom the card marked o j con-
ftantly placing in fucceflxon 2 at top and 3 at bottom :
And they will then be in the following order :
8.9.. 3.4..1.2...5.6.7..0
If you (huffle them a fecond time, in the fame manner,
-they will then ftand in this order:
6.7.. 3.4.. 8.9.. 1.2.5.7..o
Thus, at every new Ihuffle they will have a differ¬
ent order, as is expreffed in the following lines :
1 fhuffle 8.9.3.4.1.2.5.6.7.Q
2 6.7.3.4.8.9.1.2.5.0
3 2.5,3.4.6.7.8.9.1.0
4 9.1.3.4.2.5.6.7.8.0
c 7.8.3.4.9.1.2.5.6.0
6 5.6.3.4.7.8.91.2.0
7 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.Q
It is a remarkable property of this number, that
the cards return to the order in which they were firft
placed, after a number of ftiuffles, which added to the
number of columns that never change the order, is
equal to the number of cards. Thus the number of
/huffles is 7, and the number of columns in which the
cards marked 3, 4, &c. never change their places is 3,
which are equal to 10, the number of the cards. This
property is not common to all numbers j the cards
fometimes returning to the firft order in a lefs number,
and fometimes in a greater number of ftiuffles than that
of the cards.
96 ]
f *•
Tables of Combinations,
Conftrudled on the foregoing principles.
I. For ten Numbers.
Order before dealing. After rft deal. After the 2d. After the. 3d.
Combint,
tion.
Thefe tables, and the following examples at piquet,
except the 36th, appear to have been compofed by
M. Guyot.
II. For twenty-four Numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1 ft deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
*7
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
23
24
j8
*9
14
8
9
3
4
1
2
5
6
7
10
11
12
*S
16
17
20
21
22
21
22
12
*5
5
6
9
3
18
*9
23
2q
J3
5 4
8
4
1
2
7
10
11
16
17
20
17
20
2
7
13
14
3
18
12
15
21
22
5
6
9
19
23
24
8
4
1
10
11
16
III. For twenty-feven Numbers.
Order before dealing. After ift deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
23
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
24
18
19
13
14
8
9
3
4
1
2
5
21
22
12
5
6
9
3
18
*9
*3
24
13
J7
20
2
7
13
14
3
18
12
16
21
22
5
14
COM
[ 297 1
COM
‘otribina-
tion.
Order before dealing.
T4
15
16
17
18
19
20
li
22
23
24
25
26
27
After ill deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
6
7
10
11
12
16
20
21
22
25
26
27
14
8
4
1
2
7
10
11
16
17
20
25
26
2?
Order before
1
2
3
4
IV. For Thirty-two Numbers.
dealing. After ift deal. After the ad.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
28
29
2.3
24
18
r9
!3
14
8
9
3
4
1
2
5
6
7
10
11
12
15
16
17
20
21
22
25
26
27
3°
31
32
26
27
17
20
10
11
1
2
14
8
23
24
28
29
18
J9
I3
9
3
4
5
6
7
12
16
21
22
25
30
31
32
6
9
*9
23
24
8
4
1
10
11
16
25
26
27
After the 3d.
22
25
7
12
9
3
28
29
&
T4
17
20
26
27
10
11
1
8
23
24
18
J9
*3
4
5
6
15
16
21
3°
31
32
I. ** Several letters that contain no meaning, being
“ written upon cards, to make them, after they have
“ been twice (huffled, to give an anlwer to a quefh'on
“ that {hall be propofed ; as, for example, What
u is love P"* Let 24 letters be written on as many cards
Vol. VI. Part I.
which, after they have been twice (huffled, (hall give Coin bin a-
the following anfvver : tlon-
si dream of joy that foon is oe'r.
Firft write one of the letters in that line on each of
the cards (b). Then write the anfwer on a paper, and
affign one of the 24 firft numbers to each card, in the
following order :
ADREAM OF JOY THAT SOOtf
1 23456 7 8 9 10 111213 1415 1617 18
IS O’ER';
2021 22 23 24
Next write on another paper a line of numbers
from 1 to 24, and looking in the table for 24 combi¬
nations, you will fee that the firft number after the fe-
cond ftiuffle is 21 ; therefore the Card that has the firft
letter of the anfwer, which is A, muft be placed
agaifift that number, in the line of numbers you have
juft made (c). In like manner the number 22 being
the fecond of the fame column, indicates that the card
which anfwers to the lecond letter D of the anfwer,
muft be placed againft that number; and fo of the reft.
The cards will then ftand in the following order :
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 18 19
O O F S A M N T O I S R H A E O ’E J
20 21 22 23 24
R A D Y T
From whence it follows, that after thefe cards have
been twice {huffled, they muft infallibly ftand in the
order of the letters in the anfwer.
Obferve. 1. You thould have feveral queftions, with
their anfwers, confifting of 24 letters, written on cards;
thefe cards {hould be pul in cafes and numbered, that
you may know to which queftion each anfwer belongs.
You then prelent the queftions ; and when any one of
them is chofen, you pull out the cafe that contains the
anfwer, and ftiowing that the letters written on them
make no fenfe, you then fliuffle them, and the anfwer
becomes obvious.
2. To make this experiment the fnore extraordi¬
nary, you may have three cards, on each of which
an anfwer is written ; one of which cards muft be a
little wider, and another a little longer, than the
others. You give thefe three cards to any one, and
when he has privately chofen one of them, he gives
you the other two, which you put in your pocket with¬
out looking at them* having difcovered by feeling
which he has chofen. You then pull out the cafe that
contains the cards that anfvver to his queftion, and per¬
form as before.
3. You may alfo contrive to have a long card at the
bottom after the fecond ftiuffle. The cards may be
then cut feveral times, till you perceive by the touch
that the long card is at bottom, and then give the an-
P P fvver ;
(b) Thefe letters (hould be written in capitals on one of the corners of each card, that the words may be eafily
legible when the cards are fpread open,
(c) For the fame reafon, if you would have the anfwer after one Ihuffle, the cards muft be placed according to
flbe firft column of the table ; or if after three ffluffles, according to the third column.
C O M [ 298 } COM
fc'ombina- fwer 5 for the repeated cutting?, however often, will
tion. make no alteration in the order of the cards.
   The fecond of thefe obfervations is applicable to
fome of the fubfequent experiments, and the third may
be pra£tifed in almoft all experiments with the cards..
You (hould take care to put up the cards as foon as
the anfwer has been (hewn ; fo that if any one Ihould
defire the experiment to be repeated, you may offer
another queftion, and pull out thofe cards that contain
the anfwer.
Though this experiment cannot fail of exciting at all
times plealure and furprife, yet it mull be owned that
a great part of the applaufe it receives arifes from the
addrefs with which it is performed.
II. “ The 24 letters of the alphabet being written
“ upon fo many cards, to (huffle them, and pronounce
“ the letters fhall then be in their natural order 5 but
“ that not fucceeding, to (huffle them a fecond time,
u and then (how them in proper order.” Write the
24 letters on the cards in the following order :
1234 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
RSH^EFTPGUX C
13 14 I C l6 17 l8 IQ 20 21 22 23 24
N O D Y Z I K & A B L M
The cards being difpofed in this manner, (how them
upon the table, that it may appear they are promifcu-
oufly marked. Then {huffie and lay them again on the
table, pronouncing that they will be then in alphabe¬
tical order. Appear to be lurprifed that you have fail¬
ed ; take them up again, and give them a fecond flmffle,
and then counting them down on the table they will
all be in their natural order.
III. “ Several letters being written promifcuoufly
“ upon 32 cards, after they have been once ftuiffled,
u to find in a part of them a queftion *, and then ftmf-
“ fling the remainder a fecond time, to (how the an-
u fwer. Suppofe the queftion to be, JV/iat is each Bri-
“ ton's boaji ? and the anfwer,. His liberty; which
“ taken together contain 3 2 letters.”
After you have written thofe letters on 3,2 cards,
write on a paper the words, his liberty, and annex to
the letters the firft ten numbers thus :
H I S L I B E R T Y.
123 4567 8 9 10
Then have I'ecourfe to the table of combinations for
ten numbers, and apply the refpe&ive numbers to them
in the fame manner as in experiment I. taking the firft
eolumn, as thefe are to be ftiuffled only once accord¬
ing to that order.
1 234 f 6 7 8 9 IO
IBSLERTHIY
This is the order in which thefe cards muft ftand
after the whole number 32 has been once (huffleft, fo
that after a fecond ftiuffle they may ftand in their pro¬
per order. Next difpofe the whole number of letters
according to the firft: column for 32 letters the laft
ten are to be here placed in the order above j as fol¬
lows :
WHATISEACH B R IT ON’S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
BOAST? ewabim.
l8 19 20 21 22- tion.
IBSLERTHIY ’ ^
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Therefore, by the firft column of the table, they will
next ftand thus :
I 234 56 78910111213141516
ITBRONSCHBOAEAST long card.
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
I I S BS LI BERTWHHIY
You muft obferve, that the card here placed the
16th in order, being the laft of the queftion, is a long
card y that you may cut them, or have them cut, after
the firft ftiuffle, at that part, and by that means fepa-
rate them from the other ten cards that contain the
anfwer.
Your cards being thus difpofed, you fhow that they
make ns meaning y then ftiuffle them once,, and cut¬
ting them at the long card, you give the firft part to
any one, who reads the queftion, but can find no an¬
fwer in the other, which you open, before him •, you
then ftiuffle them a fecond time, and fhow the anfwer
as above.
IV. “ To write 32 letters on fo many cards, then
“ fhufflle and deal them by twos to two perfons, in
“ fuch manner, that the cards of one fliall contain a
M queftion, and thofe of the other an anfwer. Sup-
“ pofe the queftion to be, Is nothing certain ? and the
“ anfwer, Yes, difappointment.
Over the letters of this queftion and anfwer, write
the following numbers, which correfpond to the order
in which the cards are to be dealt by two and two.
ISNOTHI NG C ERTAIN?
31 32 27 2& 23 24 19 20 1 c 16 11 12 7 834
Y E S, D I S A P O I N T M E N T.
29 30 25 26 21 22 17 l8 13 149 LO 5 6l 2
Then have recourfe to the firft column of the table-
for 3.2 numbers, and difpofe thefe 32 cards in the fol¬
lowing order, by that column..
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
O I E R G C A N T P I N T A I S
*7 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2 f 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
T M EH S D I N N O Y N T £ I S
The cards being thus difpofed, ftiuffle them once,
and deal them two and two when one of the parties
will neceffarily have the queftion, and the other the
anfwer.
Inftead of letters you-may write words upon the 32
cards,. 16 of which may contain a queftion, and the re¬
mainder the anfwer y or what other matter you pleafe..
If there be found difficulty in accommodating the
words to the number of cards, there may be two or
more letters or fyllables written upon one card.
V. “ The five beatitudes.” The five bleffings we
will fuppofe to be,. 1. Science. 2. Courage. 3. Health.
4. Riches, and 5. Virtue. Thefe are to be found
upon cards that you deal, one by one, to five perfons.
Firft, write the letters of thefe words fuccefflvely, in
the
COM
ombina- the order they ftand, and then add the numbers here
tion. annexed to them.
SC TENCECOURAGE
31262116116 1 32 27 22 17 12 7 2
HEALTHRICHES
28 22 18 13 8 3 29 24 ig 14 0 4
V I R T U E
30 25 20 15 10 5
[ 299 ]
ll Nine }fFades
17 King clubs
19 Nine }h'ar"
20 Seven clubs
21 Ace diamonds
22 Knave fpades
23 Queen hearts
€ O M
24 Knave hearts
25 Ace fpades
26 King diamonds
27 Nine clubs
28 Ace 7 u
„ tt. !-hearts
29 King $
30 Eight clubs
t fpades
32 Q^ueen 3 1
Combina¬
tion
Then range them in order agreeable to the firft co¬
lumn of the table for 32 numbers, as in the experi¬
ment. Thus,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LHNATEREUAC R G T I U
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
E ECI ICHSOHREEVSC
Next take a pack of cards and write on the four firft
the word Science \ on the four next, the word Courage j
and fo of the reft.
Matters being thus prepared, you ftiow that the
cards on which the letters are written convey no mean¬
ing. Then take the pack on which the words are writ¬
ten, and fpreading open the firft four cards, with their
backs upward, you defire the firft perfon to choofe one.
Then clofe thofe cards, and fpread the next four to the
fecond perfon 5 and fo to all the five; telling them to
hold up their cards left you fhould have a confederate in
the room.
You then thuffle the cards, and deal them one by
one, in the common order, beginning with the perfon
who chofe the firft card, and each one will find in his
kand the fame word as is written on his card. You will
obferve, that after the fixth round of dealing, there will
be two cards left, which you give to the firft and fecond
perfons, as their word# contain a letter more than the
others.
VI. “ The cards of the game of piquet being mixed
together, after (huffling them, to bring, by catting
them, all the cards of each fuit together.1’ The order
in which the cards muft be placed to produce the effect
•defired being eftablilhed on the fame principle as that
explained in experiment II. except that the (huffling
is here to be repeated three times, we think it will be
Tufficient to give the order in which they are to be
placed before the firft (huffle.
clubs
diamonds
1 Ace
2 Knave
3
4 Seven
wide card
5 Ten clubs
J Seven ^ Spades
wide card
Order of the Cards.
diamonds
8 Ten T
9 Nine /j.
10 Queen I
11 Knave J
12 Queen clubs
13 Eight 7 hgaftg
14 Seven 3
wide card
You then (huffle the cards, and cutting at the wide
card, which will be the (even of hearts, you lay the
eight cards that are cut, which will be the fuit of
hearts, down on the table. Then (huffling the remaining
cards a fecond time, you cut at the fecond wide card,
which will be the feven of fpades, and lay, in like
manner, the eight fpades down on the table. You
(huffle the cards a third time, and offering them to
any one to cut, he will naturally cut them at the wide
card (d), which is the feven of diamonds, and con-
fequently divide the remaining cards into two equal
parts, one of which will be diamonds and the other
clubs.
VII. “ The cards at piquet being all mixed together,
to divide the pack into two equal parts, and name
the number of points contained in each part.” You
are firft to agree that each king, queen, and knave, (hall
count, as ufual, 10, the ace I, and the other cards ac¬
cording to the number of the points. Then difpole
the cards, by the table for 32 numbers, in the follow¬
ing order, and obferve that the laft card of the firft di-
vifion tnuft be a wide card.
Order of the Cards before (huffling.
1 Seven hearts
2 Nine clubs
3 Eight hearts
4 Eight T
5 Knave > fpades
6 Ten ]
nr }‘i»bs
9 Ace hearts
wide card
10 Nine hearts
11 Queen fpades
12 Knave clubs
13 Ten diamonds
14 Ten
15 King > hearts
16 Queen J
17 Nine diamonds
18 Ace fpades
19 Ten clubs
20 Knave 7
21 Eight > diamonds
22 King j
23 Seven fpades
24 Seven 1 ,
25 yueen jd,arnon<is
26 Knave hearts
27 King clubs
28 Nine 1 r j
29 King
30 Ace diamonds
31 Seven
32 Eight
f- clubs
You then (huffle them carefully, according te the
method before deferibed, and they will ftand in the fol¬
lowing order.
P p 2
1 Nine
(d) You muft take particular notice whether they be cut at the wide card* and if they are not, you muft have
hem cut, or cut them again yourfelf.
Cards.
1 Nine "1 9
2 King > fpades io
3 SevenJ 7
4 Seven diamonds 7
5 Ace fpades I
COM [3;
Numbers. Cards. Numbers.
brought up 34
6 Ten clubs 10
7 Ten diamonds 10
8 Ten hearts 10
9 Ace clubs 1
10 Ace hearts (wide card) I
carried up 34
11 Eight hearts
j 2 Eight fpades
13 Seven hearts
14 Nine clubs
15 Kr
16
3 7 Queen ciubs
1 8 Nine hearts
19 Queen fpades
20 Knave clubs
21 King hearts
Knave! r j
Ton jrPadeS
8
8
7
9
10
ic
10
9
10
10
-10
diamonds
22 Queen hearts
23 Nine
24 Knave
25 Eight
26 King
27 Queen _
28 Knave hearts
29 King clubs
30 Ace diamonds
31 Seven 1
3 2 Eight 3 C
total 66
brought up 101
10
9
10
8
10
10
10
10
1
clubs
carried up 101
total 194
When the cards are by fhuffling difpofed in this or¬
der, you cut them at the wide card, and pronounce
that the cards you have cut off contain 66 points, and
confequently the remaining part 194.
VIII. “ The Inconceivable Repique (e).” When
you would perform this experiment with the cards ufed
in the laft, you mull obferve not to diforder the firft 10
cards in laying them down on the table. Putting
thofe cards together, in their proper order therefore,
you fhuffle them a fecond time in the fame manner, and
offer them to any one to cut, obferving carefully if he
cut them at the wide card, which will be the ace of
hearts, and will then be at top ; if not, you muft make
him, under fome pretence or other, cut them till it is j
and the cards will then be ranged in fuch order that
you will repique the perfon againll whom you play,
though you let him choofe (even after he has cut) in
what fuit you ftiall make the repique..
Order of the cards after they have been (huffled and
cut.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Eight hearts
Eight ‘ 1
Knave - fpades-
Ten
clubs
iVnave ,
King -hearts
Queen 'j
Eight "
-diamonds
Queen
Ace _.
1 3 Seven T , t
14 Eight $
15 Knave hearts
16 King clubs
1I I^ne diamonds
18 KnaveJ
19 Nine hearts
20 Queen fpades
21 Seven hearts
2 2 Nine clubs
23 Ten hearts
24 Ace clubs
o 1
25 Seven fpades
26 Seven diamonds
27 Nine ipades
28 King ~
29 Ace
fpades
COM
30 Ten clubs
31 Ten diamonds
32 Ace hearts
wide card.
Combina¬
tion.
The cards being thus difpofed, you alk your adver-
fary in what fuit you {hall repique him ? If he fay in
clubs or diamonds, you mufl deal the cards by threes,
and the hands will be as follows :
Elder.
Hearts, king
  queen
   knave
■■■"   nine
• ■ eight
   feven
Spades, queen
  knave
— eight
Diamonds, eight
Clubs, eight
  (even
Rentree, or take in of
the elder.
Seven fpades
Seven diamonds
Nine T
King > fpades
Ace j
Younger.
Clubs, ace
 king
—  queen
—  knave
•    ■ nine
Diamonds, ace
 king
  queen
■  knave
—— nine
Spades, ten
Hearts, ten
Rentree of the younger.
Ten clubs
Ten diamonds
Ace hearts
If he againft ■whom you play, who is fuppofed to be
elder hand, has named clubs for the repique, and has
taken in five cards, you muft then lay out the qpeen,
knave, and nine of diamonds, and you will have, with
the three cards you take in, a fixiem major in clubs,
and quatorze tens. If he leave one or trvo cards, you
muft difcard all the diamonds.
If he require to be repiqued in diamonds, then dif¬
card the queen, knave, and nine of clubs : or all the
clubs, if he leave two cards •, and will then have a
hand of the fame ftrength as before.
Note. If the adverfary ftiould difcard five of his
hearts, you will not repique him, as he will then have
a feptiem in fpades : or if he only take one card : but
neither of thefe any one can do, who has. the .leaft
knowledge of the game. If the perfon againft whom
you play would be repiqued in hearts or Ipades, you
muft deal the cards by twos, and the game will Hand
thus;
Elder hand.
King
Knave
Nine
Eight _
>- diamonds
Younger hand.
Ace
King
Ace
}
clubs
n T diamonds
Queen ^
Queen
(e) This manoeuvre of piquet was invented by the cuuntefs of L
ted by her to M. Guyot.,
(a French lady), and communica-
1
Eider hand.
Queen ")
Knave |
Nine J» clubs
Eight |
Seven J
1- hearts
Sever, J
Eight Ipades
Rentree
Seven fpades
Seven diamonds
Nine 1
King V Tpades
Ace J
teen T
ave > fpa
J
des
COM
Younger hand.
Que<
Knave.
Ten
King
Queen |
Knave hearts
Ten J
Nine J
Rentree.
Ten clubs
Ten diamonds
Ace hearts
[ 301
If he require to be repiqued in hearts, you keep the
quint to a king in hearts, and the ten of fpades, and
lay out which of the reft you pleafe; then, even if he
fh mid leave two cards, you will have a fixiem major
in hearts, and quutorze tens, which will make a re¬
pique.
But if he demand to be repiqued in fpades; at the
end of the deal you nmft dexteroufly pafs the three
cards that are at the h.’ttom of the ftock (that is, the
ten of clubs, ten of diamonds, and ace of hearts) to
the top (f), and by that means you referve the nine,
king, and ace of fpades for yourfelf; fo that by keep¬
ing the quint in hearts, though you ftiould be obliged
to lay out four cards, you will have a fixiem to a king
in fpades, with which and the quint in hearts you muft
make a repique.
Obferve here likewife, that if the adverfary lay out
only three cards, you will not make the repique ; but
that he will never do, unlefs he be quite ignorant of
the game, or has fome knowledge of your intention.
Th is laft ftroke of piquet has gained great applaufe,
when thofe that have, publicly performed it have
known how to conduct it dexteroufly. Many perfons
who underftand the nature of combining the cards,
have gone as far as the paffxng the three cards from
the bottom of the ftock, and have then been forced
to confefs their ignorance of the manner in which it
was performed.
IX. “ The Metamorphofed Cards.” Provide 32
cards that are differently coloured, on which feveral
different words are written, and different obje&s paint¬
ed. Thefe cards are to be dealt two and two to four
perfons, and at three different times, ftiuffling them
each time. After the firft deal, every one’s cards are
to be of the fame colour ; after the fecond deal they
are all to have obje<ft$ that are fimilar : and after the
third, words that convey a fentiment.
Difpofe of the cards in the following order.
Cards. Colours. Objefts. Words.
1 Yellow Bird I find
2 Yellow Bird In you
3 Green Flower Charming
1 4 Green Flower Flowers
COM
Colours. Objects. Words.
White Bird To hear ,
White Orange Beauty
Red Butterfly My
Red Flower Notes
Red Flower In
Red Butterfly Shepherdefs
Green Butterfly Lover
Green Butterfly Your
White Flower Of
White Flower An inconftant
Yellow Orange Image
Yellow Flower Enchanting
White Orange Adorn
Yellow Butterfly My
Yellow Butterfly Phyllis
White Bird Birds
Red Orange Sing
Red Orange Dear
Green Orange And fweetnefs
Green Orange The
Green Bird Of
Green Bird Prefent
Yellow Flower As
Red Bird Changes
Red Bird Bofora
Yellow Orange Me
White Butterfly Your
White Butterfly I long
The cards thus coloured, figured, and tranfcribed,
are to be put in a cafe, in the order they here ftand.
When you would perform this experiment, you take
the cards out of the cafe, and {how, without changing
the order in which they were put, that the colours,
objects, and words, are all placed promifcuoufly. You
then fhuffle them in the fame manner as before, and deal
them, two and two, to four perfons, obferving that they
do not take up their cards till all are dealt, nor mix
them together: and the eight cards dealt to each perfon
will be found all of one colour. You then take each
perfon’s cards, and put thofe of the fecond perfon un¬
der thofe of the firft, and thofe of the fourth perfon
under thofe of the third. After which you fhuffle them
a fecond time; and having dealt them in the fame
manner, on the firft perfon’s cards will be painted all
the birds; on the fecond perfon’s cards all the butter¬
flies ; on thofe of the third, the oranges; and on thofe
of the fourth, the flowers. You take the cards a fe¬
cond time, and obferving the lame precautions, fhuffle
and deal them as before ; and then the firft perfon,
who had the laft time the birds in his hand, will have
the words that compofe this fentence :
Sing, dear birds ; I long to hear your enchanting notes.
The fecond perfon, who the laft deal had the but¬
terflies, will now have thefe words:
Of an in corf ant lover your changes prefent me the image.
The third, who had the oranges, will have this fen-
1
Cards.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
S2
tence
A*
Combina¬
tion.
/
(f) The manner of doing this is explained in the article Legerdemain.
€ .O M [ 302 1 € O M
“ & in my Phyllis, Ifind in you beauty andfweetncfs.
fl The fourth, who had the flowers, will have thefe
. words :
Charming flowers, adorn the bofom of my Jhepherdefs.
It feeras quite unneceffary to give any further detail,
as they who underftand the foregoing experiments will
eafily perform this.
Among the different purpofes to which the do&rine
-of combinations may be applied, thofe of writing in
cipher, and deciphering, hold a principal place. See
the article Cipher.
Combination, in Chemijlry, lignifies the union of
two bodies of different natures, from which a new
compound body refults. For example, when an acid
is united with an alkali, we fay that a combination be¬
twixt thefe two faline fubftances takes place ; becaufe
from this union a neutral fait refults, which is compo-
fed of an acid and an alkali.
COMBUST, in AJlronomy. When a planet is in
con}u6Hon with the fun, or not diftant from it above
half its dilk, it is faid to be combuft, or in com-
buftion.
According to Argol, a planet is combuft, or in
combuftion, when not above eight degrees and thirty
minutes diftant from the fun, either before or after him.
COMBUSTIO PECUNIAE, the ancient way of trying
mixed and corrupt money, by melting it down, upon
-payments into the exchequer. In the time of King
Henry II. a conftitution was made, called the trial by
combuflion ; the praftice of which differed little or no¬
thing from the prefent method of affaying filver. But
■whether this examination of money by combuftion was
to reduce an equation of money only to fterling, viz.
a due proportion of alloy with copper, or to reduce it
to pure fine filver, does not appear. On making the
conftitution of trial it was confidered, that though the
money did anfwer numero et pondere, it might be de¬
ficient in value : becaufe mixed with copper or brafs.
&c.
COMBUS CION, a term denoting the operation of
fire upon any inflammable fubftance, by which it
fmokes, flames, and is reduced to allies.
There is not a phenomenon in nature by which the
attention of philofophers has been more engaged, or
which has puzzled them more to account for, than this
very common operation. To explain it, theories have
been invented, the moft oppofite and contradictory to
on** another that can be imagined j and, till very
lately, the ftate of fcience did not afford data fufficient
to explain it in a rational manner. See Chemistry
Index.
COMEDY, a fort of dramatic poetry, which gives
a view of common and private life, recommends vir¬
tue, and correCts the vices and follies of mankind by
means of ridicule. See the article PoETRY.
This laft kind alone was received among the Ro¬
mans, who neverthelefs made a new fnbdivifion of it
into ancient, middle, and new, according to the vari¬
ous periods of the commonwealth. Among the an¬
cient comedies were reckoned thofe of Livius Andro-
nicus •, among the middle thofe of Pacuvius 5 and a-
mong the new ones, thofe of Terence. They likewife
diftinguiflied comedy according to the quality of the Gomeiy
perfons reprefented, and the drefs they wore, into [)
togatee, praetcxtatae, tr^beatae, and tabemariae, which Comt't
laft agrees pretty nearlv with our farces. Among us, Y ^
comedy is diflinguilhed from farce, as the former re-
prefents nature as (he is; the other diftorts and over¬
charges her. They both paint from the life, but with
different views : the one to make nature known, the
other to make her ridiculous.
COMENIUS, John Amos, a grammarian and
Proteftant divine, born in Moravia in 1592. He was j
eminent for his defign to introduce a new method
of teaching languages ; for which purpofe he publilh-
ed fome effays in 1616, and had prepared fome othersi,
when the Spaniards pillaged his library, after having
taken the city of Fulnec, where he was minifter and
ma ter of the fchool. Comenius fled to Lefna, a city
of Poland, and taught Latin there. The book he pub-
IHhed in 1631, under the title of Janua Linguarum
referata, gained him a prodigious reputation, infomuch
that he was offered a com million for regulating all the
fchools in Poland. The parliament of England defi-
red his afliftance to regulate the fchools in that king¬
dom. He arrived at London in 1641 ; and would
have been received by a committee to hear his plan,
had not the parliament been taken up with other mat¬
ters. He therefore went to Sweden, being invited
by a generous patron, who fettled a ftipend upon him
that delivered him from the fatigues of teaching ; and
now he employed himfelf wholly in difcovering ge¬
neral methods for thofe who inftru&ed youth. In
1657 he published the different parts of his new me¬
thod of teaching. He was not only taken up with the
reformation of fchools ; but be alfo filled his brain with
prophecies, the fall of Antichrift, Millennium, &c. At
laft Comenius took it into his bead to addrefs Louis
XIV. of France, and to fend him a copy of the pro¬
phecies of Drabicius ; infinuating, that it was to this
monarch God promifed the empire of the world. He
became fenfible at laft of the vanity of his labours, and
died in 1671.
COMET, an opaque, fpherical, and folid body
like a planet, performing revolutions about the Cun
in elliptical orbits, which have the fun in one of their
foci.
There is a popular divifion of comets into tailed^
bearded, and hairy comets ; though this divifion rather
relates to the different circumftances of the fame co¬
met, than to the phenomena of feveral. Thus, when
the light is weft ward of the fun, and fets after it, the
comet is faid to be tailed, becaufe the train follows it
in the manner of a tail: when the comet is eaftward
of the fun, and moves from it, the comet is faid to be
bearded, becaufe the light marches before it in the
manner of a beard. Laftly. when the comet and the
fun are diametrically oppofite (the earth between
them), the train is hid behind the body of the comet,
except a little that appears round it in form of a bor¬
der of hair: and from this laft appearance the word
comet is derived ; as xopijnR, comtta, comes from xepj,
coma, hair. But there have been comets whofe diflc
was as clear, as round, and as well defined, as that of
Jupiter, without either tail, beard, or coma. See A- ■
stronomy Index,
4
COMETARIUM,
COM [ 303 ] COM
jmeta- COMETARIUM, a curious machine, exhibiting
rium an idea of the revolution of a comet about the fun.
li See Astronomy Index.
);nitia. COME’L'EiVN, a town of Bohemia in the circle of
Saltz, with a handfome town-houfe. It was taken by
ftorm in 1421, and all the inhabitants, men, women,
and children, put to the fword. It is feated in a fer¬
tile plain, in E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 50. 30.
COMETES. See Botany Index.
COMFREY. See Symphytum, Botany Index.
COMINES, Philip DE, an excellent hiftorian,
born of a noble family in Flanders in 1446. He lived
in a kind of intimacy with Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, for about eight years \ but being feduced
to the court of France by Louis XL he was highly
promoted by him, and executed feveral fuccefsful ne-
gociations. After this king’s death he experienced
many troubles on account of being a foreigner, by the
snvy of other courtiers, and lay long in prifon before
he was difcharged : he died in 1509. Comines was
a man of more natural abilities than learning j he
fpoke feveral living, but knew nothing of the dead
fenguages •, he has left behind him fome memoirs of
his own times, that are admired by all true judges of
hilfory. Catherine de Medicis ufed to fay, that Co¬
mines made as many heretics in politics as Luther had
done in religion.
Comines, a town of French Flanders on the lines
which the French have made to defend their country
againrt the Auftrian Netherlands. It is fituated on
the river Lis, in E. Long. 3. I. N. Lat. 5a. 30.
COMITATUS, in Zniu, a county. Ingulplms tells-
us, that England was firft divided into counties by
King Alfred; and the counties into hundreds, and
thefe again into ty things: and Fortefcue writes, that-,
regnum Anglice per comitatus, ut regnum Francue per
ballivatus diJUnguitur. Sometimes it is taken for a ter¬
ritory or jurifdittion of a particular place j as in Mat.
Paris, anno 1234. See County,
COMITI A, in Roman antiquity, were general ai-
femblies of the people, lawfully called by fome magif-
trate for the enjoinment or prohibition of any thing
by their votes.
The proper comitia were of three forts j curiata,
centuriata, and tributary with reference to the three
grand divifions of the city and people into curice, cen¬
turies, and tribes: For, by comitia calata, which we
fometimes meet with in authors, in earlier times were
meant all the comitia in general ; the woid calata
from xxteu, or ca/o, being their common epithet •, though
it was at. laft reftrained to two forts of affemblies, thofe
for the creation of priefts, and thofe for the regulation
®f laft wills and teftaments.
The comitia curiata owe their origin to the divifion
which Romulus made of the people into 30 curiae $
ten being contained in every tribe. They anfwered
in moft refpe&s to the parilhes in our cities, being not
only feparated by proper bounds and limits, but di-
ftinguiftied too by their different places fet apart for
the celebration of divine fervice, which was performed
by particular priefts (one to every curia), with the
name of curiones.
Before the inftitution of the comitia centuriata, all
the grand concerns of the ftate were tranfafted in the
affembly of the curite $. as the election of kings and
other chief officers, the making and abrogating of Comitia.
laws,, and the judging of capital caufes. After the ex- ■—v 
pulfion of the kings, when the commons had obtained
the privilege to have tribunes and cediles, they eledted
them for feme time at thefe affemblies j but that ce¬
remony being at length transferred to the comitia tri-
buta, the curiae were never convened to give their
votes, except now and then upon account of making,
fome particular law relating to adoptions, wills, and
teftaments, or the creation of officers for an expedi¬
tion j or for electing fome of the priefts, as the flami-
nes, and the curio maximus, or fuperintendant of the
curiones, who were themfeives chofen by every parti*
cular curia.
The power of calling thefe affemblies belonged at
firft only to the kings j but upon the eftablifhment of
the democracy, the fame privilege was allowed to moft
of the chief magiftrates, and’ fometimes to the ponti-
fices.
The perfons who had the liberty of voting here
were fuch Roman citizens as belonged to the curise 5.
or fuch as actually lived in the city, and conformed
to the cuftoms and rites of their proper curiae ; all
thofe being excluded who dwelt without the bounds
of the city, retaining the ceremonies of their own
country, though they had been honoured with the jus
civitatis, or admitted free citizens of Rome. The
place where the curiae met was the comitium, a part of
the forum : No fet time was appointed for the holding
thefe, or any other of the comitia, but only as bufinefs
required.
The people being met together, and confirmed by
the report of good omens from the augurs (which was
neceffary in all the affemblies), the rogatio, or bufinefs
to be propofed to them was publicly read. After
this (if none of the magiftrates interpofed), upon
the order of him that prefided in the comitia, the
people divided into their proper curias, and confulted
of the matter j and then the curias being called out*
as it happened by lot, gave their votes man by man,
in ancient times viva voce, and afterwards by tablets*,
the moft votes in every curia going for the voice of the
whole curia, and the moft curiae for the general conn
fent of the people.
In the time of Cicero, the comitia euriata were fo
much out of falhion, that they were formed only by
30 lidlors reprefeming the 30 curiae j whence,,in his
fecond oration againft Rullus, he calls them comitia
adumbrata.
The comitia centuriata were inftituted by Serviua
Tullius j who, obliging every one to give a true ac¬
count of what he was worth, according to thofe ac¬
counts, divided the people into fix ranks or claffes,
which he fubdivided into 193-centuries. The firft
claffis, containing the equites and richeft citizens,
confifted of 98 centuries. The fecond, taking in the
tradefmen and mechanics, confifted of 22 centuries..
The third, 20. The fourth, 22. The fifth, 30.
The fixth, filled up with the poorer fort, but one
century: and this though it had the fame name with
the reft,, yet was feldom regarded, or allowed any
power in public matters. Hence it is a common thing
with the Roman authors, when they fpt ak of the claffes,
to reckon no more than five, the fixth not being
worth their notice, This la it claflis or order was di¬
vided
COM [ 304 1 COM
Comitla. vided into two parts or orders $ the profetnrn and the
!"~v  capite cenji. The former, as their name implies, were
defigned purely to dock, the republic with men, finee
they could fupply it with fo little money : and the
latter, who paid the lowed tax of all, were rather
counted and mardialled by their heads than by their
cdatesi
Perfons of the fird rank, by reafon of their pre-emi¬
nence, had the name of clajjici; whence came the name
of clajjici auBores for the mod approved writers. All
others, of what claflis foever, were faid to be infra
clujfem. The aflembly of the people by centuries was
held for the electing of confuls, cenfors, and praetors ;
as alfo for the judging of perfons accufed of what they
called crimen perduellionis, or actions by which the
party had (bowed himfelf an enemy to the date, and
for the confirmation of all fuch laws as were propofed
by the chief magidrates, who had the privilege of cal¬
ling thefe aflemblies.
The place appointed for their meeting was the cam¬
pus martius ; becaufe in the primitive times of the com¬
monwealth, when they were under continual appre-
henfions of enemies, the people, to prevent any fudden
affault, went armed, in martial order,- to hold thefe
aifemblies \ and were for that reafon forbidden by the
laws to meet in the city, becaule an army was upon
no account to be marfhalled within the walls \ yet, in
later ages, it was thought fufficient to place a body
of foldiers as a guard in the janiculum, where an im¬
perial dandard was ere£ted, the taking down of which
denoted the conclufion of the comitia.
Though the time of holding thefe comitia for other
matters was undetermined ; yet the magidrates, alter
the year of the city 601, when they began to enter on
their place, on the kalends of January, were condant-
ly defgned about the end of July and the beginning of
Augud.
All the time between their ele&ion and confirmation
they continued as private perfons, that inquifition
might be made into the election, and the other candi¬
dates might have time to enter objections, if they met
with any fufpicion of unfair dealing. Yet, at the elec¬
tion of the cenfors, this cudom did not hold •, but as
foon as they were elected, they were immediately in-
^veded with the honoun
By the inditution of thefe comitia, SerVius Ttillius
fecretly conveyed the whole of the power from the
commons •, for the centuries of the fird and riched
clafs being called out fird, who were three more in
number than all the red put together, if they all a-
greed, as generally they did, the bufinefs was already
decided, and the other claffes were needlefs and infig-
nificant.- However, the three lad fcarce ever came to
vote.
The commons, in the time of the free date, to re¬
medy this difadvantage, obtained, that before they
proceeded to voting any matter at thefe comitiaj that
century (hould give their fuffrages fird upon whom it
fell by lot, with the name of centuria prerogativa ; the
red being to follow according to the order of their
claffes. After the conditution of the 35 tribes into
which the claffes and their centuries were divided, in
the fird place, the tribes cad lots which fiiould be the
prerogative tribe; and then the centuries of the tribes
for the honour of being a prerogative century. All
the other tribes and centuries had the appellation of
jure vocatce, becaufe they were called out according to
their proper places.
The. prerogative century being chofen by lot, the
chief magidrate, fitting in a tent in the middle of the
campus martius, ordered that century to come out and
give their voices j upon which they prefently feparated
from the red of the multitude, and came into an inclo*
fed apartment, which they termed fepta or ovi/ia, paff
fing over the pontes or narrow boards laid there for the
occrifion j on which account de pontibus dejici (ignifies
to be denied the privilege of voting, and perfons thus
dealt with are called depontani.
At the higher end of the pontes dood the diribitores
(a fort of under officers fo called from their marlball¬
ing the people), and delivered to every man, in the
election of magidrates, as many tablets a^ there appear¬
ed candidates, one of whole names was written upon
every tablet. A proper number of great cheds were
fet ready in theJepta, and every body threw in which
tablet he pleafed*
By the cheds were placed fome of the public fer-
vants, who taking out the tablets of every century*
for every tablet, made a prick or a point in another
tablet which they kept by them. Thus, the bufintfs
being decided by mod points gave occafion to the
phrafe omne tulitpunBum, and the like.
The fame method was obferved in the judiciary pro-
cefs at thefe comitia, and in the confirmation of laws}
except that, in both thefe cafes, only two tablets were
offered to every perfon $ on one of which was written
U. R. and on the other A, in capital letters \ the two
fird Handing for uti rogas, “ be it as you defire,” rela¬
ting to the magidrate who propofed the quedion j and
the lad for untiquo% or “ I forbid it,”
It is remarkable* that though in the ele&ion of ma¬
gidrates, and in the ratification of laws, the votes of
that century, whofe tablets were equally divided, fig-
nified nothing; yet in the trials of life and death, if the
tablets pro and con were the fame in number, the per¬
fon was actually acquitted;
The divifion of people into tribes was an invention
of Romulus, after he had admitted the Sabines into
Rome j and though he condituted at that time only
three, yet as the date increafed in power, and the
city in number of inhabitants, they rofe by degrees to
35. For a long time after this ihditution, a tribe Gg~
nified no more than fuch a fpace of ground with its in¬
habitants. But at lad the matter was quite altered,
and a tribe was no longer pars urbis, but pars civitatis }
not a quarter of the city, but a company of citizens
living where they pleafed. This change was ebietly
occafioned by the original difference between the tribes
in point of honour; For Romulus having committed
all fordid and mechanic arts to the care of drangers,
Haves, and libertines j and referved the more honed
labour of agriculture to the freemen and citizens, who
by this aflive courfe of life might be prepared for
martial fervice 5 the tribus rujlicce were for this rea¬
fon edeemed more honourable than the tribus urbanee.
And now all perfons being defirous of getting into the
more creditable divifion j and there being feveral ways
of accomplilbing their widies, as by adoption, by the
power of cenfors, or the like j that rudic tribe which
had the rood worthy names in its roll had the^prefe*
renc*
C O M
[ 3°5 3
C O M
fence to all others, though of the fame general de¬
nomination. Hence all of the fame great family
bringing themfelves by degrees into the fame tribe,
' gave the name of their family to the tribe they ho¬
noured ; whereas at firft the generality of the tribes
did not borrow their names from perfons but from
places.
The firft affembly of the tribes we meet with is
about the year of Rome 263, convened by Sp. Siei-
nius, tribune of the commons, upon account of the trial
of Coriolanus. Soon after, the tribunes of the com¬
mons were ordered to be elefted here •, and at laft
all the inferior magiftrates, and the collegiate priefts.
The fame comitia ferved for the enabling of laws re¬
lating to war and peace, and all others propofed by
the tribunes and plebeian officers, though they had not
properly the name of leges, but plebifcita. They were
generally convened by the tribunes of the commons;
but the fame privilege was allowed to all the chief
magiftrates. They were confined to no place ; and
therefore fometimes we find them held in the comitium ;
fometimes in the campus martins, and now and then
in the capitol. The proceedings were in moft refpe&s
anfwerable to thofe already defcribed in the account
of the other comitia, and therefore need not be infill¬
ed on. Only we may farther obferve of the comitia
in general, that when any candidate was found to have
moft tablets for a magiftracy, he was declared to be
dejigned or eledted by the prefident .of the afiembly ;
and this they termed renunciari conful, prcetor, or the
like ; and that the laft fort of the comitia only could
be held without the confent or approbation of the
fenate, which was neceffary to the convening of the
other two.
COMITIALIS Morbus, an appellation given to
the Epilepsy, by reafon the comitia of ancient Rome
were diffolved if any perfon in the aflfembly happened
to be taken with this diftemper.
COMITIUM, in Roman antiquity, a large hall in
the forum, where the Comitia were ordinarily held.
COMMA, among grammarians, a point or charac¬
ter marked thus (,), ferving to denote a Ihort flop,
and to divide the members of a period. Different au¬
thors define and ufe it differently. According to F.
Buffier, the comma ferves to diftinguilh the members
of a period, in each of which is a verb and the nomi¬
native cafe of the verb : thus, “ That fo many people
are pleafed with trifles, is owing to a weaknefs of
mind, which makes them love things eafy to be com¬
prehended.” Befides this, the comma is ufed to diftin¬
guilh, in the fame manner of a period, feveral nouns-
fubftantive, or nouns-adjeftive, or verbs not united by
a conjundlion : thus, “ Virtue, wit, knowledge, are
the chief advantages of a man or, “ A man never
becomes learned without ftudying conftantly, methodi¬
cally, with a guft, application,” &c. If thofe words
are united in the lame phrafe with a conjumflion, the
tiomtna is omitted : thus, “ the imagination and the
judgment do not always agree.”
The ingenious author of the tra£l De ratione in-
lerpungendi, printed with Voffius’s Element. Rhetor.
Lond. 1734, lays down the ufe of a comma to be, to
diftinguilh the Ample members of a period or fentence ;
i. e. fuch as only confift of one fubje£l, and one defi¬
nite verb. But this rule does not go throughout; the
VOL. VI. Part I.
fame author inftancing many particular eaies not yet Cotr.sna
included herein, where yet the comma is advifable.
^ee Punctuation.
It is a general rule that a comma ought not to come
between a nominative and a verb, or an adjective and
fubftantive, when thefe are not othervvife disjoined :
thus, in the fentence, God ruleth with infinite wifdom, a
comma between Go</and ruleth, or between infinite znOi
wifdom, would be abfurd. But to this exceptions may
occur; as when not a Angle word, but a fentence,
happens to be the nominative; thus, in the example
firft above given, where the fentence that fo many peo¬
ple are pleafed with trifles, forms the nominative to the
verb is, a comma at trifles is proper, both for the fake
of perfpicuity, and as coinciding with a flight natural
paufe.
Comma, in Mafic. See Interval.
COMMANDINUS, Frederic, born at Urbino in
Italy, and defcended from a very noble family, in the
16th century. To a vaft Ikill in the mathematics, he
had added a great knowledge in the Greek tongue, by
which he was well qualified to tranllate the Greek
mathematicians into Latin : accordingly he tranfla-
ted and publilhed feveral, which no writer till then
had attempted ; as Archimedes, Apollonius, Euclid,
&c.
COMMANDRY, a kind of benefice or fixed reve¬
nue belonging to a military order, and conferred on
ancient knights who had done confiderable fervices to
the order.
There are ftrift or regular comrnandries, obtain¬
ed in order, and by merit ; there are others of grace
and favour, conferred at the pleafure of the grand
mailer ; there are alfo commandries for the religioua
in the orders of St Bernard and St Anthony. The
kings of France have converted feveral of the hof-
pitals for lepers into commandries of the order of St
Lazarus. ■ «
The commandries of Malta are of different kinds ;
for as the order confifts of knights, chaplains, and bro¬
thers fervitors, there are peculiar commandries or re¬
venues attached to each. The knight to whom onfc
of thefe benefices or commandries is given is called
commander, which agrees pretty nearly with the
prsepofitus fet over the monks in places at a diftance
from the monaftery, whofe adminiftration was called
obedientia; becaufe depending entirely upon the ab¬
bot who gave him his commiffion. Thus it is with
the fimple commanders of Malta, who are rather far¬
mers of the order than beneficiaries ; paying a certaiu
tribute or rent, called refponfio, to the common trea-
fury of the order.
COMMELINA. See Botany Index.
COMMEMORATION, in a general fenfe, the re^»
membrance of any perfon or thing, or the doing any¬
thing to the honour of a perfon’s memory, or in re¬
membrance of any pall event. Thus, the eucharift is
a commemoration of the fufferings of Jefus Chrift.
COMMEND AM, in the ecclefiaftical law, the trull
or adminiftration of the revenues of a benefice, givert
either to a layman, to hold by way of depofitum for
fix months, in order to repairs, Sec. or to an ecclefiaf-
tic or beneficed perfon, to perform the paftoral duties
thereof, till once.the benefice is provided with a regu¬
lar incumbent.
q Anciently
COM [ 3°6 ] C . O M
Commen- Anciently the^adminifiration of vacant bilhoprics be-
clam, longed to the neardt neighbouring bifliop •, which is
^=.n* ^ praftifed between the archbifliopric of Lyons an.:
> ‘ . ^ie bilhopric of Autun : on this account they w'ere
called commen da tor ij bifljops.
Ihis cuftora appears to be very ancient. St Atha-
nafius fays of himfelf, according to Nicephoros, that
there had been given him in commendam, i. e. in ad-
miniftration, another church befides that of Alexandria
whereof he was ftated bifliop.
The care of churches, it feems, which had no paftor,
was committed to a bifliop, till they were provided
tvith an ordinary : the regifler of Pope Gregory I. is
full of thefe commiflions, or commendams, granted du¬
ring the abfence or ficknefs of a bifliop, or the vacancy
of the fee.
Some fay, that Pope Leo IV. firft eftabliflied the
modern commendams, in favour of ecclefiafties who had
been expelled their benefices by the Saracens j to whom
the adminifiration of the vacant churches was commit¬
ted for a time, in expectation of their being reftored 5
though St Gregory is faid to have ufed the fame while
the Lombards defolated Italy.
In a little time the praCtice of commendams was ex¬
ceedingly abufed j and the revenues of monafteries gi¬
ven to laymen for their fubfiftence. The biftiops alfo
procured feveral benefices, or even biflioprics, in com-
mendam, which ferved as a pretext for holding them all
without direCtly violating the canons. Part of the
abufe has been retrenched ; but the ufe of commendams
is ft ill retained as an expedient to take off the incompa¬
tibility of the perfon by the nature of the benefice.
When a parfon is made bifliop, his parfonage becomes
vacant j but if the king give him power he may ftill
hold it in commendam.
COMMENDATUS, one who lives under the pro*
teClion of a great man. Commendati homines, were
perfons who, by voluntary homage, put themfelves
under the protection of any fuperior lord : f< r ancient Conime
homage was either predial, due for fome tenure ; or datus"
perfonal, which was by compulfion, as a fign ot necef- II
fary fubje&ion ; or voluntary, with a defire of protec- CoinGlen-
tion ; and thofe who, by voluntary homage, put them-
lelves under the protection of any man of power, were
fome times called homines ejus commendati, as often oc¬
curs in Doomfday. Commendati dimidii were thofe who
depended on two feveral lords, and paid one half of
their homage to each 5 and fub-commendati were like
under-tenants under the command of perfons that were
themfelves under the command of fome fuperior lord r
alfo there were dimidii fub-commendati, who bore a
double relation to fuch depending lords. This phrafe
feems to be ftill in ufe in theufual compliment, “ Com¬
mend me to fuch a friend,” &c. which is to let him
know7, “ I am his humble fervant.”
COMMENSURABLE, among geometricians, an
appellation given to fuch quantities as are meafured by
one and the fame common meafure.
Commensurable Numbers, whether integers or
fraCtions, are fueh as can be meafured or divided bv
fome other number without any remainder ; fuch are
12 and 18, as being meafured by 6 and 3.
COMMENSURABLE in Power, Is faid of right lines,
when their fquares are meafured by one and 'the fame
fpace or fuperfices.
COMMENSURABLE. Surds, thofe that being reduced
to their leait terms, become true figurative quantities
of their kind j and are therefore as a rational quantity
to a rational one.
COMMENTARY, or Comment, in matters of li¬
terature, an illuftration of the difficult or obfcure paf-
fages of an author.
. Commentary, or Commentaries, likewife denotes a
kind of hiftory, or memoirs of certain tranfaClions,
wherein the author had a confiderable hand : fuch ars
the Commentaries of Caefar.
COMMERCE,
TS an operation by which the wealth, or work, either
•A of individuals or of focieties, may be exchanged by
a let of men called merchants, for an equivalent, proper
for fupplylng every want, without any interruption to
mduftry, or any check upon confumption.
Chap. I. History of Commerce..
§ I. General Hi/lory.
It is a point as yet undecided by the learned, to
what nation the invention and firft ufe of commerce
belonged : fome attribute it to one people, fome to
another, fim reafons that are too long to be difcuffed
here. But it feems moft probable that the inhabitants
of Arabia were thofe that firft made long voyages.
It muft be allowed, that no country was fo happily
fituated for this purpofe as that which they inhabited,
being a peninfula waffied on three Tides by three fa¬
mous leas, the Arabian, Indian, and Perfian. It is
alfo certain, that it was very early inhabited j and the
firft notice we have of any confiderable trade refers
it to the Iffimaelites, who were fettled in the hither
part of Arabia. Lo them Jofeph was fold by his
brethren, Avhen they were going down with their ca¬
mels to Egypt with fpicery, balm, and myrrh. It
may feem ftrange to infer from hence, that commerce
was already pra£Hfed by this nation, fince mention is
here, made of camels, or a caravan, which certainly
implies an inland trade $ and it muft be likewife al¬
lowed, that balm and myrrh were the commodities of
their country. But whence had they the fpicery ? Or
how came Arabia to be fo famous in ancient times for
fpices ? Or whence proceeded that miftake of many
great authors of antiquity, that fpices actually grew
there ? Moft certainly, becaufe thefe people dealt in
them; and that they dealt in them the firft of any
nation that we know of, appears from this very in-
ftance. Strabo and many other good authors alfure
us, that in fucceeding times they were very great
traders : they tell us particularly what ports they had}
what prodigious magazines they kept of the richeft*
kinds
COMM
tory, kinds of goods j what wonderful wealth they obtained ;
y——' in what prodigious magnificence they lived, and into
what exceffes they fell in refpedl to their expences for
carving, building, and ftatues. All this (hows that
they were very great traders j and it alfo (hows, that
they traded to the Eaft Indies j and from thence only
they could have their fpices, their rich gums, their
fweet-fcented woods, and their ivory, all which it is
exprefsly faid they had in the greateft abundance.
This therefore proves, that they had an extenfive and
flourilhing commerce j and that they had it earlier
than any other nation, feems evident from their deal¬
ing at that time in fpices. Befides, there is much lefs
difficulty in fuppofing that they firft difcovered the
route to the Indies, than if we afcribe that difcovery
to any other nation $ for, in the firft place, they lay
neareft, and in the next they lay moft conveniently ;
to which we may add, thirdly, that as the fituation
of their country naturally inclined them to navigation,
fo by the help of the monfoons they might make re¬
gular voyages to and from the Indies with great facili¬
ty ; nor is it at all unlikely that this difcovery might
be at firft owing to chance, and to fome of their veffels
being blown by a ftrong gale to the oppofite coaft, from
whence they might take the courage to return, by ob-
ferving the regularity of the winds at certain feafons.
All thefe reafons taken together feem to favour this
opinion, that commerce flouriffied firft among them ;
and as to its confequences in making them rich and
happy, there is no difpute about them.
We find in the records of antiquity no nation cele¬
brated more early for carrying all arts to perfedlion
than the inhabitants of Egypt: and it is certain alfo,
that ne art was there cultivated more early, with
more affiduity, or with greater fuccefs, than trade.
It appears from the foregoing inftance, that the richeft
commodities were carried there by land ; and it is no
iefs certain, that the moft valuable manufadlures were
invented and brought to perfection there many ages
before they were thought of in other countries j for,
as the learned Dr Warburton very juftly obferves, at
the time that Jofeph came into Egypt, the people
were not only poffelfed of all the conveniences of
life, but were remarkable alfo for their magnificence,
their politenefs, and even for their luxury ; which ar¬
gues, that traffic had been of long ftanding amongft
them. To fay the truth, the great advantages deri¬
ved from their country’s lying along the Red fea, and
the many benefits that accrued to them from the Nile,
which they very emphatically called The River, or The
River of Egypt, and of which they knew how to make
all the ufes that can be imagined, gave them an op¬
portunity of carrying their inland trade not only to a
greater height than in any country at that time, but
even higher than it has been carried anywhere, Chi¬
na only excepted; and fome people have thought it
no trivial argument to prove the defcent of the Chi-
nefe from the Egyptians, that they have exaftly the
fame lort of genius, and with wonderful induftry and
care have drawn fo many cuts and canals, that their
country is almoft in every part of it navigable. It
was by luch methods, by a wife and well regulated
government, and by promoting a fpirit of induftry
amongft the people, that the ancient Egyptians be¬
came fo numerous, fo rich, fo powerful} and that
E R C E.
their country, for large cities, magnificent ftrmfture?,
and perpetual abundance, became the glory and won- '
der of the world.
The Phoenicians, though they pofteffed only a nar¬
row flip of the coaft of Afia, and were furrounded by
nations fo powerful and fo warlike that they were
never able to extend themfelves on that fide, became
famous, by erefting the firft naval power that makes
any figure in hiftory, and for the raifing of which they
took the moft prudent and effeflual meafures. In or¬
der to this, they not only availed themfelves of all the
creeks, harbours, and ports, which nature had bertow-
ed very liberally on their narrow territory, but im¬
proved them in fuch a manner, that they were no lefs
remarkable for their ftrength than confiderable for
their conveniency •, and fo attentive were they to
whatever might contribute to the increafe of their
power, that they were not more admired for the vaft
advantages they derived from their commerce, than
they were formidable by their fleets and armies.
They were like wife celebrated by antiquity as the in¬
ventors of arithmetic and aftronomy ; and in the laft-
mentioned fcience they muft have been very confider¬
able proficients, fince they had the courage to under¬
take long voyages at a time when no other nation
(the Arabians and Egyptians excepted) durft venture
farther than their own coafts. By thefe arts Tyre
and Sidon became the moft famous marts in the uni-
verfe, and were reforted to by all their neighbours,
and even by people at a confiderable diftance, as the
great ftorehoufes of the world. We learn from the
Scriptures how advantageous their friendffiip and al¬
liance became to the two great kings of Ifrael, David
and Solomon j and we fee, by the application of the
latter for architefts and artifts to Hiram king of Tyre,
to what a prodigious height they had carried manufac¬
tures of every kind.
It is very certain that Solomon made ufe of their
afliftance in equipping his fleets at Elath and Ezionge-
ber; and it is very probable that they put him upon
acquiring thofe ports, and gave him the firft hints of
the amazing advantages that might be derived from,
the pofleflion of them, and from the commerce he
might from thence be able to carry on. Thefe ports
were moft commodioufly fituated on the Arabian
gulf 5 and from thence his veffels, manned chiefly by
Phoenicians, failed to Ophir and Tharfis, wherever
thofe places were. Some writers will needs have
them to be Mexico and Peru, which is certainly a
wild and extravagant fuppofition ; others believe that
we are to look for Ophir on the coaft of Africa,
and Tharfis in Spain ; but the moft probable opinion
is, that they were both feated in the Eaft Indies.
By this adventurous navigation, he brought into his
country curiofities not only unfeen, but unheard of be¬
fore, and riches in fuch abundance, that, as the Scrip¬
ture finely expreffes it, “ He made filver in Jerufalem
as ftones, and cedar-trees as fycamores that grow in the
plains.” The metaphor is very bold and emphatical j
but when we confider that it is recorded in this Hi¬
ftory, that the return of one voyage only to Ophir
produced 450 talents of gold, which makes 51,328
pounds of our Troy weight, about 2,463,744!. fterling,
we cannot doubt of the immenfe profit that accrued from
this commerce. It is alfo obfervable that the queen of
Q q 2 Shebaa
3°7
Hiftory.
3°8 COMM
Hiftory. Sheba, or Saba, which lies in that part of Arabia be-
‘ v—fore mentioned, furprifed at the reports that were fpread
of the magnificence of this prince, made a journey to
his court on purpofeto fatisfy herfelf, whether fame had
not exaggerated the fad j and from the prefents {he
made him of 120 talents of gold (656,640!.), of fpices
in great abundance, and precious hones, we may dif-
cern the true reafon of her curiofity, which proceeded
from an opinion that no country could be fo rich as her
own. And there is another circumftance very remark¬
able, and which feems ftrongly to fortify what we have
advanced in the beginning of this fedion ; it is added,
neither were there any fuch fpices as the queen of
Sheba gave to King Solomon j” which feems to inti¬
mate, that the Arabians had penetrated farther into
the Indies than even the fleets of this famous prince,
and brought from thence other fpices (perhaps nut¬
megs and cloves) than had ever been feen before. It
was by his wifdom, and by his fteady application to
the arts of peace, all of which mutually fupport each
other, as they are all driven on by the wheel of com¬
merce, which fupplies every want, and converts every
fuperfluity into merchandife, that this monarch railed
his fubjeds to a condition much fuperior to that of
any of their neighbours, and rendered the land of If-
rael, while he governed it, the glory and wonder of
the Eaft. He made great acquifitions without making
wars $ and his fuccefi'or, by making wars, loft thole
acquifitions. It was his policy to keep all his people
employed ; and, by employing them, he provided
equally for the extenfion of their happinefs, and his
own power $ but the following kings purfued other
meafures, and other confequences attended them.
The trade of Judea funk almoft as fuddenly as it rofe,
and in procefs of time they loft thofe ports on the
Red, fea, upon which their Indian commerce depend-
ed,.
The whole trade of the univerfe became then, as
it were, the patrimony of the Phoenicians and the
Egyptians. The latter monopolized that of the In¬
dies, and, together with her corn and manufaftures,
brought fuch a prodigious balance of wealth continu¬
ally into the country, as enabled the ancient monarchs
of Egypt to compafs all thofe memorable works that
in fpite of time and barbarous conquerors remain the
monuments of their wifdom and power, and are like
to remain fo as long as the world fubfifts. The Phoe¬
nicians drew from Egypt a great part of thofe rich
commodities and valuable manufaffures which they
exported into all the countries between their own and
the Mediterranean fea j they drew likewife a vaft re¬
fort to their own cities, even from countries at a
great diftance 5 and we need only look into the pro¬
phets Ifaiah and Ezekiel in order to be convinced that
fhefe governments, founded on trade, were infinitely
more glorious and more liable than thofe that were
ereffed by force. All this w'e find likewife confirmed
by profane hiftories ; and by comparing thefe, it is
evident, that the induftry of the inhabitants of this
fmall country triumphed over all obftacles, procured
the greateft plenty in a barren foil, and immenfe
riches, where, without induftry, there mull have been
the greateft indigence. It is true, that old Tyre was
deftroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but not till (he had
flouxifhed for ages j and even then Ihe fell with- dig-
E R C E.
nity, and after a refiftance that ruined the army of Hiflorr
the great conqueror of Afia. Qut of the afties of1 (
this proud city the great fpirit of its inhabitants pro¬
duced a phoenix, little, if at all, inferior in beauty to
its parent. New Tyre was fituated on an ifland $ and
though her bounds were very narrow, yet (he became
quickly the miftrefs of the fea, and held that fuprenie
dominion till fubdued by Alexander the Great, whom
no power could refill. The ftruggle Ihe made, how¬
ever, though unfuccefsful, was great, and very much
to the honour of her inhabitants : it mull be owned,,
that the Greek hero found it more difficult to mailer
this fingle place, than to overcome the whole power of
Perfia.
The views of the Macedonian prince were beyond
comparifon more extenfive than his conquefts $ and
whoever confiders Alexander’s plan of power, and
enters into it thoroughly, will think him more a poli¬
tician than he was a conqueror. He framed in hK
own mind an idea of univerfal monarchy, which it
was indeed impoffible to aceomplilh } but the very no¬
tion of it does him far greater honour than all his vic¬
tories. He thought of placing his capital in Arabia j
and of dilpofing things in fuch a manner, as to have
commanded the molt remote part of the Indies, at
the fame time that he maintained a connexion with
the moll diftant countries in Europe. He was for
making ufe of force to acquire, but he very well
knew, that commerce only could preferve, an empire,,
that was to have no other limits than thole which na¬
ture had affigned the world. He delired to be mailer
of all ; but at the fame time he was willing to be a
wife and gracious mailer, and to place his happinefs
in that of his people, or rather in making all the na¬
tions of the eaith but one people. A vaft, an extra¬
vagant, an impradicable feheme it was, of which he
lived not long enough to draw the outlines; but the
fample he left in his new city of Alexandria fufficiently
Ihows how juft and how corred his notions were, and
how true a judgment he had formed of what might
be effeded by thofe methods upon which he depended.
That city, which he might be faid to defign with his
own hand, and which was built, as it were, under his
eye, became in fuceeeding times ail that he expeded,
the glory of Egypt, and the centre of commerce for
feveral ages.
While Tyre was in the height of her glory, and had y
no rival in the empire of the fea, Ihe founded her
noble colony of Carthage on the coaft of Africa. The
fituation of the city was everywhere admirable, whe¬
ther confidered in the light of a capital, of a ftrong
fortrefs, or of a commodious port. It was equally
diftant from all the extremities of the Pdediterranean
fea, had a very fine country behind it, and was not in
the neighbourhood of any power capable of reftraining
its commerce or its growth. It is almoit inexprellible
how' foon its inhabitants became not only numerous
and wealthy, but potent and formidable. Ey degrtes
they extended themfelves on all fides, conquered the
bell part of Spain, and ereded there a new Carthage y
the illands of Sicily and Sardinia, or at lealt the
beft; part of them, fubmitted likewife to their yoke..
Their conquefts, however, were inconfiderable in ex¬
tent, when compared with their navigation. On one
lid? they ftretchsd as far vvdlward as Britain j and
the
COMMERCE.
fiiftory. the Scdlly iflands, which are now fo inconfiderable,
—y—j were to them an Indies, the route to which they ufed
the utmoft induttry to conceal. On the other hand,
they difcovered a great part of the coaft of Africa,
the Canary iilands $ and fotne there are who believe
they firft found the way to America. While they
xonfigned themfelves to trade, and the arts which be¬
longed thereto, their power was continually increa-
fing ; but when induftry gave way to luxury, and a
fpirit of ambition baniihed their old maxims of fruga¬
lity and labour, their acquifitions remained at a Hand.
The Romans began to grow jealous of their naval
power, which it coft them two obftinate wars of 40
years continuance to humble. When (he was at length
deftroyed, her very ruins were majeftic j for at the
beginning of the third fatal Punic war, this city con¬
tained 700,000 inhabitants alone, and had 300 cities
in Africa under her dominion. Such was the empire
of Carthage, railed entirely by commerce : and to
which, if the had been content to have applied herfelf
with the fame fteadinefs in her higheft profperity as in
her early beginnings, there is no doubt (lie had pre-
ferved her freedom much longer than (lie did j for as
economy, diligence, and good faith, are the pillars of
a commercial (late ; fo when thefe are once (haken, it
is not only natural that (he (liould decline, but alfo
unavoidable.
The Ptolemies, who were the fucceffors of Alex¬
ander in Egypt, entered deeply into that hero’s fcheme,
and reaped the benefit of his wife eftabliftunent. Pto¬
lemy Philadelphus, by encouraging trade, made his
fubjefts immenfely rich, and himfelf inexpreflibly
powerful. We are told by an ancient author, that he
had 120 galleys of war of an enormous fize, and up¬
wards of 4000 other veffels, fmall and great. This
would appear incredible, if other wonders were not
related of him, which feem to explain and confirm
thefe. He raifed a new city on the coaft of the Red
fea; he was at an immenfe expence in opening har¬
bours, conftrufling quays, in railing inns at proper
diflances on the road, and in cutting a canal from fea
to fea. A prince who comprehended the importance
of commerce to a degree that induced him to dajre
fuch expences as thefe, might have what treafures,
what armies, what fleets he pleafed. In his time,
Alexandria appeared in pomp and fplendqur. She
owed her birth to Alexander 5 but it was Ptolemy,
who caught a double portion of his mailer’s (pirit,
which raifed her to that magnificence that ages could
not deface. We may guefs at what Ihe was in her
glory, .by what we are told was the produce of her
cuftoms, which fell little Ihort of two millions of our
money annually ; and yet we cannot fuppofe that
Ptolemy, who underftood trade fo well, would cramp
it by high duties, or extravagant impofitions. When
the revenue of the prince from a Angle port was fo
great, what muft have been the riches of his fubje&s ?
But what (hows us Alexandria in the higheft point
of light, is the credit (lie maintained after Egypt funk
from an empire into a province. The Romans them¬
felves were (truck with the majefty of her appearance ;
and though till then they had little regarded traffic,
yet they were not long before they comprehended
the advantages of fuch a port, and fuch a mart- as
Alexandria: they confirmed her privileges, they pro-
309
te&ed her inhabitant?, they took every meafure pofli- JJiftory.
ble to preferve her commerce j and this with fo good y-"—*
an effecft, that (he a&ually preferved it longer than
Rome herfelf could preferve her power. She follow¬
ed, indeed, the fortune of the empire, and became at
laft dependent upon Conftantinople, when its founder
removed thither the capital of the empire j and his
fucceflbr found means to transfer alfo a part of the
trade of Alexandria to the fame place. Yet this city
continued ftill to hold up her head, and though (he
funk under the barbarous power of the Arabs, yet
they grew poliftied by degrees ; by degrees (he re¬
covered fomewhat of her ancient pre-eminence j and
though (he never rofe to any thing like her former
luftre, yet (he remained the centre of what little trade
there was in the world j which is more than can be faid
of almoft any place that has fallen under the Moham¬
medan power.
When the Roman empire was overrun by barbari¬
ans, and arts and fciences funk with that power which
had cultivated and prote&ed them, commerce alfo vi-
fibly declined; or, to fpeak with greater propriety,
was overwhelmed and loft. When that irruption qf
various nations had driven the Ronaan policy out qf
the greateft part of Europe, fome draggling people,
either forced by necefflty, or led by inclination, took
(belter in a few draggling iflands that lay near the
coaft of Italy, and which would never have been
thought worth inhabiting in. a time of peace. This
was in the 6th century ; and at their firft fixing there
they had certainly nothing more in view than living in
a tolerable ftateof freedom, and acquiring a fubfiftence
as well as they could. Thefe illands being divided
from each other by narrow channels, and thofe chan¬
nels fo encumbered by (hallows that it was impoflible
for ftrangers te navigate them, thefe refugees found
therafelves tolerably fafe ; and uniting amongft them¬
felves for the fake of improving their condition, and
augmenting their fecurity, they became in the 8th
century a well-fettled government, and affumed the
form of a republic.
Simple and mean as this relation may appear, yet it
is a plain and true account of the rife, progrefs, and
eftablilhment of the famous and potent republic qf Ve¬
nice. Her beginnings were indeed weak and (low j
but when the foundation was once ivell laid, her
growth was quick, and the increafe of her power
amazing. She extended her commerce on all fides j
and taking advantage of the barbarous maxims of the
Mohammedan monarchies, (he drew to herfelf the
profits of the Indian trade, and might, in fome fenfe,
be faid to make Egypt a province, and the Saracens
her fubje&s. By this means her traffic fwelled beyond
conception; (lie became the common mart of all na¬
tions ; her naval power arrived at a prodigiou? height;
and making ufe of every favourable conjun6iure, (he
ftretched her conqueft not only over the adjacent ter¬
ra firrua of Italy, but through the iflands of the Ar¬
chipelago, fo as to be at once miftrefs of the fea, of
many fair and fruitful countries, and of part of the
great city of Conftant.rnople itfelf. But ambition, and
the defire of lording it over her neighbours, brought
upon her thofe evils which firft produced a decay of
trade and then a declenfion of power. General hx-
ftories indeed afcribe this to the league of Cambray,
whea^
3io
COMMERCE.
Hiftory. when all the great powers in Europe combined againft
this republic : and in truth, from that period the
finking of her power is truly dated : but the Venetian
writers very juftly obferve, that though this effedl
followed the league, yet there was another more la¬
tent, but at the fame time a more effedtual caufe,
which was, the falling off of their commerce ; and
they have ever fince been more indebted to their wif-
dom than their power j to the prudent concealing
of their own weaknefs, and taking advantage of the
errors of their enemies, than to any other caufe, for
their keeping up that part which they {till bear, and
which had been loft long ago by any other nation but
themfelves.
At the fame time that Venice rofe, as it were, out
of the fea, another republic was eredted on the coaft
of Italy. There could not well be a worfe fituation
than the narrow, marftiy, unprofitable, and unwhole-
fome iflands in the Adriatic, except the rocky, barren,
and inhofpitable {bores of Liguria ; and yet as com¬
merce raifed Venice the Rich on the one, fo Are erect¬
ed Genoa the Proud on the other. In fpite of ambi¬
tious and warlike neighbours, in fpite of a confined
and unproducing country, and, which were ftill great¬
er impediments, in fpite of perpetual factions and
fucceflive revolutions, the trade of Genoa made her
rich and great. Her merchants traded to all countries,
and throve by carrying the commodities of the one to
the other. Her fleets became formidable ; and, be-
fides the adjacent ifland of Corfica, {he made larger
and important conquefts. She fixed a colony at Caffa,
and was for fome time in poffeflion of the coafts on
both fides of the Black fea. That emulation which
is natural to neighbouring nations, and that jealoufy
which rifes from the purfuit of the fame miftrefs, com¬
merce, begat continual wars between thefe rival re¬
publics j which, after many obftinate and bloody bat¬
tles, were at laft terminated in favour of Venice, by
that famous vidlory of Chiozzo gained by her doge
Andrew Contarini, from which time Genoa never pre¬
tended to be miftrefs of the fea. Thefe quarrels were
fatal to both 5 but what proved more immediately
deftruftive to the Genoefe, was their avarice, which
induced them to abandon the fair profits of trade for
the fake of that vile method of acquiring wealth by
ufury. All Italy is now fubjeft to France.
But we muft now look to another part of the world.
In the middle age of the German empire, that is,
about the middle of the 13th century, there was
formed a confederacy of many maritime cities, or at
leaft of cities not far from the fea. This confederacy
folely regarded commerce, which they endeavoured to
promote and extend, by interefting therein a great
number of perfons, and endeavouring to profit by
their different views and different lights. Though the
cities of Germany held the principal rank in the Teu¬
tonic Hanfe, they did not however forbear affociating
many other cities, as well in France as in England and
in the Low Countries } the whole, however, without
hurting the authority, without prejudice to the fights
of the fovereign on whom they depended. This confe¬
deracy had its laws, its ordinances, and its judgments,
which were obferved with the fame refpeft as the ma¬
ritime code of the Rhodians, who paffing for the ab-
left feamen in all antiquity, their conftitutions were
obferved by the Greeks and Romans. The Teutonic
Hanfe grew in a ftiort time to fo high a rank in power
and authority by the immenfe riches it acquired, that
princes themfelves rendered it a fincere homage from
principles of cfteem and admiration. Thofe of the
north principally had frequent occafion for their cre¬
dit, and borrowed of them confiderable fums. The
grand mafters of the Teutonic order, who were at
that time fovereigns of Livonia, declared themfelves
confervators of the rights and privileges of the Hanfe :
all fucceeded, not only to, but beyond their wifties j
and Germany, charmed with their progrefs, looked
on them with the fame eyes as a curious gardener
does on certain rare plants, though not of his own
railing and culture. The kings of France and Eng¬
land granted alfo various privileges to the Teutonic
confederacy; they exempted the ir veffels in cafe iof
ftiipvvreck from all demands whatfoever from the ad¬
miralty, or from private perfons ; they forbade any
difturbance to their navigation at all times, and even
when France was at war with the emperor, or the
princes of the north. In fine, during the courfe of
thefe unhappy wars which were ftyled Croifadej, the
Hanfe was fignally confulted, and gave always puif-
fant fuccours in money and in {hips to the Chriftians
oppreffed by infidels. It is aftonilhing that cities at fo
great a diftance from each other, fubjeft to different
kings, fometimes in open war, but always jealous of
their rights, ftiould be able to confederate and live to¬
gether in fo ftridt an union. But when this union had
rendered them very rich and powerful, it cannot feem
at all {{range, that on the one hand they grew arro¬
gant and overbearing, took upon them not only to
treat with fovereigns on the foot of equality, but even
to make war with them, and more than once with
fuccefs. It will, on the other hand, appear ftill lefs
{{range, that fuch behaviour as this awakened various
princes to a more particular view of the dangers that
fuch a league might produce, and the advantages that
would naturally flow to their refpeftive ftates, by re¬
covering their trade thus made over, at leaft in foms
part to others, entirely to themfelves ; and thefe, in
few words, were the caufes of the gradual declenfion
of the Hanfeatic alliance, which is now totally dif-
folved, although the cities of Lubeck, Hamburgh,
and Bremen, maintain fufficient marks of that fplen-
dour and dignity with which this confederacy was
once adorned.
We muft now turn our eyes to Portugal and Spain,
where in the fpace of about 50 years there happened
a train of events which gradually led on to fuch dif-
coveries as changed the whole face of affairs in the
commercial world, and gave to the knowledge of later-
ages what for fome thoufand years had been kept fe«
cret from all mankind ; we mean a perfedf and diftindt
notion of that terraqueous globe which they inhabit.
The kingdom of Portugal was fmall, but well cultiva¬
ted, very populous, and bleffed with a variety of good
ports j all which, however, had flood them in little
ftead, if they had not had a fucceflion of wife princes
who, inftead of involving themfelves in war with
their neighbours to gratify their ambition, endeavour¬
ed to extend the happinefs and wealth of their fubjefts,
and confequently their own power, in the fofter and
more fuccefsful method of protefting arts and fciences,
encouraging
COMMERCE.
: Hiltory. encouraging induflry, and favouring trade. This, with
'"-—v  the convenient fituation of their country, in the begin¬
ning of the 15th century, prompted fome lively fpirits
to attempt dilcoveries; and thefe, countenanced by a
heroic young prince, pulhed on their endeavours with
fuch fuccefs, that ftep by ftep the coaft of Africa was
furveyed as far as the Cape of Good Hope, to which
they gave that name. The point they had in view
was a new route to the Eaft Indies, which Vafquez
de Gama happily difcovered j and in a ftiort fpace of
time Portugal, from one of the leaf! confiderable, grew
to be one of the richeft powers in Europe, gained pro¬
digious dominions in Afia and Africa, and raifed a
naval power fuperior to any thing that had been feen
for many ages before.
See Colum- But while this was doing, Chriftopher Columbus, a
bus (Chrif- Genoefe of great capacity, though of almoft unknown
tocher) original, who had been bred to the fea from his youth,
and who had carefully fludied what others made a
trade, formed in his mind the amazing projeft of
countera&ing experience, and failing to the Indies by
a weftern courfe. He offered this projeft to the Portu-
guefe, by whom it was confidered and rejefted as a
chimera. He propofed it afterwards to other ftates,
but with no better fortune j and at laft owed the dif-
covery of the New World to the high fpirit of a he¬
roine, the famous Ifabella, queen of Caftile, who al-
xnoft at her own expence, and with very little counte¬
nance from her hulband, who yet was ftyled Ferdi¬
nand the Wife, furnilhed the adventurous Columbus
with that poor fquadron, with which, at once, in fpite
«f all the difficulties that the envy of his officers, and
4he obftinacy of his mutinous crew, threw in his way,
be perfefted his delign, and laid open a new Indies,
though in reality he aimed at the difcovery of the old.
Neither was this noble effort of his matchlefs under-
iftanding defeated j for after his deceafe, Ferdinand
Magellan, a Portuguefe, propofed to the emperor
Charles V. the difcovery of a paffage to the fpice
iflands by the South feas, which was what Columbus
aimed at j and though Magellan lived not to return,
yet in one voyage the difcovery was perfedled. It is
inconceivable almoft how many and how great benefits
accrued to Europe from thefe difcoveries j of which,
however, it is certain, that the Portuguefe made a
very indifferent,#and the Spaniards a much worfe, ufe ;
the former making flaves of, and the latter rooting
out the natives. This, as it was a moft ungrateful
return to divine Providence for fo high a bleffing 5 fo
it might have been eafily forefeen it would prove, as
experience has ffiown it did prove, highly prejudicial
to their own interefts, by depopulating very fine coun¬
tries, which have been thereby turned into deferts :
and though on their firft difcovery infinite treafures
were returned from them, which were coined in the
mints of Spain $ yet by an obftinate purfuit of this
falfe policy, the Spaniffi iflands in the Weft Indies are
now brought fo low as to be fcarce worth keeping.
The confequences that naturally followed on the difco¬
very of a paffage by the Cape of Good Hope, and
of a fourth part of the globe in the weftern hemi-
fphere, were, as it has been already hinted, the caufe of
an entire change in the ftate of Europe, and pro¬
duced, not only in Portugal and Spain, but in moft other
Rations, a defire of vifiting thefe remote parts j of
311
eftablilhing colonies and manufaftures; of export- Hiftory.
ing and importing commodities, and of raifing, fet- -v—
tling, and protediing new manufaftures. By this
means, as the reader cannot but perceive, not only
particular nations brought about fignal advantages to
themfelves, but Europe in general received a lafting
and invaluable benefit; for its potentates made them¬
felves formidable, and even terrible in thofe diftant
parts of the earth, where their fame had hardly reach¬
ed before. It is however true, that this has not been
carried, on as high as it might have been j for though
there was room enough for every nation to have had
its ffiare, and though it might be demonftrated that
the good of the whole would have contributed fuffi-
ciently to the profit of every ftate, the fubjecls
of which had engaged in this traffic ; yet inftead of
profecuting fo natural and fo equitable a meafure^
they have taken a quite contrary courfe ; and by de¬
crying, attacking, and deftroying each other, have
very much leffened that prodigious reverence which
the Afiatics, Africans, and Americans, at firft had for
the inhabitants of Europe.
The naval power of the Portuguefe received an in¬
curable wound by falling under the power of the
Spaniards $ and though human policy would have fug-
gefted, that this alone muft have raifed the latter to the
monopoly of commerce, and the. univerfal dominion
of the fea j yet the very purfuit of a defign fo vifibly
detrimental to the intereft of mankind, proved very
quickly their ruin alfo. For the Spaniards, from the
natural haughtinefs of their temper, milled by the
boundlefs ambition of their princes, and endeavouring
to become the lords of Europe, forced other nations in
their own defence to make a much quicker progrefs
in navigation than otherwife they could have done.
For the Engliffi and Dutch, who till this time feemed
blind to the advantages of their fituation, had their
eyes opened by the injuries they received $ and by de¬
grees the paffion of revenge infpired them with defigns
that poffibly public fpirit would never have excited. In
ffiort, the pains taken by Spain to keep all the riches
that flowed from thefe difcoveries to herfelf, and the
dangerous, deteftable, and deftru&ive purpofes to
which ftie applied the immenfe wealth that flowed in
upon her from them, produced effedls direttly oppofite
to thofe which ffie propofed, and made her enemies
rich, great, powerful, and happy, in proportion as her
commerce dwindled away, and as her naval power
funk and crumbled to pieces, merely by an improper
difplay, an ill-managed exertion, and a wrong applica¬
tion of it.
It was from hence that the inhabitants of the Seven
Provinces, whom her oppreffion had made poor, and her
feverities driven mad, became firft free, then potent,
and by degrees rich. Their diftreffes taught them
the neceffity of eftabliffiing a moderate and equal go¬
vernment j the mildnefs of that government, and the
bleffings which it procured to its fubjefts, raifed
their number and elevated their hopes. The confe¬
quences became quickly vifible, and in a ffiort time
amazing both to friends and enemies} every fiffi-
ing village improved into a trading town 5 their little
towns grew up into large and magnificent cities j
their inland boroughs were filled with manufactures $
and in lefs than half a century the diftreffed States of
Holland
3^2 COMM
Hifto-y. Holland becafne high and mighty $ nay, in fpite of
*—tlie dangers and expences which attended a war made
all that time againft a fuperior force, thefe people,
furrounded with enemies, loaded with taxes, expofed
to perfonal fervice, and to a thoufand other difad-
vantages, grew up to fuch a ftrength as not only made
the Spaniards defpair of reducing them any more un¬
der th eir dominion, but inclined them to wifri^ and at
laft forced them to folicit, their friendfhip.
’I his, at lead as far as ancient or modern hiftories
inform us, was the quickefl and ftrongeft of all the
produftions of commerce that the world has ever feen.
For it is beyond difpute that the republic of the
United Provinces owes her freedom, her power, and
her wealth, entirely to induftry and trade. The
greateft part of the country is far from being fertile:
and what is fo, produces not enough to fuffice the tenth
part of the inhabitants for the tenth part of the year :
the climate is rather tolerable than wholfome; and
its havens are rather advantageous from the difficulty
of entering them, than from their commodioufnefs in
any other refpeft. Of native commodities they have
few or none j timber and maritime ftores are entirely
wanting; their country cannot boaft fo much as of a coal¬
mine ; and yet thefe provinces upon whom nature has
beftowed fo little, in confequence of an extenfive
trade, are enriched with all things. Their ftore-
houfes are full of corn, even when the harveft in corn-
countries fails j there is no commodity, however bul¬
ky, or fcarce and hard to be come at, which may not
be had from their magazines. The fhipping of Hol¬
land is prodigious j and to fee the quantities of naval
ftores with which their yards and ports abound, afto-
niffies thofe who are unacquainted with the vigour of
4hat caufe which produces this abundance. But above
all, the populoufnefs of this country is the greateft mi¬
racle. That men fliould refort to a Canaan, and defire
to live in a land flowing with milk and honey, is no¬
thing ftrange; but that they ffiould make it their
choice to force nature, to raife palaces, lay out gar¬
dens, dig canals, plant woods, and ranfack all the
quarters of the earth for fruits and flowers, to produce
an artificial paradife in a dead plain, or upon an un¬
grateful heath in the midft of fogs and ftanding lakes,
would in fo critical an age as this pafs for a fable, if
the country did not lie fo near us a« to put the truth of
it out of queftion. It is now fubjefl to France.
§ 2. Britijh Hifiory.
We may eafily conceive, that foreign commerce by
the natives of this ifland muft have been a work of
time ; for men firft think of neceffaries, then of con¬
veniences, and laft of fuperfluities. Thofe who came
originally from the continent might have better no¬
tions of things *, but as it muft be prefumed that ei¬
ther fear of indigence drove them hither, fo it is eafy
to apprehend that fuccetding generations muft for fome
time fink much below their anceftors in their notions
of the commodities of life $ and, deriving their man¬
ners from their circumftances, become quite another
fort of people. But thofe on the oppofite continent,
knowing that this ifland was inhabited, and having
the ufe, though in ever fo imperfeft a degree, of vef-
fels and of foreign traffic, came over hither, and bar¬
tered their goods for the raw commodities of the Bri-
2
E R C E.
tons, till by degrees perhaps they taught the latter to
make fome improvements in thofe flight leather ‘ t j
wicker boats, which they ufed for paffing their own
rivers, and creeping along their coafts, till at laft they
ventured therhfelves over to Gaul, and entered upon
fome kind of correfpondence with their neighbours.
All this is fo deducible from the laws of nature, that
we might have conceived thus much by the light of
reafon, if we had not the Commentaries of Caefar to
guide us, and to ftrengthen by the authority of hiftory,
the fadls that might have been found out by the force
of rational conjecture.
Things were precifely in this fituation when the
Romans invaded Britain ; and there is no doubt that
our anceftors falling under the power of that empire,
and under its power at a time when, with refpeift to
arts and fciences, it was in a moft flourifhing condition,
was a great advantage to them $ and though from
their love of civil liberty, which, when under the di-
reftion of reafon, is the moft natural and laudable of
all paffions, they made a long and vigorous, and in
fome fenfe a noble and glorious, refiftancej yet by
degrees they caught the manners and cuftoms of their
conquerors, and grew content to be happy rather than
free. With learning and politenefs the Romans in¬
troduced foreign commerce $ and according to the
nature of their policy, as they made high roads through
the iftand, eftablifhed colonies in proper places, and
fixed ftanding camps, which were a kind of fortreffes,
where they thought proper ; fo they were no lefs
careful W'ith regard to marts or emporiums for the
conveniency of traders, and of which what they found
was uncertain ; but that they left many, is without
queftion j and among the reft London, which is not
more famous for her prefent extenfive trade, than ve¬
nerable for her unrecorded antiquity.
When the Romans unwillirfgly left Britain, and the
Britons as unwillingly made way for the Saxons, a
new deluge of barbarity overflowed this ifland j al-
moft all the improvements of our civilized conquerors
were effaced j and upon the eftablifhment as it were
of a new people, things were all to begin again.
This neceffarily took up a great deal of time ; and
before they were in any tolerable pofture, the Saxons
found themfelves diftreffed by frefli fwarms of barba¬
rians. Yet there ftill remain fome evidences of their
having been acquainted with, inclined to, and, if their
circumftances would have permitted, moft certainly
would have entered upon and carried foreign com¬
merce to a great height. We have authentic tefti-
monies, that Alfred the Great formed projects of vaft
difeoveries to the North, as he adlually fent perfons
of great prudence and abilities into the Eafl:; and the
curiofities which they brought home were for many
ages preferved in the treafury of the church of Salif-
bury.
As for the Danes, they were not long our mafters;
but as they became fo by a maritime force, and as
their countrymen had eftabliftied themfelves not only
on the oppofite (bore of France, but in other parts of
Europe, it is reafonable to believe that they held fome
correfpondence with them from thence $ and that,
if their dominion had lafted longer, this might have
been better regulated, and produ&ive of many advan¬
tages. But they had foon to do with their brethren
C O M iM
Hiftory. another way ) for the Normans, men of the fame
— ¥—.. race, but better eftabliihed in another country, difpof-
feffed them here j and partly-under colour of right,
partly by force, erefted that monarchy, which, not
without various alterations and changes, fubfilfs even
to our times, and to the fubfiftence of which, with the
help of thofe changes and alterations, we owe that
happy.conftitution under which we live $ that univer-
fal improvement which adorns the face of our country }
that doitteftic trade which nourilhes fo numerous a peo¬
ple, by plentifully rewarding their induftry ; and that
extenfive commerce which is at once the fource of our
wealth and the fupport of our liberty.
It cannot be expefled, that in a work like this we
ftiould attempt to trace the progrefs of trade through
every reign ; (how how it was encouraged and proteft-
ed, or difcountenanced and checked ; what occafions
were luckily ft ized, or what opportunities unfortunate¬
ly loft. It may be fufficient for us, after what has
been already faid, to obferve, that the opinion com¬
monly entertained, of our having little or no trade be¬
fore the reign of Queen Elizabeth, is very far from
being well founded.
In fadl, the reign of that princefs was great and
glorious in whatever light we confider it; but it was
moft fo in this, that under Providence, it became
great and glorious by the wifdom and prudence of the
queen and her minifters. The Englilh nation never
was in fo defperate a condition as at her acceflion.
The crown was in debt, the treafury empty, the na¬
tion involved in a foreign war dire&ly againft her own
interefts, her coafts naked ; in a word, without credit
abroad, and without concord at home, no fettled reli¬
gion, the great men fplit into factions, and the com¬
mon people diftrafted and dejected. Sad cireumftances
thefe ! and yet from hence arofe the grandeur of that
reign, and the eftablilhment of our commerce. The
queen found herfelf obliged to aft with great caution,
to derive afliftance from every quarter, to employ it
faithfully, and to promote to the utmoft of her power
the welfare of her fubjefts, whom nothing but the pu-
blic-fpiritednefs of her government could enable to
grow rich enough to fupport the necelfary expences of
the crown. It was this gave a popular turn to her
councils. She encouraged her fubjefts to arm againft
the Spaniards, that they might be accuftomed to the
fea, and acquire that knowledge in navigation, with
which, till then, they had been unacquainted. She
paffed many laws for the public good, erefted feveral
companies, and faw that thofe companies purfued the
ends for which they were erefted ; in fhort, (he did
every thing that could be expefted, during the whole
courfe of her reign, to excite and encourage induftry
at home, and to enable us to make a proper figure a-
broad. In a word, fhe furnifhed us with ftock and
credit, put us upon improving our commodities and
manufaftures, brought the art of fhip-building amongft
us, filled our ports with able feamen, fhowed a juft re-
fpeft to Englifh merchants, reduced Ireland fo as to
render it beneficial to Britain, and approved our fend¬
ing colonies into America ; and thus the feeds of Bri-
tifti wealth were fown in her time, though the harveft
was reaped in the days of her fucceflbrs. See the ar¬
ticles Coalery, Colony, Fisheries, Manufac¬
tures, Shipping, and Trade.
Vol. VI. Part I.
E R C E. 315
Principle*.
Chap. II. Principles o/*Commerce. ' 
Sect. I. Origin of Trade.
The moft fimple of all trade is that which is car¬
ried on by bartering the neceffary articles of fubfift¬
ence. If we fuppofe the earth free to the firlt pof-
feflbr, this perfon who cultivates it will firft draw
from it his food, and the furplus will be the objeft of
barter : he will give this in exchange to any one who
will fupply his other wants. This naturally fuppofes
both a furplus quantity of food produced by labour,
and alfo free hands $ for he who makes a trade of agri¬
culture cannot fupply himfelf with all other neceffaries,
as well as food j and he who makes a trade of fupply-
ing the farmers with fuch nectflaries, in exchange for
his furplus of food, cannot be employed in producing
that food. The more the neceflities of man increafe,
the more free hands are required to fupply them $ and
the more free hands are required, the more furplus food
muft be produced by additional labour, to fupply their
demand.
This is the leaft complex kind of trade, and may be
carried on to a greater or lefs extent, in different
countries, according to the different degrees of the
wants to be fupplied. In a country where there is no
money, nor any thing equivalent to it, the wants of
mankind will be confined to few objefts j to wit, the
removing the inconveniences of hunger, tbirft, cold,
heat, danger, and the like. A free man, who by his
induftry can procure all the comforts of a fimple life,
will enjoy his reft, and work no more $ and, in gene¬
ral, all increafe of work will ceafe, fo foon as the de¬
mand for the purpofes mentioned comes to be fatisfied-
There is a plain reafon for this. When the free hands
have procured, by their labour, wherewithal to fupply
their wants, their ambition is fatisfied ; fo foon as the
hulbandmen have produced the neceffary furplus for
relieving theirs, they work no more. Here then is
a natural ftop put to induftry, confequently to bar¬
tering.
The next thing to be examined is, how bartering
grows into trade, properly fo called, and underftood,
according to the definition given of it above ; how
trade becomes to be extended among men ; how ma¬
nufaftures, more ornamental than ufeful, come to be
eftablifhed *, and how men come to fubmit to labour,
in order to acquire what is not abfolutely nectffary for
them.
This, in a free fociety, is chiefly owing to the in-
troduftion of money, and a tafte for fuperfluities in
thofe who poffefs it.
In ancient times money was not wanting ; but the
tafte for fuperfluities not being in proportion to it,
the fpecie was locked up. This was the cafe in Eu¬
rope four hundred years ago. Anew tafte for fuper-
fluity has drawn, perhaps, more money into circula¬
tion, from our own treafures, than from the mines of
the jjew world. The poor opinion we entertain of
the riches of our forefathers, is founded upon the mo¬
dern way of eftimating wealth, by the quantity of coin
in circulation, from which we conclude, that the great-
eft part of the fpecie now in our hands muft have come
from America.
Hr
It
314 COMM
Principles. It is more, therefore, through the tafte of fuper-
fluity, than in confequence of the quantity of coin,
that trade comes to be eftablilhed ; and it is only
in confequence of trade that we fee induftry carry
things in our days to fo high a pitch of refinement and
delicacy. Let us illuftrate this, by comparing toge¬
ther the different operations of barter, {ale, and com¬
merce.
When reciprocal wants are fupplied by barter,, there
is not the fmalleft occafion for money : this is the moft
fimple of all combinations..
When wants are multiplied, bartering becomes more
difficult : upon this money is introduced. This is the
common price of all things r it is a proper equivalent
in the hands of thofe who want, perfedlly calculated
to fupply the occafions of thofe who, by induftry, can
relieve them.. This operation of buying and felling is
a little more complex than the former j but ftill we
have here no idea of trade, becaufe we have not in¬
troduced the merchant, by whofe induftry it is carried
on.
Let this third perfbn be introduced, and the
whole operation becomes clear. What before we
called wants, is here represented by the confumer ;
what we called indujlry, by the manufadlurer j. what
we called money, by the merchant. The merchant
here reprefents the money, by fubftituting credit in
its place j and as the money was invented to facili¬
tate barter, fo the merchant, with his credit, is a new
refinement upon the ufe of money. This renders it
ftill more effeffual in performing the operations of
buying and felling. This operation is trade ; it re¬
lieves both parties of the whole trouble of tranfporta-
tion, and adjufting wants to Wants, or wants to
money *, the merchant reprefents by turns both the
confumer, the manufa&urer, and the money. To
the confumer he appears as the whole body of manu-
fafturers -y to the manufacturers as the whole body of
eonfumers ; and to the one and the other clafs his cre¬
dit fupplies the ufe of money. This is fufficient at pre-
fent for an illuftration. We now return to the fimple
operations of money in the hands of the two contraCl-
ing parties, the buyer and the feller, in order to {how
how men come to fubmit to labour in order to acquire
fuperfluities.
So foon as money is introduced into a country, it
becomes an univerfal objeft of want to all the inhabi¬
tants.
The confequence is, that the free hands of the ftate
who before ftopt working, becaufe all their wants
were provided for, having this new objedt of ambition
before their eyes, endeavour, by refinements upon their
labour, to remove the fmaller inconveniences which re-
fult from a fimplicity of manners. People, who for¬
merly knew but one fort of clothing for all feafons,
willingly part with a little money to procure for them-
felves different forts of apparel properly adapted to
fummer and winter, which the ingenuity of manufac¬
turers, and their deure of getting money, may have
fuggefted to their invention.
Indeed thefe refinements feem more generallv ow-
Ingf to the induftrv and invention of the manufadlu
rers (who by their ingenuity daily contrive rncan- of
foftening or relieving inconveniencies which mankind
feldarrv perceive to be fuch, till the way of removing
E It C E-
them is contrived), than to the tafte for luxury in the pr;nc;p]tJi
rich, who, to indulge their eafe, engage the poor to be- —y—i
come induftrious.
Let any man make an experiment of this nature
upon himfelf, by entering into the firft (hop. He will
nowhere difcover fo quickly his wants as there. Every
thing he fees appears either neceifary, or at leaft highly
convenient \ and he begins to wonder how he could
have been fo long without that which the ingenuity of
the workman alone had invented, in order that from
the novelty it might incite his defire ; for perhaps
when it is bought, be will never once think of it more,
nor ever apply it to the ufe for which at firft it appear¬
ed fo neceffary.
Here then is a reafon why mankind labour though-
not in want. They become defirous of pofiefling the
very inftruments of luxury, which their avarice or
ambition prompted them to invent for the ufe of
others.
What has been faid reprefents trade in its infancy
or rather the materials with which that great fabric is
built..
We have formed an idea of the wants of mankind
multiplied even to luxury, and abundantly fupplied by
the employment of all the free hands fet apart for that;
purpofe. But if we fuppofe the workman himfelf dif-
pnfing of his work, and purchafing with it food from
the farmer, clothes from the clothier j and, in general,
feeking for the fupply of every want from the bands
bf the perfon direftly employed for the purpofe of re¬
lieving it; this will not convey an idea of trade ac¬
cording to our definition.
Trade and commerce are an abbreviation of this
long procefs j a fcheme invented and fet on foot by
merchants, from a principle of gain, fupported and ex¬
tended among men, from a principle of general utility
to every individual, rich or poor j to every fociety,
great or fmall.
Inftead of a pin-maker exchanging his pins with 50
different perfons, for whofe labour he has occafion, he
fells all to the merchant for money or for credit y and
as occafion offers, he purchafes all his wants, either di¬
rectly from thofe who fupply them, or from other mer¬
chants, who deal with manufadlurers in the fame way
his mefchant dealt with him.
Another advantage of trade is, that induftrious peo¬
ple in one part of the country may fupply cuftomers in
another, though diftant. They may eftablifh them-
felves in the moft commodious places for their refpec-
tive bufinefs, and help one another reciprocally, with¬
out making the diftant parts of the country fuffer for
want of their labour. They are likewife expofed
to no avocation from their work, by feeking for cu¬
ftomers.
Trade produces many excellent advantages1, it marks
out to the manufacturers when their branch is under or
overftocked with hands. If it is underftocked, they
will find more demand than they can anfwer ; if it is ,
overftocked, the fale will be flow.
Intelligent men, in every profeffion, will eafily dif¬
cover when thefe appearances are accidental, and when
they proceed from the real principles of trade.
Pofts, and correfpondence by letters, are a confe¬
quence of trade 5 by the means of which merchants are
regularly informed of every augmentation or dimi¬
nution;
COMMERCE.
nutlon of induftry in every branch, in every part of
the country. From this knowledge they regulate the
prices they offer ; and as they are many, they ferve as
a check upon one another, from the principles of com¬
petition.
From the current prices, the manufafturers are as
well informed, as if they kept the correfpondence
themfelves: the ftatefman feels perfe&ly where hands
are wanting, and young people deftined to induftry,
obey, in a manner, the call of the public, and fall na¬
turally in to fupply the demand.
Two great affiftances to merchants, efpecially in the
infancy of trade, are public markets for colle&ing the
work of fmall dealers, and large undertakings in the
manufa&uring way by private hands. By thefe means
the merchants come at the knowledge of the quantity
of work in the market, as on the other hand the manu¬
facturers learn, by the fate of the goods, the extent of
the demand for them. Thefe two things being juftly
known, the price of goods is eafily fixed.
Public fates ferve to correct; the fmall inconveni¬
ences which proceed from the operations of trade. A
fet of manufa&arers got all together into one town,
and entirely taken up with their induftry, are thereby
as well informed of the rate of the market as if every
one of them carried thither his work ; and upon the
arrival of the merchant, who readily takes it off then-
hands, he has not the leaft advantage over them from
his knowledge of the rtate of demand. JLhis man
both buys and fells in what is called wholefcde; and
from him retailers purehafe, who diftribute the goods
to every confumer throughout the country. Thefe
laft buy from wholefale merchants in every branch, that
proportion of every kind of merchandife which is
fuitable to the demand of their borough, city, or pro¬
vince.
Thus all inconveniences are prevented, at fome ad¬
ditional coft to the confumer, who muft naturally re-
imburfe the whole ex pence. The diftance of the ma-
nufafturer, the obfcurity of his dwelling, the caprice
in felling his work, ere quite removed j the retailer
has all in his {hop, and the public buys at a current
price.
§ 2. How the price of Goods is determined by Trade.
In the price of goods, two things muft be confidered
as really exifting, and quite different from one another-,
to wit, the real value of the commodity, and the profit
upon alienation.
I. The firft thing to be known of any manufa&ure,
when it comes to be fold, is how much of it a perfon
can perform in a day, a week, a month, according to
the nature of the work, which may require more or
lefs time to bring it to perfection. In making fuch
eftimates, regard is to be had only to what, upon an
average, a workman of the country in general may
perform, without fupjjofing him the belt or the worft
in his profeflion, or having any peculiar advantage or
difadvantage as to tire place where he works.
Hence the reafon why fome people profper by their
induftry, and others not \ why fome manufactures
flourifti in one place and not in another.
IT. The fecond thing to be known is, the value of
the workman’s fubfiftence, and neceffary expence, both
for fupplying his perfonal wants and providing the
3*5
inftruments belonging to bis profeffion, which muft be pr;ncipie$.
taken upon an average as above, except when the
nature of the work requires the prefence of the work¬
man in the place of confumption ; for although fome
trades, and almoft: every manufacture, may be carried
on in places at a diftance, and therefore may fall under
one general regulation as to prices 5 yet others there
are, which, by their nature, require the prefence of
the workman in the place of confumption 5 and in that
cafe the prices mutt be regulated by circumftances re¬
lative to every particular place.
III. The third and laft thing to be known, is the
value of the materials, that is, the firft matter employ¬
ed by the workman j and if the objeCt of his induftry
be the manufacture of another, the fame procefs of in¬
quiry muft be gone through with regard to the firft as
the fecond ; and thus the moft complex manufactures
may be at laft reduced to the greateft fimplicity.
Thefe three articles being known, the price of ma¬
nufacture is determined. It cannot be lower than the
amount of all the three, that is, than the real value 5
whatever it is higher, is the manufacturer’s profit.
This will ever be in proportion to demand, and there¬
fore will fluctuate according to circumflances.
Hence appears the neceflity of a great demand, in
order to promote flourifhing manufactures.
By the extenfive dealings of merchants, and their
conftant application to the ftudy of the balance of
work and demand, all the above circumftances are
known to them, and are made known to the induftrious,
who regulate their living and expence according to
their certain profit.
Employ a workman in a country where there is
little trade or induftry, he proportions his price al¬
ways to the urgency of your want, or your capacity
to pay, but feldom to his own labour. Employ ano¬
ther in a country of trade, he will not impofe upon
you, unlefs perhaps you be a ftranger, which fuppofes
your being ignorant of the value -, but employ the
fame workman in a work not ufual in the country,
confequently not demanded, and therefore not regula¬
ted as to the value, be will proportion his price as in
the firft fuppofition.
We may therefore conclude, from what has been
faid, that in a country where trade has been eftablifh-
ed, manufactures muft flourifti, from the ready fate, the
regulated price of work, and the certain profit refult-
ing from induftry. Let us next inquire into the con-
fequences of fuch a fituation.
5 3. How foreign Trade opens lo an indufrious People,
and the confequences of it to the Merchants who fet it
on foot.
The firft confequence of the fituation defcribed in
the preceding feClion is, that wants are ealily fupplied
for the adequate value of the thing wanted.
The next confequence is, the opening of foreign
trade, under its two denominations of paflive and ac¬
tive. Strangers and people of diftant countries, find¬
ing the difficulty of having their wants fupplied at
home, and the eafe of having them fupplied from this
country, immediately have recourfe to it. This is paf-
five trade. The aftive is when merchants, who have
executed this plan at home with fuccefs, begin to tranf-
R r 2 port
3i6 ' COMM
i’rinciples port the labour of their countrymen into other re-
—y—— gions, which either produce, or are capable of produ¬
cing fuch articles of confumption, proper to be manu-
faftured, as are moft demanded at home y and confe-
quently will meet with the readieit fale,. and fetch the
largeft profits.
Here then is the opening of foreign trade, under its
two denominations of active and' pa dive.
What then are the confequences of this new com¬
merce to our merchants, who have left their homes in
quell of gain abroad ?
The firft is, that, arriving in any new country, they
find themfelves in the fame fituation with regard to the
inhabitants, as the workman in the country of no trade,
with regard to thofe who employ him ; that is, they
proportion the price of their goods to the eagernefs of
acquiring, of the capacity of paying, in the inhaoi-
• tants, but never to their real value.
The firit profits then, upon this trade, mult be very
confiderable; and the demand from fuch a country will
be high or /ow, great or fmall, according to the ipirit,
not the real wants of the people $ for thefe in all coun¬
tries mult firit be fupplied by the inhabitants them-
felves, before they eeafe to labour.
H the people of this not-trading country be abun¬
dantly furnilhed with commodities ufeful to the traders,
they will eafily part with them, at firft, for the inftru-
ments of luxury and eafe ; but the great profit of the
traders will infenfibly increafe the demand for the pro-
du6tion of their new correfpondents: this will have
the effeft of producing a competition between them¬
felves, and thereby throwing the demand on their fide-.
This is perpetually a difadvantage in traffic ; the moft
unpolilhed nations in the world quickly perceive the
effects of it, and are taught to profit by the difcovery,
in fpite of the addrefs of thofe v?ho are the moft ex¬
pert in commerce.
The traders will therefore be very fond of falling
upon every method and contrivance to infpire this
people with a tafte of refinement and delicacy. A-
bundance of fine prefents, confining of every inftru-
ment of luxury and fuperfluity, the belt adapted to tne
genius of the people, will be given to the prince and
leading men among them. Workmen will even be
employed at home, to ftudy the tafte of the ftrangers,
and to captivate their defires by every poflible means.
The more eager they are of prefents, the more lavith
the traders will be in bellowing and diverfilying them.
It is an animal put up to fatten } the more he eats, the
fooner he is fit for {laughter. When their tafte for
fuperfluity is fully formed, when the relilh for their
former fimplicity is fop hi ft ica ted, poifoned, and obli¬
terated, then they are furely in the fetters of the
traders, and the deeper they go, the lefs poffibility
there is of being extricated. The prefents then will
die away, having ferved their purpofe j and if arter-
wards they are found to be continued, it will probably
be to fupport the competition againft other nations,
who will incline to thare of the profits.
If, on the contrary, this not-trading nation does not
abound with commodities ufeful to the traders, thefe
will make little account of trading with them, what¬
ever their turn may be 5 but, if we fuppofe this coun¬
try inhabited by a laborious people, who, having ta-
E R C E.
ken a tafte for refinement from the traders, apply Principles,
themfelves to agriculture, in order to produce articles ——v—~
of fubliftence, they will folieit the merchants to give
them part of their manufadlures in exchange for thofe}
and this trade will undoubtedly have the effe£l of mul-
tiplying numbers in the trading nation. But if food
cannot be furnrlhed, nor any other branch of produc¬
tion found out. to fupport the correfpondcnce, the tafte
for refinement will fuon die away, and trade will flop
in this quarter.
Had it not been for the furs in thofe countries ad¬
jacent to Hudfon’s bay, and in Canada, the Europeans
never would have thought of fupplying inllruments of
luxury to thofe nations} and it the inhabitants of thofe
regions had not taken a talle for the inftruments of
luxury furnifhed to them by the Europeans, they ne¬
ver would have become fo indefatigable nor fo dex¬
terous hunters. At the fame time we. are not to fup¬
pofe that ever thefe Americans would have come to
Europe in quell of our manula&ures. It is, there¬
fore, owing to our merchants, that thefe nations arc
become in any degree fond of refinement } and this
tafte,. in all probability, will not foon exceed the pro¬
portion of the productions of their country. From
thefe beginnings of foreign trade it is eafy to trace its
increafe.
One llep towards this, is the eftablilhing correfpon-
dences in foreign countries } and thefe are more or lefs
neceflary in proportion as the country where they are
eftablithed is more or lefs polilhed, or acquainted with
trade. They fupply the want of polls, and point out
to the merchants what proportion the produClions of
the country bear to the demand of the inhabitants for
manufactures. This communicates an idea of com¬
merce to the not-trading nation, and they infenfibly
begin to fix a determined value upon their own pro¬
ductions, which perhaps bore no determined value at
all before.
Let us trace a little the progrefs of this refinement
in the favages, in order to fliow how it has the effeCt of
throwing the demand upon the traders, and of creating
a competition among them for the productions of the
new country.
Experience {hows, that, in a new difeovered coun¬
try, merchants conllantly find fome article or other o
its productions, which runs out to a great account in
commerce } and we fee that the longer fuch a trade
fublifts, and the more the inhabitants take a tafte for
European manufactures, the more their own produc¬
tions rife in their value, and the lefs profit is made by
trading with them, even in cafes where the trade is
carried on by companies } which is a very wife inftt-
tution for one reafon, that it cuts off a competition be¬
tween our merchants.
This is the bell means of keeping prices low in fa¬
vour of the nation } however, it may work a contrary
effeCt with refpeCt to individuals who mull buy from
thefe monopolies.
When companies are not eflablilhed, and when trade
is open, our merchants, by their eagernefs to profit by
the new trade, betray the fecrets of it} they enter into
competition for the purchafe of the foreign produce ;
and this raifes prices, and favours the commerce of the
moll ignorant favages.
Principle?
C O M M
$ 4. Cenfequenccs of the IntroduBion of a pajfvc Fo¬
reign Trade among a People who live in Simplicity and
Idlenefs.
We now fuppofe the arrival of traders, all in one
interelf, with inftruments of luxury and refinement, at
a port in a country of great fimplicity of manners, a-
bundantly provided by nature with great advantages
for commerce, and peopled by a nation capable of
adopting a tafte for fuperfluities.
The firlt thing the merchants do is, to expofe their
goods, and point out the advantages of many things,
either agreeable or ufeful to mankind in general, fuch
as wines, fpirits, inlfruoients of agriculture, arms and
ammunition for hunting, nets for filhing, manufadfures
for clothing, and the like. The advantages of thefe
are prefently perceived, and fuch commodities are ea¬
gerly fought after.
The natives, on their fide, produce what they moll
effeem, generally fomething fuperfluous or ornamental.
The traders, after examining all circumllances, de¬
termine the objeft of their demand, giving the leaft
quantity pofiible in return for this fuperfluity, in order
to imprefs the inhabitants with a high notion of the
value of their own commodities ; but as this parfimony
may do more hurt than good to their interelf, they are
very generous in making prefents, from the principles
mentioned above.
When the exchange is completed, and the traders
depart, regret is commonly mutual j the one and the
other are forry that the fuperfluities of the country fall
Ihort. A return is promifed by the traders, and aflu-
rances are given by the natives of a better provifion a-
nother time.
What are the firfi: confequences of this revolution ?
It is evident, that, in order to fupply an equivalent
for this new want, more hands mull be fet to work
than formerly. And it is evident alfo, that this aug¬
mentation of induftry will not effentially increafe num¬
bers : Why? Becaufe the produce of the induftry is,
in this cafe, intended to be exported. But, if we can
find out any additional confumption at home, even im¬
plied by this new trade, it will have the effeft of aug¬
menting numbers. An example will make this plain.
Let us fuppofe the fuperfluity of this country to be
the Ikins of wild beafts, not proper for food \ the ma-
nufa&ure fought for, brandy. The brandy is fold for
furs. He who has furs, or he who can fpare time to
hunt for them, will drink brandy in proportion •, but
there is no reafon to conclude from this Ample opera¬
tion, that one man more in the country muft neceffari-
ly be fed, or that any augmentation of agriculture muft
of confequence enfue from this new traffic.
But let us throw in a circumftance which may imply
an additional confumption at home, and then examine
the confequences.
A poor creature who has no equivalent to offer for
food, who is miferable, and ready to periffi for want
of fubfiftence, goes a hunting, and kills a wolf 5 he
comes to a farmer with the fkin, and fays. You are
well fed, but you have no brandy ; if you will give
me a loaf, I will give you this fldn, which the ftran-
gers are fo fond of, and they will give you brandy.
But, fays the farmer, I have no more bread than what
is.fufRcient for my own family. As for that, replies
I
E R C E. 317
the other, I will come and dig in your ground, and principles.
you and I will fettle our account as to the fmall quan- ' v '
tity I defire of you. The bargain is made : the poor
fellow gets his loaf, and lives at leaft ; perhaps he
marries, and the farmer gets a dram. But had it not
been for this dram, that is, this new want, which was
purchafed by the induftry of this poor fellow, by what
argument could he have induced the farmer to part
with a loaf ?
Here the fentiment of charity is excluded. This
alone is a principle of multiplication j but as true it is,
on the other hand, that could the poor fellow have got
bread by begging, he would not probably have gone a
hunting.
Here then it appears that the very dawning of
trade, in the moft unpoliftied countries, implies a mul¬
tiplication. This is fufficient to point out the firft ftep-,
and to conned! the fubjedt of our prefent inquiries
with what has already been difcuffed in relation to
other circumftances.
So fnon as all the furs are difpofed of, and a tafte for
fuperfluity is introduced, both the traders and the na¬
tives will be equally interefted in the advancement of
induftry in this country. Many new objedts of profit
for the firft will be difcovered, which the proper em¬
ployment of the inhabitants, in reaping the natural ad¬
vantages of their foil and climate, will make effedtual.
The traders will therefore endeavour to fet on foot
many branches of induftry among the favages, and the
allurements of brandy, arms, and clothing, will animate"
thefe in the purfuit of them.
When once this revolution is brought about j when
thofe who formerly lived in fimplicity become induftri-
ous ; matters put on a new face.
That is to fay, we now find two trading nations
inftead of one ; with this difference, however, that as
hitherto we have fuppofed the merchants all in one
intereft, the compound demand, that is, the competi¬
tion of the buyers, has been, and muft ftill continue on
the fide of the natives. This is a great prejudice to
their intereft : but as it is not fuppofed fufficient to
check their induftry, nor to reftrain their confumption
of the manufaftures, let us here examine a little more
particularly the confequences of the principle of de¬
mand in fuch a fituation j for although we allow, that
it can never change fides, yet it may admit of different
modifications, and produce different effe&s, as we (hall
prefently perceive.
The merchants we fuppofe all in one intereft, con-
fequently there can be no competition among them j
no check can be put upon their raifing their prices, as
long as the prices they demand are complied with. So
foon as they are raifed to the full extent of the abili¬
ties of the natives,, or of their inclination to buy, the
merchants have the choice of three things, which are
all perfe&ly in their option ; and the preference to be
given to the one or the other, depends entirely upon
themfelves, and upon the circumftances we are going
to point out.
Firft, they may fupport their high demand; that
is, not lower their price, which will preferve a high
eftimation of the manufadlures in the opinion of the
inhabitants, and render the profits upon their trade
the greateft poffible. This part they may poffibly
take, if they perceive the natives doubling their dili¬
gence, ,
3i 3 COMM
Principles, gence, in order to become able, in time, to purchafe
—v——■ confiderable cargoes at a high value } from which fup-
pofition is inferred a ftrong difpofition in the people to
become luxurious, fince nothing but want of ability
prevents them from complying with the higheft de¬
mand : but dill another circumftance muft concur, to
engage the merchants not to lower their price. The
great proportion of the goods they feek for in re¬
turn, muft be found in the hands of a few. This will
be the cafe if flavery be eftabliftied 5 for then there
muft be many poor and few rich j and they are com¬
monly the rich confumers who proportion the price
they offer, rather to their defires, than to the value of
. the thing.
The fecond thing which may be done is, to encou¬
rage a great demand ; that is, to lower their prices.
This will fink the value of the manufa&ures in the
'opinion of the inhabitants, and render profits lefs in
proportion, although indeed, upon the voyage, the pro¬
fits may be greater.
This part they will take, if they perceive the inha¬
bitants do not incline to confume great quantities of
the merchandife at a high value, either for want of
abilities or inclination j and alfo, if the profits upon
the trade depend upon a large confumption, as is the
cafe in merchandife of a low value, and fuited chiefly to
the occafions of the lower fort. Such motives of expe¬
diency will be fufficient to make them relinquifti a high
demand, and prefer a great one •, and the more, when
there is a likelihood that the confumption of lowr-priced
goods in the beginning may beget a tafte for others of
a higher value, and thus extend in general the tafte of
fuperfluiiy.
A third part to be taken is the lea ft politic, and
perhaps the moft familiar. It is to profit by the com¬
petition between the buyers, and encourage the. rifing
of demand as long as poftible : when this comes to a
flop, to make a kind of autlion, by firft bringing down
the prices to the level of the higheft bidders, and fo to
defcend by degrees, in proportion as demand finks.
Thus we may fay with propriety, that demand com¬
monly becomes great, in proportion as prices fink. By
this operation, the traders will profit as much as poffi-
ble, and fell off as much of their goods as the profits
will permit.
But this plan, in a new difeovered country, is not po¬
litic, as it both difeovers a covetoufnefs and a want of
faith in the merchants, and alfo throws open the fecrets
of their trade to thofe who ought to be kept ignorant
of them.
Let us next fuppofe, that the large profits of our
merchants fhall be difeovered by others, who arrive at
the fame ports in a leparate intereft, and who enter in¬
to no combination which might prevent the natural ef-
fedls of competition.
Let the ftates of demand among the natives be fup-
pofed the fame as formerly, both as to height and great-
nefs, in confequence of the operation of the different
principles, which might have induced our merchants
to follow one or other of the plans we have been de-
feribing : we muft, however, ftill fuppofe, that they
have been careful to preferve confiderable profits upon
every branch.
If we fuppofe the inhabitants to have increafed in
numbers, wealth, and tafte for fuperfluity, fince the
E R C E.
laft voyage, demand will be found rather on the rifing p^ipi^
hand. Upon the arrival of the merchants in competi- ^
tion with the former, both will offer to fale ; but if
both Hand at the fame prices, it is very natural to fup¬
pofe, that the former dealers will obtain a preference j
as cceteris paribus it is always an advantage to know
and to be known. The laft comers, therefore, have no
other way left to counterbalance this advantage, but to
lower their prices.
This is a new phenomenon : here the fall of prices
is not voluntary as formerly, nor confented to from
expediency j not owing to a failure of demand, but
to the influence of a new principle of commerce, to
wit, a double competition, which we fliall now ex¬
amine.
§ 5. Of double Competition.
When competition is much (Longer on one fide of
the contrad! than on the other, it is called fmple.
This is the fpecies of competition which is implied in
the terms high demand, or when it is faid that demand
raifes prices.
Double competition is, when, in a certain degree, it
takes place, on both (ides of the contradl at once, or
vibrates alternately from one to the other. This is
what reftrains prices to the adequate value of merchan-
dife.
The great difficulty is to diftinguiffi clearly between
the principles of demand and thofe of competition : here
then follow the principal differences between the two
relatively to the effedts they produce ffverally in the
mercantile contradt of buying and felling, which we
here exprefs (hortly by the word contraft.
Simple demand is what brings the quantity of com¬
modity to market. Many demand, who do not buy $
many offer, who do not (ell. This demand is called
great or final!; it is faid to increafe, to augment, to
(well } and is expreffed by thefe and other fynonymous
terms, which mark an augmentation or diminution of
quantity. In this fpecies, two people never demand the
fame thing, but a part of the fame thing, or things
quite alike.
Compound demand is the principle which raifes prices,
and can never make them fink j becaufe in this cafe
more than one demands the very fame thing. It is
folely applicable to the buyers, in relation to the price
they offer. This demand is called high or low, and is
faid to rife, to fall, to mount, to fink, and is expreffed
by thefe avid other fynonymous terms.
Simple competition, when between buyers, is the fame
as compound or high demand; but differs from it in fo‘
far, as this may equally take place among fellers, which
compound demand cannot j and then it works a con¬
trary effeft : it makes prices fink, and is fynonymous
with low demand ; it is this competition which over¬
turns the balance of work and demand.
Double competition is what is underftood to take
place in almoft every operation of trade j it is this
which prevents the exceffive rife of prices *, it is this
which prevents their exceffive fall. While double
competition prevails, the balance is perfeiff, trade and
induftry flouriffi.
The capital diftin&ion, therefore, between the terms
demand and competition is, that demand is conftantly rela¬
tive to the buyers *, and when money is not the price,
as
COMM
Principles, as in barter, then it is relative to that fide upon which
—y— the greateft competition is found.
We therefore fay, with regard to prices, demand is
high or low. With regard to the quantity of merchiandife,
demand is great or /mail. With regard to competition,
it is always called great or /mail, Jlrong or weak.
Competition is, with equal propriety, applicable to
both parties in the contract. A competition among
buyers is a proper expreffion j a competition among fel¬
lers, who have the merchandife, is fully as ealily under-
ftood, though it be not quite fo ftriking, for reafons
which an example will make plain.
You come to a fair, where you find a great variety
of every kind of merchandife, in the poffeffion of dif¬
ferent merchants. Thefe, by offering their goods to
fale, conllitute a tacit competition ; every one of them
withes to fell in preference to another, and at the fame
time with the beft advantage to himfelf.
The buyer begins by cheapening at every fhop.
The firft price afked marks the covetoufnefs of the
feller j the firft price offered, the avarice of the buyer.
From this operation competition begins to work its
effects on both fides, and fo becomes double. The
principles which influence this operation are now to be
deduced.
It is impoflible to fuppofe the fame degree of eager-
nefs either to buy or fell, among feveral merchants;
becaufe the degree of eagernefs is exaftly in propor¬
tion to their views of profit j and as thefe muft neceffari-
ly be influenced and regulated by different circumftan-
ces, that buyer, who has the beft profpe£t of felling
again with profit, obliges him, whofe profpeft is not fo
good, to content himfelf with lefs j and that feller, who
has bought to the beft advantage, obliges him, who has
paid dearer for the merchandife, to moderate his defire
of gain.
It is from thefe principles that competition among
buyers and fellers muft originate. This is what con¬
fines the fluctuation of prices within limits which are
compatible with the reafonable profits of both buyers
and fellers \ for we muft conftantly fuppofe the whole
operation of buying and felling to be performed by
merchants 5 the buyer cannot be fuppofed to give fo
high a price as that which he expeCts to receive when
he diftributes to the confumers, nor can the feller be
fuppofed to accept of a lower than that which he paid
to the manufacturer. This competition is properly
called double, becaufe of the difficulty to determine
upon which fide it ftands j the fame merchant may
have it in his favour upon certain articles, and againft
him upon others j it is continually in vibration, and the
arrival of every poft may lefs or more pull down the
heavy fcale.
In every tranfaCIion between merchants, the profit
refulting from the fale muft be exactly diftinguiffied
from the value of the merchandife. The firft may
vary, the laft never can. It is this profit alone which
can be influenced by competition j and it is for that
reafen we find fuch uniformity everywhere in the prices
of goods of the fame quality.
The competition between fellers does not appear
fo ftriking as that between buyers 5 becaufe he who
offers to fale, appears only paflive in the firft opera
tion ; whereas the buyers prefi nt themfelves one af¬
ter another j they make a demand when the mer-
4
E R C E. 319
chandife is refufed to one at a certain price ; a fecond principles,
either offers more, or does not offer at all; but fo foon —y—1 1
as another feller finds his account in accepting the price
the firft had refufed, then the firft enters into compe¬
tition, providing his profits will admit his lowering the
firft price ; and thus competition takes place among the
fellers, until the profits upon their trade prevent prices!1
from falling lower.
In all markets this competition is varying, though
infenfibly, on many occafions j but in others the vi¬
brations are very perceptible. Sometimes it is found
ftrongeft on the fide of the buyers 5 and in proportion
as this grows, the competition between the fellers di-
minifties. When the competition between the former
has raifed prices to a certain ftandard, it comes to a
flop ) then the competition changes fides, and takes
place among the fellers, eager to profit by the higheft
price. This makes prices fall 5 and according as they
fall, the competition among the buyers diminifhes.
They ftill wait for the loweft period. At laft it comes,
and then perhaps fome new circumftance, by giving
the balance a kick, difappoints their hopes. If there¬
fore it ever happens, that there is but one intereft up¬
on one fide of the contrafl, as in the example in the
former feftion, where we fuppofed the fellers united,
you perceive, that the rife of the price, occafioned by
the competition of the buyers, and even its coming to
a flop, could not poffibly have the effuft of producing
any competition on the other fide j and therefore, if
prices come afterwards to fink, the fall muft have pro¬
ceeded from the prudential confiderations of adapting
the price to the faculties of thofe who, from the height
of it, had withdrawn their demand.
From thefe principles of competition, the foreftalling
of markets is made a crime, beeaufe it diminiffies the
competition which ought to take place between dif¬
ferent people, who have the fame merchandife to of¬
fer to fale. The foreftaller buys all up, with an inten¬
tion to fell with more profit, as he has by that means
taken other competitors out of his way, and appears
with a fingle intereft on one fide of the contraft, in the
face of many competitors on the other. This perfon
is puniflied by the ftate, becaufe he has prevented the
price of the merchandife from becoming juftly propor¬
tioned to the real value ; he has robbed the public and
enriched himfelf 5 and in the puniffiment he makes re-
flitution. Here occur two queftions to be refolved, for
the fake of illuftration.
Can competition among buyers poffibly take place,
when the provifion made is more than fufficient to
fupply the quantity demanded ? On the other hand,
can competition take place among the fellers, when
the quantity demanded exceeds the total provifion made
for it ?
We think it may in both cafes j becaufe in the one
and the other, there is a competition implied on (me
fide of the eontraft, and the very nature of this com¬
petition prefuppofes a poffibility of its coming on the
other, provided feparate interefts be found upon both
fides. But to be more particular :
I. Experience (hows, that however juftly the pro¬
portion between the demand and the fupnly may be
determined in faiff, it is ftill next to imp< ffiole to dif-
cover it exafHv, and therefore the buyers can only re¬
gulate the prices they offer, by what they may reafon-
,20 c O M M
Principles ably expeft to fell for gain. The feller?, on the other
' hand, can only regulate the prices they expect, by what
the merchandi’fe has coft them when brought to mar¬
ket. We have already (hotvn, how, under fuch cir-
cumftances, the feveral interefts of individuals affedt
each other, and make the balance vibrate.
2. The proportion between the fupply and the de¬
mand is feldom other than relative among merchants,
who are fuppofed to buy and fell, not from neceflity,
but from a view to profit. What we mean by relative
is, that their demand is great or /mail according to
prices j there may be a great demand for grain at 35s.
per quarter, and no demand at all for it at 40s. j that
is, among merchants.
It is eifential to attend to the fmalleft circumftance
in matters of this kind. The circumftance we mean,
is the difference we find in the effe£l of competition,
\Vhen it takes place purely among merchants on both
fides of the contratt, and when it happens, that either
the confumers mingle themfelves with the merchant-
buyers, or the manufacturers, that is, the furnilhers,
mingle themfelves with the merchant fellers. This
combination we lhall illuftrate by the folution of ano¬
ther queftion, and then conclude with a few refleftions
Upon the whole.
Can there be no cafe formed where the competition
upon one fide may fubfift, without a poflibility of its
taking place on the other, although there fhould be fe-
parate interefts upon both ?
The cafe is hardly fuppofable among merchants, who
buy and fell with a view to profit; but it is abfolutely
fuppofable, and that is all, when the difeft confumers
are the buyers •, when the circumftances of one of the
parties is perfedly known ; and when the competition
is fo ftrong upon one fide, as to prevent a poflibility of
its becoming double, before the whole provifion is fold
oflf, or the demand fatisfied. Let us have recourfe to
examples.
Grain arriving in a fmall quantity, at a port where
the inhabitants are ftarving, producing fo great a com¬
petition among the confumers who are the buyers,
that their neceflity becomes evident ; all the grain is
generally bought up before prices can rife fo high as
to come to a flop; becaufe nothing but want of mo¬
ney, that is, an impoflibility of complying with the
prices demanded by the merchants can reftrain them :
but if you fuppofe, even here, that prices come natu¬
rally to a flop; or that, after fome time, they fall
lower, from prudential confiderations •, then there is
a polfibility of a competition taking place among the
fellers, from the principles above deduced* If, on the
contrary, the flop is not natural, but occafioned by the
interpofition of the magiftrate, from humanity, or the
like, there will be no competition, becaufe then the
principles of commerce are fufpended ; the fellers are
reftrained on one fide, and they reftrain the buyers on
the other. Or rather indeed, it is the magiftrate, or
compaflion, who in a manner fixes the price, and per¬
forms the office of both buyer and feller. _
A better example ftill may be found, in a competi¬
tion among fellers, where it may be fo ftrong as to
render a commodity in a manner of no value at all, as
in the cafe of an uncommon and unexpefted draught
of fifh, in a place of fmall confumption, when no pre¬
parations have been made for faking them. There
E n C E.
can be then no competition among the buyers, be- principles.
caufe the market cannot laft, and they find themfelve,s 1*—'
entirely matters, to give what price they pleafe, be¬
ing fure the fellers ihuft accept of it, or lofe their mer-
chandife. In the firft example, humanity commonly
flops the aftivity of the principle of competition ; in
the other, it is flopped by a certain degree of fair deal¬
ing, which forbids the accepting of a merchandife for
nothing.
In proportion therefore as the rifing of prices can
flop demand, or the finking of prices can increafe it,
in the fame proportion will competition prevent either
the rife or the fall from being carried beyond a certain
length ; and if fuch a cafe can be put, where the rifing
of prices cannot flop demand, nor the lowering of
prices augment it, in fueh cafes double competition has
no effedl ; becaufe thefe circumftances unite the moft
feparate interefts of buyers and fellers in the mer¬
cantile con trad! j and when upon one fide there is
no feparate intereft, there can then be no competi¬
tion.
From what has been faid, we may form a judgment
of the various degree of competition. A book not
worth a fbilling, a fifh of a few pounds weight, are
often fold for confiderable fums. The buyers here are
not merchants. When an ambaffador leaves a court in
a hurry, things are fold for lefs than the half of their
value ; he is no merchant, and his fituation is known.
When, at a public market, there are found confirmers,
who make their provifion, or manufadurers, who dif-
pofe of their goods for prefent fubfiftence j the mer¬
chants, who are refpedively upon the oppofite fide of
the contrad to thefe, profit of their competition 5 and
thofe who are- refpedively upon the fame fide with
them, {land by with patience until they have finifhed
their bufinefs. Then matters come to be carried on
between merchant and merchant, and then profits may
rife and fall in the proportion of quantity to demand ;
that is to fay, if the provifion is lefs than the demand,
the competition among the demanders, or the rife of
the price, will be in the compound proportion of the
falling fliort of the commodity, and of the profped of
felling again with profit. It is this combination which
regulates the competition, and keeps it within bounds.
It can affed but the profits upon the tranfadion *, the
intrinfic value of the commodity ftands immoveable ;
nothing is ever fold below the real value ; nothing is
ever bought for more than it may probably bring.
We mean in general. Whereas, fo foon as confumers
and 'needy manufadurers mingle in the operation, all
proportion is loft. The competition between them' is
too ftrong for the merchants ; the balance vibrates by
jerks. In fuch markets merchants feldom appear •, the
principal objeds there, are the fruits and prndudions
of the earth, and articles of the firft neceflity for life,
not manufadures ftridly fo called. A poor fellow
often fells to purchafe bread to eat ; not to pay what
he did eat while he was employed in the work he dif-
pofes of. The confumer often meafures the value of
what he is about to purchafe, by the weight of his
purfe, and his defire to confume.
§ 6. Of what is called Expence, Proft, and Lofs.
The term expence, when fimply expreffed, without
any particular relation, is always underftood to be re¬
lative
COMM
Priticiples. lative to money. This kind is diftinguiftied under the
three heads of private, public, and national.
j. Private expence is what a private perfon, or pri¬
vate fociety, lays out, either to provide articles of con-
fumption, or fomething more permanent, which may
he conducive to their eafe, convenience, or advantage.
Thus we fay, a large domcjlic ex pence, relative to one
who fpends a great income. We fay, a merchant has
been at great expence for magazines, for living, for
clerks, &c. but never that he has been at any in buy-
ing goods. In the fame way a manufa&urer may ex¬
pend for building, machines, horfes, and carriages, but
<never for the matter he manufa&ures. When a thing
is bought in order to be fold again, the fum employ¬
ed is called money‘advanced; when it is bought not
to be fold, it may be faid to be expended.
2. Public expence is the employment of that money
■which has been contributed by individuals for the cur-
lent ferviceof the date. The contribution, or the gather¬
ing it together, reprefents the effedls of many articles
of private expence ; the laying it out when collected is
.public expence.
3. National expence is what is expended out of the
■country, this is what diminilhes national wealth. The
principal diftin&ion to be here attended to is between
public expence, or the laying out of public money, and
national expence, which is the alienating the nation’s
wealth in favour of Grangers. Thus the greateft pub¬
lic expence imaginable may be no national expence ;
becaufe the money may remain at home. On the
other hand, the fmalleft public, or even private expence,
may be a national expence j becaufe the money may
go abroad.
Profit and lofs is divided into poftive, relative, and
compound. Poftive profit implies no lofs to any body ;
it refults from an augmentation of labour, induftry, or
ingenuity, and has the effedt of fwelling or augment¬
ing the public good.
Poftive lofs implies no profit to any body ; it is what
refults from the ceffation of the former, or of the eflfedls
refulting from it, and may be faid to diminith the pub¬
lic good.
Relative profit is what implies a lofs to fomebody j it
marks a vibration of the balance of wealth between par¬
ties, but implies no addition to the general flock.
Relative lofs is what, on the contrary, implies a pro¬
fit to fomebody; it alfo marks a vibration of the ba¬
lance, but takes nothing from the general flock.
The compound is eafily underftood ; it is that fpecies
of profit and lofs which is,partly relative and partly po-
iitive.
$ 7. The general conferences refulting to a trading
Nation, upon the opening of an ablive foreign Com¬
merce.
A nation which remains paflive in her commerce
*s at the mercy of thofe who are adlive, and muft be
greatly favoured indeed by natural advantages, or by
a conftant flux of gold and filver from her mines, to
be able to fupport a correfpondence not entirely hurt¬
ful to the augmentation of her wealth.
When we look upon the wide field which here opens
to our view, we are perplexed with too great a variety
Vol. VI. Part I. b 7
E R C E.
of objedts. In one part, we fee a decent and comely Principle*,
beginning of induflry ; wealth flowing gently in to re-s—""v '
compenfe ingenuity ; numbers both augmenting, and
every one becoming daily more ufeful to another; agri¬
culture proportionally extending itfelf; no violent re¬
volution ; no exorbitant profits ; no infolence an.png
the rich ; no exceflive mifery among the poor ; multi¬
tudes employed in producing; great economy upon
confumption ; and all the inftruments of luxury, daily
produced by the hands of the diligent, going out of
the country for the fervice of ftrangers ; not remaining
at home for the gratification of fenfuality. At lafl
the augmentations come infenfibly to a flop. Then
thefe rivers of wealth, which were in brifk circulation
through the whole world, and which returned to this
trading nation as blood returns to the heart, only to
be thrown out again by new pulfations, begin to be
obftrudled in their courfe ; and flowing abroad more
flowly than before, come to form ftagnations at home.
Thefe, impatient of reftraint, foon burft out into do-
meftic circulation. Upon this cities fwell in magnifi¬
cence of buildings ; the face of the country is adorned
with palaces, and becomes covered with groves ; luxu¬
ry ftiines triumphant in every part; inequality becomes
more ftriking to the eye ; and want and mifery appear
more deformed from the contrail; even fortune grows
more whimfical in her inconftancy ; the beggar of the
other day now rides in his coach ; and he who was
born in a bed of ftate, is feen to die in a gaol, or in an
alms-houfe. Such are the effefts of great domeftic cir¬
culations.
The ftatefman looks about with amazement; he
who was wont to confider himfelf as the firft man in
the fociety in every refpedl, perceives himfelf, per¬
haps, eclipfed by the luftre of private wealth, which
avoids his grafp when he attempts to feize it. This
makes his government more complex and more diffi¬
cult to be carried on ; he muft now avail himftlf of
art and addrefs, as well as of power and force. By
the help of cajoling and intrigues he gets a little into
debt; this lays a foundation for public credit, which
growing by degrees, and in its progrefs affuming many
new forms, becomes, from the moft tender begin¬
nings, a moft formidable monfter, ftriking terror into
thofe who cheriftied it in its infancy. Upon this, as
upon a triumphant war-horfe, the ftatefman gets a-
ftride ; be then appears formidable anew ; his head
turns giddy ; he is choked with the dull he has raif-
ed ; and at the moment he is ready to fall, to his ut¬
ter aftoniffiment and furprife, he finds a ilrong mo¬
nied intereft of his own creating, which, inftead of
fvvallowing him up, as he apprehended, flies to his
fupport. Through this he gets the better of all oppo-
fition, he eftablilhes taxes, multiplies them, mortgage*
his fund of fubfiftence ; either becomes a bankrupt,
and rifes again from bis alhes ; or if he be lefs auda¬
cious, he Hands trembling and tottering for a while on
the brink of the political precipice. From the one or the
other of tbefe perilous fituations, he begins to difcover
an endlefs path, which after a multitude of windings
ftill returns into itfelf, and continues an equal courfe
through this vaft labyrinth.
It is now full time to leave off rhapfody, and re¬
turn to reafoning and cool inquiry, concerning the
S f mor$
322 COMM
Principle?, more immediate and more general effedls and revolu-
tions produced by the opening of a foreign trade in a
nation of induftry.
The firft and moft fenfible alteration will be an in-
creafe of demand for manufafturers, becaufe by fup-
plying the wants of ftrangers, the number of confu-
mers will now be confiderably augmented. What
again will follow upon this, mull depend upon circum-
ftances.
If this revolution in the ftate of demand ftiould
prove too violent, the confequence of it will be to raife
demand ; if it fhould prove gradual, it will increafe it.
This diftinftion is well underftood, and the confequence
appears jud ; for, if the fupply do not increafe in pro¬
portion to the demand, a competition will enfue among
the demanders j which is the common effedl of fuch
fudden revolutions. If, on the other hand, a gentle
increafe of demand flrould be accompanied with a pro¬
portional fupply, the whole induftrious fociety will
grow in vigour, and in wholefome ftature, without
being fenfible of any great advantage or inconveniency $
the change of their circumflances will even be imper¬
ceptible.
The immediate effedls of the violent revolution will,
in this example, be flattering to fome and difagreeable
to others. Wealth will be found daily to augment,
from the rifing of prices, in many branches of induftry.
This will encourage the induftrious clafles, and the
idle confumers at home will complain. We have al¬
ready dwelt abundantly long upon the effedl refulting
from this to the lower clalfes of the people, in providing
them with a certain means of fubfiftence. Let us now
examine in what refpecl even the higher clafles will be
made likewife to feel the good effedls of this general
change, although at firft they may fuffer a temporary
inconvenience from it.
Farmers, as has been obferved, will have a greater
difficulty in finding fervants, who, inftead of labouring
the ground, will choofe to turn themfelves to manufac¬
tures. This we have confidered in the light of purging
the lands of fuperfluous mouths; but every confequence
in this great chain of politics draws other confequences
after it j and as they follow one another, things put on
different faces, which affect clafles differently. The
purging of the land is but one of the firft 5 here follows
another.
The defertion of the hands employed in a trifling
agriculture will at firft, no doubt, embarrafs the farm¬
ers *, but in a little time every thing becomes balanced
in a trading nation, becaufe here every induftrious man
muft advance in profperity, in fpite of all general com¬
binations of circumftances.
In the cafe before us, the relative profits upon farm¬
ing muft foon become greater than formerly, becaufe
of this additional expence which muft affeft the whole
clafs of farmers ; confequently, this additional expence,
inftead of turning out to be a lofs to either landlord
or farmer, will, after fome little time, turn out to the
advantage of both, becaufe the produce of the ground,
being indifpenfably neceffary to every body, muft in
every article increafe in its value. Thus, in a ffiort
time, accounts will be nearly balanced on all hands $
that is to fay, the fame proportion of wealth will,
ceeteru paribus, continue the fame among the induf¬
trious. We fay among the induftrious j for thofe
3
E R C E.
wffio are either idle, or even negligent, will be great Principles
lofers. ^ u—
A proprietor of land, inattentive to the caufes of his
farmer’s additional expence, may very imprudently
fuffer his rents to fall, inftead of affifting him on a pro¬
per occafion, in order to make them afterwards rife the
higher.
Thofe who live upon a determined income in money,
and who are novvife employed in traffic, nor in any
fcheme of induftry, will, by the augmentation ©f prices,
be found in worfe circumftances than before.
In a trading nation every man muft turn his talents
to account, or he will undoubtedly be left behind in
this univerfal emulation, in which the moft induftrious,
the moft ingenious, and the moft frugal, will conftantly
carry off the prize.
This confideration ought to be a fpur to every
man. The richeft men in a trading nation have no
fecurity againft poverty ; we mean proportional po¬
verty ; for though they diminilh nothing of their in¬
come, yet, by not increafing it in proportion to others,
they lofe their rank in wealth, and from the firft clafs
in which they flood they will Aide infenfibly down to
a lower.
There is one confequence of an additional beneficial
trade, which raifes demand and increafes wealth ; but
if we fuppofe no proportional augmentation of fupply,
it will prove at beft but an airy dream which lafts for
a moment.j and when the gilded fcene is paffed away,
numberlefs are the inconveniences which are feen to
follow.
We ftiall now point out the natural confequences of
this augmentation of wealth drawn from foreign na¬
tions, when the ftatefman remains inattentive to increafe
the fupply both of food and manufaftures, in proportion
to the augmentation of mouths, and of the demand for
the produce of induftry.
In fuch a fituation profits will daily fweil, and every
fcheme for reducing them within the bounds of mode--
ration, will be looked upon as a hurtful and unpopular
meafure : be it fo $ but let us examine the confequen¬
ces.
We have faid, that the rife of demand for manufac¬
tures naturally increafes the value of work : nowr we
muft add, that under fuch circumftances, the augmen¬
tation of riches in a country, either not capable of im¬
provement as to the foil, or where precautions have not
been taken for facilitating a multiplication of inhabi¬
tants, by the importation of fubfiftence, will be produc¬
tive of the moft calamitous confequences.
On one fide, this wealth will effectually diminifti
the mafs of the food before produced; and on the
other, will increafe the number of ufelefs confumers.
The firft of thefe circumftances will raife the demand
for food j and the fecond will diminifti the number
of ufeful free hands, and confequently raife the price
of manufactures : here are ftiortly the outlines of this
progrefs.
The more rich and luxurious a people are, the more
delicate they become in their manner of living if
they fed on bread formerly, they \Vill now feed on
meat ; if they fed on meat, they will now feed on
fowl. The fame ground which feeds a hundred with
bread, and a proportional quantity of animal-food,
will not maintain an equal number of delicate livers.
Food
COMMERCE.
Food muft then become more fcarce ; demand for it
rifes; the rich are always the ftrongeft in the market j
they confume the food, and the poor are forced to
ftarve. Here the wide door to modern dittrefs opens j
to wit, a hurtful competition for fubfiftence. Farther,
when a people become rich, they think lefs of economy 5
a number of ufelefs fervants are hired, to become an
additional dead weight on confumption; and when their
ftarving countrymen cannot fupply the extravagance
of the rich fo cheaply as other nations, they either im¬
port inftruments of foreign luxury, or leek to enjoy
them out of their own country, and thereby make re-
Ititution of their gains.
Is it not therefore evident, that if, before things
come to this pafs, additional fubfiitence be not provided
by one method or other, the number of inhabitants
muft diminifti *, although riches may daily increafe by
a balance of additional matter fuppofed to be brought
into the country in confequence of the hitherto bene¬
ficial foreign trade ? This is not all. We fay further,
that the beneficial trade will laft for a time only. For
the infallible confequences of the rife of prices at home
will be, that thofe nations which at firft confumed your
manufaftures, perceiving the gradual increafe of their
price, will begin to work for themfelves *, or finding
out your rivals who can fupply them cheaper, will
open their doors to them. Thefe again, perceiving
the great advantages gained by your traders, will be¬
gin to fupply the market ; and fince every thing muft
be cheaper in countries where we do not fuppofe the
concurrence of all the circumftances mentioned above,
thefe nations will fupplant you, and be enriched in their
turn.
Here comes a new revolution. Trade is at a ftand :
what then becomes of all the hands which were for¬
merly employed in fupplying the foreign demands ?
Were revolutions fo fudden as we are obliged to re-
prefent them, all would go to wreck *, in proportion as
they happen by quicker or flower degrees, the incon¬
veniences are greater or fmaller.
Prices, we have faid, are made to rife by compe¬
tition. If the competition of the ftrangers was what
raifed them, the diftrefs upon the manufacturers will
be in proportion to the fuddennefs of their deferting
the market. If the competition was divided between
the ftrangers and the home-confumers, the inconve¬
niences which enfue will be lefs j becaufe the defer-
tion of the ftrangers will be in fome meafure made up
by an increafe of home-confumption which will follow
upon the fall of prices. And if, in the third cafe, the
natives have been fo imprudent, as not only to fup-
port a competition with the ftrangers, and thereby
difguft them from coming any more to market, but
even to continue the competition between themfelves,
the whole lofs fuftained by the revolutien will be na¬
tional. Wealth will ceafe to augment; but the incon¬
veniences, in place of being felt by the manufaClurers,
will only affeCt the ftate ; thefe will continue in afflu¬
ence, extolling the generofity of their countrymen, and
defpifing the poverty of the ftrangers who had enrich¬
ed them.
Domeftic luxury will here prove an expedient for
preferving from ruin the induftrious part of a people,
who in fubfifting themfelves had enriched their country.
No change will follow in their condition j they will go
on with a painful affiduity to labour; and if the confe- Print
quences of it become now hurtful to one part of the
ftate, they muft at leaft be allowed to be eflentially *
neceflary for the fupport of another.
But that luxury is no neceflary concomitant of fo¬
reign trade, in a nation where the true principles of it
are underftood, will appear very plain, from a contrail
we are now going to point out, in the example of a
modern flate, renowned for its commerce and frugality.
The country is Holland.
A fet of indultrious and frugal people were affem-
bled in a country by nature fubjedt to many inconve¬
niences, the removing of which neceflariiy employed
abundance of hands. Their fituation upon the conti¬
nent, the power of their former mailers, and the am¬
bition of their neighbours, obliged them to keep great
bodies of troops. Thefe two articles added to the
numbers of the community, without either enriching
the ftate by their labour exported, or producing food
for themfelves or countrymen.
The fcheme of a commonwealth was calculated to
draw together the induftrious j but it has been ftill
more ufeful in fubfifting them : the republican form
of government being there greatly fubdivided, veils
authority fufficient in every part of it, to make fuitable
provilkm for their own fubfiftence j and the tie which
unites them, regards only matters of public concern.
Had the whole been governed by one fovereign, or by
one council, this important matter never could have
been effected.
It would be impoflible for the rnoft. able minifter
that ever lived, to provide nourilhment for a country
fo extended as France, or even as England, fuppofing
thefe as fully peopled as Holland is ; even although
it (hould be admitted that a fufficient quantity of food
might be found in other countries for their fubfiftence.
The enterprife would be too great, abufes would mul¬
tiply ; the confequence would be, that the inhabitants
would die for want. But in Holland, the cafe is dif¬
ferent: every little town takes care of its own inha¬
bitants ; and this care being the objedl of application
and profit to fo many perfons, is accompliftted with
fuccefs.
When once it is laid down as a maxim in a coun¬
try, that food muft of neceffity be got from abroad in
order to feed the inhabitants at home, the corn-trade
becomes confiderable, and at the fame time certain, re¬
gular, and permanent. This was the cafe in Holland :
as the inhabitants were induftrious, the neceffary con¬
fequence has been, a very extraordinary multiplica¬
tion ; and at the fame time fuch an abundance of
grain, that, inftead of being in want themfelves, they
often fupply their neighbours. There are many ex¬
amples of England’s being fupplied with grain from
thence j and, which is ftill more extraordinaiy, from
the re-exportation of the very produce of its own fruit¬
ful foil.
It is therefore evident, that the only way to fup¬
port induftry, is to provide a fupply of fubfiftence,
conftantly proportional to the demand that may be
made for it. This is a precaution indifpenfably ne¬
ceflary for preventing hurtful competition. This is
the particular care of the Dutch : fo long as it can be
effeftual, their ftate can fear no decline 5 but when¬
ever they come to be diftreffed in the markets, upon
S f 2 which
*5' Oj
324 COMM
Principles, which they depend for fubfiftence, they will fink into
'—m v~~ i‘-1 ruin. It is by mere dint of frugality, cheap and par-
fimonious living, that the navigation of this induitri-
ous people is fupported. Conflant employment, and
an accumulation of almoft imperceptible gains, fill
their coffers with wealth, in fpite of the large outgo¬
ings, to which their own proper nourifhment yearly
forces them. The large profits upon induftry in other
countries, which are no proof of generofity, but a fa¬
tal effect of a. fcanty fubfiftence, is far from dazzling
their eyes.. They feldom are found in the lift of
competitors at any foreign port •, if they have their
cargo to difpofe of, they wait with pleafure in their
own veflels, confuming their own provifions, and at
laft accept of what others have left. It may be faid,
that many other circumftances concur in favour of the
Dutch, befides the article of fubfiftenee. Without dif-
puting this matter, it may be obferved, that if a com¬
putation be made of the hands employed in providing
fubfiftence, and of thofe who are feverally taken up
in fupplying every other want, their numbers will be
found nearly to balance one another in the moft luxu¬
rious countries. From this we may conclude, that
E R C E.
the article of food, among the lower claffes, muft bear pr;nciPr
a very high proportion to all the other articles of their 1
eonfumption ; and therefore a diminution upon the
price of fubfiftence, muft be of infinite confequence to
manufacturers who are obliged to buy it. From this
confideration, let us judge of the confequence of fuch
augmentations upon the price of grain as are familiar
to us ; 30 or 40 per cent, feems nothing. Now this
augmentation operates upon two-thirds, at leaft, of the
whole expence of a labouring man : let any one who
lives in tolerable affluence make the application of this
to himfelf, and examine how he would manage his
affairs, if, by accidents of rains or winds, his- expences
were to rife 30 per cent, without a poffibility of re-
ftraining them 5 for this is unfortunately the cafe with,
all the lower claffes. From whence it may be con^
eluded, that the keeping food cheap, and ftill more the
preferving it at all times at an equal ftandard, is the
fountain of the wealth of Holland j and that any hurt¬
ful competition in this article muft beget a diforder
which will affeCl the whole of the manufacturers of %
ftate.
COM
Cemmercy COMMERCY, a handfome town of France in the
U 3 duchy of Bar, with the title of a principality, and a
C’ommina- magnificent caftle. It is feated on the river Meufe, in
, >Qry» E. Long. 5. 24. N. Lat. 48. 20.
 *—J COMMERSONIA. See Botany Index.
COMMINATION, an office in the liturgy of the
church of England, appointed to be read on Afti
Wednefday, or the firft day of Lent. It is fubftitu-
ted in the room of that godly difeipline in the primitive
church, by which (as the introduction to the office
expreffes it), “ fuch perfons, as flood convicted of no¬
torious fins, were put to open penance, and punilhed
in this world, that their fouls might be faved in the
day of the Lord j and that others, admonilhed by
their example, might be the more afraid to offend.”
This difeipline, in after ages, degenerated, in the
church of Rome, into a formal confeffion of fins upon
Afh Wednefday, and the empty ceremony of fprink-
ling allies upon the heads of the people. Our reform¬
ers wifely rejefted this ceremony, as mere ftiadow
and (how •, and fubftituted this office in its room, which
is A denunciation of God's anger and judgment againjl
finners, that the people being apprifed of God’s wrath
and indignation againft fin, may not, through want of
difcipline in the church, be encouraged to follow and
purfue them ; but rather be moved to fupply that dif¬
cipline to themfelves, and fo as to avoid being judged
and condemned at the tribunal of God.
COMMINATORY, an appellation given to what¬
ever threatens punilhment, or fome penalty. Thus,
in France, when an exile is enjoined not to return un¬
der pain of death, it is deemed a comminatory penalty j
finee if he do return, it is not ftri&ly executed :
but a fecond injunction is laid on him, which is more
2
COM
than comminatory, and, from the day of the date there- Commi'n*.
of, imports death without remedy. tory
GOMMINGES, a province of France, 45 miles in II
length, and 15 in breadth ; bounded on the north by CommiC-
Gafcony, on the fouth by Catalonia, on the eaft by . * J' , <
Coufferans, and on the weft by Bigorre. Its princi¬
pal trade confifts in cattle, mules, and corn. St Ber¬
trand is the capital town.
COMMINUTION, denotes the breaking, or rather
grinding, a body to very fmall particles.
COMMIRE, John, a celebrated Latin poet, bom
at Amboife in 1625, entered into the fociety of the
.Jefuits, and taught polite literature and divinity. He
died at Paris in 1702. We have a volume of his
Latin Poems, and a colleftion of his pofthumous
works. His odes and fables are more particularly ad¬
mired.
COMMISSARY, in the ecclefiafiical law, an offi¬
cer of the biftrop, who exercifes fpiritual jurifdiClion in
places of a diocefe fo far from the epifcopal fee, that
the chancellor cannot call the people to the biftiop’s
principal confiftory court, without giving them too
much inconveniency.
COMMISSART-Court, in Scotland, a court originally
conftituted by the bifhops for executing in their name
an ufurped jurifdi£lion ; and was anciently called the
hijhop's court, curia Chrijliav.itatis, or conjifiarial courts
This court was modelled by Queen Mary at the Refor¬
mation, and continues to this day.
Commissary, in a military fenfe, is of different
forts.
COMMISSAR T-General of the Muflers, an officer ap¬
pointed to mufter the army, as often as the general
thinks proper, in order to know the ftrength of each
regimen!
COM [ 325 ] COM
rommif- regiment and company, to receive and infpe& the
fary, * mufter-rolls, and to keep an exa& date of the ftrength
Cornmif- 0f the army.
fion- COMMISSAR T of Horfes, an officer in the artillery
~ v ' appointed to have the infpeftion of the artillery-horfes,
to fee them muftered, and to fend fuch orders as he
receives from the commanding officer of the artillery
by fome of the condu&ors of horfes, of which he has
a certain number for his affirtants.
COMMISSARY of Provijions, an officer who has the
charge of furnilhing the army with provifions.
COMMISSARY of Stores, an officer in the artillery
who has the charge of all the ftores, for which he is
accountable to the office of ordnance.
COMMISSION, in common law, the warrant or
letters patent, which all perfons exercifing jurifdi6iion
have to empower them to hear or determine any caufe
or fuit ; as the commiffion of the judges, &c..
COMMISSION of Bankruptcjj, is the commiffion that
iffues from the lord chancellor on a perfon’s becom¬
ing a bankrupt within any of the ftatutes, dire&ed
to certain commiffioners appointed to examine into it,
and to fecure the bankrupt’s lands and effe&s for the
fatisfa&ion of his creditors. See the article Bank¬
rupt.
The proceedings on a commiffion of bankruptcy
may be divided, 1. Into thofe which affeft the bank¬
rupt hirafelf. 2. Into thofe which affe6t his property.
mackfl 1. As to thofe of the former kind, there muft, in
Comment, the firft place, be a petition to the lord chancellor by
one creditor to the amount of look or by two to
the amount of 150I. or by three or more to the
amount of 200I. ; upon which he grants a commiffion
to fuch difcreet perfons as to him ffiall feem good, who
are then llyled eommiffioners of bankrupt. The pe¬
titioners, to prevent malicious applications, muft be
bound in a fecurity of 200I. to make the party
amends, in cafe they do not prove him a bankrupt.
And if, on the ether hand, they receive any money or
effects from the bankrupt, as a recompenfe for fuing
out the commiffion, fo as to receive more than their
rateable dividends of the bankrupt’s eftate, they forfeit
not only what they Ihall have fo received, but their
whole debt-. When the coromiffion is awarded and if-
fued, the commiffioners are to meet at their own ex¬
pence, and to take an oath for the due execution of
their commiffion, and to be allowed a fum not exceed¬
ing 20s. per diem each, at every fitting. And no com¬
miffion of bankruptcy ftiall abate or be void on any
demife on the crown.
When the commiffioners have received their com¬
miffion, they are firft to receive proof of the per¬
fon’s being a trader, and having committed fome a£t of
bankruptcy ; and then to declare him bankrupt, if pro¬
ved fo ; and to give notice thereof in the gazette, and
at the fame time to appoint three meetings. At one
of thefe meetings an eleftion muft be made of af-
fignees, or perfons to whom the bankrupt’s eftate {hall
be affigned, and in whom it {hall be veiled for the be¬
nefit of the creditors $ which affignees are chofen by
the major part, in value, of the creditors who {hall
then have proved their debts; but may be originally
appointed by the commiffioners, and afterwards ap¬
proved or rejefted by the creditors ; but no creditors
ffiall be admitted to vote in the choice of affignees,
whofe debt on the balance of accounts, does not
amount to 10I. And at the third meeting at fartheft,
which muft be on the 42ft day after the advertife-
ment in the gazette, the bankrupt, upon notice alfo
perfonally ferved upon him, or left at his ufual place
of abode, muft furrender himfelf perfonally to the
commiffioners, and muft henceforth in all refpefts
conform to the directions of the ftatutes of bankrupt¬
cy 5 or, in default thereof, {hall be guilty of felony
without benefit of clergy, and {hall fuffer death, and
his goods and eftate fliall be divided among his cre¬
ditors.
In cafe the bankrupt abfconds, or is likely to run
away between the time of the commiffion iffued and
the laft day of furrender, he may, by warrant from any
judge or juftice of the peace, be apprehended and com¬
mitted to the county gaol, in order to be forthcoming
to the commiffioners, who are alfo empowered im¬
mediately to grant a warrant for feizing his goods
and papers.
When the bankrupt appears, the commiffioners are
to examine him touching all matters relating to his
trade and effeCts. They may alfo fummon before them,,
and examine, the bankrupt’s wife, and any other per-
fon whatfoever, as to all matters relating to the bank¬
rupt’s affairs : And in cafe any of them {hall refufe to
anfwer, or {hall not anfwer fully, to any lawful queftion,
or {hall refufe to fubfcribe fuch their examination, the
commiffioners may commit them to prifon without bail,
till they make and fign a full anfwer j the commiffion¬
ers fpecifying in their warrant of commitment the quef¬
tion fo refufed to be anfvvered. And any gaoler, per¬
mitting fuch perfon to efcape or go out of prifon, fliall
forfeit 500I. to the creditors.
The bankrupt, upon this examination, is bound, up¬
on pain of death, to make a full difcovery of all his
eftate and effeCls, as well in expeftancy as pofftffion,
and how he has difpofed of the fame $ together with
all books and writings relating thereto : and is to de¬
liver up all in his power to the commiffioners (ex¬
cept the neceffary apparel of himfelf, his wife, and
his children); or in cafe he conceals or embezzles
any effeiffs to the amount of 20I. or withholds any
book or writings, with intent to defraud his cre¬
ditors, he fhall be guilty of felony without benefit of
clergy.
After the time allowed the bankrupt for fuch difeo-
very is expired, any other perfon voluntarily difcover-
ing any part of his eftate before unknown to the affig¬
nees, {hall be entitled to five per cent, out of the
effects fo difcovered, and fuch farther reward as the af¬
fignees and commiffioners {hall think proper. And
any truftee wilfully concealing the eftate of any bank¬
rupt, after the expiration of 42 days, {hall forfeit rool.
and double the value of the eftate concealed, to the
creditors;,.
Hitherto every thing is in favour of the creditors ;
and the law feems to be pretty rigid and fevere againft
the bankrupt ; but, in cafe he proves honeft, it makes
him full amends for all this rigour and feverity. For,
if the bankrupt hath made an ingenuous difeovery,
hath conformed to the directions of the law, and hath
acted in all points to the fatisfarfion of his creditors ;
and if they, or four parts in five of them in number
and value (but none of them creditors for -lefs than,
CommiG.
lion.
 ^ »
COM [ 326 1 COM
Commif- 2ol. will fign a certificate to that purport; the com¬
mon- miffioners are then to authenticate fuch certificate
v under their hands and feals, and to tranfmit it to the
lord chancellor: and he, or two judges whom he ftiall
appoint, on oath made by the bankrupt that luch certi¬
ficate was obtained without fraud, may allow the fame ;
or difallow it, upon caufe (hown by any of the creditors
of the bankrupt.
If no caufe be fhown to the contrary, the certi¬
ficate is allowed of courfe; and then the bankrupt is
entitled to a decent and reafonable allowance out of
his effedls for his future fupport and maintenance, and
to put him in a way of honelt induftry. This allow¬
ance is alfo in proportion to his former good beha¬
viour, in the early difcovery of the decline of his
affairs, and thereby giving his creditors a large di¬
vidend. For if his effe&s will not pay one half of his
debts, or 10s. in the pound, he is left to the dif-
cretion of the commiffioners and affignees, to have a
competent fum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per cent. ;
but if they pay 10s. in the pound, he is to be allowed
5 per cent ; if 12s. 6d. then per cent.; and if 15s.
in the pound, then the bankrupts fliall be allowed 10
per cent; provided that fuch allowance do not in the
firft cafe exceed 200I. in the fecond 250I. and in the
third 300I.
Befides this allowance, he has alfo an indemnity
granted him, of being free and difcharged for ever
from all debts owing by him at the time he became a
bankrupt; even though judgment ftiall have been ob¬
tained againft him, and he lies in prifon upon execution
for fuch debts j and, for that among other purpofes,
all proceedings on commiffion of bankrupt, are, on pe¬
tition, to be entered on record, as a perpetual bar
againft aftions to be commenced upon this account:
though, in general, the produttion of the certificate
properly allowed fhall be fufficient evidence of all pre¬
vious proceedings. Thus the bankrupt becomes a
clear man again ; and by the affiftance of his allow¬
ance and his own induftry, may become an ufeful mem¬
ber of the commonwealth ; which is the rather to be
expefted, as he cannot be entitled to thefe benefits,
but by the teftimony of his creditors themfelves of his
honeft and ingenuous difpofition $ and unlefs his failures
have been owing to misfortunes, rather than to mifcon-
duft and extravagance.
2. As to the proceedings which affedl the bankrupt’s
property.
By virtue of the ftatutes before mentioned, all the
perfonal eftate and effetts of the bankrupt are confi-
dered as veiled, by the a£f of bankruptcy, in the fu¬
ture aflignees of bis commiflioners, whether they be
goods in a&ual poffeffion, or debts, contrafls, and other
chofes in a&ion ; and the commilfioners by their war¬
rant may caufe any houfe or tenement of the bankrupt
to be broken open, in order to enter upon and feize the
fame. And when the afiignees are chofen or approved
by the creditors, the commiflioners are to aflign every
thing over to them j and the property of every part of
the eftate is hereby as fully veiled in them as it was
in the bankrupt himfelf, and they have the fame re¬
medies to recover it.
The property veiled in the aflignees is the whole
that the bankrupt had in himfelf, at the time he com¬
mitted the firft a£l of bankruptcy, or that has been
veiled in him fince, before his debts are fatisfied or Ccmm;f
agreed for. Therefore, it is ufually faid that once a {lon '
bankrupt and always a bankrupt y by which is meant, >i—'-y^*
that a plain diredt a£l of bankruptcy once committed,
cannot be purged, or explained away, by any fubfe-
quent conduct, as a dubious equivocal aft may be $ but
that, if a commilfion is afterward awarded, the com-
miflion and the property of the aflignees lhall have a
relation, or reference, back to the firft and original aft:
of bankruptcy. Infomuch that all tranfaftions of the
bankrupt are from that time abfolutely null and void,
either with regard to the alienation of his property, or
the receipt of his debts from fuch as are privy to his
bankruptcy 5 for they are no longer his property, or
his debts, but thofe of the future aflignees. And if an
execution be fued out, but not ferved and executed
on the bankrupt’s effefts till after the aft of bank¬
ruptcy, it is void, as againft the aflignees. But the
king is not bound by this fiftitious relation, nor is
within the ftatutes of bankrupts; for if, after the aft
of bankruptcy committed, and before the aflignment
of his effefts, an extent iffues for the debt of the
crown, the goods are bound thereby. In France this
doftrine of relation is carried to a very great length ;
for there, every aft of a merchant, for ten days prece¬
dent to the aft of bankruptcy, is prefumed to be frau¬
dulent, and is therefore void. But with us the law
Hands upon a more reafonable footing j for as thefe
afts of bankruptcy may fometimes be fecret to all but
a few, and it would be prejudicial to trade to carry
this notion to its utmoft length, it is provided by flat.
19 Geo. II. c. 32. that no money paid by a bankrupt
to a bona fide, or real creditor, in a courfe of trade,
even after an aft of bankruptcy done, fliall be liable
to be refunded. Nor by flat. 1 Jac. I. c. 15. {hall any
debtor of a bankrupt that pays him his debt without
knowing of his bankruptcy, be liable to account for it
again. The intention of this relative power being
only to reach fraudulent tranfaftions, and not to diftrefs
the fair trader.
The aflignees may purfue any legal method of re¬
covering this property fo veiled in them by their own
authority j but cannot commence a fuit in equity, nor
compound any debts owing to the bankrupt, nor refer
any matters to arbitration, without the confent of the
creditors, or the major part of them in value, at a
meeting to be held in purfuance of notice in the ga¬
zette.
When they have got in all the effefts they can rea-
fonably hope for, and reduced them to ready money,
the aflignees mull, within 12 months after the com-
miflion iffued, give 21 days notice to the creditors, of
a meeting for a dividend or diftribution j at which
time they muft produce their accounts, and verify
them upon oath, if required. And then the commif¬
fioners {hall direft a dividend to be made, at fo much
in the pound, to all creditors who have before proved,
or ftiall then prove their debts. This dividend muft
be made equally, and in a rateable proportion, to all
the creditors, according to the quantity of their debts ;
no regard being paid to the quality of them. Mort¬
gages, indeed, for which the creditor has a real fecu-
rity in his own hands, are entirely fafe 5 for the com-
miflion of bankrupt reaches only the equity of re¬
demption. So are all perfonal debts, where the cre¬
ditor
COM [ 327 J COM
ditor has a chattel in his hands, or a pledge or pawn,
for the payment, or has taken the debtor’s lands or
goods in execution. And, upon the equity of the
Hat. 8 An. c. 14. (which direfts, that upon all execu¬
tions of goods being on any premifes demifed to a te¬
nant, one year’s rent and no more, (hall, if due, be
paid to the landlord) it hath alfo been held, that under
a commiflion of bankrupt, which is in the nature of a
ftatute execution, the landlord (hall be allowed his ar¬
rears of rent to the fame amount, in preference to o-
ther creditors, even though he hath neglefted to dif-
train while the goods remained on the premifes j
which he is otherwife entitled to do for his entire
rent, be the quantum what it may. But etherwife
judgments and recognizes (both which are debts
of record, and therefore at other times have a pri¬
ority), and alfo bonds and obligations by deed or fpe-
cial inftrument (which are called deeds by fpeciality,
and are ufually the next in order), thefe are all put on
a level with debts by mere fimple contraft, and all
paid paripaffu. Nay, fo far is this matter carried,
that, by the exprefs provifion of the ftatutes, debts
not due at the time of the dividend made, as bonds
or notes of hand, payable at a future day, lhall be
paid equally with the reft, allowing a difcount or
drawback in proportion.' And infurances, and obli¬
gations upon bottomry or refpondentia, bona jide,
made by the bankrupt, though forfeited after the
commiflion is awarded, fhall be looked upon in the
fame light as debts contra&ed before any a£l of bank¬
ruptcy.
Within 18 months after the commiflion iffued, a
fecond and final dividend (hall be made, unlefs all the
effe£ts were exhaufted by the firft. And if any furplus
remains, after paying every creditor his full debt, it
fhall be reftored to the bankrupt. This is a cafe
which fometimes happens to men in trade, who invo¬
luntarily, or at leaft unwarily, commit a£ts of bank¬
ruptcy, by abfconding and the like, while their effedts
are more than fufficient to pay their creditors. And
if any fufpicious or malevolent creditor will take the
advantage of fuch a£ts, and fue out a commiflion, the
bankrupt has no remedy, but muft quietly fubmit to
the effe£ts of his own imprudence : except that upon
fatisfadtion made to all the creditors, the commiflion
may be fuperfeded. This cafe may alfo happen when
a knave is defirous of defrauding his creditors, and is
compelled, by a commiflion, to do them that juftice
which otherwife he wanted to evade. And there¬
fore, though the ufual rule is, that all intereft on debts
carrying intereft fhall ceafe from the time of iffuing
the commiflion, yet in cafe of a furplus left after pay¬
ment of every debt, fuch intereft; fhall again revive,
and be chargeable on the bankrupt or his reprefenta-
tives.
CommiJJion of L.UNACT, ifiues out of the court of
chancery, whether a perfon reprefented to be a luna¬
tic, be fo or not. See Lunacy.
Commission of Teinds, a court at Edinburgh,
which came in place of a committee of the Scottifh
parliament, for erefting new parifhes, and valuing
teinds for the fupport of the clergy. It is veiled in the
lords of feflion. See Law Index.
COMMISSION-qfficers. See OFFICERS.
Commission, in Commerce. See Factorage.
COMMISSIONER, a perfon authorized by com¬
miflion, letters patent, or other lawful warrant, to
examine any matters, or execute any lawful commif-
fion.
COMAlls SI ONE R in the General Ajfembly of the
church of Scotland. See Assembly (General).
Commissioners of the Cujloms. See Customs.
Commissioners of Excife. See Excise.
Commissioners of the Navy. See Navy.
Lords Commissioners of the Treafury. See Trea¬
sury and Exchequer.
COMMISSURE, a term ufed by fome authors
for the fmall metufes or interftices of bodies j or the
little clefts between the particles : efpecially when
thofe particles are broadifli and flat, and lie contigu¬
ous to one another, like thin plates and lamellae. The
word literally fignifies a joining or connedling of one
thing to another.
Commissure, in ArchiteBure, &c. denotes the joint
of two ftones, or the application of the furface of the
one to that of the other. See Masonry.
Among anatomifts, commiffure is fometimes alfo ufed
for a future of the cranium or fkull. See Suture.
COMMITMENT, in criminal law, is the fending
to prifon a perfon who hath been guilty of any crime.
This takes place where the offence is not bailable, or
the party cannot find BAIL; muft; be by proper war¬
rant, containing the caufe of the commitment 5 and
continues till put an end to by the courfe of law
(fee Trial) j imprifonment being intended only for
fafe cuftody, and not for punilhment (fee Arrest¬
ment and Bail). In this dubious interval between
the commitment and trial, a prifoner ought to be ufed
with the utmofl: humanity $ and neither be loaded
with needlefs fetters, nor fubjefled to other hardlhips
than fuch as are abfolutely requifite for the purpofe of
confinement only : though what are fo requifite muft:
too often be left to the direction of the gaolers, who
are frequently a mercilefs race of men, and by being
converfant in fcenes of mifery, Heeled againft any ten¬
der fenfation.
COMMITTEE, 'one or more perfons to whom the
confideration or ordering of a matter is referred, either
by fome court, or by the confent of parties to whom it
belongs.
COMMITTEE of Parliament, a certain number of
members appointed by the houfe for the examination
of a bill, making a report of an inquiry, procefs of the
houfe, &c. See Parliament.
Sometimes the whole houfe is refolved into a com¬
mittee 5 on which occafion each perfon has a right to
fpeak and reply as much and as often as he pleafes : an
expedient they ufually have recourfe to in extraordinary
cafes, and where any thing is to be thoroughly can-
vaffed. When the houfe is not in a committee, each
gives his opinion regularly, and is only allowed to fpeak
once, unlefs to explain himfelf.
The Handing committees, appointed by every new
parliament, are thofe of privileges and eledtions, of
religion, of grievances, of courts of juftice, and of trade j
though only the former adl.
COMMIXTION, in Scots Law, is a method of ac¬
quiring property, by mixing or blending together dif¬
ferent fubftances belonging to different proprietors.
See Law Index.
COMMODATE,
Commif-
fioner
n.
Coramix-
tion.
COM [ 328 ] COM
Commo- COMMODATE, CoMMODATUM, in the civil ju-
diite rifprudence, the loan or free conceflion of any thing
^ ^11 moveable or immoveable, for a certain time, on con-
1 dition of reftoring again the fame individual after a
certain term. The commodate is a kind of loan j
there is this difference, however, between a loan and
a commodate, that the latter is gratis, and does not
transfer the property : the thing muft be returned in
effence, and without impairment; fo that things which
ccnfume by ufe or time cannot be objects of a com¬
modate, but of a loan ; in regard they may be return¬
ed in kind, though not in identity. See Law In¬
dex.
COMMODIANUS, Gazeus, a Chriftian author
in the 4th century, who wrote a work in Latin verfe,
entitled Inftruftions j the moral of which is excellent,
but the verfe extremely heavy. M. Davies publifhed
a fine edition of it in 1711, at the end of Minucius
. Felix.
COMMODITY, in a general fenfe, denotes all
forts of wares and merchandifes whatfoever that a per-
fon deals or trades in.
Staple COMMODITIES, fuch wares and merchandifes
as are commonly and readily fold in a market, or ex¬
ported abroad ; being for the moft part the proper pro¬
duce or manufa6ture of the country.
COMMODORE, a general officer in the Britifh
marine, invefted with the command of a detachment
of ffiips of war, deftined on any particular enterprife,
during which time he bears the rank of brigadier-
general in the army, and is diftinguifhed from the in¬
ferior ffiips of his fquadron by a broad red pendant
tapering towards the outer end, and fometimes fork¬
ed. The word is corrupted from the Spaniffi comen-
dador.
Commodore is alfo a name given to fome fele& ffiip
in a fleet of merchantmen, who leads the van in time
of war, and carries a light in his top to conduct the reft
and keep them together. He is always the oldeft cap¬
tain in the fleet which he commands.
COMMODUS, L. Aurelius Antoninus, fon of
M. Antoninus, fucceeded his father in the Roman
empire. He was naturally cruel and fond of indul¬
ging his licentious propenfities. He wiffied to be call¬
ed Hercules •, and, like that hero, he adorned his
ffioulders with a lion’s fkin, and armed his hand with
a knotted club. He publicly fought with the gladi¬
ators, and boafled of his dexterity in killing the wild
beafts in the amphitheatre. He required divine ho¬
nours from the fenate, and they were granted. He
v/as wont to put fuch an immenfe quantity of gold
duft in his hair, that when he appeared bareheaded in
the funfhine his head glittered as if furrounded with
fun-beams. Martia, one of his concubines, whofe
death he had prepared, poifoned him: but as the poi-
fon did not quickly operate, he was strangled by a
wreftler. He died in the 31ft year of his age, and
the 13th of his reign. It has been obferved, that he
never trufted himfelf to a barber $ but always burnt
fcis beard, in imitation of the tyrant Dionyfius. .A. D.
J92.
COMMON* Communis, fomething that belongs to
all alike j is owned or allowed by all; and not confined Common
to this more than that. In this fenfe, common ftands—y—.
oppofed to proper, peculiar, &c. Thus, the earth is
faid to be our common mother $ in the firft or golden
age all things were in common, as well as the fun and
elements : the name animal is common to man and
bead •, that of fubftance to body and fpirit.
Common, Communia, (i. e. quod ad omnej pert met),
in law, fignifies that foil, the ufe whereof is common to
a particular town or lordffiip 5 or it is a profit that a
man hath in the land of another perfon, ufually in
common with others ; or a right which a perfon hath to
put his cattle to pafture into ground that is not his
own. And there is not only common of pafture, but
alfo common of pifeary, common of eftovers,'common
of turbary, &c. And in all cafes of common, the law
much refpe&s the cuftom of the place 5 for there
the rule is, confuetudo loci ejl obfervanda. See CoM-
MONTY.
Common Council. See Council.
COMMON Law, that body of law received as rules
in parliament to alter the fame. See Law, Part II.
N° 36.
COMMON-Place Book, is a regifter of what things
occur, worthy to be noted, in the courfe of a man’s
thinking or ftudy, fo difpofed as that among a num¬
ber of fubjedts any one may be eafily found. The ad¬
vantages of making a common-place book are many :
it not only makes a man read with accuracy and at¬
tention, but induces him infenfibly to think for hira-
felf, provided he confiders it not fo much as a regifter
of fentiments that ftrike him in the courfe of reading,
but as a regifter of his own thoughts upon various fub-
jedls. Many valuable thoughts occur even to men of
no extraordinary genius. Thefe, without the affift-
ance of a common-place book, are generally loft
both to himfelf and others. There are various me¬
thods of arranging common-place books j that of Mr
Locke is as good as any that have hitherto been con¬
trived.
The firft page of the book you intend to take down
their common-place in, is to ferve as a kind of index
to the whole, and to contain references to everj place
or matter therein : in the commodious contrivance of
which index, fo as it may admit of a fufficient cqpia or
variety of materials, without any confufion, all the fe-
cret of the method confifts.
In order to this, the firft page, as already mentioned,
or for more room, the tv^o firft pages that front each
other, are to be divided by parallel lines into 25 equal
parts $ whereof every fifth line is to be diftinguiffied
by its colour or other circumftance. Thefe lines are to
be cut perpendicularly by others, drawn from top to
bottom : and in the fevcral fpaces thereof the feveral
letters of the alphabet, both capital and minufcle, are
to be duly written.
The form of the lines and divifions, both horizontal
and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the let¬
ters therein, will.be conceived from the following fpe-
cimenwherein, what is to be done in the book for all
the letters of the alphabet, is here ftiown in the firft
four, A, B, C, and D.
Common.
COM [ 329 ] COM
Common,
Common*
The index to the common-place book thus formed,
matters are ready for the taking down any thing there¬
in.
In order to this, confider to what head the thing
you would enter is moft naturally referred ; and un¬
der which one would be led to look for fuch a thing $
in this head, or word, regard is had to the initial let¬
ter, and the firft vowel that follows it; which are the
charafteriltic letters whereon all the ufe of the index
depends.
Suppofe (e. gr.) I would enter down a paflage that
refers to the head beauty. B, I confider, is the initial
letter, and e the firft vowel : then looking upon the
index for the partition B, and therein the line e
(which is the place for all words whofe firft letter is b,
and the firft vowel e; as beauty, beneficence^ bread, breed¬
ing, blemifihesfi and finding no numbers already down
to direfl me to any page of the book where words of
this charafteriftic have been entered, I turn forward
to the firft blank page I find (which, in a frefti book,
as this is fuppofed to be, will be page 2d), and here
write what I have occafion for on the head beauty;
beginning the head in the margin, and indenting all
the other fubfervient lines, that the head may Hand
out, and (how itfelf j this done, I enter the page where
it is written, viz. 2. in the index in the fpace Be; from
which time the clafs be becomes wholly in polTeffion
of the 2d and 3d pages, which are configned to letters
of this charaifteriftic.^
Had I found any page or number already entered
in the fpace B e, l muft have turned to the page, and
have written my matter in what room was left therein :
fo, if after entering the paffage on beauty, I Ihould
have occafion for benevolence, or the like, finding the
number 2 already poffeffed of the fpace of this cba-
rafteriftic, I begin the paffage on benevolence in the
remainder of the page; which not containing the whole,
I carry it on to page 3d, which is alfo for be; and add
the number 3 in the index.
Common Pleas is one of the king’s courts now held
conftantly in Weftminfter-hall, but in former times was
moveable.
All civil caufos, as well real as perfonal, are, or
were formerly, tried in this court, according to the
ftrift law of the land. In perfonal and mixed adlions
it has a concurrent jurifdi&ion with the king’s bench,
but has no cognizance of pleas of the crown. The
aftions belonging to the court of common-pleas come
thither by original, as arrefts and outlawries; or by
privilege, or attachment for or againft privileged per-
fons ; or out of inferior courts, not of record, by pone,
Vol. VI. Part I.
recordari, accedas ad curiam, writ of falfe judgment,
&c. The chief judge of this court is called lord chief
jufiice of the common pleas, who is affilted by three other
judges. The other officers of the court are the cufios
brevium, who is the chief clerk ; three prothonotaries,
and their fecondaries ; the clerk of the warrants, clerk,
of the effoins, 14 filazers, 4 exigentors, a clerk of the
juries, the chirographer, the clerk of the king’s filver,
clerk of the treafury, clerk of the feal, clerk of the
outlawries, clerk of the inrolment of fines and recove¬
ries, and clerk of the errors.
COMMON Prayer is the liturgy in the church of Eng¬
land: (See Liturgy.) Clergymen are to ufe the public
form of prayers prefcribed by the Book of Common
Prayer : and refufing to do fo, or ufing any other pub¬
lic prayers, are puniffiable by ftat. 1 Eliz. c. ii.
Common, in Grammar, denotes the gender of nouns
which are equally applicable to both fexes ; thus parens,
“ a parent,” is of the common gender.
Common, in Geometry, is applied to an angle, line,
or the like, which belongs equally to two figures.
COMMON Divifor, a quantity or number which ex-
a£lly divides two or more other quantities or numbers,
without leaving any remainder.
COMMONALTY, the lower of the two divifions
of the civil ftate. See ClVlL State.
The commonalty, like the nobility, are divided into
feveral degrees : and as the lords, though different in
rank, yet all of them are peers in refpedt of their nobi¬
lity : fo the commoners, though fome are greatly fu-
perior to others, yet all are in law commonalty, in re-
fpeit of their want of nobility.
1. The firft name of dignity next beneath a peer was
anciently that of vidatnes, vice-domini, or valvafors;
who are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as viri
magmc dignitatis ; and Sir Edward Coke fpeaks highly
of them. Yet they are now quite out of ufe ; and our
legal antiquarians are not agreed upon even their ori¬
ginal or ancient office.
2. Now, therefore, the firft perfonal dignity after the
nobility is a knight of the order of St George or of the
Garter, firft inftituted by Edw. III. A. D. 1344.
3. Next (but not till after certain official dignities,
as privy-counfellors, the chancellors of the exchequer
and duchy of Lancafter, the chief juftice of the king’s
bench, the matter of the rolls, and the other Engliffi
judges), follows a knight banneret; who indeed, by
ftatutes 5 Richard II. flat. 2. c. 4. and 14 Richard II.
c. 11. is ranked next after barons; and his precedence
before the younger fons of vifcounts was confirmed to
him by order of King James I. in the tenth year of his
T t rt'jgn"
Common¬
alty.
COM [ 330 ] COM
reign. But in order to entitle him to this rank, he
mud have been created by the king in perfon, in the
field, under the royal banners, in time of open war ;
elfe he ranks after,
4. Baronets ; who are the next in order : which is
a dignity of inheritance, created by letters patent,
and ufually defcendible to the iflue-male. See Baro-
METS.
5. Next follow knights of the Bath. See Bath.
6. The laft of thefe inferior nobility are knights ba¬
chelors ; the mod. ancient, though the lowed, order of
knighthood amongd us. See Bachelor.
7. The above, with thofe enumerated under the ar¬
ticle Nobility, Sir Edward Coke fays, are all the
names of dignity in this kingdom *, efquires and gentle¬
men being only names of worfhip. But before thtfe
lad the heralds rank all colonels, fergeants at law, and
do&ors in the three learned profefiions.
8. Efquires and gentlemen are confounded together
by Sir Edward Coke : who obferves, that every ef-
quire is a gentleman, and a gentleman is defined to
be one qui arma gerit, “ who bears coat-armour j” the
grant of which adds gentility to a man’s family : in
like manner as civil nobility among the Romans was
founded in the jus imaginum, or having the image of
one ancedor at lead who had borne fome curule of¬
fice. It is indeed a matter fomewhat unfettled what
conditutes the didinftion, or who is a real efquire j
for it is not an edate, however large, that confers this
rank upon its owner. Camden, who was himfelf a
herald, didinguiflies them the mod accurately 5 and he
reckons up four forts of them : id, The elded fons of
knights, and their elded fons in perpetual fucceffion.
2dly, The elded fons of younger fons of peers, and
their elded fons, in like perpetual fuccedion : both
which fpecies of efquires Sir Henry Spelman entitles
armigeri natalitii. 3dly, Efquires created by the king’s
letters patent, or rather invediture 5 and their elded
fons. qthly, Efquires by virtue of their office : as
judices of the peace and others who bear any office
of trud under the crown. To thefe may be added the
efquires of the knights of the Bath, each of whom con¬
ditutes three at his indallation j and all foreign, nay,
Iridi peers ; for not only thefe, but the elded fons of
peers of Great Britain, though frequently titular lords,
are only efquires in the law, and mud be fo named in
all legal proceedings.
9. As for gentlemen, fays Sir Thomas Smith, they
be made good cheap in this kingdom ; for whofoever
dudieth the laws of the realm, who dudieth in the
univerfities, who profeffeth liberal fciences, and (to be
ffiort) who can live idly and without manual labour,
and will bear the part, charge, and countenance of a
gentleman, he diall be called mader, and ffiall be taken
for a gentleman.
10. A yeoman is he that hath free land of 40s. by
the year-, who is thereby qualified to ferve on juries,
vote for knights of the (hire, and do any other aft
where the law requires one that is probus et legaiis
homo.
11. The red of the commonalty are tradefmen,
artificers, and labourers; who (as well as all others)
mud, in purfuance of the datute 1 Henry V. c. 5.
be dyled by the name and addition of their edate,
degree, or mydery, m all aftions and other legal pro- Conimon.
ceedings. alty
COMMONER, or Gentleman-Commoner, in il
the univerfities, a dudent entered in a certain rank. Commons.
COMMONS, or House of Commons, a denomi-^
nation given to the lower houfe of parliament. See
Parliament.
The commons confid of all fuch men of any pro¬
perty in the kingdom as have not feats in the houfe
of lords, every one of whom has a voice in par¬
liament, either perfonally or by his reprefentatives.
In a free date, every man who is fuppofed a free
agent, ought to be in fome meafure his own gover¬
nor : and therefore a branch at lead of the legifla-
tive power ffiould refide in the whole body of the
people. And this power, when the territories of the
date are fmall and its citizens eafily known, ffiould be
exercifed by the people in their aggregate or collec¬
tive capacity, as was wifely ordained in the petty re¬
publics of Greece, and the fird rudiments of the Ro¬
man date. But this will be highly inconvenient when
the public territory is extended to any confiderable
degree, and the number of citizens is increafed. Thus
when, after the Social war, all the burghers of Italy
were admitted free citizens of Rome, and each had a
vote in the public alfemblies, it became impoffible to
didinguiffi the fpurious from the real voter, and from
that time all eleftions and popular deliberations grew
tumultuous and diforderly ; ivhich paved the way for
Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Caefar, to trample on
the liberties of their country, and at lad to diffolve
the commonwealth. In fo large a date as curs, there¬
fore, it is very wifely contrived, that the people diould
do that by their reprefentatives which it is imprac¬
ticable to perform in perfon : reprefentatives chofen
by a number of minute and feparate didrifts, where¬
in all the voters are or may be eafily didinguiffied.
The counties are therefore reprefented by knights,
elefted by the proprietors of lands ; and cities and bo¬
roughs are reprefented by citizens and burgeffes cho¬
fen by the mercantile or fuppofed trading intered of
the nation j much in the fame manner as the burghers
in the diet of Sweden are chofen by the corporate
towns, Stockholm fending four, as London does with
us, other cities two, and fome only one. The num¬
ber of Englidi reprefentatives is 513, of Scots 45, of
Iriffi 100in all 6585 and every member, though
chofen by one particular didrift, wffien elefted and re¬
turned, ferves for the whole realm j for the end of his
coming thither is not particular, but general ; not
barely to advantage his eondituents, but the common-
wealth to advife his majedy, as appears from the writ
of fummons, “ de communi ccnfilio fuper negotiis qui-
bufdam arduis et urgentibus, regem, datum, et defen-
fionem regni Anglise et ecclefiae Anglican® concer-
nentibus.” And therefore he is not bound, like a de¬
puty in the United Provinces, to confult with, or
take the advice of, his condituents upon any particu¬
lar point, unlefs he himfelf thinks it proper or prudent
fo to do.
The peculiar laws and cudoms of the houfe of com¬
mons relate principally to the raifing of taxes, and the
eleftions of members to ferve in parliament. See
Taxes and Elections.
D offers
COM [ 33i ] CO M
Commons Dottors COMMONS. See COLLEGE of Civilians.
1! ProBor of the COMMONS. See PROCTOR.
Commu- COMMONTY, in Scots Law, fometimes fignifies
Illon' lands belonging to two or more common proprie¬
tors } fometimes a heath or muir, though it fliould be¬
long in properly to one, if there has been a promifeu-
ous poffeffion upon it by pafturage ; and the aft 1695
mentions commonties belonging in property to the
king and to royal boroughs. See Law Index.
COMMONWEALTH. See Republic.
COMMOTE, an ancient term in Wales, denoting
half a cantred, or hundred : containing 50 villages. See
Hundred. Wales was anciently divided into three
provinces ; each of thefe fubdivided into cantreds, and
every cantred into two commotes or hundreds. Sil-
vefter Girald, however, tells us in his Itinerary, that a
commote is but a quarter of a hundred.
COMMUNIS, in Botanij, the name of a clafs in
Linnaeus’s Meihodus Cahjcina, confifting of two plants
which, like teazel and dandelion, have a calyx or
flower-cup common to many flowers or florets. Thefe
are the aggregate or compound flowers of other fy-
flems.
COMMUNIBUS LOCIS, a Latin term, in frequent
ufe among philofophical, &c. writers *, implying fome
medium or mean relation, between feveral places. Dr
Keil fuppofes the ocean to be one quarter of a mile
deep, communibus locis, q. d. at a medium, or taking
one place with another.
COMMUNIBUS /dnnis, has the fame import with re¬
gard to years that communibus locis has with regard to
places. Mr Derham obferves that the depth of rain,
communibus annis, or one year with another, were it to
ftagnate on the earth, would amount in Townley in
Lancalhire, to 424 inches ; at Upminfter in Effex, to
19^; at Zurich, 32^; at Pifa, 43^: and at Paris to
19 inches.
COMMUNICATING, in Theology, the att of re¬
ceiving the facrament of the eucharift. Thofe of the
reformed, and of the Greek church, communicate under
both kinds ; thofe of the Romifli, under only one. The
oriental communicants receive the fpecies of wine by a
fpoon, and anciently they fucked it through a pipe, as
has been obferved by Beat. Rheanus on Tertullian.
COMMUNICATION, in a general fenfe, the a<R
of imparting fomething to another.
Communication, is alfo ufed for the connexion of
one thing with another, or the paflage from one place
to another ; thus a gallery is a communication between
two apartments.
Communication of motion, the aft whereby a
body at reft is put into motion by a moving body ; or,
it is the acceleration of motion in a body already
moving.
Lines of COMMUNICATION, in military matters,
trenches made to continue and preferve a fafe corre-
fpondence between two forts or polls ; or at a fiege
between two approaches, that they may relieve one
another.
Canal of Communication. See Canal.
COMMUNION, in matters of religion, the being
united in doftrine and difcipline ; in which fenfe of
the word, different churches are faid to hold commu¬
nion with each other.
In the primitive Chriftian churfch, every biftiop was Commu-
obliged, after his ordination, to fend circular letters oion.
to foreign churches, to fignify that he was in commu- v "
nion with them. The three grand communions into
which the Chriftian church is at prefent divided, is
that of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and
the Proteftant church : but originally all Chriftians
•were in communion with each other, having one com¬
mon faith and difcipline.
Communion is alfo ufed for the aft of communi¬
cating the facrament of the eucharift, or the Lord’s
fupper.
The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every
believer ftiall receive the communion, at leaft at Eafter ;
which feems to import a tacit defire, that they Ihould
do it oftener ; as, in effeft, they did it much oftener
in the primitive days. Gratian, and the mailer of the
fentences, prefcribe it as a rule for the laity, to com¬
municate three times a-year, at Eafter, Whitfuntide,
and Chriftmas. But in the 13th century, the praftice
was adopted, never to approach the eucharift, ex¬
cept at Eafter ; and the council thought fit to enjoin
it then by a law, left their coldnefs and remiffnefs
Ihould go farther Hill. And the council of Trent re¬
newed the fame injunftion, and recommended frequent
communion without enforcing it by an exprefs decree.
In the ninth century the communion was ftill re¬
ceived by the laity in both kinds ; or, rather the fpe¬
cies of bread was dipped in the wine, as is owned by
the Romanifts themfelves. (Afta SS Benedift. Sasc.
III). M. de Marca obferves, that they received it at
firft in their hands, Hift. de Bearn, and believes the
communion under one kind alone to have had its rife in
the Weft under Pope Urban II. in 1096, at the time
of the conqueft of the Holy Land. And it was more
folemnly enjoined by the council of Conftance in 1414.
The twenty-eighth canon of the council of Clermont
enjoins the communion to be received under both
kinds, diftinftly ; adding, however, two exceptions;
the one of necelfity, the other of caution, ni[i per necef-
fitatem et cautelam; the firft in favour of the lick, the
fecond of the abftemious, or thofe who had an averlion
for wine.
It was formerly a kind of canonical punifhment, for
clerks guilty of any crime, to be reduced to lay commu¬
nion, i. e. only to receive it as the laity did, viz. under
one kind.
They had another punilhment of the fame nature,
though under a different name, called foreign commu¬
nion ; to which the canons frequently condemned their
bifhops and other clerks. This punilhment was not
any excommunication, or depofition ; but a kind of
fufpenfion from the funftion of the order, and a de¬
gradation from the rank they held in the church.
It had its name becaufe the communion was only
granted to the criminal on the foot of a foreign clerk,
i. e. being reduced to the loweft of his order, he took
place after all thofe of his rank, as all clerks, &e. did
in the churches to which they did not belong. The
fecond council of Agda orders every clerk that abfents
himfelf from the church to be reduced to foreign com¬
munion.
COMMUNION Service, in the liturgy of the church
of England, the office for the adminiftration of the holy
T t 2 facrament,
COM [332] COM
Ommunion Sacrament, ex traded from feveral ancient liturgies, as
jj thofe of St Bafil, St Ainbrofe, &c.
^CompaA. J^v ja^ ru(3nCj part of this fervice is appointed
v "' to be read every Sunday and holiday, after the morn¬
ing prayer, even though there be no communicants.
COMMUNITY, denotes a fociety of men living in
the lame place, under the fame laws, the fame regula¬
tions. and the fame cuftoms.
COMMUTATION, in Law, the change of a pe¬
nalty or punilhment from a greater to a lefs j as when
death is commuted for banilhment, &c.
COMNENA, Ann, daughter of Alexius Comne-
nus emperor of the Eaft 5 memorable for her great
learning and virtue, and for her hiftory of the life and
adions of her father, which is highly efteemed. She
flourilhed about the year 1117. The hiftory, which
is in 15 books, w;as firft publilhed very imperfedly by
Hefchelius in 1610; and afterwards printed in the col¬
lodion of the Byzantine hiftorians, with a diffufe and
incorred Latin verfion by the Jefuit Poflimus, but
with excellent notes by the learned Du Frefne.
COMO, a ftrong and populous town of Italy, in the
duchy of Milan, and in the Comafco, with a bithop’s
fee. It was taken by the Imperialifts in 1706, and is
feated on a lake of the fame name, in E. Long. 8- J7-
N. Lat. 45. 45.
Como, the lake fo called, is the largeft in Italy. It
is fituated in the duchy of Milan, in the Comafco, on
the confines of Switzerland and the Grifons. It is 88
miles in circumference, yet is not above 6 miles over
in any part.
COMORA iftands lie between the north end of the
ifland of Madagafcar and the coaft of Zanguebar,
from 10 to 15 degrees fouth latitude. Authors differ
greatly with regard to their number, fome fpeaking
of three, others of five, and fome of eight of thefe
iftands. They all abound in horned cattle,fheep, hogs,
and a variety of fruits common in warm countries.
They are faid alfo to produce a kind of rice which
turns of a violet colour when boiled. The moft re¬
markable of them, and which the Europeans are beft
acquainted with, is the ifland of Johanna. See that
article.
COMORIN, or Cape Comorin, the moft fouth-
erly promontory of the Hither India, lying north weft
of the ifland of Ceylon.
COMORRA, a handfome and large town of Lower
Hungary, and capital of a territory of the fame
name. It is fo well fortified, that the Turks could
never take it. The greateft part of the inhabitants
are Hungarians or Ruflians, who are very rich, and
are of the Greek religion. It is feated on the river
Danube, in the ifland of Silbut. E. Long. 18. 5.
N. Lat. 47. 46.
COMOS/E, in Botany, from Coma; an order of
plants in the former edition of Linnaeus’s Fragments
of a Natural Method, confifting of the fpiked willow
or fpiraea frutex, dropwort, and greater meadow'-
fweet. Thefe, though formerly diftinfb genera, are
by Linnaeus collefted into one, under the name of fpi-
rcea. The flowers growing in a head refemble a bulb,
or tuft of hair, which probably gave rife to the epithet
Como fie
COMPACT, in Philofophy, is faid of bodies which
are of a clofe, denfe, and heavy texture, with few Compact
pores, and thofe very Imall. Companion
Compact, in a legal fenfe, fignifies an agreement or “—-
contract ftipulated between feveral parties.
COMPANION, one with whom a man frequently
converfes.
As the human mind cannot always be on the
ftretch, nor the hand always employed in labour, re¬
creation becomes both agreeable and neceffary. Of
all recreations, that of the company of a few chofen
companions muft be allowed to be the moft manly and
moft improving : but as in thofe hours of recreation
we are moft in danger of being mifled, being general¬
ly at fueh feafons more off our guard than ufual, the
greateft care ftiould be taken in making choice of
whom to affociate with ; for according to our choice
of them, both our character and difpofition will re¬
ceive a tinflure, as waters palling through minerals
partake of their tafte and efficacy. This is a truth fo
univerfally received, that it is become a proverb both
in the natural and moral world, That a man is known
by h is company. As by chemiftry we learn, that dif-
cordant mixtures produce nothing but broil and fer¬
mentation till one of them gets the afcendency of the
reft *, fo from Scripture w’e learn, that two cannot walk
together except they be agreed. From which we
may fee, how impoffible it is for any one to be thought
a perfon of real goodnefs* and integrity, W'hilft he
choofes for his companions the abandoned and licen¬
tious.
By affociating with fuch, he will not only lofe his
charafter, but his virtue j for whatever fallacious di-
ftinftion he may be pleafed to make between the men
and their vices, in the end the firft generally qualifies
the laft j and by ceafing to hate them he willfoon learn
both to love and praftife them. In ffiort, the fociety
of fenfual men is peculiarly enfnaring. The malignity
of their contagion doth not appear all at once. Their
frolics firft appear harmlefsj then, when partaken of,
they leave a longing relifli behind them ; and one ap¬
pointment makes way for another, one expence leads
on to a fecond ; and fo time and fortune are wafted
away to very bad purpofe. The one appetite craves,
and another muft be gratified, till all become too im¬
portunate to be denied ; which verifies what the wifeft
of men long fince faid, “ That the beginning of fin is
like the breaking forth of waters, which when it once
makes an entrance, carries all before it with rufliing
impetuofity.” Some pangs of remorfe may be felt by
the infatuated creature on his firft degeneracy, and
fome faint refolutions againft being feduced any more j
which will no fooner be difcovered by thofe leaders to
deftrudlion, than all arts will be ufed to allure him
back to bear them company in the broad beaten path
to ruin. Of all which methods, none is more to be
dreaded than raillery ; for this is generally exercifed
with all its force, and too often proves fatal. Ano¬
ther method ufed to miflead the young novice not
yet hackneyed in vice, and no lefs dangerous than the
other, is to call evil good, and good evil. Luft and
fenfuality muft pafs for love and gallantry ; revenge
and malice, for heroifm. But fteadinefs ftiould be
ftiown, by holding fuch pefts of fociety in derifion, and
looking on them with contempt j by appearing unmo¬
ved
COM [:m] COM
Companion, ved by their ill-founded banters, and unftung by their
Company impious jefls.
'—“"V  Upon the whole, in order to efcape the danger
which attends the keeping of evil company, let thofe
you affociate with be perfons as carefully educated
and as honeftly difpofed as yourfelf; of a good moral
chara&er, not given to any known vice 5 whofe lives
are temperate, and whofe expences are moderate : with
fuch company as thefe, you will neither get difcredit,
nor degenerate into excefs. You will be a mutual
check to each other j and your reputation will be fo
eftablilhed, that it will be the ambition of others to be
admitted members of your fociety. Seledt thofe for
your companions who are men of good fenfe and un-
derftanding j and, if poffible, who excel in fome art,
fcience, or accomplilhment 5 that fo, in the courfe of
your acquaintance, your very hours of amufement may
contribute to your improvement ; and for the moft
part fuch are open and communicative, and take as
much pleafure in being heard as you to be informed.
By purfuing fuch a conduft, you will be an ornament
and ufeful member of fociety.
COMPANY, a colledlive term, underflood of feve-
ral perfons aflembled together in the fame place, or
with the fame defign. The word is formed of the
French compugnie, and that of companio, or companies,
which Chifflet obferves, are found in the Salic law,
tit. 66. and are proper military words, underftood of
foldiers, who, according to the modern phrafe, are
comrades or mefs mates, i. e. lodge together, eat toge¬
ther, &c. of the Latin cum, “ with,” andbread.”
It may be added, that in fome Greek authors under the
■weftern empire, the word y.\sp7cxvux, occurs in the fenfe
of fociety.
Company, in a familiar or fafhionable fenfe, is ufed
for an afLmblage of pe.rfons met for the purpofe of con-
verfation, paftime, or feftivity.
The love of company and of focial pleafures is na¬
tural, and attended with fome of the fweeteft fatisfac-
tions of human life ; but, like every other love, when
it proceeds beyond the bounds of moderation, it ceafes
to produce its natural effect, and terminates in difguft-
ful fatiety. The foundation-ftone and the pillar on
which we build the fabric of our felicity, mufl be laid
in our own hearts. Amufement, mirth, agreeable va¬
riety, and even improvement, may be fometimes fought
in the gaiety of mixed company, and in the ufual di-
verfions of the world •, but if we found our general hap-
pinefs on thefe, we (hall do little more than raife caftles
in the air, or build houfes on the fand.
To derive the proper pleafure and improvement from
company, it ought to be feleft, and to confift of per¬
fons of charafter, refpe61able both for their morals and
their underftandings. Mixed and undidinguiflied fo¬
ciety tends only to diffipate our ideas, and induce a
laxity of principles and pradlice. The pleafure it af¬
fords is of a eoarfe, mixed, noify, and rude kind. In¬
deed, it commonly ends in wearinefs and difguft, as
even they are ready to confefs who yet conftantly
purfue it, as if their chief good confided in living in a
crowd.
Among thefe, indeed, who are exempted by their
circumftances from profeffional and official employ¬
ments, and who profefTedly devote themfelves to a life
of pleafure, little elfe feems to conflitute the idea of it,
but an uncealing fucceffion of company, public or pri- Company,
vate. The drefs, and other circumdances preparatory -y—-*-
to the enjoyment of this pleafure, fcarcely leave a mo¬
ment for refledlion. Day after day is fpent in the fame
toilfome round, till a habit is formed, which renders
diffipation neceffary to exidence. One week without it
would probably induce a lownefs of fpirits, which might
terminate in defpair and fuicide. When the mind has
no anchor, it will differ a kind of ffiipwreck ; it will
fink in whirlpools, and be daffied on rocks. What, in¬
deed, is life or its enjoyments without fettled principles,
laudable purpofes, mental exertions, and internal com¬
fort ? It is merely a vapour, or, to drop the language
of figure on fo ferious a fubjeft, it is a date worfe than
non-entity, fince it poffeffes a redlefs power of a£lion,
productive of nothing but mifery.
It is recommended, therefore, to all who wiffi to
enjoy their exidence (and who entertains not that
wiffi) ? that they diould acquire a power not only of
bearing, but of taking a pleafure in, temporary foli-
tude. Every one mud, indeed, fometimes be alone.
Let him not repine when he is alone, but learn to fet
a value on the golden moments. It is then that he is
enabled to dudy bimfelf and the world around him.
It is then that he has an opportunity of feeing things
as they are, and of removing the deceitful veil, which
almod every thing affumes in the bufy fcene of worldly
employments. The foul is enabled to retire into her-
felf, and to exert thofe energies which are always at¬
tended with fublime pleafure. She is enabled to fee the
dependent, frail, and wretched date of man as the
child of nature $ and incited by her difcovery, to im¬
plore grace and proteftion from the Lord of the uni-
verfe. They, indeed, who dy from folitude, can fel-
dom be religious ; for religion requires meditation.
They may be faid to “ live without God in the world
not, it is true, from atheidical principles, but from a
careleffnefs of difpofition ; a truly deplorable date, the
confcioufnefs of which could not fail to cloud the gaie¬
ty of thofe halcyon beings who fport in the funffiine of
unremitted pleafure.
There is no doubt that man is made for adlion, and
that his duties and pleafures are often mod numerous
and mod important amidd the bufy hum of men. Many
vices, and many corrupt difpofitions, have been fodered
in a folitary life. Monkery is not favourable to human
nature or human happinefs 5 but neither is unlimited
diffipation.
In diort, let there be a fweet interchange of retire¬
ment and affociation, of repofe and activity. A few
hours fpent every day by the votaries of pleafure in fe¬
rious meditation, would render their pleafure pure, and
more unmixed with mifery. It would give them know¬
ledge, fo that they would fee how far they might ad¬
vance in their purfuit without danger ; and refolution,
fo that they might retreaf when danger approached.
It would teach them how to live, a knowledge which
indeed they think they poffefs already 5 and it would
alfo teach them, what they are often too little felici¬
tous to learn, how to die.
Company, in a commercial fenfe, is a fociety of
merchants, mechanics, or other traders, joined together
in one common intereft.
When there are only two or three joined in this
manner, it is called a partnerffiip j the term company
COM [ 334. ] C O M
being reft rained to focieties confiding of a confiderable
number of members, aflbciated together by a charter
obtained from the prince.
The mechanics of all corporations, or towns incorpo¬
rated, are thus erected into companies, which have
-charters of privileges and large immunities.
Company feems more particularly appropriated to
thofe grand affociations fet on foot for the commerce of
the remote parts of the world, and veiled by charter
with peculiar privileges.
When companies do not trade upon a joint flock,
but are obliged to admit any perfon, properly qualified,
upon paying a certain fine, and agreeing to fubmit to
the regulations of the company, each member trading
Aipon his own flock and at his own rifk, they are called
Regulated Companies. When they trade upon a joint
flock, each member fharing in the common profit or
lofs in proportion to his ftiare in this flock, they are
called Joint-jiock Companies. Such companies, whether
regulated or joint-flock, fometimes have, and fome-
times have not, exclufive privileges.
However injurious companies with joint-flock, and
-incorporated with exclufive privileges, may at this time
be reckoned to the nation in general, it is yet certain
that they were the general parent of all our foreign
commerce ; private traders being difcouraged from ha¬
zarding their fortunes in foreign countries, until the
method of traffic had been firfl fettled by joint-flock
companies. But fince the trade of this kingdom and
the number of traders have increafed, and the methods
of aflurance of fhipping and merehandife, and the na¬
vigation of all parts of the known world have become
-familiar to us, thefe-companies, in the opinion of tnofl
men, have been looked upon in the light of monopo¬
lies j their privileges have therefore been leflened from
time to lime, in order to favour a free and general
trade; and experience has fhown, that the trade of
the nation has advanced in proportion as monopolies
have been difcouraged. In fhort, as all reftri&ions of
trade are found to be hurtful, nothing can be more
evident, than that no company whatsoever, whether
they trade in a joint-flock or only under regulation,
can be for the public good, except it may be eafy for
all or any of his majefly’s fubjedls to be admitted into
all or any of the faid companies, at any time, and for a
very inconfiderable fine.
I. Regulated Companies refemble, in every re-
fpe£l, the corporations of trades, fo common in the ci¬
ties and towns of all the different countries of Europe ;
and are a fort of enlarged monopolies of the fame kind.
As no inhabitant of a town can exercife an incorpo¬
rated trade, without firfl obtaining his freedom in
the corporation; fo in mofl cafes no fubje£l of the
flate can lawfully carry on any branch of foreign trade,
for which a regulated company is etlablifhed, without
firfl becoming a member of that company. The mo¬
nopoly is more or lefs flri£l according as the terms of
admiffion are more or lefs difficult; and according as
the direflors of the company have more or lefs autho¬
rity, or have it more or lefs in their power to manage
in fuch a manner as to confine the greater part of the
trade to themfelves and their particular friends. In
the mofl ancient regulated companies the privileges of
apprenticeftiip were the fame as in other corporations ;
, end entitled the perfon who had ferved his time to a
4
member of the company, to become himfelf a member,
either without paying any fine, or upon paying a much
fmaller one than what was exacted from other people.
The ufual corporation fpirit, wherever the law does
not reflrain it, prevails in all regulated companies.
When they have been allowed to a£l according to
their natural genius, they have always, in order to
confine the competition to as fmall a number of perfons
as poffible, endeavoured to fubjefl the trade to many
burdenfome regulations. When the law has reflrained
them from doing tins, they have become altogether
ufelefs and infignificant.
1 he regulated companies for foreign commerce,
which at prefent fubfifl in Great Britain, are, The
Hamburgh Company, the Ruftia Company, the Eafl-
land Company, the Turkey Company, and the African
Company.
1. The Hamburgh Company is the oldefl trading efla-
blifhment in the kingdom ; though not always known
by that name, nor reflrained to thofe narrow bounds
under which it is now confined. It was firfl called
the Company of Merchants trading to Calais, Holland,
Zealand, Brabant, and Flanders : then it acquired the
general title of Merchant-adventurers of England: as
being compofed of ail the Englifh merchants who trad¬
ed to the Low Countries, the Baltic, and the German
ocean. Laflly, it was called the Company of Mer¬
chant-adventurers of England trading to Hamburgh.
This company was firfl incorporated by Edward I.
in 1296; and eflablifhed again, by charter, in 1406,
under the reign of King Henry IV. It was afterwards
confirmed, and augmented with divers privileges, by
many of his fucceffors. Before the charter of Henry
IV. all the Englifh merchants who trafficked out of
the realm, were left to their own difcretion, and ma¬
naged their affairs with foreigners as might be moll for
their refpe&ive interefls, without any regard to the
general commerce of the nation. Henry, obferving
this diforder, endeavoured to remedy it, by uniting all
the merchants in his dominions into one body ; where¬
in, without lofing the liberty of trading each for him¬
felf, they might be governed by a company flill fiffi-
fifling ; and be fubjecl to regulations, which ffiould fe-
cure the general interefl of the national commerce,
without prejudice to the interefl of particulars. With
this view, he granted all the merchants of his flates,
particularly thofe of Calais, then in his hands, a power
of affociating themfelves into a body politic, with di-
reftors and governors, both in England and abroad ;
to bold affemblies, both for the direction of bufinefs
and the deciding of controverfies among merchants ;
make laws ; puniffi delinquents ; and impol'e moderate
duties and taxes on merchandifes, and merchants, to
be employed in the fervice of the corporation. Thefe
few articles of the charter of Henry IV. were after¬
wards much augmented by Henry VII. who firfl gave
them the title of Merchant-adventurers to Calais, Hol¬
land, &c. gave them a power of proclaiming and con¬
tinuing free fairs at Calais ; and ordered, that to be
reputed a member of the fociety, each perfon pav 20
marks flerling ; and that the feveral members fhould
attend the general meetings, or courts, appointed
by the direflors, whether at London, Calais, or elfe-
where.
A petition being made to Queen Elizabeth, in 1564,
for
com [ :
Company. f°r an explanation of certain articles in the charter of
—Henry VII. and a confirmation of the reft granted by
other kings ; that princefs, by a charter of the fame
year, declares that, to end all difputes, they fiiall be in¬
corporated anew, under the title of the Company of
Merchant-adventurers of England; that all who were
members of the former company (hould, if they de-
fired it, be admitted members of this ; that they (hould
have a common leal } that they (hould admit into their
fociety what other perfons, and on what terms, they
pleafed, and expel them again on misbehaviour ; that
the city of Hamburgh and neighbouring cities Should
be reputed within their grant, together with thofe of the
Low Countries, &c. in that of the former company :
that no member Should marry out of the kingdom,
nor purchafe lands, &c. in any city beyond fea *, and
that thofe who do, (hall be, ipfo fatdo, excluded for
ever. Twenty-two years after this firft charter, Queen
Elizabeth granted them a Second \ confirming the for¬
mer, and further granting them a privilege of exclu¬
sion 5 with a power of eredling in each city within their
grant a (landing council.
The revolutions which happened in the Low Coun¬
tries towards the end of the fixteenth century, and
which laid the foundation of the republic of Holland,
having hindered the company from continuing their
commerce with their ancient freedom ; it was obliged
to turn it almoft wholly to the fide of Hamburgh, and
the cities on the German ocean •, from which change,
fome people took occafion to change its name to that
of Vne. Hamburgh Company ; though the ancient title
of Merchant-adventurers is (fill retained in all their
writings.
About the middle of the laft century, the fine for
admiffion was fifty, and at one time one hundred pounds,
and the conduct of the company was faid to be ex¬
tremely oppreffive. In 1643, 1^45» an^ 166i,
the clothiers and free traders of the weft of England
complained of them to parliament, as of monopolifts
Avho confined the trade and oppreffed the manufaflures
of the country. Though thofe complaints produced
no a6l of parliament, they had probably intimidated
the company fo far, as to oblige them to reform their
conduct. The terms of admiflion are now faid to be
quite eafy; and the dire£lors either have it not in their
power to fubjeft the trade to any burdenfome reftraint
or regulations, or at lead have not of late exercifed
that power.
2. The RuJJia Company was firft projected towards
the end of the reign of King Edward VI. executed in
the firft and Second years of Philip and Mary j but had
not its perfection till its charter was confirmed by aCt
of parliament, under Queen Elizabeth, in 1566. It
had its rife from certain adventurers, who were fent in
three veflels on the difcovery of new countries; and to
find out a north-eaft paflage to China j thefe, fall¬
ing into the White fea, and making up to the port of
Archangel, were exceedingly well received by the
Mufcovites j and, at their return, Solicited letters pa¬
tent to fecure to themfelves the commerce of Ruffia,
for which they had formed an affociation.
By their charter, the affociation was declared a bo¬
dy politic, under the name of the Company of Mer¬
chant-adventurers of England, for the difcovery of lands,
territories, ifands, Sic. unknown or unfrequented.
3.5 ] COM
Their privileges were, to have a governor, four con- Company,
fuls, and 24 afliftants, for their commerce ; for their v-~—^
policy, to make laws, intliCt penalties, fend out drips,
to make difcoveries, take poffeffion of them in the
king’s name, Set up the banner royal of England,
plant them ; and laftly, the exclufive privilege of tra--
ding to Archangel, and other ports of Mufeovy, not
yet frequented by the Englidi.
This charter not being fufficiently guarded, was
confirmed by parliament in the 8th year of Queen
Elizabeth •, wherein it was enabled, that in regard the
former name was too long, they ftrould now be called
Company of Englijh Merchants for difcovering new
trades ; under which name, they (hould be capable of
acquiring and holding all kinds of lands, manors, rents,
&.c. not exceeding 100 marks per annum, and not
held of her majefty j that no part of the continent,
ifland, harbour, &c. not known or frequented before
the firft enterprife of the merchants^of their company,
fituated to the north, or north-well, or north-eaft of
London j nor any part of the continent, iflands, &c.
under the obedience of the emperor of Ruffia, or in the
countries of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, Perfia, or
the Cafpian fea, (hould be vifited by any fubjebls of
England, to exercife any commerce, without the con-
fent of the faid company, on pain of confiscation. The
faid company (hall ufe no (hips in her new commerce
but thofe of the nation j nor tranfport any cloths,
ferges, or other woollen (luffs, till they have been dyed
and preffed^ That in cafe the company difcontinue of
itfelf to unload commodities in the road of the abbey
of S. Nicolas, in Ruffia, or fome other port on the
north coafts of Ruflia, for the Space of three years, the
other fubjeCls of England (hall be allowed to traffic to
Narva, while the faid company- discontinues its com¬
merce into Ruflia, only ufing Englilh veffels.
This company fubfifted with reputation almoft a
whole century, till the time of the civil wars. It is faid,
the czar then reigning, hearing of the murder of King
Charles I. ordered all the Englifli in his dates to be
expelled-, which the Dutch taking the advantage of, fet¬
tled in their room. After the reftoration, the remains
of the company re-eftabliftied part of their commerce
at Archangel, but never with the fame fuccefs as be¬
fore ; the Ruffians being now well accuftomed to
the Dutch merchants and merchandife.
This company fubfifts dill, under the direClion of
a governor, four confuls, and afliftants. By the roth
and nth of William III. c. 6. the fine for admiflion
■was reduced to 5I.
3 The Eaf land Company W'as incorporated by Queen
Elizabeth. Its charter is dated in the year 1579. By
the firft article the company is ereCted into a body po¬
litic under the title of the Company of Merchants of the
Eaf ; to confift of Engliftrmen, all real merchants, who
have exercifed the bufinefs thereof, and trafficked
through the Sound before the year 1568, into Nor¬
way, Sweden, Poland, Livonia, Pruffia, Pomerania,
&c. as alfo Revel, Coningfherg. Dantzick, Copenha¬
gen, &c. excepting Narva, Mufcovy, and its depen¬
dencies. Moft of the following articles grant them
the ufual prerogatives of fuch companies, as a feal, go¬
vernor, courts, laws, &c.
The privileges peculiar to this company are, that
none (hall be admitted a member who is already a
member
%
COM t 336 ] COM
Company, member of any other company ; nor any retail-dealer
—"-V——at all. That no merchant qualified be admitted with¬
out paying fix pounds thirteen thillings and fixpence.
That a member of another company defiring to re¬
nounce the privileges thereof, and to be received into
that of the Eaft fhall be admitted gratis ; provided he
procures the fame favour for a merchant of the Eaft
willing to fill his place. That the merchant-adventu¬
rers who never dealt in the Eaft, in the places expref-
fed in the charter, may be received as members of the
company on paying 40 marks ; that, notwithftanding
this union of the adventurers of England with the
company of the Eaft, each ftrall retain its rights and
privileges. That they fhall export no cloths but what
are dyed and prefled, except a hundred pieces per an¬
num, which are allowed them gratis. This charter
was confirmed by Charles II. in 1629, with this addi¬
tion, that no perfon, of what quality foever, living in
London, ftrould be admitted a member, unlefs he were
free of the city. This company was complained of as
a monopoly, and firft curtailed by legal authority in
1672 } and fince the declaration of rights in 1689, ex-
ift only in name 5 but ftill continue to ele£t their an¬
nual officers, who are a governor, a deputy, and twen¬
ty-four affiftants.
7. T/ie Turkey or Levant Company^ had its rife under
Queen Elizabeth, in 1581. James I. confirmed its
charter in 1605, adding new privileges. During the
civil wars, there happened fome innovations in the go¬
vernment of the company *, many perfons having been
admitted members, not qualified by the charters of
Queen Elizabeth and King James, or that did not con¬
form to the regulations prefcribed. Charles II. upon
his reftoration, endeavoured to. fet it upon its ancient
bafis ; to which end, he gave them a charter, contain¬
ing not only a confirmation of their old one, but alfo
feveral new articles of reformation. By this, the com¬
pany is erefted into a body politic, capable of making
laws, &c. under the title of the Company of Merchants
of England trading to the feas of the Levant. The
number of members is not limited, but is ordinarily
about three hundred. The principal qualification re¬
quired is, that the candidate be a freeman of London,
and a vvholefale merchant, either by family or by fer-
ving an apprenticelhip of feven years. Thofe under 25
years of age pay 25I. ftering at their admiffion •, thofe
above, twice as much. The fine was reduced by adl
of parliament, in 1753, to 2ol. and the privilege of
admiffion extended to every Britifh fubjefl. Each
makes oath at his entrance not to fend any merchan-
dife to the Levant but on his own account; and not
to confign them to any but the company’s agents or
fadtors. This reftridlion is likewife enlarged by the
above-mentioned ftatute.
The company has a court or board at London,
which is compofed of a governor, deputy governor,
and fifteen diredlors or affiftants, who are all adlually
to live in London or the fuburbs. They have alfo a
deputy-governor in every city and port, where there
are any members of the company. The aflembly at
London fends out the veflels, regulates the tariff for
the price at which the European merchandifes fent to
the Levant are to be fold, and for the quality of thofe
returned. It raifes taxes on merchandifes, to defray
impofitions, and the common expences of the compa¬
ny ; prefents the ambaffador which the. king is to keep Comparn
at the Porte, eledts two confuls for Smyrna and Con- —y—
ftantinople, &c.
One of the beft regulations of the company is, not
to leave the confuls, or even ambaflador, to fix the itn-
pofition on veflels for defraying the common expences
(a thing fatal to the companies of moft other nations) $
but to allow a penfion to the ambaflador and confuls,
and even to the chief officers, as iecretary, chaplain,
interpreters, and janizaries, that there may not be any
pretence for their raifing any fum at all on the mer¬
chants or merchandifes.
In extraordinary cafes, the confuls, and even the
ambaffador, have recourfe to two deputies of the com¬
pany, refiding in the Levant j or, if the affair be very
important, they affemble the whole body. Here are
regulated the prefents to be given, the voyages to be
made, and every thing to be deliberated j and on the
refolutions here taken, the deputies appoint the treafu-
rer to furniffi the moneys, &c. required.
The ordinary commerce of this company employs
from 20 to 25 veffels, carrying from 25 to 30 pieces
of cannon. The merchandifes exported thither are,
cloths of all kinds and colours, pewter, lead, pepper,
cochineal, and a great deal of filver, which they take
up at Cadiz : the returns are in raw filk, galls, camlets,
wools, cottons, Morocco leather, allies tor making
glafs and foap, and feveral gums and medicinal drugs.
The commerce to Smyrna, Conftantinople, and bcan-
deroon, is not efteemed much lefs confiderable than
that of the Eaft India Company ; but is, doubtlefs,
more advantageous to Britain, becaufe it takes off
much more of the Britiffi manufactures than the other,
which is chiefly carried on in money. The places re-
ferved for the commerce of this company are, all the
ftates of Venice, in the gulf of Venice ; the ftate of
Ragufa j all the ftates of the grand feignior, and the
ports of the Levant and Mediterranean ; excepting
Carthagena, Alicant, Barcelona, Valencia, Marfeilles,
Toulon, Genoa, Leghorn, Civita Vecchia, Palermo,
Meffina, Malta, Majorca, Minorca, and Corfica j and
other places on the coafts of France, Spain, and
Italy.
5. The Company of Merchants trading to Africa, efta-
bliffied in 1750. Contrary to the former praCtice with
regard to regulated companies, who were reckoned
unfit for fuch fort of fervice, this company wa^ fub-
jefted to the obligation of maintaining forts and garri-
fons. It was exprefsly charged at firft with the main¬
tenance of all the Britilh forts and garrifons that lie
between Cape Blanc and the Cape of Good Hope, and
afterwards with that of thofe only which lie between
Cape Rouge and the Cape of Good Hope. The a£l
which eftablifhes this company (the 23d of George II.
c. 31.) feems to have had two diftintt objefts in view j
firft, to reftrain effe&ually the oppreffive and mono¬
polizing fpirit which is natural to the direflors of a
regulated company •, and fecondly, to force them as
much as poffible to give an attention, which is not na¬
tural to them, towards the maintenance of forts and
garrifons.
For the firft of thefe purpofes, the fine for admiffion
is limited to forty {hillings. The company is pro¬
hibited from trading in their corporate capacity, or
upon a joint ftock j from borrowing money upon com¬
mon
COM [■ ■
I Company. ra°n or froai laying any reftraints upon the trade
which may be carried on freely from all places, and by
all perfons being BritHh fubjefts, and paying the fine.
The government is in a committee of nine perions who
meet at London, but who are chofen annually by the
freemen of the company at London, Briftol, and Li¬
verpool ; three from each place. No committee man
can be continued in office for more than three years
together. Any committee-man might be removed by
the board of trade and plantations 5 now by a com¬
mittee of council, after being heard in his own defence.
The committee are forbid to export negroes from
Africa, or to import any African goods into Great
Britain. But, as they are charged with the mainte¬
nance of forts and garrifons, they may for that purpofe
export from Great Britain to Africa goods and ftores
of different kinds. Out of the money which they
(hall receive from the company, they are allowed a fum
not exceeding eight hundred pounds, for the falaries of
their clerks and agents at London, Briftol, and Liver¬
pool ; the houfe-rent of their office at London ; and
all other expences of management, commiffion, and
agency, in England. What remains of this fum, after
defraying thofe different expences, they may divide
among themfelves, as compenfation for their trouble,
in what manner they think proper. “ By this confti-
tution, it might have been expe&ed (Dr Smith ob-
ferves), that the fpirit of monopoly would have been
effe&ually reftrained, and the firft of thefe purpofes
fufficiently anfwered. It would feem, however, that
it had not. Though by the 4th of George III. c. 20.
the fort of Senegal, with all its dependencies, had been
veiled in the company of merchants trading to Africa,
yet in the year following (by the 5th of George III.
c. 24.), not only Senegal and its dependencies, but the
whole coaft from the port of Sallee, in fouth Barbary,
to Cape Rouge, was exempted from the jurifdi£tion of
that company, was veiled in the crown, and the trade
to it declared free to all his majefty’s fubje&s. The
company had been fufpefted of reftraining the trade,
and of eftablilhing fome fort of improper monopoly.
It is not, however, very eafy to conceive how, under
the regulations of the 23d George II. they could do
fo. From the printed debates of the houfe of com¬
mons (not always the moft authentic records of truth),
it appears, however, that they have been accufed of
th is. The members of the committee of nine being
all merchants, and the governors and factors, in their
different forts and fettlements, being all dependent up¬
on them, it is not unlikely that the latter might have
given peculiar attention to the confignments and cotn-
xniffions of the former, which would eftablilh a real
monopoly.”
For the fecond purpofe mentioned, the maintenance
of the forts and garrifons, an annual fum has been al¬
lotted to them by parliament, generally about 13,000!.
For the proper application of this furn, the committee
is obliged to account annually to the curfitor baron of
exchequer ; which account is afterwards to be laid
before parliament. But parliament (continues our
author), which gives fo little attention to the applica¬
tion of millions, is not likely to give much to that of
13,000!. a-year ■, and the curfitor baron of exchequer,
from his profeffion and education, is not likely to be
protoundly Ikilled in the proper expence of forts and
Vol. VI. Part I.
37 .1 C O M
garrifons* The captains of his majefty’s navy, indeed, Company,
or any other cotmniffioned officers, appointed by the —y-**—
board of admiralty, may inquire into the condition of
the forts and garrifons, and report their obfervatiqns
to that board. But that board ieems to have no di-
re£l juriidiclion over the committee, nor any authori¬
ty to correct thofe whofe conduit it may thus inquire
into 5 and the captains of his ynajefty’s navy, befides,
are not fuppofed to be always deeply learned in the
fcience of fortification. Removal from an office, which
can be enjoyed only for the term of three years, and of
which the lawful emoluments, even during that term,
are fo very fmall, feems to be the utmoft puniftiment
to which any committee-man is liable, for any fault,
except direit malverfation, or embezzlement either of
the public money or that of the company ; and the
fear of that punifhment, can never be a motive of fuffi-
cient weight to force a continual and careful attention
to a bufinefs to which he has no other intereft to at¬
tend. The commitee are accufed of having fent out
bricks and ftones from England for the reparation of
Cape Coaft Caltle on the coaft of Guinea, a bufinefs
for which parliament had feveral times granted an ex¬
traordinary fum of money. Thefe bricks and ftones
too, which had thus been fent upon fo long a voyage,
w'ere faid to have been of fo bad a-quality, that it was
neceffary to rebuild from the foundation the walls which
had been repaired with them. The forts and garrifons
which lie north of Cape Rouge are not only maintain¬
ed at the expence of the ftate, but are under the imme¬
diate government of the executive power ; and why
thofe which lie fouth of that cape, and which too are,
in part at leaft, maintained at the expence of the ftate,
could be under a different government, it feems not
very eafy even to imagine a good reafon.”
The above company fucceeded that called The Royal
African Company, which traded upon a joint ftock
with an exclufive privilege. Though England began
to trade to Africa as early as the year 1336, and feve¬
ral voyages were made to Guinea in 1538, and fome
following years, for the importation of gold and ele¬
phants teeth, nothing like a company was formed till
the year 1588, when Queen Elizabeth granted a patent
of exclufive privilege to certain perfons for ten years.
In 1618, King James I. eftabliftied a company by char¬
ter, which was foon diffolved. Another company was
erected by charter of Charles I. in 1631, which met
with little fuccefs ; but the demand for negroes in the
Englilh American plantations increafing, a third com¬
pany was eftabliftied by a charter granted 1662, in
favour of the duke of York j fecuring to him the com¬
merce of all the country, coafts, ifiands, &c. belonging
to the crown of England, or not poffeffed by any other
Chriftian prince, from Cape Blanco in 20° N. Lat. to
the Cape of Good Hope, in 340 34' S. Lat. The char¬
ter was foon after returned into the king’s hands by
the duke, and revoked, by confent of the parties af-
fociated with him in the enterpiife j in confequence
of which, the fourth and laft exclufive company was
eftabliftied and incorporated by letters patent in 1672,
under the title of the Royal African Company. A ca¬
pital was foon raifed of in,o^ol. and^this new com¬
pany improved their trade, and increafed their forts j
but after the revolution in 1689, this trade was laid
open. In 1698, all private traders to Africa were
U u obliged
COM [ 338 ] COM
Company, obliged by flat. 9 and 10 Will, to pay ten per cent, in
—v-—~ order to afllft the company in maintaining their forts
and fa&ories. But notvvithftanding this heavy tax,
the company were ilill unable to maintain the com¬
petition } their flock and credit gradually declined.
In 1712, their debts had become fo great, that a parti¬
cular add of parliament was thought neceflary, both for
their fecurity and for that of their creditors. It was
enacted, that the refolution of two-thirds of thefe cre¬
ditors in number and value fhould bind the reft, both
with regard to the time which ftiould be allowed to
the company for the payment of their debts, and
with regard to any other agreement which it might be
thought proper to make with them concerning thofe
debts. In 1730, their affairs were in fo great difor-
der, that they were altogether incapable of maintain¬
ing their forts and garrifons j the foie purpofe and pre¬
text of their inftitution. From that year till their
final diffolution, the parliament judged it neceffary to
allow the annual fum of ten thoufand pounds for that
purpofe. In 1732, after having been for many years
lofers by the trade of carrying negroes to the Weft
Indies, they at laft refolved to give it up altogether ;
to fell to the private traders to America the negroes
which they purchafed upon the coaft 5 and to employ
their fervants in a trade to the inland parts of Africa
for gold duft, elephants teeth, dyeing drugs, &c. But
their fuccefs in this more confined trade was not greater
than in their former extenfive one. Their affairs con¬
tinued to go gradually to decline, till at laft being in
every refpedl a bankrupt company, they were diffolved
by a£t of parliament, and their forts and garrifons veft-
ed in the prefent Regulated Company of Merchants trad'
ing to Africa.
II. JOINT-STOCK Companies, eftabliftied either by
royal charter or by aft of parliament, differ in feveral
refpefts not only from regulated companies, but from
private copartneries. 1. In a private copartnery, no
partner, without the confent of the company, can
transfer his {hare to another perfon, or introduce a
new member into the company. Each member, how¬
ever, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the
copartnery, and demand payment from them of his
Ihare of the common flock. In a joint-flock company,
on the contrary, no member can demand payment of
his (hare from the company : but each member can,
without their confent, transfer his {hare to another
perfon, and thereby introduce a new member. The
value of a {hare in a joint-ftock is always, the price
which it will bring in the market ; and this may be
either greater or lefs, in any proportion, than the fum
which its owner ftands credited for in the flock of the
company. 2. In a private copartnery, each partner is
bound for the debts contrafted by the company to the
whole extent of his fortune. In a joint-ftock company,
on the contrary, each partner is bound only to the ex¬
tent of his {hare.
The trade of a joint-ftock company is always ma¬
naged by a court of direftors. This court indeed is
frequently fubjeft, in many refpefts, to the controul
of a general court of proprietors. But the greater
part of thofe proprietors feldom pretend to underftand
any thing of the bufinefs of the company 5 and when
the fpirit of faftion happens not to prevail among
them, give themfelves no trouble about it, but receive
3*
contentedly fuch half-yearly or yearly dividend as the Company
direftors think proper to make to them. This total —
exemption from trouble and from rifle, beyond a limi¬
ted fum, encourages many people to become adven¬
turers in joint-ftock companies, who would upon no
account hazard their fortunes in any private copart¬
nery. Such companies, therefore, commonly draw
to themfelves much greater flocks than any private
copartnery can boaft of. The trading flock of the
South-Sea Company, at one time, amounted to up¬
wards of thirty-three millions eight hundred thoufand
pounds. The direftors of fuch companies, however, be¬
ing the managers rather of other people’s money than of
their own, it cannot well be expefted that they fliould
watch over it with the fame anxious vigilance with
which the partners in a private copartnery frequently
watch over their own. Like the ftewards of a rich
man, they are apt to confider attention to fmall matters
as not for their mailer’s honour, and very eafily give
themfelves a difpenfation from having it. Negligence
and profufion, therefore, muft always prevail, more or
lefs, in the management of the affairs of fuch a com¬
pany. It is upon this account that joint-ftock compa¬
nies for foreign trade have feldom been able to main¬
tain the competitions againft private adventurers. They
have, accordingly, very feldom fucceeded without an
exclufive privilege ; and frequently have not fucceeded
with one. Without an exclufive privilege they have
commonly mifmanaged the trade. With an exclufive
privilege they have both mifmanaged and confined it.
The principal joint-ftock companies prefently fub-
fifting in Great Britain are, the South Sea and the
Eaf India companies $ to which may be added,
though of very inferior magnitude, the Hudfon's Bay
Company.
1. The South-Sea Company. During the long war
with France in the reign of Queen Anne, the payment
of the failors of the royal navy being neglefted, they
received tickets inftead of money, and were frequently
obliged, by their neceffities, to fell thefe tickets to avar
ricious men at a difeount of 40 and fometimes 50 per
cent. By this and other means, the debts of the na¬
tion unprovided for by parliament, and which amount¬
ed to 9,471,321!. fell into the hands of thefe ufurers.
On which Mr Harley, at that time chancellor of the
exchequer, and afterwards earl of Oxford, propofed a
fcheme to allow the proprietors of thefe debts and de¬
ficiencies 6 per cent, per annum, and to incorporate
them for the purpofe of carrying on a trade to the
South Sea ; and they were accordingly incorporated
under the title of “ the Governor and Company of
Merchants of Great Britain trading to the South Seas,
and other parts of America, and for encouraging the
Fiftiery,” &c.
Though this company feemed formed for the fake
of commerce, the miniftry never thought ferioufly, dur¬
ing the courfe of the war, about making any fettlement
on the coaft of South America, which was what flattered
the expeftations of the people; nor was it ever carried
into execution by this company.
Some other fums were lent to the government in
the reign of Queen Anne at 6 per cent. In the third
of George I. the intereft of the whole was reduced to
5 per cent, and the company advanced two millions
more to the government at the fame intereft. By th§
ftaiutisL
COM [ 339 ] CO M
Company, ^ie 6th of George I. it was declared, that
«—y—- they might redeem all or any of the redeemable na¬
tional debts 5 in confideration of which, the company
were empowered to augment their capital according
to the fums they Ihould difcharge j and for enabling
them to raile fuch fums for purchafing annuities, ex¬
changing for ready money new exchequer bills, carry¬
ing on their trade, &.c. they might, by fuch means as
thev Ihould think proper, raife fuch fums of money as
in a general court of the company Ihould be judged
neceffary. The company were alfu empowered to raife
money on the contrails, bonds, or obligations under
their common feal, on the credit of their capital flock.
But if the fub-governor, deputy-governor, or other
members of the company, fhould purchafe lands or re¬
venues of the crown upon account of the corporation,
or lend money by loan or anticipation on any branch
of the revenue, other than fuch part only on which a
credit of loan was granted by parliament, fuch fub-
governor, or other member of the company, fhould for¬
feit treble the value of the money fo lent.
The fatal South Sea fcheme, tranfacfed in the year
1720, was executed upon the laft-mentioned ftatute.
The company had at firft fet out with good fuccefs,
and the value of their flock, for the firft five years, had
rifen fafler than that of any other company 5 and his
majefty, after purchafing io,oool. flock, had conde-
foended to be their governor. Things were in this fi-
tuation, when, taking advantage of the above ftatute,
the South Sea bubble was projected. The pretence
was, to raife a fund for carrying on a trade to the
South Sea, and purchafing annuities, &.C. paid to the
other companies : and propofals were printed and di-
flributed, fhowing the advantages of this defign. The
fum neceffary for carrying it on, together with the
profits that were to arife from it, were divided into a
certain number of fhares, or fubfcriptions, to be purcha-
fed by perfons difpofed to adventure therein. And the
better to carry on the deception, the directors enga¬
ged to make very large dividends : and adlually de¬
clared that every tool, original flock would yield 50].
per annum 5 which occafioned fo great a rife of their
flock, that a fhare of 100I. was fold for upwards of
800I. This was in the month of July; but before
the end of September it fell to 150I. by which multi¬
tudes were ruined, and fuch a fcene of diflrefs occa¬
fioned, as is fcarcelv to be conceived. But the con-
fequences of this infamous fcheme are too well known 5
mofl of the directors were feverely fined, to the lofs
of nearly all their property : fome of them had no
hand in the deception, nor gained a farthing by it j
but it was agreed, they ought to have oppofed and
prevented it.
The South-Sea Company never had any forts or
garrifons to maintain, and therefore were entirely ex¬
empted from one great expence, to which other joint-
flock companies for foreign trade are fubjeft. But
they had an immenfe capital divided among an im-
menfe number of proprietors. It was naturally to be
expefled, therefore, that folly, negligence, and pro-
fufion, fiiould prevail in the whole management of their
affairs.
Their flock-jobbing fpeculations were fucceeded by
mercantile projedls, which, Dr Smith obferves, were
not much better conduced. The firft trade which
they engaged in, was that of fupplying the Spanifh Company.
Weft Indies with negroes, of which (in confequence v—J
of what was called the Affiento contradl granted them
by the treaty of Utrecht) they had the exclufive pri¬
vilege. But as it was not expedted that much profit
could be made by this trade, both the Portuguefe and
French companies, who had enjoyed it upon the fame
terms before them, having been ruined by it, they
were allowed, as compenfation, to fend annually a fhip
of a certain burden to trade diredlly to the Spanifh
Weft Indies. Of the ten voyages which this annual
fhip was allowed to make, they are faid to have gained
confiderably by one, that of the Royal Caroline in
1731, and to have been Infers, more or lefs, by alrnoft
all the reft. Their ill fuccefs was imputed, by their
fadtors and agents, to the extortion and oppreflion of
the Spanifh government j but w as, perhaps, principally
owing to the profufion and depredations of thole very
fadlors and agents ; fome of w hom are faid to have
acquired great fortunes even in one year. In 1734,
the company petitioned the king, that they might be
allowed to difpofe of the trade and tonnage of their
annual fhip, on account of the little profit which they
made by it, and to accept of fuch equivalent as they
could obtain from the king of Spain.
In 1724, this company had undertaken the whale-
fifliery. Of this, indeed, they had no monopoly *, but
as long as they carried it on, no other Britifh fubjedts
appear to have engaged in it. Of the eight voyages
which their (hips made to Greenland, they were gainers
by one, and Infers by all the reft. After their eighth and
laft voyage, when they had fold their fliips, flores, and
utenfils, they found that their whole lofs, upon this
branch, capital and intereft included, amounted to up¬
wards of 237,000!.
In 1722, this company petitioned the parliament to
be allowed to divide their immenfe capital of more
than 33,800,000!. the whole of which had been
lent to government, into two equal parts : The one-
half, or upwards of 16,900,000!. to be put upon the
fame footing with other government annuities, and
not to be fubjedl to the debts contradled, or Ioffes in¬
curred, by the diredlors of the company, in the pro-
fecution of their mercantile pro], dls ; the other half
to remain, as before, a trading flock, and to be fub¬
jedl to thofe debts and Ioffes. The petition was too
reafonable not to be granted. In 1733, they again
petitioned the parliament that three-fourths of their
trading flock might be turned into annuity flock, and
only one-fourth remain as trading flock, or expofed
to the hazards arifing from the bad management of
their diredlors. Both their annuity and trading flocks
had by this time, been reduced more than 2,oco,oool.
each, by feveral different payments from government $
fo that this fourth amounted only to 3,662,784!.
8s. 6d. In 1748, all the demands of the company
upon the king of Spain, in confequence of the Affiento
contradl, were by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, given
up for what was fuppofed an equivalent. An end was
put to their trade with the Spanifh Weft Indies, the
remainder of their trading flock was turned into an
annuity flock, and the company qeafed in every relpedl
to be a trading company.
This company is under the diredlion of a governor, fub-
governor, deputy-governor, and 21 diredlors; but no per-
U u a fon
COM [ 340 ] COM
Company, fon is qualified to be governor, his ra a jelly excepted, un-
— lefs fuch governor has in his own name and right 5000I.
in the trading ftock ; the fub-governor is to have 4000I.
the deputy-governor 3000I. and a dire£ior 2000I.
in the fame (lock. In every general court, every
member having in his own name and right 500I. in
trading ftock, has one vote ■, if 2cool. two votes j if
3000I. three votes j and if 5000I. four votes.
2. The Eofi India Company. The firft, or as it is
called the Old Eajl India Company, was eftablilhed by
a charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600 j but for
fome time the partners feem to have traded with fe-
parate ftocks, though only in the {hips belonging to
the whole company. In 1612, they joined their ftocks
into one common capital : and though their charter
was not as yet confirmed by aft of parliament, it was
looked upon in that early period to be fufticiently va¬
lid, and no body ventured to interfere with their
trade. At this time their capital amounted to about
740,000!. and the {hares were as lour as 50I. : their
trade was in general fuccefsful, notwithftanding fome
heavy Ioffes, chiefly fuftained through the malice of
the Dutch Eaft India Company. In procefs of time,
however, it came to be underftood that a royal char¬
ter could not by itfelf convey an exclufive privilege to
traders, and the company was reduced to diftrefs by
reafon of the multitude of interlopers who carried off
the moft of their trade. This continued during the
latter part of the reign of Charles II. the whole of
that of James II. and part of William III. when in
1698 a propofal was made to parliament for advancing
the fum of 2,ooo,oool. to government, on condition
of ereiffing the fubfcribers into a new company with ex-
dufive privileges. The old company endeavoured to
prevent the appearance of fuch a formidable rival, by
offering government 700,000!. nearly the amount of
their capital at that time ; but fuch were the exigen¬
cies of the ftate, that the larger fum, though at eight
per cent, intereft, was preferred to the fmaller at one
half the expence.
Thus were two Eaft India Companies eredled in
the fame kingdom, which could not but be very pre¬
judicial to each other. Through the negligence of
thofe who prepared the aft of parliament alfo, the
new company were not obliged to unite in a joint-ftock.
The confequence of this was, that a few private traders,
whofe fubfcriptions fcarce exceeded 7200!. infifted on
a right of trading feparately at their own rilk. Thus a
kind of third company was eftabliftied \ and by their
mutual contentions with one another, all the three were
brought to the brink of ruin. Upon a fubfequent occa-
fton, in 1730, a propofal was made to parliament for
putting the trade under the management of a regula¬
ted company, and thus laying it in feme meafure open.
This, however, was oppofed by the company, who re-
prefented in ftrong terms the mifehiefs likely to arife
Smith's from fuch a proceeding. “ In India (they faid), it
Wealth of raifed the price of goods fo high, that they were not
Nations, worth the buying; and in England, by overftocking
1° 134' ibe market, it funk the price to fuch a degree that no
J profit could be made of them.” Here Dr Smith re¬
marks, that by a more plentiful fupply, to the great
advantage and conveniency of the public, it mu ft have
reduced very much the price of Indian goods in the
2
Englifti market, cannot well be doubted ; but that it Compan-
fliould have railed very much their price in the Indian —y—j
market, Items not very probable, as all the extraordi¬
nary demand which that competition could occafion,
muft have been but as a drop of water in the immenfe
ocean of Indian commerce. The increafe of demand,
adds he, though in the beginning it may fometimes
raife the price of goods, never fails to lower it in the
iffue. It encourages produftion, and thereby in-
creafes the competition of the producers, who, in or¬
der to underfell one another, have recourfe to new di-
vifions of labour and new improvements of art, which
might never otherwife have been thought of. The
miferable effefts of which the company complained,
were the cheapnefs of confumption and the encourage¬
ment given to produftion, precifely the two effefts
which it is the bufinels of political economy to promote.
The competition, however, of which they gave this
doleful account, had not been allowed to continue
long- In 1702 the two companies were, in fome
meafure, united by an indenture tripartite, to which
the queen was the third party; and in 1708, they
■were, by aft of parliament, perfeftly confolidated into
one company by their prefent name of “ The United
Company of Merchants trading to the Eaft Indies.”
Into this aft it was thought worthy to infert a claufe,
allowing the feparate traders to continue their traffic
till Michaelmas 1711, but at the fame time empower¬
ing the direftors, upon three years notice, to redeem
their capital of 7200I. and thereby convert the whole
capital of the company into a joint-ftock. By the
fame aft, the capital of the company, in confequence
of a new loan to government, was augmented from
2,000,cool, to 3,200,000]. In 1743, another mil*
lion was advanced to government. But this being
railed, not by a call upon the proprietors, but by
felling annuities and contrafting bond-debts, it did
not augment the ftoek upon which the proprietors
could claim a dividend. Thus, however, their trading
ftock was augmented ; it being equally liable with the
other 3,200,000!. to the loiTes fuftained, and debts
contrafted, by the company in the profecution of
their mercantile projefts. From X7°8, or at leaft
from 1711, this company being freed from all com¬
petitors, and fully eftabliftied in the monopoly of the
Engliffi commerce to the Eaft Indies, carried on a
fuceefsful trade ; and from their profits made annually
a moderate dividend to their proprietors. Unhappily,
however, in a ftiort time, an inclination for war and
flfncueft began to take place among their fervants;
which, though it put them in poffeffion of extenfive
territories and vaft nominal revenues, yet embarraffed
their affairs in fuch a manner, that they have not to
this day been able to recover themfelves. The parti¬
culars of thefe wars are given under the articles Bri¬
tain, and Indostan. Here it will be fufficient to
obferve, that they originated during the war in 1741
through the ambition of M. Dupleix the French go¬
vernor of Pondicherry, who involved the company in
the politics and difputes of the Indian princes. Af¬
ter carrying on hoftilities for fome time with various
fuccefs, they at laft loft Madras, at that time the prin¬
cipal fettlement in the Eaft Indies, but it tvas reftored
by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. During the war
COM [ 34i ] COM
Company, of I755> they acquired the revenues of a rich and ex-
1——y—J tenfive territory, amounting, as was then faid, to near
3,000,0001. per annum.
For feveral years they remained in quiet poffeflion
of the revenue arifing from this territory, though it
certainly never anfvvered the expedlations that had
been formed concerning it. But in 1767 the Britifh
miniftry laid claim to the territorial poffellions of the
company, and the revenue arifing from them, as of
right belonging to the crown 5 and the company, ra¬
ther than yield up their territories in this manner,
agreed to pay government a yearly fum of 400,000!.
They had before this gradually augmented their di¬
vidend from about fix to ten per cent. ; that is, on
their capital of 3,200,000]. they had raifed it from
192,000!. to 320,000!. a-year. About this time al-
fo they were attempting to raife it ftill farther, viz.
from 10 to J2\ per cent. 3 but from this they were pre¬
vented by two fucceflive a6ts of parliament, the detign
of which was to enable them to make a more fpeedy
payment of their debts, at this time eftimated at more
than fix or feven millions fterling. In 1769 they re¬
newed their agreement with government for five years
more, ftipulating, that during the courfe of that pe¬
riod they Ihould be allowed gradually to augment their
dividend to 1 2 J per cent. 3 never increafing it, however,
more than one per cent, annually. Thus their annual
payments could only be augmented by 608,000!. be¬
yond what they had been before their late territorial
acquifitions. By accounts from India in the year
1768, this revenue, clear of all dedudlions and military
charges, was dated at 2,048,7471. At the fame
time they were faid to poffefs another revenue, arifing
partly from lands, but chitfly from the cuftoms efta-
blifhed at their different fettlements, amounting to
— about 439,000!. The profits of their trade, too,
according to the evidence of their chairman before the
houfe of commons, amounted to at lead 400,000!.
per annum 3 their accountant made it 500,000]. 3 and
the lowed account dated it at lead equal to the high-
ed dividend paid to their proprietors. Notwithdand-
ing this apparent wealth, however, the affairs of the
company from this time fell into diforder 3 infomuch
that in 1773 their debts were augmented by an arrear
to the treafury in the payment of the 400,000!. dipu-
'lated 3 by another to the cudomhoufe for duties un¬
paid 3 by a large fum borrowed from the bank ; and
by bills drawn upon them from India to the amount
of more than 1*200,000!. Thus they were not only
obliged to reduce their dividend all at once to dx per
cent, but to apply to government for adidance. A
particular account of this tranfaftion is given under the
article Britain. Here it may be mentioned in gene¬
ral, that the event , proved very unfavourable to the
company, as they were now fubjefted to an interference
of government altogether unknown before. Several
important alterations were made in their conditution
both at home and abroad. The fettlements cf Madras,
Bombay, and Calcutta, which had hitherto been entire¬
ly independent of one another, were fubjefted to a go¬
vernor-general 3 adided by a council of four affeffors.
The nomination of the fird governor and council, who
were to re fide at Calcutta, was affumed by parliament ;
the power of the court of Calcutta, which had gradual¬
ly extended its jurifdi£lion over the red, was now re- Company,
duced and confined to the trial of mercantile caufes, the v—-y—#
purpofe for which it was originally indituted. In¬
dead of it a new fupreme court of judicature was eda-
bliihed, condding of a chief judice and three judges
to be appointed by the crown. Beddes thefe altera¬
tions, the dock neceffary to entitle any proprietor to
vote at the general courts Avas raifed from 500I. to
1000I. To vote on this qualification, too, it Avas
neceffary that he fhould have poffeffed it, if acquired,
by his own purchafe and not by inheritance, for at
lead one year, indead of fix months, the term requi-
dte formerly. The court of 24 direftors had before
been chofen annually 3 but it Avas now enacted, that
each director diould for the future be chofen for four
years 3 dx of them, however, to go out of office by
rotation every year, and not to be capable of being re-
chofen at the ele&ion of the fix new diredlors for the
enfuing year. It Avas expe£tcd that, in confequence
of thefe alterations, the courts both of the proprie¬
tors and direflors Avould be likely to aft Avith more
dignity and deadinefs than formerly. But this Avas
far from being the cafe. The company and its fer-
vants dm wed the utmod indifference about the happi-
nefs or mifery of the people Avho had the misfortune
to be fubjefted to their jurifdiclion. This indifference,
too, was more likely to be increafed than diminithed
by feme of the new regulations. The houfe of com¬
mons, for indance, had refolved, that Avhen the
1.60O5OO0I. lent to the company by government fhould
be paid, and their bond debts reduced to 1,500,000!.
they might then, and not till then, divide eight per
cent, upon their capital 3 and that Avhatever remained
of their revenues and nett profits at home Ihould be
divided into four parts 3 three of them to be paid into
the exchequer for the ufe of the public, and the fourth
to be referved as a fund, either for the further reduc¬
tion of their bond debts, or for the difeharge of other
contingent exigencies which the company might la¬
bour under. But it could fcarce be exptfled that, if
the company Avere bad dewards and bad fovereigns
Avhen the whole of their nett revenue and profits be¬
longed to themfelves, they would be better when three-
fourths of thefe belonged to oilier people. The regu¬
lations of 1773, therefore, did not put an end to th&
troubles of the company. Among other indilutions,
it had been at this time ena£led, that the prefidency
of Bengal diould have a fuperiority over the other pre-
fidencies in the country 3 the (alary of the chief judice
Avas fixed at 8000I. per annum, and thofe of the other
judges at 6000I. each. In confequence of this
Sir Elijah Impey, Avho was created a baronet on the
occafion, fet fail with three other judges, for India, in
the year 1774. The poAvers Avith Avhich they Avere
inveded were very extraordinary. They had the title
of his Majedy’s Supreme Court of judicature in In¬
dia. Civil law, common law, ecclefiadical, criminal,
and admiralty jurifdiclion, belonged of right to them.
They were empowered to try Europeans on perfonal
actions, and to affefis damages without a jury. Every
native, either dirc'dly or indirefily in the fervice of the
company, or in their territories, was made fubjedl to
their jurifdidlion, with a view to prevent the Euro¬
peans from eluding judice under the pretence of em¬
ploying.
C O M
Company, ploying natives in the commiffion of their crimes j fo
——v*™"” that in fatt they were abfolute lords and fovereigns of
the whole country.
Such exceflive and unlimited powers conferred on
any fmall number of men, could not but be extremely
difagreeable to the Europeans, who had been accuftom-
ed to enjoy a liberty almoft equally unbounded before ;
nor was it to be fuppofed that the judges, thus fndden-
ly raifed from the rank of fubjedts to the height of
defpotifm, would always ufe their power in an unexcep¬
tionable manner. The defign of the eftablilhment was
to preferve the commerce and revenues of the company
from depredation *, by fubjefting its fervants to the con-
troul of the court j to relieve the fubjefl from oppref-
fion by facilitating the means of redrfcfs j and to fix a
regular courfe of juftice for the fecurity of liberty and
property. Inftead of confidering the circumftances of
the country, however,, or the manners and cuftoms of
the natives, the judges now precipitately introduced
the Britifh laws in their full extent, without the leaft
modification to render them agreeable to the Afiatics,
who had been accuftomed to others of a quite different
nature j nor did they even pay the leaft regard to
the religious inftitutions or habits to which the Indians
are fo obftinately attached, that they -would fooner
part with life itfelf than break through an article of
them.
Befides this it was faid, that, on the firft arrival of the
judges, they endeavoured to extend their authority be¬
yond even what the Britifh legiflature had allowed them.
Hence they were frequently at variance with the coun¬
cil y and complaints of their conduct were repeatedly
fent to England by the fervants of the company. Thefe
produced a letter in 1777 from the dire£lors to Lord
Weymouth, fecretary of ftate for the fouthern depart¬
ment. In this they ftated, that the fnpreme court of
India had extended its jurifdiftion to thofe whom it
did not appear to have been the intention of the king
or parliament to fubjeft to its authority. It had alfo
taken cognizance of matters which, they apprehend¬
ed, belonged properly to other courts. That the judges
confidered the criminal law of England as in force, and
binding on the natives of Bengal, though utterly re¬
pugnant to the laws and cuftoms by which they had
hitherto been governed j and that the jurifdi&ion ex-
ercifed by the fupreme court was incompatible with
the powers given by parliament to the governor-gene¬
ral and council, obftrufted the adminiftration of go¬
vernment, and tended to alienate the minds of the na¬
tives ; all which they feared would prevent the efta-
bliftnnent of the government of India upon any fettled
or permanent foundation.
This letter not having produced any effe£l, the dif-
contents of India, both in the Europeans and natives,
continued and increafed. The decifions of the judges
were fuch as by no means did them honour. A num¬
ber of adventurers had alfo emigrated along with them,
in hopes of enriching themfelves under the new confti-
tution. Some of thefe were of the loweft: fort of
people, who had rendered it in a manner impoflible
for them to remain in England on account of their
vices or extravagance. Many fuch perfons had en¬
rolled themfelves among the domeftics of the judges,
■or had become their immediate dependents; and
fome of thefe were permitted to affume the charac-
COM
ters of attorneys, court-officers, under-ftieriffs, and Company,
bailiffs. It may eafily be fuppofed, that people of—v—
fuch chara£ters W'ould find it for their intereft to pro¬
mote fuits in the fupreme court : and in this fome of
them employed themfelves with great fuccefs. The
confequence of all this was, that on the 4th of De¬
cember 1780, a petition was prefented againft the fu¬
preme court by a great number of Britifh inhabitants
in the kingdom of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa. In
this, complaint was made of the indifcrimir.ate man¬
ner in which the judges of the fupreme court attempt¬
ed to exercife the Englifh laws in that country, at the
fame time that they refufed the undoubted right of
every Britifh fubjefl, viz. that of trial by jury. They
entreated the houfe “ to refleft on the innumerable
hardfhips which muff enfue, and the univerfal confufion
which muft be occafioned, by giving to the volumi¬
nous laws of England a boundlefs retrofpeffive power
in the midft of Afia, and by an application of thofe
laws, made for the freeft and moft enlightened people
on earth, the principle of whofe conftitution was found¬
ed on virtue and liberty, to tranfaftions with the na¬
tives of India, who had, from time immemorial, lived
under a defpotic government, founded on fear and re-
ftraint. What muft be the terrors of individuals to
find their titles to property, and their tranfadlions with
the natives previous to the eftablifhment of this court
of judicature, tried by the ftandard of the Englifh law,
and by men educated under its forms, and unavoidably
imbibing its prejudices, when no fuch law could
be known to or praflifed by natives or Europeans
then refiding in the country, and that at a time when
there were few perfons of legal knowledge in the
country to advife or affift them ? No tyranny could
be more fatal in its confequences, than that a court,
inverted with all the authority of one of the firft courts
in England, fhould alfo poffefs undefined powers and
jurifdi&ion, of which its judges were the foie interpre¬
ters, and at fuch an immenfe diftance from the mother
country. This was in truth the fituation of the Bri¬
tifh fubjefts in India at that time 5 for the judges of
the fupreme court could at pleafure determine on the
denomination of a civil jury, the degree of guilt in¬
curred by any offence, the ftatute by which it fhould
be tried, what penalties fhould be inflifted, as well as
who were and who were not amenable to the jurifdic-
tion of the court.
“ Befides their other powers alfo, the judges of the
fupreme court were allowed to fit as a court of chancery,
and in that capacity to revife, correft, refeind, or con¬
firm the decifions paffed by themfelves as a court of law j
and by another part of their conftitution, they were al¬
lowed to flop execution in criminal cafes until his
majefty’s pleafure was known. The petitioners con¬
ceived, that there muft be fome fundamental error in
that conftitation, which required a more than ordi¬
nary degree < f temper, integrity, and ability, to carry
its purpofes into execution ; and they did not hefitate
to declare, that to adminifter the powers appertaining
to the inftitution of the fupreme court, without com¬
mitting flagrant adls of injuftice, and doing great detri¬
ment to the public, required more equity, moderation,
difeernment, and enlightened abilities, than they could
hope to find in any fet of men.” They conclud¬
ed with earneftly foliciting parliament, that a trial
[ 542 1
COM [ 343 ] C Q M
'%rapany. ^7 jury be granted to the Brltifh fubje£ls in
y—~ Bengal, in all cafes where it was eftablilhed by law in
England ; that the retrofped'tive powers of the fu-
preme court might be limited to the time of its efta-
blithment in Bengal j that it thould be defined beyond
the power of difcretional ditlinftion tvho the perfons
were that properly came under the jurifdidfion of the
court, and who did not ; that it fliould be exprefsly
declared what flatutes thould, and what fhould not, be
in force in Bengal j that diflinft and feparate judges
for the law and equity fides of the court Ihould be ap¬
pointed ; and that a power of delaying executions in
criminal cafes until his majelly’s pleafure was known,
fliould be lodged in the governor and council.
This petition was foon followed by another figned
by Warren Haftings, Efq. governor-general, Philip
Francis and Edward Wheeler, Efqs. counfellors for the
government and prefidency of Fort-William in Ben¬
gal 5 in which they reprefented, “ that, though the ju-
rifdi&ion of the fupreme court of judicature at Cal¬
cutta, as well as the powers granted to the governor-
general and council, were clearly limited by parlia¬
ment and the king’s letters patent, yet the chief
juftice and judges of that court had exercifed authori¬
ty over perfons not legally within their jurifdiftion,
and had illegally and improperly advifed and admitted
fuits againft the governor-general and council : that
they had attempted to execute their writs upon natives
of high rank in the kingdom of Bengal, who were not
within their jurifdidtion : the governor and council
therefore had found themfelves under a neceffity of
oppofing them, and of affording protedlion to the
country and people, who were placed under their own
immediate infpedlion, and freeing them from the terrors
of a new and ufurped dominion. They had even been
obliged to make ufe of a military force, in order to re¬
lift the proceedings of the judges and their officers :
And they declared, that no other condu61 could have
faved thofe provinces, and the interefts of the company,
or of the Britifti nation itfelf, from the ruin with which
they were threatened. They alfo declared themfelves
to be of opinion, that the attempt to extend, to the
inhabitants of thefe provinces, the jurifdiftion of the
fupreme court of judicature, and the authority of the
Englifh law, which were ftill more intolerable than
the law itfelf, would be fuch a reftraint on the minds
of the people of thofe provinces, by the difference of
fuch laws and forms from their laws, that they might
at laft inflame them, notwithftanding their known mild-
nefs and patience, into an open rebellion.” The pe¬
tition was concluded, by foliciting an indemnity from
the legal confequences of the refiftance they had been
obliged to make to that court.
While the Britiffi were thus expreffing their dif-
pleafure againft the condudt of thefe judges, the na¬
tives were thrown into the utmoft confternation and
defpair by the acls of oppreffion and violence com¬
mitted by them. A profecution for forgery had been
commenced againft Nundcomar, a bramin of the firft
rank in Bengal. The crime was not capital by the
laws of Indoftan, and had been committed many
years before ; yet with the utmoft cruelty and in-
juftice was this man condemned and executed on the
Britifti ftatute, by which forgery is made capital; a fta-
tute which, at the Qommiffion of the crime, he had
never heard of, nor could ever dream that he would be Company,
fubjefted to its power. What rendered this execution
the more remarkable was, that, at the very time when
the charge of forgery was brought againft him, Nund¬
comar had been employed in exhibiting an accufation
againft Mr Haftings. This, together with the hurry
in which the court were to have him put to death (for
the court refufed to allow him a refpite till his majef-
ty’s pleafure was knpwn), made the natives conclude
that he was executed, not on account of the forgery,
but for having ventured to prefer an accufation againft
an Engliffi governor. In other refpecls they were ter¬
rified to fuch a degree, that many of them ran into the
river on fteing a bramin put to death with fuch circum-
ftances of ignominy.
The alarm excited by the execution of Nundcomar
was kept up by frefti decifions of the fupreme court:
Among thofe the Patna caufe, as it is commonly
called, was one of the moft remarkable. An adven¬
turer, named Shahaz Beg Cawn, had come from Ca-
bul in Perfia to Bengal, where he entered himfelf in
the fervice of the company, and was preferred to the
command of a body of horfe. Having gained a com¬
petent fortune, and obtained from the Mogul a grant
of lands called an Ultumghaw in the province of Ba-
har, he retired from the army, and iettled in Patna.
About this time, when advanced in years, he married
a woman of low rank, named Nadara Begum, by whom
he had no children. His brother, Allum Beg, came
likewife to Patna j and on his leaving the place fome
time after, committed the care of one of his fons,
named Behader Beg, to his brother Shahaz Beg Cawn.
On the death of the latter in 1776, a difpute enfued
concerning the inheritance betwixt the widow and
Behader Beg. The widow having taken pofleffion
of the whole property of Shahaz, the nephew, as
adopted fon and heir, gave in a petition to the provincial
council at Patna, on the 2d of January 1777, fctting
forth his claim. In this petition he Hated, that the
widow was removing and fecreting the effedls of the
deceafed; and concluded with a prayer, that orders
fhould be given to prevent their removal ; to recover
fuch as had already been carried away •, and that the
cadi or Indian judge ffiould be direfted to afcertain
his right. As the parties wTere Mahometans, the
council of courfe referred the caufe to the cadi and
two mufties, the proper officers for determining it ac¬
cording to the eftabliffied laws of the country. Thefe
having inquired into the matter, reported, that the
title-deeds, on which the widow pretended to found
her right, appeared to be forged j and that, even if
they had appeared in the life-time of Shahaz, they
were ftill informal, on account of a point of the Ma¬
hometan law, which requires, that to make deeds of
gift valid, poffeffion ffiould be entered into at the time
of executing or delivering them over ; but that, as no
pofleffion of this kind had been given, the eftate ought
to be divided according to the Mahometan law j viz.
one-fourth to the wife, and three-fourlhs to the ne¬
phew, as the reprefentative of his father Allum Beg,
who was confidered as the more immediate heir of the
deceafed. This decifion was confirmed by the coun¬
cil of Patna, with the following exception in favour of
the widow, that the heir-at-law ffiould pay her one-
fourth of the rents of the ultumghaw, or royal grant,
COM [ 344 ] COM
Company. i01‘ fupport during life. The widow, however,
refufed to lubmit to the decifion, or to deliver up the
effects of her bufband ; in confequence of which com-
pulfatory methods were ufed j when by the advice of
fortte Engdiih lawyers,‘an action of trefpafs was brought,
according to the law of England, againft the cadi and
two mufties for their proceedings againft her, laying
the damages at about 66,oool. fterling. This proceis
behm brought before the fupreme court, was by them
conduced in fuch a manner as muft entail everlafting
infamy on the afrors. They began with obliging the
cadi and mufties to find bail in no lefs than 40,000
pounds for their appearance, which was immediately
given by the council at Patna. The fupreme court
then having entered into the merits of the caufe, and
decided the matter in the moft rigorous manner, ac¬
cording to all the forms of Englifh law, affeffed the
cadi and mufties in damages no lefs than 30,000!.
fterling. Their houfes and effedls were feized by the
Iheriff’s officers, and publicly put up to fale ; the cadi,
who was upwards of 60 years of age, and had been in
office for many years with great apfrlaufe, died on his
wav to the common gaol at Calcutta, to which the
nephew and two mufties were conveyed, being a di-
ftance of no lefs than 400 miles from their former re-
fidence at Patna. A fuit, however, was commenced
againft the widow, on account of having forged the
title-deeds by which ffie claimed her hulband’s eftate j
but it was fuppreffed on account of fome informality.
Another decifion, by which the fupreme court like-
wife incurred much cenfure, was that againft Jagger-
naut, the principal public officer of a Mahometan
court at Dacca. The adlion was brought at the inftiga-
tion of an Englifh attorney, in behalf of one Khyne, a
fervant or meffenger, who had been fined and imprifoned
for a mifdemeanor, in which Jaggernaut had concur¬
red in virtue of his office as judge of the Nizamut
(the name of the Mahometan court juft mentioned).
The ffieriff-officers attempted to arreft the judge as
be fat on the tribunal *, which could not fail to produce
much difturbance. Jaggernaut, with his officers, de¬
nied the authority cf the fupreme court over the Niza¬
mut, and refufed to comply with the writ. The Eng-
liffi flieriff-officers proceeded to force-, and a violent
fcuffle enfuing, Jaggernaut’s father was wounded in
the head with a fvvord by one of the under-fheriff’s at¬
tendants, while his brother-in-law was very danger-
oufly wounded with a piftol bullet by the under-fheriff
bimfelf. The immediate confequence of this was an
abfolute refufal of the judge to take cognizance of any
criminal matter ; and this was intimated in a letter
from the council at Dacca to the Englifh governor
and council of India wherein they declared that all
criminal juftice was at a ftand.
The fupreme court, having proceeded in this arbi¬
trary and oppreffiVe manner for fome time, at length
attempted to extend their jurifdicliun over the heredi¬
tary zemindars of Bengal. Thtfe are a kind of tri¬
butary lords, or great landholders, who are anfwerable
to the company for the revenues or rents of the di-
ftrifts \ and excepting the circumllances of remitting
their revenues to the company, have not the leaft con¬
nexion with the Efiglift) in any refpeX. At the time
we fpeak of, however, a writ upon an aXion of debt
was iflued out to arreft one of thefe zemindars in his
palace. Timely notice, however, was given, by one Company
of the company’s colleciors, of this attempt to the —y—
governor and council, and application made to proteX
a man of fuch quality from the difgrace of an arreft.
They being unanimoufly of opinion that the zemin*
dar was not within the jurifdiXion of the court of
Calcutta, defired him to pay no regard to the writ.
The court, however, determined to enforce their pro-
cefs by a writ of fequeftration ; upon which the na¬
tives, who are fuperftitiouily attached to their zemin¬
dars, rofe in his defence, and infulted the flienff’s of¬
ficers. The latter having obtained a reinforcement,
the zemindar’s palace was entered by 86 men armed
with bludgeons, cutlaffes, and mulkets 5 the apartment
of his women, always held inviolably facred by the
Afiatics, was broken open j his temple profaned \ and
the image, which was the objeX of his worftiip, put
into a balket, and carried off with fome common lum¬
ber. This roufed the attention of the governor and
council 5 who, from a full conviXion of the ruinous
tendency of thefe proceedings, determined at laft to
oppofe it force by force. They accordingly fent a par¬
ty of military to apprehend the flieriff’s people, and
they were all conduXed prifoners to Calcutta. The
judges ordered attachments againft the officers who
commanded the troops, and againft two other fervants
of the company j while the governor and council en¬
deavoured to juftify their proceedings, by writing to
England as already mentioned.
Befides all this, the natives themfelves teftified their
difapprobation of the conduX of the fupreme court in
very ftrong terms. A petition to his Britannic ma-
jefty was fent by the natives of Patna ; in which are
the following remarkable paffages : “ When the ordi¬
nances of this court of judicature were iflued, as they
were all contrary to the cuftoms, modes, ufages, and
inftitutions, of this country, they occafioned terror in
us j and day by day, as the powers of this court have
become more eftabliftied, our ruin, uneafmefs, diflro-
nour, and difcredit, have accumulated ; till at laft we
are reduced to fuch a fituation, that we eonfider death
to us as infinitely preferable to the dread we entertain
of the court: for from this court no credit, no charac¬
ter is left to us, and we are now driven to the laft ex¬
tremity. Several who poflefled means and ability
deeming flight as their only fecurity, have banifhed
thetafeives from the country; but bound as ive are by
poverty and inability, and fettered by the deareft ties
of confanguinity, we do not all of us poflefs the means
of flight, nor have we power to abide the oppreffiori of
this court.”—“ If, which God forbid ! it fhould fo
happen, that this our petition ftiould not be accepted,
and ffiould be rejeXed at the chamber of audience,
thofe amongft us who have power and ability, difcard-
ing all affeXion for our families, will fly to any quar¬
ter we can } whilft the remainder, who have no means
or ability, giving themfelves up with pious refignation
to their fate, will fit down in expeXation of death.”
Thefe repeated complaints could not but be taken
notice of in parliament. On the I2th of February
1781, General Smith made a motion in the houfe of
commons, that the petition from the Britifli inhabi¬
tants of Bengal, Bahar, and Orifla, fhould be taken
into confideration by a feleX committee, confifting of
1 <; perfons, chofen by ballot. In the introduXion to
his
COM
Company. Ills motion, he ftated briefly the bad condufV of the
—“Y—— fupreme court in the particulars already related ; and
concluded, that the affairs of Bengal required the im¬
mediate attention and confideration of parliament. The
matter was accordingly debated $ when, after various
propofals, a motion was at length made by General
Smith, for leave to bring in a bill “ to explain and
amend fo much of an a£t paffed in the 13th year of
his prefent majefty, for the better regulation of the
Eafl India Company, as related to the adminiftration
of juflice in Bengal : and alfo to indemnify the go¬
vernor and council of Bengal for having refifted by
force of arms the execution of an order of the fupreme
court of judicature in that kingdom.” Leave was ac¬
cordingly given to bring in the bill. The houfe hav¬
ing refolved itfelf into a committee, Lord North ob-
ferved, “ that it had been much his wifh that an agree¬
ment for the renewal of the company’s charter had been
made in an amicable manner; and that voluntary pro-
pofitions fhould have come from themfelves, offering
terms for the benefit of the exclufive trade and the ter¬
ritorial acquifitions. Nofuch terms, however, had been
propofed, nor any agreement made. A negociation had
indeed taken place between him and the chairman and
deputy-chairman ; but the propofitions made by them
were neither fueh as the public might expeft, nor had
the company any right to them. With regard to the
territorial poffefllons, he was clearly of opinion, that
they of right belonged to the public; though how far
it might be proper to allow the revenue of them to re¬
main in the poffeflion of the company was quite ano¬
ther matter. In his opinion it would be proper to
allow it to remain in their hands as long as they pof-
feffed an exclufive trade, but he never would confent
to forego the claim of the public. He made a mo¬
tion, therefore, “ that it was the opinion of the com¬
mittee, that three-fourths of the furplus of the nett
profits of the Eaft India Company, ever fince the com¬
pany’s bond debt was reduced to 1,500,000!. and the
company’s dividends had been eight per cent, per an¬
num, belong to the public ; and that 600,000k in lieu
thereof, and in difcharge of all claims on that part of
the public, be paid into his majeffy’s exchequer by in-
flalments, in fuch manner, and at fuch times, as (hall be
agreed on.” This propofal was vehemently oppofed by
the minority. Mr Burke called it the daring effort of
a minifter determined on rapine and plunder, without
regard to truth, honour, or juft ice. Mr Huffey repro¬
bated the idea of taking 6oo,oool. from the company
in their circumftances at that time. He produced
a paper full of arithmetical calculations, which he
read to the houfe ; afferting that they contained an ex-
aft ftate of the amount of the company’s exports and
imports, the expences of their trade at home, and the
balance of profit of each year, for many years paft, di-
ftinguiftiing the territorial from the commercial income
and expences. From thefe he (bowed, that the com¬
mercial and territorial revenues of the company had,
upon an average for 16 years, conftituted a fum equi¬
valent to a proportion of 16 per cent.; that 9 per cent,
of this had arifen from the commercial profits accruing
to the company ; and therefore, that there had not
been 8 per cent, divided upon that part of the profits to
which the public had any claim or pretenfion. The
soceflion of territorial poffeffzons, he obferved, had
Vox. VI. Part I.
COM
brought along with it additional expences; and the
public had already received a very large (hare of the
company’s profits. He declared it to be his opinion,
that the company (hould always make it a rule to give
as ample and lull relief to the public burdens as their
fituation would allow j and if they did this, he faw no
reafon why the minifter (hould exaft any more. Mr
Dempfter reminded the houfe of the confequences of
violating the American charters ; and added, that to
tear from the company by force what was not ftipula-
ted in any aft of parliament, would be a breach of
public faith difgraceful to the nation, and fuch as
would damp the fpirit of enterprife and adventure,
which had been produftive of fuch happy effefts. 
Notwithftanding thtfe remonftrances, however, the bill
was at laft paffed into a law ; only with this mitigation,
that the company (hould pay only 400,000!. inftead
of 6oo,oool. demanded originally bv the minifter.  
Another bill was alfo paffed the fame year, in conle-
quence of the motion made by General Smith. This
aft declared, that the governor-general and council of
Bengal were not fubjeft to the jurifdiftion of the fu¬
preme court, and indemnified the former for the re¬
finance they had made to the orders of that court. It
enafted al(b, that no perfon (hould be fubjeft to the
jurifdiftion of that court on account of his being a
landholder or farmer of land in the provinces of Ben¬
gal, Bahar, or Oriffa ; that no judicial officers in the
country courts (hould be liable to aft ions in the fu¬
preme court for their decifions; and the two mufties,
with Behader Beg, who were then in prifon, in con-
fequence of the. decifion of that court in the Patna
caufe, were ordered to be fet at liberty.
The debates on this fubjeft: were attended with the
moft violent charges againft the minifter, and affertions
the moft humiliating and difgraceful to the Britifh na¬
tion. Mr Townffiend affirmed, that it was from the
minifter’s fcreening the delinquents who came from In¬
dia that all the evils in that quarter had originated ;
and if matters were fufferefi to go on in that country
as they had done for fome time paft, the cgnduft of
the Britifti in the Eaft Indies muft be viewed in a light
ft ill more deteftable than that of (he Spaniards in A-
merica. It was reported, that the nabob of Arcot had
feveral members in the houfe of commons! If it were
true, that by fending over a fum of money to Eng¬
land he could feat eight or ten members in that houle
then Mr Townftnnd declared, that in his opinion they
were the moft abjeft and contemptible beings in the
world.— The bill for regulating the powers of the fu¬
preme court, alfo, though fo evidently founded in rea¬
fon and juftice, did not pafs without oppofition, par¬
ticularly from Mr Dunning ; who was thought1 on
this occafion to have allowed his regard for his friend
Sir Elijah Impey, the chief juftice, to bias him too
much.
The regulations juft mentioned did not yet put an end
to the troubles of the Eaft India Company, nor al¬
lay the ferment which had been fo effeftually excited.
Their affairs were (till a fubjeft of parliamentary djf-
cuffion ; and in the month of April 1782, a motion was
made by Mr Dundas, then lord advocate of Scotland
for taking into confideration the fevera! reports concern¬
ing affairs, which had been made by the fecret commit¬
tee appointed to inquire into them during the laft and
^ x prefent
r 345 ]
C O M r 34^ 1 COM
Company, prefent feffion of parliament. In bis fpeech on this 00
cafion, he remarked, that the opinion of Lord Clive
had been againft keeping too extenfive a territory
in that country. Inftead of this he had reflored Sujah
Dowlah to the poffeffion of his country 5 confidering
the Brititn territories in Hindoftan, with thofe on the
coad of Coromandel and Bombay, as fufficient for all
the purpofes by which this country could be benefited j
but inftead of adhering to the maxims of found policy
laid down by his lordthip, they had become fo ambi¬
tious of extending their territories, that they had in¬
volved themfelves in a war with almoft all India. He
then confidered the finances of the company. 1 he re¬
venue of Bombay, he faid, fell ftiort of the necefi'ary
civil and military eftablilhment by 200,000!. a-year,
which was annually drawn from Bengal. W ith regard
to that of Madras, it appeared on an average ot. 12
years, from 17^? *779> that there had been eight
years of war and only four of peace j and that, during
the whole time of war, the revenue had not been able
to fupport the civil and military eftabliftiments j though
in time of peace, it was able to do nearly one-ha.f
more. Bengal, however, was the mofl lucrative of all
the Eaft India fettlements ; but fuch had been the ex¬
igences of the Mahratta war, that the governor-general
had been obliged to contraft a very large debt, info-
much, that it was doubtful whether the inveftments for
England ihould be wholly or partially fufpended. Mr
Haftings, he faid, had in many inftances proved him-
felf a very meritorious fervant : but he wilhed that
every one of their fervants would confider himfelf as
bound in the firft place to prove a faithful fteward to
the company •, not to fancy that he was an Alexander
or Aurengzebe, and prefer frantic military exploits to
the improvement of the trade and commerce of his
country.—General Smith obferved, that by the evi¬
dence produced to the committee, it appeared that
there had been a variety of great abufes in India. Sir
Elijah Impey, his majefty’s chief juftice in that coun¬
try, had fo far derogated from the charader of a judge,
as to accept of a place from the company; by which
means he was brought under their controul, and con-
fequently allowed himfelf to be deprived of that inde¬
pendence which he ought to poft'efs as a judge. Ju¬
ftice had been fo partially adminiftered, that feveral
worthy and refpeaable perfons had been imprifoned,
fome had been ruined, and others died in jail. From
all which confiderations he moved, that the affairs ^of
the company ought to be taken into confideration by
a committee pf the whole houfe. Some hints were
thrown out by Mr Dundas, that the territorial pof-
feflions in the Eaft ought to be taken from the com¬
pany entirely, and put" under the direftion of the
crown ; but this was oppofed by Mr Fox, as furnilh-
ino- minifters with fuch ample means of corruption and
undue influence, as might overthrow the conftitution
entirely. For this reafon, he thought it would be
more prudent to leave the appointment of its own fer¬
vants to the company ; but at the fame time to keep
a watchful eye over them, in order to be able to pu-
nilh and remove thofe who (hould be found delin¬
quent.
The houfe having refolved itfelf into a committee,
a motion was made by General Smith, “ That Warren
Haftings, Efq. governor-general of Bengal, and Sir
Elijah Impey, the chief juttice, appear to have been Company. I
concerned, the one in giving, the other in receiving,  »—L
an oflice not agreeable to the late aft for regulating
the company’s affairs ; Avhich unjuftifiable tranfadftion
was attended with circumftances ot evil tendency and
example.” Refolutions were alfo palled tor afcertain-
ing more diftin&ly the powers of the governor-general
and council of Bengal ; and votes of cenfure againft
Laurence Sullivan, Efq. chairman of the Eaft India
Company, for having negledled to tranfmit to India
an a£l for explaining and amending the a6l for regulat¬
ing the affairs of the company, and for the relief of
certain perfons imprifoned at Calcutta. Among the
number of this gentleman’s tranfgreffiuns, alfo, was his
impofing an oath of fecrecy on Mr Wilkes, one of the
company’s clerks ; and eipecially his reftraining him
from giving information to a leledl committee ot the
houfe of commons.
Mr Dundas having made feveral motions tending
to criminate Sir Thomas Rumbold, formerly gover¬
nor of Bengal, a bill was brought in and palled into
a law, for reftraining him and Peter Perring, Efq*
from going out of the kingdom for the fpace ot one
year, for difcovering their eftates, &c. An addrefs
was alio prefented to the king, requefting him to re-
cal Sir Elijah Impey from India, in order to anfwer
for high crimes and mifdemeanours. A number of
other refolutions were now paffed by the houfe, in
confequence of motions by Mr Dundas, and which
were founded on the reports of the fecret committee.
Among thefe it was refolved, “ That the orders of
the court of diredlors of the Eaft India Company,
which have conveyed to their fervants abroad a prohi¬
bitory condemnation of all fchemes of conquelt and
enlargement of dominion, by prefcribing certain rules
and boundaries for the operation of their military
force, were founded no lefs in wifdom and policy than,
in juftice and moderation. That every tranfgreffion
of thefe orders, without evident neceffity, by any of
the feveral governments in India, has been highly
reprehenfible, and tended in a great degree to weaken
the force and influence, and to diminilh the influence
of the company in thofe parts. That every inttrfe-
rence of the company as a party in the domeftic or na¬
tional quarrels of the country powers, and all new
engagements with them in offenlive alliance, have
been wifely and providentially forbidden by the com¬
pany in their commands to their adminiftrations in In¬
dia. That every unneceffary deviation from thefe
rules ftiould be feverely reproved and puniftied. 1 hat
the maintenance of an inviolable character for modera¬
tion, good faith, and fcrupulous regard to treaty,
ought to have been the fimple grounds on which the
Biitifh government fhould have endeavoured to efla-
blith an extenfive influence, fuperior to that of other
Europeans ; and that the danger and difcredit arifing
from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence, could not be
compenfated by the temporary fuccefs of any plan of
violence and injuftice. That Ihould any relaxation take
place, without fufficient caufe, in thofe principles of
good government on the part of the dire&ors themfelves,
it would bring upon them, in a heavier degree, the re-
fentment of the legiflative power of their country.
That the conduft of the company, and their fervants
in India, in various inftances fpecified, was contrary
COM [ 3
Company, lo pohcy and good faith; the company’s feryants in
  ^   their prefidency of Bombay, had been guilty of notori¬
ous inftances of difobedience to the orders of their em¬
ployers, particularly in forming an alliance with Ka-
gobah, or Ragonaut Row : that they had undertaken,
without any adequate military force, or certainty of a
fufficient revenue, and without proper communication
with the fuperior government upon which they were
to depend for fanftion and fupport, to reinftate the
ufurper above mentioned, and thereby to involve them-
felves in a war with the ruling minifters of the Mahrat-
ta ftate, while Ragobah himfelf was not in the mean
time able to give the company any fecure poffeflion of
the grants he had made to them for the purchafe of
their afliftance. That it was the opinion of the houfe,
that all the difafters in which the Britilh empire in the
Eaft was involved had proceeded from the unjuftifi-
able manner in which the Mahrattas had been treated,
and the conduft of the Madras presidency in other re-
fpefts fpecified. That it is the opinion of this houfe,
that it muft be reckoned among the additional mif-
chiefs arifing chieflv from the improvident war with
the Mahrattas, that the military force of the Carnatic
had been weakened by reinforcements fent to the Ma¬
labar coaft : that the Bengal government had been un¬
der a neceffitv of fupporting, on their confines, the ar¬
my of a power confederated againft them (a) : that
they had been under the neceffity. of filing for the me¬
diation of the fame power : and fubmitted to a retu¬
fa]. and purchafed at lad an uncertain, becaufe appa¬
rently an unauthorized, treaty, on moft extravagant and
di(honourable conditions, with Chimnagee the rajah
of Berar’s fon : and finally, that being burdened with
the expences of a variety of dilfant expeditions, while
their albes were in diftrefs, and their tributaries under
oppreffion, there was alfo an alarming deficiency in the
refources of revenue and commerce, by the accumula¬
tion of their debt, and the redu&ion of their infeft-
ment. That it was the opinion of the houfe, that an
attempt made by the governor-general, in the begin¬
ning of January 1781, to forrn an engagement of alli¬
ance, ofFenfive and defenfive, with the Dutch Eafl India
Company, in the manner dated, by the proceedings of
their council, was unwarranted, impolitic, extravagant,
and unjud.”
Thefe fevere cenfures extended even to the directors
themfelves, whofe condufl on fome occafions was de¬
clared to be indefenfible, as well as that of their fer-
vants and aorents. It was alfo refolved, "1 hat War¬
ren Hadings, Efq. governor-general of Bengal, , and
William Hornlbv, Efq. prefident of the council of
Bombay, having, in fundry indances, a&ed in a man¬
ner •■enugnant to the honour and policy of tnis nation,
and thereby brought great calamities on India, and
enormous expences on the Incna company, it was the
duty of the dire&ors to purfue all legal and effe&ual
means for the removal of the faid governor general
and nrefident from their offices, and to recal them to
Britain.”
The commons having thus ferioufly entered into a
confideration of Eaft India affairs, foon found ftill
47 ] COM
more abundant reafon for cemure. It was difcover- Cotnpan;
ed, that corruption, fraud, and injufiice had pervaded   
every department. It had become an object with the
fervants of the company to opprefs the natives by every,
poffible method. I hey monopolifed, every article ot
trade, and feemed to have*no other principle of com¬
merce but lawlefs violence: the court of directors
fent out inftruftions ; but tor the moft part without
any effea. Though the delegated adminiftration of
India ought to have preferved the flriaeit obedience to
that of Britain 5 yet, being at fo great a diftance from
the feat of Cupreine authority, and being poffefled of
endlefs means of abufe, it had become corrupt in an
extreme degree. Inftead of being fubfervient to go¬
vernment at home, the adroiniftration of India affec¬
ted independence. 1 he maxims of Mr Mailings were
arbitrary ^ and he feemed to have no inclination to
obey. He treated with fovereign contempt the au¬
thority of the court of directors; and the confufion
produced by the difputes between them were fofter-
ed by the body of India proprietors, who were dif-
pofed to a£f as a check upon the diredlors, I he
neceffity of new regulations in the government of In¬
dia wTas univeifally admitted j and a bill for this
purpofe was accordingly brought in by Mr Dun-
das. His propofitions were, that the governor and
council of Bengal ftiould have a controuling power
and jurifdi&ion over the inferior prefidencies of
India ; and he was of opinion that the governor-gene¬
ral ftiould be invefted with a power to ad even againft
the will and opinion of the council, whenever he
ftiould imagine that, by fo doing, he could contribute
to the public good j though, in thefe cafes, he alone
ftiould be refponfible for the event. With regard to
the inferior governors, though he did not think it pro¬
per that they fhould be authorized to ad contrary to
the advice of the council, he wTas of opinion, that they
ought to have a right of negativing every propofition,
until application was made to the governor-general and
council of Bengal. With regard to the zemindar.ies
and other tenures of land, he obfervtd, that when Kin-
doftan had been conquered by the Moguls, a tribute
was impofed upon the zemindars j and while tney
continued to pay this tribute, they accounted them¬
felves to be the real proprietors and mafters of the
lands they pnffelTed. The people called ryots, to whom
thefe zemindaries were lent out, confidered themfelves
Jikewife as fecure in their poffefiions while they per¬
formed the articles of their refpedive contrads. Of
late, however, thefe rights had been infringed ; and
the Mogul came to confider himfelf as the abfolute
matter of all the foil of Indoftan", which maxim he
was inclined to deftroy, and errd upon it another, that
might fecure the landholders in their property. He
propofed to fecure the nabob of Arcot and rajah of
Tanjore in their territories, by making an ad of
parliament in favour of the latter ; but was of opi¬
nion, that the debts of thefe princes ought not to be
too nicely inquired into, as the greateft part of them
originated in corruption. He was clearly of opinion,
however, that Governor Haftings ought to be recall-
X x 2 ed 5
(a) The power here alluded to was Movedajee Boofia, rajah of Berar. See Indostan.
COM f 348 1 COM
Company, ed •, and that fteps ought to be taken to prevent the
"v ' court of proprietors from prefuming to a£t in contra-
di it inftion to parliament. Lord Cornwallis appeared
to be the moft proper fucceflbr to Mr Haltings. His
perfonal honour, and that of his anceftors, were pled¬
ges for his good behaviour j and being independent in
his fortune, he could have no view of repairing his
eftate out of the fpoils of India ; and from his profef-
fjon, he could add to the charafter of governor that of
commander in chief; he would not, however, infill on
Ins name being filled up in the bill, as that would reft
more properly with government.
Mr Haftings was defended by Governor Johnftone,
who endeavoured to ridicule the arguments and pro-
pofals of Mr Dundas. He obferved, to the honour
of the former, that he had been able to conclude a
peace with the Mahrattas ; and while he enlarged on
his talents for negociation, he admired the refources
with which he had fupplied the expences of the war.
It ought to be confidered that Mr Haftings was in a
fituation the moft difficult, and that no man could have
full ained it with more fortitude and ability. His ene¬
mies had dealt in infinuation and inveclive ; but when
the hour of trial came, they would find that their charges
w mid be refuted with equal eafe. He was defended alfo
by Mr Dempfter, who advifed the houfe feriouflv to
think before they palled a vote for the removal of Mr
Ha Rings. His exertions had been extraordinary ; and
it would then be as ridiculous to fuperfede him, as it
would have been to recal General Elliot, when the
Spaniffi batteries were playing againft Gibraltar. He
was not, however, an advocate for all the meafures of
Mr Haftings ; his errors might be numerous ; but no
cenfure of him ftiould be eftabliffied before they were
pointed out and explained.
Mr Dundas having now obtained leave to bring
in his bill, another was moved for by Sir Henry Flet¬
cher, “ That leave be given to bring in a bill to dif-
charge and indemnify the united company of mer¬
chants trading to the Eaft Indie*, from all damages,
interefts, and Ioffes, in refpeft to their not making re¬
gular payment of certain fums due to the public, and
to allow farther time to fuch payment ; to enable the
company alfo to burrow a certain fum of money, and
to make a dividend for the proprietors of four per cent,
at midfummer 1783.” He endeavoured to fhow,
that the public had derived very confiderable advan¬
tages from the company ; that their dividend had
been 81. 4*. annually during the time of peace, and
7I. I 5s. per cent, during war ; they were by no means
in a ftate of infolvency, as fome members had en¬
deavoured to prove, their prefent application pro¬
ceeding only from a temporary embarraffment. A
new difpute took place eoncerning Mr Haftings, who
was warmly attacked by Mr Burke, and defended by
Governor Johnftone. The former enlarged on the
bloodffied, ravages, and rapacity, which bad taken
place in India. The eftablifhed fyftem of the fervants
of the company, he faid, was rapine and robbery. The
Mahratta war was occafioned by their refufal to be
robbed ; the famine at Madras was occafioned by the
mifconduft of the Engliffi government in India ; and
he fet forth in ftrong colours the manner in which the
Indian princes and princeffes had been plundered. He
inftanced, that Mr Haftings had raifed. 8oo,oool. in.
1
Bengal by private loan ; and ufed it as an argument Company.
that the company had ceafed to exift, and that their v—-
Commerce was nothing more than an inftruraent for
procuring immenfe fortunes to individuals, totally de-
ftitute of confcience or principle.
All this was excufed by Governor Johnftone. He
regarded the fum of 8oo,oool. as merely trifling,
when the number of civil and military fervants on the
Bengal government was confidered. The famine at
Madias was owing to the modes of war which pre¬
vailed in the Eaft ; as the enemy there marked their
courfe by deflation. He concluded with cenfuring
the manner in which Mr Haflings had beenfpoken of;
and infilled that his high reputation ought to have
guarded him from fuch infults. Mr Burke replied by
an intimation of his defign to impeach Mr Haftings on
his return ; whom he called the greateft delinquent
that had ever violated in India the rights of humanity
and juftice.
It was obferved by Lord John Cavendifti, that the
territorial acquifitions of the company were a fruitful
fource of grievance; and it would have been more for
their advantage to have confined themftlves to their
original character of merchants. However, as the ter¬
ritorial acquifitions had been obtained, it was proper to
take means for their prefervation ; as otherwife they
would not revert to the natives, but fall into the hands
of our natural enemies the French.
In the houfe of peers the caufe of the company was
ably defended by Earl Fitzwilliam. He maintained,
that their fituation was defperate, and bankruptcy ine¬
vitable, unlefs relief was inftantly afforded. A report
of their being in an infolvent ftate had gone abroad,
and nothing was better calculated to preferve and fup-
port their credit than a large dividend fandtioned by
adl of parliament. The expenditure on their fettle-
ments had far exceeded their revenue ; of confequence
their fervants had drawn bills, which they were unable
to anfwer without a temporary fupply. Thus the ex-
iftence of the company might be faid to depend on the
bill ; and lie hoped no objections could be raifed ftrong
enough to deftroy it.
On the 18th of November 1783, Mr Fox propofed
his celebrated Eaft India bill, which for fome time
attradled the attention of the nation at large in a very
confiderable degree. By this it was intended to take
from the India proprietors and directors the entire ad-
miniftration of their territorial and commercial affairs.
It took from them alfo their houfe in Leadenhall-
ftreet, together with all books, papers, and documents ;
veiling the entire management, the appointment of all
officers and fervants, the rights of peace and war, and
the difpofal of the whole revenue, in the hands of cer¬
tain commiffioners. Thefe were, in the firft inftance,
to be appointed by the whole legiflature, but after¬
wards by the crown ; and were to hold their offices by
the fame tenure as the judges in England, viz. during
their good behaviour ; and could be removed only by
an addrefs from one of the houfes of parliament. They
were required to come to a decifion upon every que-
ftion within a limited time, or to affign a fpecific rea-
fon for their delay. They were never to vote by bal¬
lot ; and, almoft in every cafe, were to enter the rea-
fon of their vote in their journals. They were alfo tm
fubmit, once every fix months, an exaCt flate of their
accounts
C O M
Company, accounts to the court of proprietors ; and at the be-
T““~ ginning of every feflion, a ftate of their accounts and
eftablifhments to both houfes of parliament. Their
number was limited to feven ; but they were to be af-
fifted by a board of nine perfons, each of them poflef-
fed of 2000I. company’s flock j who, as well as the
commiffioners, were to be appointed in the firft in-
ftance by parliament, and ever afterwards by the court
of proprietors. They were alfo to be removeable at
the pleafure of any five commiflioners, and were dif-
qualified from fitting in the houfe of commons. The
whole fyltem of government thus propofed, was to con¬
tinue for the fpace of three or five years.
This was accompanied with another bill, the pro-
fefled defign of which was to preclude all arbitrary and
defpotic proceedings from the adminiftration of the
company’s territorial poffeflions. By this the powers
of the governor-general and fupreme council were af-
certained more exaflly than had hitherto been done :
it deprived the governor-general of all power of a£t-
ing independent of his council $ profcribed the dele¬
gation of a>’,y trull 5 and declared every Britilh pow'er
in the Eafl incompetent to the acquifition or exchange
of any territory in behalf of the company, to the ac¬
ceding to any treaty of partition, the hiring out of
the company’s troops, the appointing to office any
perfon removed for mifdemeanour, or to the hiring
out any property to a civil fervant of the company.
By this alfo monopolies were entirely aboliffiedj and
illegal prefents recoverable by any perfon for his foie
benefit. The principal part of the bill, however, re¬
lated to the zemindars, or native landholders, who
were now to be fecured by every poffible means in the
pofieflion of their refpeflive inheritances, and defend¬
ed in all cafes from opprefiion. Laftly, a mode was
prefented for terminating the difputes between the
nabob of Arcot and the rajah of Tanjore ; difqualify-
ing every perfon in the fervice of the company from
fitting in the houfe of commons during his continuance
in their fervice, and for a certain fpecified time after
his demiffion.
During the courfe of the debates on this bill, Mr
Fox fet forth the affairs of the company as in the moll
defperate fituation. They had alked leave, he faid,
the year before, to borrow 500,000!. upon bonds j
had petitioned for 300,000!. in exchequer bills ; and
for the fufpenfion of a demand of 700,000!. due to
government for culloms. He took notice alfo, that,
according to an a£l of parliament Hill in force, the
dire£lors could not, by their own authority, accept
bills to the amount of more than 300,000!. ; under
which circumftances it would no doubt furprife the
houte to be informed, that bills were now coming
over for acceptance to the amount of 2,ooo,oool. It
was evidently, therefore, and indifpenfablv neceffary,
that government ffiould interfere in the affairs of the
company to fave them from certain bankruptcy. He
Hated their adlual debt at no lefs than 11,200,ooal.
while their Hock in hand did not exceed 3,200,000!.
I here was therefore a deficiency of 8,ooo,cool. 5 a
moll alarming fum when compared with the compa¬
ny’s capital. Unltfs fpeedily affilled, therefore, they
mull inevitably be ruined j and the ruin of a company
of merchants fo extenlive in their concerns, and of
fuch importance in the eyes of all Europe, cowld not
C O M
but give a very fevere blow to the national credit. Compai.y.
On the other hand, the requifite affiltance was a mat-
ter of very extenfive confideration. It would be ab-
folutely neceffary to permit the acceptance of the bills
to the above mentioned amount ; and to do this without
regulating their affairs, and reforming the abufes of
their government, would only be to throw away the
public money.
The conduft of the company’s fervants, and of the
company itfelf, was now arraigned by Mr Fox in the
moll fevere terms j and their mifcondu&s were pointed
©ut under their following heads :
1. With regard to Mr Haftings.—The chairman
of the committee had moved in the houfe of com¬
mons, that it was the duty of the company to recal
that gentleman ; to which motion the houfe had a-
greed. In obedience to this refolution, the diredlors
had agreed that Mr Haftings ffiould be recalled j but
fuppofing this to be a matter rather beyond their ju-
rifdiflion, they had fubmitted their determination to a
court of proprietors, who refcinded the refolution of
the diredlors ; and after this the whole affair came to
be laid before the houfe of commons. In the mean
time every thing was anarchy and confufion in the
Ealt, owing to this unfettled condufl with regard to
the governor j as the whole continent had been made
acquainted with the refolution of the houfe for recal¬
ling him, while that of the proprietors for continuing
him in his office was kept a fecret. The proprietors
had alfo been guilty of another contradiclion in this
refpedl, as they had voted their thanks to Mr Haft¬
ings for his conduct in India. Hence Mr Fox was
led to comment on the nature of the company’s con¬
nexions with their fervants abroad, as well as on the
charafter of the company themfelves. Among the
former, he faid, there were a few, who, being pro¬
prietors themfelves, endeavoured to promote the trade
of the company, and increafe its revenues. The views
of the reft were otherwife directed ; and from the dif¬
ference in fpeculation between the two parties, the
former were inclined to fupport that governor who
enabled them to make large dividends ; and who, for
that reafon, after having peculated for his own advan¬
tage, was obliged to do the fame for the benefit of the
proprietors. The latter, therefore, could not better
gratify their wiffies, than by fupporting a governor who
had in his power fo many opportunities of providing for
his friends.
2. The next charge was againft the fervants of the
company, whom he accufed of a regular and fyftema-
tic difobedience to the orders of the proprietors.—
The fupreme council of Bengal, he faid, had refolved,
in oppofition to Mr Haftings, to fend two gentlemen,
Mr Fowke and Mr Briftow, the one to relide with
the nabob of Oude, the other at Benares. Mr Haft¬
ings, however, refufed to fend them j the dirtdtors
tranfmitted the moft politive orders to carry the vote
of the fupreme council into execution j but ftill Mr
Haftings difobeyed ; alleging in his defence, that he
could not employ perfons in whom he had no confi¬
dence. Afterwards, however, Mr Haftings feemed to
contradict bimfelf in a very curious manner. He
granted Mr Fowke a contraCl, with a commiffion of
5 per cent. $ which, he obferved, was a great fum,
and might operate as a temptation to prolong the was.
“ Bufc
[ 349 1
COM [3
Company. “ But (added he) the entire confidence I have in the
integrity and honour of Mr Fowke, amounts to a full
end perfefl fecurity on that head.”
To this Mr Fox added fome other inflances of a
fimilar kind y but though he fupported thefc and the
projedle'd bill with all the argument and eloquence for
which he was fo remarkable, he found it impoffible to
make his fcheme agreeable to the majority of the
houfe. The ftrongeft opponent was Mr William Pitt,
who infilled chiefly on the two following topics. 1. Its
infringement, or rather annihilation of the company’s
charter ; and, 2. The new and unconflitutional in¬
fluence it tended to create. He owned, indeed, that
India flood in need of a reform, but not fuch a one
as broke through every principle of juftice and reafon.
The charter of the company was a fair purchafe from
the public, and an equal compaft for reciprocal advan¬
tages between the proprietors and the nation at large $
but if it was infringed in the manner propofed by the
bill, what fecurity could other trading companies have
that they fhould not be treated in the fame manner ?
nay, what fecurity could there be for Magna Charta
ilfelf ? The bill, he faid, amounted to a confiscation
of property. It had been fuggefled, indeed, that it
was not a bill of disfranchifement, becaufe it did not
take from the proprietors their right to an exclufive
trade ; but this was not the only franchife of the pro¬
prietors. A freehold might have a franchife annexed
to it, the latter of which might be taken away, and
yet the property of the former remain ; in which cafe
it could not be denied that the freeholders would have
great caufe to complain. The cafe was exadtly pa¬
rallel with the India fitock. Perforis pofiefTed of this
to a certain amount, were entitled to a vote upon every
important quefiion of the company’s affairs ; and on
this account the purchafe-money was more confider-
able. But, by the bill in queffion, this privilege was
to be taken away 3 which plainly amounted to a dif-
franchifement.
The great obje&ion to this bill, however, feeined to
be a fufpiclon that it was a fcheme of Mr Fox to gra¬
tify his own perfonal ambition as a miniller, he being
at that time fecretary of (late. On this account he
was deferted even by the patriotic members, who, up¬
on former oecafions, had fo flrenuouffy fupported his
caufe.—Mr Dundas accufed him of attempting to
create a fourth eftate in the kingdom, the power and
influence of which might overturn the crown and fub-
vert the cortftitution of Britain. A petition was pre-
fented from the proprietors, and another from the di-
reflors of the company, reprefenting the bill as lub-
verfive of their charter, and conf.fcating their pro¬
perty, without either charge of delinquency, trial, or
convi&ion. They prayed, therefore, that the adds of
delinquency prefumed againft them might be flated in
writing, and a reafonable time allowed them to deliver
in their anfwer; and that they might be beard by
counfel againft the bill. About the fame time the
dire&ors gave in a ftate of the company’s affairs, dif¬
fering in the moft extraordinary manner from that
given by Mr Fox. In this they reprefented the credi¬
tor fide of the account as amounting to 14,311.173!.
and thev brought themfelves in debtors to fhe amount
of 10,342,692b; fo that of confequence there was a
balance in their favour of 3,968,481!. This was
4
O ] COM
vehemently contcfted by the fecretary, who faid he
could bring objeddions to the ftatement of the direc¬
tors to the amount of more than I 2,COO,cool, fter-
ling. He then entered into a particular dilcuflion of
•the articles dated in the directors account, and made
good his affeftion. Objections to this method of cal¬
culation, however, were made on the part of the com¬
pany ; fo that nothing could certainly appear to the
public but that the company were at that time much
diftreffed,,and would fail entirely unlefs powerfully tup-
ported by government.
Mr Fox now proceeded to a particular refutation
of the arguments brought againft the bili ; tn which
indeed he difplayed an aftoniftiing force oi argument
and acutenefs of reafoning. The objection drawn
from the validity of the company’s charter, he let
afide, by fhowing that the company had abided their
power, and that it was therefore neceflary to take it
from them. I bis he faid always had been the cafe,
and muft be the cafe in a free nation ; and he brought
the example of James II. who, on account of the
abufe of his power, had been deprived of it by the na¬
tion at large. The cafe was the fame with the com¬
pany. They had made a bad ufe of their power, and
therefore the nation at large ought to deprive them
of it. It had been ohjefled by the country gentle¬
men, that the bill augmented the influence of the crown
too much ; and by Mr Dundas, that it reduced it to
nothing. Both thefe objections, he faid, were overturn¬
ed by the circumftance of making the commiflioners
hold their 1 ffice only during good behaviour, d bus,
when confcious that they were liable to punilhment if
guilty, but fecure in cafe they faithfully difeharged
their truft, they would be liable to no ftduClion, but
would execute their functions with glory to them¬
felves, and for the common good of their country and
of mankind. Fie then drew a comparifun betwixt
his own bill and that of Mr Dundas’s already men¬
tioned. The bill of the la!ter, he faid, had created
a defpotic authority in one man over fome millions of
his fellow-creatures ; not indeed in England, where the
remedy againft oppreffion was always at hand ; but in
the Eaft Indies, where violence, fraud, and mifehief,
everywhere "prevailed. Thus the bill propofed by Mr
Dundas afforded the moft extenfive latitude for mal-
verfation, while his own guarded againft it with every
poflible care ; as was inftanced in its confiding in no
integrity ; trufting in no cbaraCler ; and annexing re-
fponlibility not only to every action, but even to the
inaBion of the powers it created.
After having expatiated for a confiderable time, the
fecretary was feconded by Mr Burke, whofe force of
oratory was chiefly direfted, as indeed it ufually
was when fpeaking of India affairs, on the mon-
ftrous abufe of the company’s power in that quarter.
He affirmed that there was not in India a Angle prince,
ftate, or potentate, with whom the company had come
into contaB, whom they had not fold ; and there was
not a Angle treaty they had ever made which they had
not broken ; and that there was not a Angle prince or
ftate that had ever put any confidence in the company
who had not been ruined. With regard to the firft
articF, Mr Burke inftanced the lale of the Great Mo¬
gul bimfelf; of the Rohillas ; the nabob of Bengal ;
the polygars of the Mahratta empire ; Ragobab, the pre¬
tender
COM [ 3.
Company, tender to that empire ; and the fubah of Decan.—1 he
—-v—frcond article was proved by a review of the tranfac-
tions from the beginning to the end of the Mahratta
war. With regard to the third, viz. the ruin of fuch
princes as put any confidence in the company or their
fervants, he defired them to look into the hiftory and
fituation of the nabob of Oude. In the year 1779, this
country had been vifited by a famine ; a calamity which
had been known to relax the feverity even of the moft
rigorous government ; yet in this fituation the prefi-
dcnt of Bengal had put an abfolute negative upon the
reprefentation of the prince j adding, that perhaps ex¬
pedients might be found for affording him a gradual
relief j but their efifedls mull be diftant. This diilant
relief, however, never arrived, and the country was
ruined.
Our limits will not allow a particular detail of the
charges againft the company on the one hand, or the
defences on the other. In general, it muft appear, that
fuch fevere and heavy charges'could not be advanced
without fome foundation, though perhaps they may
have been confid^rably exaggerated by the orators who
brought them. The picture drawn by Mr Burke on
this occafion indeed was (hocking. “ The Arabs,
Tartars, and Perfians, had conquered Indoftan with
vaft effufion of blood \ while the conquefts of the Eng-
li(h had been acquired by artifice and fraud, rather than
by open force. The Afiatic conquerors, however, had
foon abated of their ferocity 5 and the (hurt life of man
had been fufficient to repair the waife they had occa-
fioned. But with the Englifh the cafe had been en¬
tirely different. Their conquefts were ftill in the fame
ftate they had been 20 years ago. They had no more
foeiety with the people than if they ftill refided in Eng¬
land ; but, with the view of making fortunes, roll¬
ed in one after another, wave after wave ; fo that
there was nothing before the eyes of the natives but
an endlefs profpedl of new flights of birds of prey and
paffage, with appetites continually renewing for a food
that was continually wafting. Every rupee gained by
an Englifhman in India w'as for ever loft to that coun¬
try. With us there wTere no retributory fuperftitions,
by which a foundation of charily compenfated, for
ages, to the poor, for the injuftice and rapine of a day.
With us no pride erefled ftately monuments, which
repaired the mifchiefs pride had occafioned, and adorn¬
ed a country out of its ownfpoils. England had ereft-
ed no churches, no hofpitals, no palaces, no fchools
(the trifling foundation at Calcutta excepted) Eng¬
land had built no bridges, made no high-roads, cut no
navigations, dug no refervoirs. Every other conque¬
ror of every other defcription had left fome monument
either of ftate or beneficence behind him ; but were
we to be driven out of India this day, nothing would
remain to tell that it had been pofTeffed, during the in¬
glorious period of our dominion, by any thing better
than the oran-outang or the tiger !”
All this eloquence, however, was at prefent entire¬
ly ineffe£tual, and the bill was finally reje&ed : much
confufion and altercation enfued, which terminated in
a change of miniftry and diflolution of parliament. On
the 26th of May 1784 a petition from the company
was prefented to the houfe of commons, praying for
filch relief as the nature of their affairs might feem to
demand. This was followed on the 24th of June by
i ] COM
a bill for allowing the company to divide four per cent. Company.
for the half year concluding with midfummer 1784.' v  
This having palled, after fome debate, a new bill was
propofed by Mr Pitt for relieving the company in the
mean time, and regulating their affairs in time to
come. A bill to this purpofe had been brought in
during the laft feflion of the former parliament by
the fame gentleman, which he wilhed to bring to a
comparifon with that of Mr Fox, of which an ac¬
count has already been given. In this bill he began
with laying it down as a principle, that “ the civil
and military government of India, or, in other words,
the imperial dominion of our territories in the Eaft,
ought to be placed under other controul than that of
the merchants in Leadenhall ftreet ; and this controul
could be no other than the executive branch of the
conftitution. The commerce of the company, how¬
ever, ought to be left as free from reftridions as pof-
fible ; and, laftly, capricious effedfs from the govern¬
ment of India upon the conftitution of Britain were
to be carefully avoided. A controul in the executive
branch of the legiflature over the government of India
had indeed been eftablifhed by the regulation bill
of 1773; but the former interference of minifters
had not been beneficial, becaufe it had not been
adfive and vigilant. He now propofed, therefore,
that a board (hould be inftituted exprefsly for the
purpofe. This board was to be appointed by the
king, and to confift of the fecretary of ftate for the
home department, the chancellor of the exchequer,
and a certain number of the privy council. To this
board the difpatches of the company were to be fub-
mitted, and were not to be fent to India until they
were counterfigned by them, io prevent queftions
concerning the commercial and political concerns of
the company, it was propofed, that the difpatehes up¬
on the former fubjeft ihould be fubmitted to the board j
and that, in cafe of any difference, an appeal (hould
be made to the king in council. 1 hough he (Mr Pitt)
had not thought proper to accept of the propofal of
the company" to yield the appointment of foreign
councils to the crown, he was r.everthelefs clearly of
opinion, that the commander in chief ought to be ap¬
pointed by the king. He propofed alfo that this
commander ftiould have a vote in council next to the
prefident •, that the king ftiould be empowered to be-
itow the reverfion of his office j that the king might
recal the governor-general, the prefidents, and any
members of their councils. He yielded the appoint¬
ment of all officers, with the Angle exception he had
dated, to the court of dire&ors, fubjeft, however, to
the approbation of the king ; and that, in cafe of a.
negative, the dire&ors ftiould proceed to a fecond
choice, and fo on. He deprived the court of proprie¬
tors of the privilege of refcinding or altering the
proceedings of the court of direflors : and with re-
fpefl to the foreign government, he was of opinion,
that their authority ftiould comprife in it a confider-
able diferction, accompanied with the reftraint of re-
fponfibility. He propofed, that there ftiould be a re-
vifion of the eftabl’iftiment in India with a view to re¬
trenchments ; that appointments (hould take place
by gradation ; and that a new and fummary tribunal
ftiould be erefted for the trial of offences committed
in that country. With regard to the zemindaries,
though
COM [ 352 ] COM
Company, though he could not help paying a eorftpliment to Mr
Fox, on his intention of reftoring them to their proper
owners, he yet thought that a general and indifcrimi-
nate reftitution was as bad as an indifcriminate confif-
cation. He. therefore propofed that an inquiry fhould
be inftituted for the purpofe of reftoring fueh as
had been irregularly and unjuftly deprived, and that
they fhould in time to come be fecured againft vio¬
lence.
In the bill of 1784 few alterations were made *, and
thefe uniformly tended to enlarge the powers of the
board of controul. They were permitted, in cafes of
emergency, to concert original meafures, as well as to
revife, corre£t, and alter thofe of the direftors. In
matters relative to peace or war, where fecrecy was a
qjrincipal objeft, they were allowed to fend their orders
direftly to India, without any communication with the
<lire6tors ; to the commander in chief without any com¬
munication with the prefidencies ; and the number of
perfons conftituting the different councils of Bengal,
Fort St George, and Bombay, was detenriined.«—The
governor-general and council of Bengal were to have an
abfolute power to ilfue orders to the inferior prefiden¬
cies, in fuch cafes as did not interfere with the direc¬
tions already received from Britain j adding a power of
fufpenfion in cafe of difobedience. The fupreme coun¬
cil were forbidden, unlefs any of the Indian princes
fhould have firft commenced or meditated hoftilities, to
enter upon war, or form an offenfive treaty, without
orders from home. The inferior councils were forbid¬
den in all cafes to form alliances j and in cafes of ur¬
gency, were commanded to infert a provifional claufe,
rendering the permanency of the alliance dependent on
the confirmation of the governor-general.
Various falutary regulations were propofed concern¬
ing the behaviour of the company’s fervants, againft;
whom fo great complaints had been made. Inquiry
was ordered to be made by the different prefidencies in-
• to the expulfions that might have been made of any
of the hereditary farmers, and of the oppreflive rents
and contributions that might have been extorted from
them ; and meafures were dire&ed to be taken for their
relief and future tranquillity. A fimilar examination
was ordered into the different eftablifhments in the
Indian fettlements j a report of which was to be laid
annually before parliament. The company were pro¬
hibited from fending out a greater number of cadets or
writers than what were abfolutely neceffary ; and it was
likewife provided, that the age of fuch as were fent
out, fhould not be lefs than 15, nor more than 22 years.
It was likewife provided, that promotions fhould be
made in the order of feniority, unlefs in extraordinary
cafes ; for which the prefidencies fhould make them-
felves fpecifically refponfible. Crimes committed by
Englifh fubjefts in any part of India, were made amen¬
able to every Britifh court of juftice, in the fame man¬
ner as if they had been committed in Britain. Pre-
fents, unlefs fuch as were abfolutely ceremonial, or given
to a counfellor at law, a phyfician, a furgeon, or a
chaplain, were abfolutely prohibited, under the penalty
of confifcation of the prefent, and an additional fine at
the difcretion of the court. Difobedience of orders,
unlefs abfolutely neceffary, and pecuniary tranfaflions
prejudicial to the interefts of the company, were de¬
clared to be high crimes and mifdemeanors. The com¬
pany were forbidden to interfere in favour of any per- Comninv
fon legally conviffed of any of the above crimes, or to ‘ ^
employ him in their fervice for ever. The governors
of the different prefidencies were alfo permitted to im-
prifon any perfon fufpedfed of illicit correfpondence,
and were ordered to fend them to England with all
convenient fpeed. Every perfon ferving, or who fhould
hereafter ferve in India, was alfo required, on his return
to England, to give an exaft account, upon oath, to
the court of exchequer, of his property, within two
months after his arrival $ one copy of which was to be
kept in the court of exchequer, and the other at the
India-houfe. The board of controul, the court of di¬
rectors, or any three of the proprietors whole flock
fhould amount together to loool. were allowed to
move the court of exchequer to examine the validity
of the account. In cafe of an apparently'well-founded
accufation, the court of exchequer were allowed to ex¬
amine the party upon oath, and even to imprifon him
until the interrogatories propofed to him fhould be an-
fwered. The whole property of a perfon who fhould
negleCl to give in fuch an account within the time li¬
mited, or who fhould have been guilty of a mifrepre-
fentation in that account to the amount of 2000J. Iter-
ling, was ordered to be confifcated } ten per cent, to
be paid to the accufer, and the remainder to be equal¬
ly divided between the public and the company. Every
perfon who had once been employed in India, but had
afterwards refided in Europe for five years, unlefs fuch
refidence had been exprefsly on account of his health,
was declared incapable of ever being Tent out to India
again.
As a farther curb on the company’s fervants, the
attorney-general or court of direClors was authorized
to file an information in the court of king’s bench a-
gainft any perfon for crimes committed in India. That
court was empowered alfo to imprifon or admit the
accufed to bail immediately. It was then ordered,
that within 30 days a certain number of peers fhould
be chofen by the houfe of lords, and of the members
of the houfe of commons by that houfe, to conftitute a
court for the trial of the accuftd. The court was fi¬
nally to confifl: of three judges appointed by the crown,
four peers, and fix members of the houfe of commons j
and the accufed had a right to a peremptory chal¬
lenge. From this court there was no appeal ; and it
was empowered to adjudge the party incapable of ever
ferving the company j to punifh by fine or imprifon-
ment $ and in order to proportion the fine to the pro¬
perty of the convidl, the court of exchequer might
at the requifition of the attorney-general, or of the
company, examine him upon oath concerning the fum
he was worth. A refufal to anfwer was to be punifhed
with confifcation of property, and imprifonment du:ing
pleafure.
With regard to the treatment of delinquents in In¬
dia, Mr Pitt obferved, that at that time we had it not
in our power to punifh them. Either a new procefs
muff therefore be inftituted, or offences, equally fhock-
ing to humanity, and contrary to every principle of
religion and juftice, muft be permitted to continue un¬
checked. Every perfon therefore who went hereafter,
would know the predicament in which he flood j and
would underfland, that by fo doing he agreed to give
up fome of the moft valuable privileges of an Englifh-
man ;
COM [ 353 1 COM
oMpafiy. man: yet in this Tie Would do no more than a very
numerous and honourable body of men, the military,
did daily, without the lead hefitation, or the fmalleft
impeachment of their character.
This bill, fo tremendous in its appearance to the
Company’s fervants, was vehemently oppofed by the
minority. Mr Francis obferved, that it went upon
two principles, viz. the abufe of power abroad, and
the want of it at home. To remedy thefe, Mr Pitt
had propofed to augment the power abroad, and to
diminilh that at home. He condemned the unlimited
power of the commiffioners, and even pretended to
fuppofe that there mull have been fome miftake in the
ftrufture of the claufe ; it being impofTible to think
that it was intended to fet afide the diredlors at home
and the government abroad, in order to throw the
whole power into the hands of a military commander.
Though he approved of the claufe by which fchemes
of conqueft and extenfion of territory were condemned,
he remarked, that it was effentially defective in other
refpe£tsj as alluding to fa£Ts and offences which were
not defcribed, and to criminals whom, fo far from pu-
nilhing, it did not venture to defcribe. With refpeft
to the affair of prefents, he confeffed that his opinion
was rather Angular. He was for an unlimited pro¬
hibition to men in high ftations $ but in the ordinary
tranfa&ions of bufinefs, he was of opinion that they
were ufeful, without giving room for any juft appre-
henfions. The government of India, as it was now
conftituted, was a government of favour, and not of
juftice j and nothing would be done for the natives
Unlefs the perfons who forward their affairs were
gratified. In the mean time, however, the exception
in favour of prefents of ceremony was founded upon
ideas which he knew to be fallacious, and Avas even
calculated to render the prohibition itfelf ufelefs and
ineffedTual. For the purpofe of receiving prefents of
ceremony, all occafions would be fufficiently folemn.
He warmly cenfured alfo the power of imprifonment
given to the refpe&ive prefidencies, and he condemned
the inftitution of the new court of judicature as unne-
ceflary, arbitrary, and dangerous.
By Mr Fox the bill was fo highly difapproved of,
that he objected to the houfe going into a committee
upon it. He endeavoured to (how, that inftead of
diminifhing, it was calculated to increafe the calamities
of the Eaft *, and inftead of reforming, to perpetuate
the abufes fo much complained of. The board of
controul, he faid, provided for a weak government at
home by a divifion of power j and if there were a re¬
ceipt or a noftrum for making a weak government, it
was by giving the power of contriving meafures to one,
and the nomination of the perfons who were to execute
them to another. The negative given to the com-
miflioners operated as a complete annihilation of the
company, and the chartered rights fo much vaunted of.
The bill was a fcheme of dark and delufive art, and
took away the rights of the company by flow and gra¬
dual fap. The firft ftep was originally to contrive
tneafures without the knowledge of the company j and
the next, to convey orders fecretly to India, at the
very time perhaps that the commi(Tinners were openly
giving countenance to orders of a quite different ten¬
dency fent from the direflors. With regard- to the
new tribunal, he confidered it as in truth a fcreen for
Vol. VI. Part I.
delinquents ; fince no man was to be tried but on the
accufation of the company or of the attorney-general ;
in which cafe he had only to conciliate government in
order to remain in perfeft fecurity.
The oppofition of Mr Fox’s party againft this bill
proved as fruitlefs as their efforts had been in favour
of the other. The houfe divided on the fpeaker’s
leaving the chair ‘7 when the motion was carried by a
majority of 215. Still, however, all parts of the bill
were warmly debated. In the courfe of converfation
upon this fubjefl, Mr Dempfter expreffed a wifti that
the king could be requefted to fend over one of his
fons to become fovereign of that country. We might
then enter into a federal union, and enjoy all the bene¬
fits that could be derived from the inhabitants of the
Eaft by Europeans, viz. thofe of commerce. The
claufes relative to the native princes and hereditary
farmers were all withdrawn at the motion of Mr Dun-
das 5 and under the head of prefents, the exception in
favour of thofe of ceremony was withdrawn. That
claufe, which infifted on all perfons returning from
India to give an account of the value of their eftates
upon oath, was feverely cenfured by Mr Dempfter
and Mr Eden j and after fome debate was entirely
withdrawn, as was alfo the idea of making the per-
fon take the oath when required by the board of con¬
troul. Mr Pitt then propofed, that perfons who had
pafled five years in India, and accumulated no more
than 5000I. for that time, or double that fum for the
next five years, (hould be exempted from all profecu-
tions on the fcore of their fortunes. But on a fug-
geftion by Mr Atkinfon, that, in cafe of ficknefs, it
might not be practicable for a perfon arriving from
India to give in an account upon oath in the fpace of
two months j on which fuggeftion a power was grant¬
ed to the court of exchequer for extending the term
from time to time as they (hould think proper. It
had been the original idea of the chancellor, that this
jurifdiftion (hould take place in twelve months j and
it had been objeded, that thus perfons would be de¬
prived of the trial by jury, without time being granted
them to choofe whether they would fubmit to the con¬
dition. Mr Pitt now moved, that no account upon
oath ftiould be required of any perfon who (hould ar¬
rive from India before the firft of January 1787. This
amendment was likewife cenfured by oppofition, as
holding out an indemnity to peculators, and a warning
for them to return within the afligned period. It
was remarked by Mr Sheridan, that by the bill before
the houfe, a perfon who took the oath would be liable
all his lifetime to a profecution for perjury. He could
therefore make no fettlement of his fortune 5 he could
not fell or mortgage his eftate, as nobody would have
any thing to do with a property which was-ftill liable
to conteft and forfeiture. This reprefentation produ¬
ced another amendment, limiting the commencement
of a profecution to the period of three years. The
claufe prohibiting the return of any perfon to India un¬
der certain conditions, was alfo mitigated by two a-
mendments from the chancellor ; one of them exempt¬
ing the officers of the king from its operation ; and the
other permitting the reftoration of any perfon with
the confent of the dire&ors, and three-fourths of the
court of proprietors.
With thefe amendments, the bill finally pafled the
Y y houfe
Cooipaay,
COM [ 354- ) COM
Company, houfe of commons on the 28th of July. On being
■*—carried up to the houfe of lords, it met with a very vi¬
gorous oppofition •, the principal fpeakers againft it
being Lord Stormont and the Earl of Carlifle. The
former animadverted upon the principle of feniority
eftablifhed by it j which he faid was particularly ill-
fuited to the critical pofture of affairs and our prefent
iituation in India; and he alferted, that had fuch a
claufe been in effect at the time that Lord Clive firft
entered into the company’s fervice, there would not
have been an inch of the territorial poffeffions at
prefent belonging to this country. It would damp
the ardour of emulation, check the rifing fpirit of
the youth now in Afia, and that at a time when the.
moft extraordinary talents were neceflary to raife us
from our inaufpicious and ruined condition. He ob¬
jected alfo to the pow'er of recal in the board of con-
troul ; which, he faid, was by no means a fufficient
check upon the company’s fervants in India. The
diftance of time and place, he faid, were fo great,
that a recal from India could not have the lead effeft.
But thefe remonftrances had very little weight with
the houfe : the bill being finally palfed on the 9th of
Auguft.
Some years after this, however, a declaratory law was
found neceflary, in confequence of a controverfy which
had arifen between the board of controul and the com¬
pany. It had been refolved, in the month of Odlober
1787, when his majefty had reafon to be alarmed,
and to look with more than common anxiety to the
fafety and prefervation of every part of the Britifti
dominions, to fend out four additional regiments for
the better proteftion of our Indian pofleflions ; nor
was the defign taken up as a temporary, but with a
view to a permanent, eftabliftiment of his majefty’s
troops in India. At that time, no unwillingnefs to
receive the regiments on board the company’s (hips,
and provide for their fupport in India, had been inti¬
mated by the court of directors 5 but, on the con¬
trary, the meafure had been confidered as a wife one,
and the fuggeftion of it had given univerfal fatisfac-
tion. Since, however, the threatening ftorm had been
difperfed, far different fentiments prevailed. Some of
the directors, at leaft, were of opinion, that unlefs
they made a requifition to government for further mi¬
litary afliftance, they had it in their option to bear, or
to refufe to bear, the xpence of any additional regi¬
ments of his majefty’ ■ army which might be fent to
India j and this opinion feemed to be, in a great mea¬
fure, grounded on the aft of 1781, by which the Eaft
India Company were bound to pay for fuch of his ma¬
jefty’s troops, as had, by their requifition, been fent to
India. This idea had been much agitated without
doors, and the direftors had thought proper to confult
different counfel of eminence on the fubjeft.
In this bufinefs two queftions naturallytarofe:—Firft,
Whether the king had a right to fend his troops to
any part of his dominions ? and, fecondly, If he fent
them to India, who ought to defray the expence ?
That his maiefty had an undoubted right, by his royal
prerogative, to direft the diftribution of his army, no
one could, with any colour of reafon, difpute. I he on¬
ly point, therefore, which offered itfelf for difeuflion
was, whether, if his majefty, by virtue of his preroga¬
tive, thought proper to fend four additional regiments
to India, the expence of fending them, and their fup¬
port, ought to be provided for out of the revenues of
India, which they protefted ? It was certainly the
opinion of minifters, that by the aft of 1784, the autho¬
rity and power of the court of direftors, touching the
military and political concerns of India, and alfo the
colleftion, management, and application of the revenues
of the territorial pofleflions, was transferred to the
board of controul, which might direft the appropria¬
tion of thefe revenues in the manner that to them
fhould appear to be moft for the public advantage j
but as doubts had been entertained by others, and the
opinions of counfel, confirming thofe doubts, had been
taken, all of which had gone abroad into the world,
it was confidered as a neceflary meafure to call upon
the different branches of the legiflature to remove thofe
doubts in the moft effeftual way by a bill. It was
certainly very evident, that, on the prefent occafion,
the four regiments might, on board the company’s
ftiips, be fent out to India at a very inconfiderable ex¬
pence $ whereas, if tranfports had been fpecially pro¬
vided for that purpofe, the expence muft have been
enormous. To oblige the company, therefore, to pay
the expence out of their Indian revenues, as had al¬
ready been intimated to them by the commiflioners of
controul, the chancellor of the exchequer moved,
on the 5th of February 1788, “ That leave be gi¬
ven to bring in a bill for removing any doubts re-
fpefting the power of the commiflioners for the affairs
of India.”
In explanation of this bill, and in anfwer to the re¬
marks of oppofition, Mr Pitt defired to remind the
houfe that he had provoked the difeuflion of the bill,
and had earneftly folicited them to bring it to the teft
of the moft fevere and fcrupulous inveftigation. He
found that it would be difputed, whether by the aft
of 1784, the board of controul had any right of fu-
perintendence over the revenue. Would it be contend¬
ed that parliament meant to leave the finances in the
hands of the company, who had been declared unfit
to be trufted with them ? Was it likely, that, when
they provided for the better management of the poli¬
tical and military concerns, they had paid no atten¬
tion to the circumftance upon which thefe concerns in-
feparably depended ? The board of controul had al¬
ready proceeded to reduce the enormous eftablifhments
in India ; their right of interference in that refpeft
had never been queftioned; and what indeed would be
the confequence of denying this right ? The court of
direftors, if they had it in their power, as the expi¬
ration of their charter drew near, and it was doubt¬
ful whether their monopoly would be renewed, would
certainly make it their firft objeft to fwell the amount
of their imports, and would negleft the care of the
territorial and political ftate of India. The duty of
adminiftration was to look, firft, to the profperity and
happinefs of the natives; fecondly, to the fecurity of
the territorial pofleflions •, thirdly, to the difeharge of
the debts due to the perfons who had advanced their
money, and enabled the company to ftruggle with their
late difficulties 5 and, in the laft place, to the com¬
mercial benefit of the proprietors. Was it probable
that the court of direftors would aft upon that fcale ?
Could it have been intended to confide in their difere-
tion ? It had been faid, that the powers attributed to
COM
ompany. the board of controul were tho fame in fubftance as
—/-—'had before been given to the fecretaries of date and
the lords of the treafury. But the fa& was other-
wife. The court of direftors had been obliged to
communicate their difpatches previous to their going
to India j but there was no obligation upon the fecre-
tary of date to give any diredtions concerning them.
The refponfibility had ordinarily reded, under the for¬
mer government, with the court of directors ; under
the prefent it was wholly veiled with the board of con¬
troul.
An objedlion had been dated, that the declaratory
bill conveyed to the king the power of maintaining
an army without the confent of parliament. No pro-
pofition (Mr Pitt obferved) could be more adverfe to
his intentions than that which was thus imputed to
him. But in reality the troops in quedion had already
been recognifed by parliament when they voted the
edimate for railing them *, and the number of king’s
regiments ferving in India would always be to be
afcertained by the company belonging to each, which
remained in England for the purpofe of recruiting, and
the expence of which would be to be provided for by
parliament.
Mr Pitt acknowledged that it had been the obje£i
of the aft of 1784 to affume the power of fuperinten-
dence and controul, without affiiming the power of
patronage. In the prefent bill he declared that every
thing had been done which his underdanding had fug-
geded for the diminution of patronage. The regi¬
ments in quedion belonged to the crown ; and of courfe
it could not be fuppofed that the fovereign could en¬
tirely depart from his prerogative of naming his own
officers. But the king had afled with the mod gra¬
cious attention to the company, and to the merits of
the officers who had grown gray in their fervice 5 ha¬
ving relinquiffied nearly half the patronage of the re¬
giments, and leaving the difpofal of thefe commidions
to the court of direflors. The company indeed al¬
leged that they had 600 officers unemployed j but the
king could not forget that he had 2800 officers upon
half-pay, not perhaps more meritorious, but certainly
not lefs fo, than thofe in the company’s fervice, and
many of whom had aflually ferved with didinflion in
India. Such had been the forbearance he had thought
it proper to exercife upon the fubjeft of patronage.
But if, by the objeflion that had been dated, it was
intended to refer to the great political patronage, this
he did not deny that he had at all times intended to
aflume. Men who were refponfible for the govern¬
ment of a country, ought undoubtedly to have the
appointment of thofe whom they were to entrud with
the execution of their orders. But it would be ad¬
mitted that the patronage left to the company was
very confiderable, when the great extent of their mi¬
litary Sdabliffiment was properly recolle&ed. Mr Pitt
added, that the objedlions that were dated on this
head would podibly throw difficulties in the way of the
confolidation of the two armies in India j an objeft
on many accounts defirable, and which in fome way
or other mud be attempted. If it ffiould be thought
advifable to make the whole army royal, then undoubt¬
edly the patronage of the crown would be greatly in-
creafed. He believed, however, that the meafure was
neceffary j and there was fcarcely any thing to which
COM
he would not affent, to remove the apprehenlions of Company,
the nation refpe&ing the undue ufe of this patronage. —\r—H
For the bill now before the houfe, Mr Pitt profeffed
himfelf ready to propofe claufes that Ihould annihilate
every fufpicion of danger.
The fpeeeb of Mr Pitt produced a favourable effedl
upon the country gentlemen j and the claufes which he
had alluded to being moved, were received without any
debate. Thefe provided, That no king’s troops, be¬
yond the number which was now propofed, ffiould be
fent to India under the authority of any exifting law :
That no increafe of falary ffiould be given to any of
the fervants of the company, without the difpatches
for that purpofe being laid before both houfes of par¬
liament thirty days previous to their being fent 5 and
that no gratuity ffiould be given, the propofal for
which did not originate with the court of dire&ors.
A further claufe was added to thefe by the minifter,
which had not precifely the fame objefl : it direct¬
ed, that an account of the revenues and diffiurfe-
ments of the company ffiould be laid before parlia¬
ment at a certain affigned period in the courfe of every
year.
The bill was carried up to the houfe of lords on
the 14th of March, read a firft time on the following
day, which was Saturday, and propofed for a fecond
reading on the enfuing Monday. This precipitation
was made the fubjeft of a petition, offered by certain
proprietors, and prefented to the houfe by the duke
of Norfolk, in which they requefted a delay of three
days, till a general meeting could be held of the pro¬
prietors of the Eafl India Company. To this fuggef-
tion it was objefted by Lord Thurlow and Lord
Hawkeffiury, that the ffiips of the Fall India Com¬
pany were now detained in port at the enormous ex¬
pence of three or four hundred pounds per diem. By
Lord Stormont and Lord Loughborough it was re¬
plied, that no expence, however great, ought to weigh
in confideration of the prefent queftion. The bill
decided upon a matter of private right, and parlia¬
ment could not juftly refufe to hear the petitioners.
The houfe divided upon the queftion, contents 32,
not-contents 75. A motion of Lord Porchefler was
rejefted by a ftmilar majority, for referring a queftion
to the twelve judges refpefting the true meaning and
intent of the aft of 1784.
The duke of Richmond faid, that he was peculiar¬
ly circumftanced on the prefent occafion, fince he had
never been pleafed with any of the bills for the go¬
vernment of India that had yet been brought into
parliament. He had ever been of opinion, that the
concerns of the Eaft were trufled in the beft hands
when they were veiled in the company itfelf. Fie had
oppofed the bill of 1783, becaufe it flagrantly violated
the charter of the company, and placed an immenfe
power in the hands of a commiffion, that was not re¬
fponfible, fo far as he could find, either to the king
or the parliament. He had oppofed the aft of 1784,
becaufe it gave to the crown an enormous addition of
power. But he could not admit that the aft was in
any degree fo violent and defpotical as the bill which
preceded it. The declaratory meafure now under con¬
fideration mull neceffarily have his complete approba¬
tion. It confifted of two diftinft parts ; its expofi-
tion of the aft of 1784, and certain enafting claufes
Y y 2 containing
[ 355 ]
COM [ 356 1 COM
Company, containing checks and reftraints upon the extenfive
'«*—patronage that the government of the Eaft naturally
gave. To the former part he muft inevitably agree.
That the aft of 1784 gave to the board of controul
complete authority, had always been his opinion. For
that reafon he had oppofed it j but entertaining that
opinion, he muft juftify the prefent bill, which in his
mind was a true declaration of the faft. Fie could not
but equally approve of the reftraints that were pro^
pofed upon the exercife of patronage. Patronage was
infeparable from power. But when he faw the in-
duftry with which it was limited, and minifters were
tied down from the abufe of it ; when he faw that
it was not to be ufed otherwife than for the good
of the fervice, he could not view the prefent meafure
with the fame jealoufy with which he was accuftomed
to regard propofttions for extending the power of the
crown.
The bill, however, underwent a fevere difcuffion in
this as it had done in the other houfe ; but at length
paCTed.
In May following a petition was prefented to the
houfe of commons by the company, ftating certain
pecuniary embarraffrnents which they apprehended to
take place on the ift of March 1790, owing to the
arrears of the war, to the government claim of
500,000!. to the debt incurred in China, and to
the advances neceffary to be made for the purpofes of
the China trade. In compliance with their petition
Mr Pitt moved on the following day that they
Ihould be empowered to borrow a fum not exceeding
1,200,0001. He at the fame time obferved* that
in all probability the company in 1791 would have up-
wards of 3,000,000!. fterling more than fufficient to
difcharge their debts. The meafure was carried through
both houfes without oppofttion.
3. Hudfon’s Bay Company. The vaft countries which
furround Hudfon’s Bay abound with animals whofe
furs and fkins are excellent, being far fuperior in qua¬
lity to thofe faund in lefs northerly regions. In 1670*
a charter was granted to a company, which does not
confift of above nine or ten perfons, for the exclufive
trade to this bay; and they have afted under it ever
fince with great benefit to themfelves. I he company
employ four (hips and 130 feamen. They have feve-
ral forts, viz. Prince of Wales’s fort, Churchill river,
Nelfon, New Severn, and Albany, which fland on the
weft fide of the bay, and are garrifoned by 186 men.
The French, in May 1782, took and deftroyed thefe
forts, and the fettlements, &c. valued at 500,000k
They export commodities to the value of i6,oooL
and bring home returns to the value of 29,340k
which yield to the revenue 3734k This includes the
filhery in Hudfon’s Bay. This commerce, fmall as it
is, affords immenfe profits to the company, and even
fome advantages to Great Britain in general j for the
commodities we exchange with the Indians for their
flcins and furs, are all manufaftured in Britain j and as
the Indians are not very nice in their choice, fuch
things are fent of which we have the greateft plenty,
and which, in the mercantile phrafe, are drugs with
us. Though the workmanfhip too happens to be in
many refpefts fo deficient that no civilized people
would take it off our hands, it may be admired among
th© Indians. On the other hand, the ikins and fins
7i
we bring from Hudfon’s Bay, enter largely into our Company,
manufaftures, and afford us materials for trading with v ^1
many nations of Europe to great advantage. Thefe
circumftances tend to prove inconteftably the immenfe
benefit that would redound to Great Britain, by throw¬
ing open the trade to Hudfon’s Bay, fince even in its
prefent reftrained ftate it is fo advantageous. This
company, it is probable, do not find their trade fo ad¬
vantageous now as it was before we got poffeflion of
Canada. The only attempt made to trade with La¬
brador has been direfted towards the fifhery, the annual
produce of which exceeds 49,000k
The above are the principal trading companies pre-
fently fubfifting in Great Britain \ but to the number
might have been added one of vaft importance, the*
Scotch Darien Company, had it not been for the crook,
ed and pufillanimous policy of the Englifh miniftry at
the time. For an account of which, fee the articles
Darien.
Greenland Company. See Greenland.
Banking COMPANIES. See Bank.
Of eftablifliments fimilar to the above in other,
countries, the following belonging to the Dutch
and French, may be mentioned as the moft impor¬
tant.
I. Dutch Companies. 1. Their Eaft India com¬
pany had its rife in the midft of the ftruggle which
that people had for their liberty : for the Spaniards
having forbidden all commerce with them, and {hut
up all their ports, neceffity infpired fome Zealanders to
feek a north-eaft paffage to China.,
This enterprife proving unfuccefsful to three fe-
veral armaments in 1594, 1595, and 1596, a fecond
company was formed, under the name of the Company
of Remote Parts; which, in 1597, took the ordinary
route of the Portuguefe to the Indies, and returned in
two years and a half’s time with little gain but good
hopes.
This company, and a new one juft eftablifhed at Am-
fterdam, being united, equipped other fleets $ and thefe
occafioned other companies at Amfteroam, Rotterdam,
in Zealand, &c. infomuch that the ftates foon began
to apprehend they might be prejudicial to each other.
Under this concern, they called all the direftors of the
feveral companies together, who all confented to an
union, the treaty whereof was confirmed by the ftates
in 1602 j a very remarkable epocha, as being that of
the moft folid and celebrated eftabliftunent of commerce
that ever was in the world.
Its firft capital was fix million fix hundred thoufand
guilders. It had fixty direftors, divided into feveral
chambers i twenty »in that of Amfterdam, twelve in
that of Zealand, fourteen in that of Delft and Rot¬
terdam, and a like number in thofe at Sluys and Horn.
As each grant expires, the company is obliged to pro¬
cure a new one, which it has already done five times
fince the firft, paying a confiderable fum each time.
The laft application was in 1773, when the company,
after ftating that its trade had declined, folicited the
ftates-general to grant a diminution of the fum for¬
merly paid for the renewal of the charter. Upon this
reprefentation their high mightineffes, in order to
have time to inquire into the matter, prolonged the
charter.
COM [ 357 ] COM
„ charter for three years, upon the old eftablHhment;
_ ^ ‘ and finding, upon examination, that the company had
really fuftained great Ioffes, and its trade confiderably
declined, they a&ed with the fpirit of a wife commer¬
cial commonwealth, by complying with the company’s
requeft. They, therefore, in 1776, granted them a
new charter for 30 years, on the fame terms as the
former, on the immediate payment of 2,000,000 of
florins, inftead of 3,000,000 which they paid before,
and the fum of 360,000 florins yearly •, which annual
payment they were allowed to make either in money
or merchandife. In confequence of this indulgence,
the flock of the company rofe in a ftrort time no lefs
than 19 per cent.
Their fa&ories, refidences, &c. in the Eaft Indies,
are very numerous ; reaching from the Perfian gulf
to the coaft of China : the principal is that of Batavia,
the centre of their commerce ; here refides their gene¬
ral, with the ftate and fplendour of a fovereign prince j
making war and peace with the eaftern kings and em¬
perors at pleafure.
The other more confiderable factories are, Taiouam
on the coaft of China, Nangifac in Japan, Malacca,
Surat, Amboyna, Banda, Siam, Moluccas, &c. feveral
on the coaft of Coromandel, and at Ifpahan, Cape of
Good Hope, &c. : in all, they number 40 fa&ories and
25 fortreffes. But the whole are now in the hands of
the Britifli.
2. Their Weft India Company was eftabliftied in 1621,
with an exclufive privilege to trade 24 years along the
coafts of Africa, between the tropic of Cancer and the
Cape of Good Hope $ and in America from the fouth
point of Newfoundland, through the ftraits of Magel¬
lan, that of Le. Maire, or others, to the ftraits of Ani-
an, both in the North and South fea. The directors
are divided into five chambers (as in the Eaft India
Company), out of which 19 are chofen for the general
direction of affairs. In 1647, the company renewed
its grant for 25 years j but it was fcarce able to hold
out the term, on account of its great Ioffes and ex>
pences in taking the bay of Todos los Santos, Fer-
nambuc, and the greateft part of Brafil, from the Por-
tuguefe. The weaknefs of this company, which had
feveral times in vain attempted to be joined to that of
the Eaft Indies, occafioned its diffolution at the expira¬
tion of its grant.
In 1674, a new company, compofed of the ancient
proprietors and their creditors, was fettled in the
fame rights and eftablifhment with the former ; and
ftill fubfifts, though confiderably decayed. Their firft
capital was about fix millions of florins. Its principal
eftabliftiments are, one at Cape Verd, another on the
Gold Coaft of Africa, at Tobago, Curaffao, &c. in
America.
II. FRENCH Companies. I. Their Eaft India Com¬
pany was in 1664, with an exclufive privi¬
lege to trade for 50 years in all the feas of the Eaft
Indies and South fea. No adventurer to be ad¬
mitted without icoo livres in flock; and foreigners
who have 20,000 livres in flock to be reputed regni-
coles.
The patent grants them the ifland of Madagafcar ;
and the king to be at one-fifth of the expence of the
three firft; armaments, without intereft ; the principal
to be refunded in ten years; or, if the company find
it lofes on the whole, the lofs to fall on the king’s Company
fide. v—
The capital fund of the company, which was moftly
furniflied by the king, was feven or eight millions of
livres, but was to have been fifteen millions.
In effe£l, though no means were wanting to fupport
the company, yet it ftill drooped and ftill ftruggled j
till having fubfifted ten years without any change in
its form, and being no longer able to difcharge its en¬
gagements, there were new regulations concerted, but
to little purpofe. At length, things not being difpo-
fed for a new Eaft India Company, nor much good to
be expedled from the old one, in 1708 the minifter
allowed the diredtors to treat with the rich traders of
St Malo, and refign to them their privileges under
certain conditions. In the hands of thefe laft, the
company began to flourilh. See India Company, be¬
low.
Its chief fadlory was at Pondicherry, on the coaft of
Coromandel. This was the refidence of the direftor-
general. The other fadtories were inconfiderable. The
merchandifes which the company brought into Franc®
were, filks, cottons, fpices, coffee, rice, faltpetre ; feve¬
ral kinds of gums and drugs, woods, wax, printed cali¬
coes, muflins, &c.
2. Their Weft India Company was eftablilhed in
1664. Their charter gave them the property and
feignory of Canada, Acadia, the Antilles iflands, ifle
of Cayenne, and the Terra Firma of America, from
the river of the Amazons to that of Oroonoko ; with
an exclufive privilege for the commerce of thofe places,
as alfo of Senegal and the coafts of Guinea, for 40
years, only paying half the duties. The flock of the
company was fo confiderable, that in lefs than fix
months 45 veffels were equipped; with which they took
poffeffion of all the places in their grant, and fettled a
commerce : yet this only fubfifted nine years. In
1674, the grant was revoked, and the countries above
reunited to the king’s dominions as before : the king
reimburfing the adtions of the adventurers. This re¬
vocation was owing partly to the poverty of the com¬
pany, occafioned by its Ioffes in the wars with Eng¬
land, which had neceflitated it to borrow above a mil¬
lion, and even to alienate its exclufive privilege for the
coafts of Guinea : and partly to its having in good mea-
fure anfwered its end : which was to recover the com¬
merce of the Weft Indies from the Dutch, who had
torn it from them : for the French merchants, being
now accuftomed to traffic to the Antilles, by permiflron
of the company, were fo attached to it, that it was not
doubted they would fupport the commerce after the
diffolution of the company.
3. Their Miftiftippi Company was firft eftabliftied in
1684 in favour of the Chevalier de la Salle ; who ha¬
ving projedted it in t66o, and being appointed gover¬
nor of the fort of Frontignac at the mouth of that ri¬
ver, travelled over the country in the year 1683, and
returned to France to folicit the eftablilhment. This
obtained, he fet fail for his new colony with four vef¬
fels laden with inhabitants, &c. but entering the
gulf of Mexico, he did not, it feems, know the river
that had coft him fo much fatigue, but fettled on ano¬
ther river unknown, where his colony periftied by de¬
grees ; fo that in 1685 there were not 100 perfons re¬
maining. Making feveral expeditions tp find the Miff.
COM t
Company, fifllppi, he was killed in one of them by a party who
■ mutinied againft him ; whereupon the colony was dif-
perfed and loft. M. Hiberville afterwards lucceeded
better. He found the Mifliflippi, built a fort, and
fettled a French colony there ; but he being poifoned,
it is faid, by the intrigues of the Spaniards, who feared
iuch a neighbour, in 1712 M. Crozat had the whole
property of trading to the French territories called
Louifiana granted him for 15 years.
4. Company of the Wcjl. In 1717, the Sieur Crozat
furrendered this grant 3 and in the fame year a new
company was erected under the title of Company of the
Wejl: to which, befides every thing granted to the
former company, was added the commerce of beaver,
enjoyed by the Canada company from the year 1706,
but expiring in 1717. In this eftablilhment, an equal
view was had to the finances and the commerce of the
nation j and, accordingly, part of the conditions of its
eftablilhment regarded the fettling a colony, a trade,
&c. 3 the other the vending part of the bills, called bills
of flute, which could no longer fubfift on their prefent
footing. The former are no more than are ufual in
fuch eftablilhments: for the latter, the actions are
fixed at 500 livres, each payable in bills of ftate 3 the
aflions to be efteemed as merchandife, and in that
quality to be bought, fold, and trafficked. The bills of
ftate, which make the fund of the a&ions, to be con¬
verted into yearly revenue. To put the finilhing hand
to the company, in 1717, its fund was fixed at an hun¬
dred millions of livres 3 which being filled, the cafh was
fhut up.
5. India Company. The jun&ion of the former com¬
pany with that of Canada was immediately followed by
its union with that of Senegal, both in the year 1718,
by an arret of council: which at the fame time grant¬
ed the new company the commerce of beavers, and
made it miftrefs of the negro or Guinea trade to the
French colonies in America.
Nothing was now wanting to its perfe£Hon but an
union with the Eaft India company, and with thofe
of China and St Domingo 3 which was eiTe£led, with
the two fir ft in 1719, and with the third in 1720.
This union of the Eaft India and China company with
the company of the Weft, occafioned an alteration of
the name 3 and it was henceforth called the India Com-
pttny.
The reafons of the union were, the inability of the
two former to carry on their commerce 3 the immenfe
debts they had contrafted in the Indies, efpecially the
Eaft Company, complaints whereof had been fent to
court by the Indians, which difcredited the company
fo that they durft not appear any longer at Surat ;
the little care they took to difcharge their en¬
gagements 3 and their having transferred their privi¬
lege to the private traders of St Malo, in confidera-
tion of a tenth in the profits of the returns of their
ihips.
The ancient aftions of the company of the Weft,
which were not at par when this engraftment was pro-
jefted, before it was completed, were rifen to 300 per
cent. 3 which unexpe&ed fuccefs gave occafion to con¬
clude the new actions of the united companies would
not bear lefs credit. The concourfe of fubfcribers was
•fo great, that in a month’s time there were above fifty
millions fubfcribed for j the firft twenty-five million
3
358 ] C O M
actions which were granted to the India company, be- Company,
yond the hundred millions of ftoek allowed the com- y—w
pany of the Weft, being filled as foon as, the books
were opened 3 to fatisfy the earneftnefs of the fubfcri¬
bers, the ftock was increafed by feveral arrets to three
hundred millions. Credit ftill increafing, the new ac¬
tions rofe to 1200 per cent, and thofe of the ancient
company of the Weft to 1900 per cent. 3 an exorbitant
price, to which no other company ever rofe. Its con¬
dition was now fo flouriftiing, that in 1719 it offered
the king to take a leafe of all his farms for nine years
at the rate of three millions five hundred thoufand livres
per annum more than had been given before 3 and alfo
to lend his majefty twelve hundred millions of livres to
pay the debts of the ftate. Thefe offers were accept¬
ed 3 and the king, in confideration hereof, granted
them all the privileges of the feveral grants of the com¬
panies united to that company to the year 17703 on
condition, however, of difcharging all the debts of the
Old Eaft India Company, without any deduction at all.
The loan of twelve hundred millions not being fuffi-
cient for the occafion of the ftate, was augmented,
three months afterwards, with three hundred millions
more 3 which, with the former loan, and another of
one hundred millions before, made fixteen hundred mil¬
lions, for which the king was to pay intereft at the rate
of three per cent.
The duke of Orleans, in February 1720, did the
company the honour to prefide in their aflembly, where
he made feveral propofals to them on the part of the
king : the principal of thefe was, that they ffiould take
on them the charge and adminiftration of the royal
bank. This was accepted of : and Mr Law, comptrol¬
ler-general of the finances, was named by the king
infpeftor-general of the India Company and bank
united.
This union, which, it was propofed, ffiould have
been a mutual help to both thofe famous eftabliffi-
ments, proved the fatal point from whence the fall of
both commenced : from this time, both the bank bills
and the aflions of the company began to fall. In ef-
feft, the firft periffied abfolutely, and the other had
been drawn along with it but for the prudent precau¬
tions taken for its fupport.
The firft precaution was the revoking the office of
infpe&or-general, and the obliging Mr Law to quit
the kingdom 5 the ancient directors were difcarded,
and new ones fubftituted 3 and to find the bottom of
the company’s affairs, it was ordered they ffiould give
an account of what they had received and diffiurfed,
both on the account of the company and of the bank,
which they had had the management of near a year.
Another precaution to come at the ftate of the compa¬
ny was, by endeavouring to diftinguiffi the lawful ac-
tionaries from the Miffiffippi extortioners ; whofe im¬
menfe riches, as well as their criminal addrefs in rea¬
lizing their actions either into fpecie or merchandife,
were become fo fatal to the ftate, in order, if poffible,
to fecure the honeft adventurers in their ftock. To
this end, an inquifition was made into their books, &o.
by perfons appointed by the king 3 and the new direc¬
tors, or as they were called, regiffeurs, began feriouf-
ly to look about for their commerce abroad. Their af¬
fairs, however, declined, and at length funk into a
ruined and bankrupt ftate about the year 1769. The
king
COM
t 359 ]
COM
'orapany. king immediately fufpended their exclufive privileges,
—v ' and laid the trade to the Eaft open to all his fubjedts j
configning, at the fame time, the affairs of the compa¬
ny to the care of the miniftry to adjuft and fettle. But
the various fchemes which were then formed for the
reftoration of the old company, and the eftablifhment
of a new one, were accompanied with fuch infur-
mountable difficulties, as to prove wholly ineffeffual.
Nor was the laying open of the trade attended imme¬
diately with the fuccefs that was expedfed ; the mer¬
chants being very flow in engaging in it, though the
king, by way of encouragement, lent them fome of his
own (hips to convey their commodities to the Eaft;
and the garrifon and civil eftablUhments continued to
be fupported in their exifting form by the crown. The
meafure, however, proved in time fuccefsful $ fo that
for a courfe of years previous to 1785, the annual im¬
portation from India was confiderably greater than du¬
ring any former period. But whether it was that
they regarded this profperity as precarious j or aim¬
ed at a more extenfive fuccefs j or that they wiflied,
in imitation of Britain, for territorial acquifitions in
that climate, and believed an incorporated fociety
the beft inftrument of obtaining them j the French
court was induced to liften to propofals for eftablifhing
a new Eaft India Company. Their'privilege was for
feven years, with the fpecial provifo, that years of war
which might occur in the interim fhould be excluded
from the computation.
In the preamble of the adt of the 14th April 1785,
by which the fcheme was adopted, it was alleged,
“ that the commodities of Europe not having of late
years been regulated by any common ftandard, or pro¬
portioned to the demands of India, had on the one hand
fold at a low price; while, on the other, the compe¬
tition of the fubjedts of France had raifed the price of
the objedts of importation : that, upon their return
home, a want of fyftem and aflbrtment had been univer-
fally complained of, the market being overftocked with
one fpecies of goods, and totally deftitute of another j
that thefe defedts muft neceffarily continue as long as
the trade remained in private hands; and that, on their
account, as well as that of the capital required, the
eftabliftiment of a new company was abfolutely necef-
fary.
Thefe reafonings did not appear altogether fatisfac-
tory to the perfons principally interefted. France has
been fo far enlightened by the difcuflions of the excel¬
lent writers (fie has produced upon queftions of poli¬
tics and commerce, as not to be prepared to behold
the introdudlion of monopolies with a very favourable
eye. By many perfons it was remarked, that the ar¬
guments of the preamble did not apply more to the
trade of India than to any other trade ; and that, if
they were admitted in their entire force, they were
calculated to give a finilhing blow to the freedom of
commerce. The capital of the new company, which
amounted to 830,000!. was ridiculed as altogether
inadequate to the magnitude of the undertaking. The
privileges with which it wras indulged were treated as
enormous. The monopoly of Eaft India goods im¬
ported into France from any part of Europe, was
granted to them for two years, as well as the mono¬
poly of Eaft India goods imported from the place of
their growth. It was faid, that during that period
they would fit out no adventures for India ; that they Company,
hoped to obtain a prolongation of this injurious indul- v-~—v"" ’
gence $ and that, of confequence, their incorporation
was in reality a confpiracy to prevent all future com¬
munication between France and the fources of com¬
merce in Alia. A provifion in the aft, direfting that
the prices of Eaft India goods in the illands of Mauri¬
tius and Bourbon (hould be regulated by a tariff to be
fixed by the court of Verfailles, excited ftill louder ex¬
clamations. In this inftance, it was faid, the firft
principles of commerce were trampled upon in a man¬
ner the moft wanton and abfurd. Inftead of fuffering
it to find its own level by the mutual collifion of the
wants of one party and the labour of another, it was
arbitrarily to be faftiioned by a power whofe extreme
diftance muft neceffarily render its decifions ill-timed
and inapplicable. The very mode in which the mono¬
poly was introduced was a fubjeft of complaint. It
was determined by a refolution of the king in council;
a proceeding totally inadequate to the importance of
the fubjeft, and which was to be regarded as clandef-
tine and furreptitious. In all former inftances fuch
meafures affumed the form of edifts, and were regifter-
ed in the parliaments. It was the prerogative of thefe
courts to verify them ; that is, to inquire into the fafts
which had led to their adoption. The injured parties
had an opportunity of being heard before the privilege
affumed the form of a law ; not privately by the mini-
fters of the fovereign, but publicly by the moft confi-
derable bodies in the kingdom, and in the face of the
nation.
The aft of council eftablifliing a new Eaft India
Company, was followed on the tenth of June by ano¬
ther declaration, intended ftill farther to promote their
intereft ; by which it was exprefsly forbidden to im¬
port cottons, print'd linens, and muflins, except through
the medium of the company. The arret proceeds up¬
on the fame principles of monopoly as in the former
inftance. It fets out indeed with a declaration, “ that
nothing can appear more defirable to the king, or bet¬
ter accord with the fentiments of his heart, than a ge¬
neral liberty, that freeing at once the circulation of
commodities from every fpecies of reftraint, ftiould
feem to make of all the people of the world but one
nation with refpeft to commerce.” But it adds, “ that
the period of this liberty is not yet arrived ; that it
muft either be, with refpeft to the nations of Eu¬
rope, unlimited and reciprocal, or that it cannot be
admitted : that the revocation of the former indul¬
gence refpefting cottons and linens was become necef-
fary on account of the opportunities it created for con¬
traband trade j and becaufe the competition of the Eaft
India Company and private traders would occafion a
furplus in the market, and the admiftion of foreign
manufaftures would decreafe and annihilate the national
induftry.”
The provifions that were made for carrying this law
into effeft were confidered as unjuft and fevere. The
merchants poffefling any of the prohibited commodi¬
ties were allowed twelve months to difpofe of them ;
but upon the exprefs condition, that the commodities
were to bear a ftamp, importing that' they were ven¬
dible only to a certain period ; a circumftance that muft
neceffarily depreciate their value. It was alfo enafted,
that the houfe of any trader might be entered by day
or r
COM [ 360 ] COM
Company or by night, at the felicitation of the direftors, to
J _ fearch for prohibited goods, which were to be confif-
0(bn,ar^* catec^ *-0 ^ie u^e t^e company. Thefe kinds of vi-
i  ‘ fits of the officers of revenue, hitherto unauthorized in
France, were reprefented as peculiarly obnoxious, when
they were made for the foie benefit of a privileged mo-
-nopoly.
Company, in military affairs, a fmall body of foot,
commanded by a captain, who has under him a lieute¬
nant and enfign.
The number of fentinels or private foldiers in a com¬
pany is from 50 to 100 $ and a battalion or regiment
confifts of 9, 10, or 11, fuch companies, one of
which is always grenadiers, and ported on the right j
next them ftands the colonel’s company, and on the
left the light infantry company. Companies not incor¬
porated into regiments are called irregulars^ or inde¬
pendent companies.
Artillery COMPANY. See ARTILLERY.
COMPANY of Ships, a fleet of merchantmen, who
make a charter-party among themfelves $ the principal
conditions whereof ufually are, that certain veffels (hall
i>e acknowledged admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-ad¬
miral that fuch and fuch fignals (hall be obferved >
that thofe which bear no guns (hall pay fo much per
cent, of their cargo ; and in cafe they be attacked, that
what damages are fuftained {hall be reimburfed by the
company in general. In the Mediterranean fuch com¬
panies are called conferves.
COMPARATIVE anatomy, is that branch of
anatomy which confiders the fecondary objedls, or the
bodies of other animals j ferving for the more accurate
diftindlions of feveral parts, and fupplying the defe& of
human fubje&s.
It is otherwife called the anatomy of beafs, and fome-
times zootomy; and ftands in contradiftin&ion to hu¬
man anatomy, or that branch of the art which confi¬
ders the human body the primary objeft of anatomy.
See Anatomy.
COMPARATIVE Degree, among grammarians, that
between the pofitive and fuperlative degrees, expreffive
of any particular quality above or below the level of
another.
COMPARISON, in a general fenfe, the confidera-
tion of the relation between two perfons or things,
when oppofed to each other, by which we judge of
their agreement or difference.
COMPARISON of Ideas, an a£l of the mind, whereby
it compares its ideas one with another, in refpeft of ex¬
tent, degree, time, place, or any other-circumftances.
See Idea.
Brutes feem not to have this faculty in any great
degree: they have, probably, feveral ideas diftinfl
enough ; but cannot compare them farther than as to
fome fenfible circumftances annexed to the objefts
themfelves ; the power of comparing general ideas,
which we obferve in men, we may probably conje&ure
they have not at all.
Comparison, in Grammar, the inflexion of the com¬
parative degree. See Grammar.
Comparison, in Rhetoric, is a figure whereby two
things are confidered with regard to fome third, which
is common to-them both.
Inftruftion is the principal, but not the only end of Compari.
comparifon. It may be employed with fuccefs in put- fon.
ting a fubjeft in a ftrong point of view. A lively idea
is formed of a man’s courage by likening it to that of
a lion ; and eloquence is exalted in our imagination by
comparing it to a river overflowing its banks, and in¬
volving all in its impetuous courfe. The fame effedt
is produced by contraft : a man in profperity becomes
more fenfible of his happinefs, by comparing his con¬
dition with that of a perfon in want of bread. Thus
comparifon is fubfervient to poetry as well as to philo-
fophy.
Comparifons ferve two purpofes : when addreffed to
the underftanding, their purpofe is to inftrudl j when
to the heart, their purpofe is to pleafe. Various means
contribute to the latter : ift, The fuggefting fome un-
ufual refemblance or contraft*; 2d, The fetting an* See the
objedt in the llrongeft light; 3d, The affociating anatticle
ebjedl with others that are agreeable ; 4th, The ele- Kesem*
vating an objed ; and 5th, The depreffing it. And®^^
that comparifons may give pleafure by thefe various Utude.
means, will be made evident by examples which ftiall
be given, after premifing fome general obfervations.
Objedta of different fenfes cannot be compared to¬
gether ; for fuch objedls are totally feparated from
each other, and have no circumftance in common to
admit either refemblance or contraft. Objedls of hear¬
ing may be compared together, as alfo of tafte, of
fmell, and of touch ; but the chief fund of comparifon
are objedts of fight; becaufe in writing or fpeaking,
things can only be compared in idea, and the ideas of
fight are more diftindl and lively than thofe of any
other lenfe.
When a nation emerging out of barbarity begins to
think of the fine arts, the beauties of language cannot
long lie concealed ; and when difcovered, they are
generally, by the force of novelty, carried beyond all
bounds of moderation. Thus, in the earlieft poems
of every nation, we find metaphors and fimiles found¬
ed on the flighteft and moft diftant refemblances,
which, lofing their grace with their novelty, wear
gradually out of repute ; and now, by the improve¬
ment of tafte, no metaphor nor fimile is admitted into
any polite compofition but of the moft ftriking kind.
To illuftrate this obfervation, a fpecimen fliall be given
afterward of fuch metaphors as we have been defcrib-
ing: with refpedl to fimiles take the following fpeci¬
men :
“ Behold, thou art fair, my love : thy hair is as
“ a flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilead :
“ thy teeth are like a flock of (beep from the wafti-
“ ing, every one bearing twins : thy lips are like
“ a thread of fcarlet : thy neck like the tower of
“ David built for an armoury, whereon hang a
“ thoufand (hields of mighty men : thy two breafts
“ like two young roes that are twins, which feed
“ among the lilies : thy eyes like the fifti-pools in
“ Hefbon, by the gate of Bath-rabbim : thy nofe
“ like the tower of Lebanon, looking toward Da-
“ mafcus.” Song of Solomon.
“ Thou art like fnow on the heath ; thy hair like
“ the mift of Cromla, when it curls on the rocks
“ and fliines to the beam of the Weft: thy breafts
“ are
“ are like two fmooth rocks Teen from Branno of
“ the ftreams : thy arms like two white pillars in
“ the hall of the mighty Fingal.” Fingal.
It has no good effecl to compare things by way of
fimile that are of the fame kind $ nor to contrail things
of different kinds. The reafon is given in the article
above cited on the margin, and fhall be here illuftra-
ted by examples. The firft is a comparifon built upon
a refemblance fo obvious as to make little or no im-
preffion. Speaking of the fallen angels fearching for
mines of gold :
A numerous brigade haften’d : as when bands
Of pioneers with fpade and pickaxe arm’d,
Forerun the royal camp to trench a field
Or call a rampart. Milton.
The next is of things contrafted that are of different
kinds.
^ueen. What, is my Richard both in fhape and
mind
Transform’d and weak ? Hath Bolingbroke depos’d
Thine intellect ? Hath he been in thy heart ?
The lion, dying, thrufleth forth his paw,
And wounds the earth, if nothing elfe, with rage
To be o’erpower’d : and wilt thou, pupil like,
Take thy correflion mildly, kifs the rod,
And fawn on rage with bafe humility >
Richard II. A61 v. fc. l.
This comparifon has fcarce any force : a man and a
lion are of different fpecies, and therefore are proper
fubjefts for a fimile ; but there is no fuch refemblance
between them in general, as to produce any flrong
effedl by contrafling particular attributes or circum-
flances.
A third general obfervation is, That abflra£l terms
can never be the fubje£l of comparifon, otherwife than
by being perfonified. Shakefpeare compares adverfity
to a toad, and flander to the bite of a crocodile j but
in fuch comparifons thefe abflradl terms mufl be ima¬
gined fenfible beings.
To have a juft notion of comparifons, they muft be
diflinguiftied into two kinds ; one common and fami¬
liar, as where a man is compared to a lion in courage,
or to a horfe in fpeed; the other more diflant and re¬
fined, where two things that have in themfelves no
refemblance or opppofition, are compared with refpedl
to their effe6ls. There is no refemblance between a
flower-pot and a cheerful fong ; and yet they may be
compared with refpeft to their effefts, the emotions
they produce in the mind being extremely fimilar.
There is as little refemblance between fraternal concord
and precious ointment j and yet obferve how fuccefs-
fully they are compared with refpedl to the impreffions
they make.
“ Behold, how good and how pleafant it is for
“ brethren to dwell together in unity. It is like
“ the precious ointment upon the head, that ran
“ down upon Aaron’s beard, and defcended to the
“ fkirts of his garment.” P/a/m 133.
For illuftrating this fort of comparifon, we fhall add
-fonie more examples-:
V &L. VI. Part I.
COM
Delightful is thy presence, O Fingal ! it is like C(
the fun on Cromla, when the hunter mourns bis
abfence for a feafon, and fees him between the
“ clouds.
“ Did not Ofllan hear a voice ? or is it the found
“ of days that are no more ? Often, like the evening
“ fun, comes the memory of former times on my
“ foul.
“ His countenance is fettled from war $ and is
“ calm as the evening-beam, that from the cloud of
“ the well looks on Cona’s filent vale.” Fingal.
We now proceed to illuftrate, by particular inflances,
the different means by which comparifons, whether of
the one fort or the other, can afford pleafure ; and, in
the order above eftablifhed, we (Fall begin with fut h
inflances as are agreeable, by fuggefting fume unufual
rtfemblance or contrail.
Sweet are the ufes of Adverfity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in her head.
As you like it, A61 ii. fc. I,.
See, how the morning opes her golden gates,
And takes her farewel of the glorious fun ;
How well refembles it the prime of youth,
Trimm’d like a yonker prancing to his love.
Second Part Henry VI. A£l ii. fc. 1.
Thus they their doubtful confultations dark
Ended, rejoicing in their matchlefs chief:
As when from mountain tops, the dufky clouds
Afcending, while the North-wind fleeps, o’eHpread
Fleav’n’s cheerful face, the lowering element
Scowls o’er the darken’d landfcape, fnow, and
fhower ;
If chance the radiant fun with farewel fweet
Extends bis ev’ning-beam, the fields revive,
The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds
Atteft their joy, that hill and valley rings.
Paradife Lojl, Book ii.
None of the foregoing fimiles tend to illuftrate the
principal fubje6l, and therefore the chief pleafure they
afford muft arife from fuggefting refemblances that are
not obvious j for undoubtedly a beautiful fubje£t intro¬
duced to form the fimile affords a feparate pleafure,
which is felt in the fimiles mentioned, particularly in
that cited from Milton.
The next effe£l of a comparifon in the order men¬
tioned, is to place an objeft in a flrong point of view j
which effefl is remarkable in the following fimiles.
As when two fcales are charg’d with doubtful loads,
From fide to fide the trembling balance nods,
(While forae laborious matron, juft and poor.
With nice exaflnefs weighs her woolly ftore),~
Till pois’d aloft, the refting beam fufpends
Each equal weight 5 nor this nor that defcends j
So flood the war, till He£lor’s matchlefs might.
With fates prevailing, turn’d the feale of fight.
Fierce as a whirlwind up the wall he flies,
And fires his holt with loud repeated cries.
Iliad, Book xii. 521.
 — She never told her love j
But let concealment, like a worm i’ th’ bud,
Z z Fee#
1 1
COM
[ 362 ] COM
Compari- Feed on her damalk cheek : {he pin’d in thought j
fon. And with a green and yellow melancholy,
She fat like Patience on a monument,
Smiling at grief. Twelfth Night, Act. ii. fc. 6.
“ There is a joy in grief when peace dwells with
“ the forrowful. But they are wafted with mourn-
“ ing, O daughter of Tofcar, and their days are
“ few. They fall away like the flower on which
“ the fun looks in his ftrength, after the mildew has
“ paffed over it, and its head is heavy with the drops
“ of night.” Fingal.
   Out, out, brief candle !
Life’s but a walking (hadow, a poor player.
That ftruts and frets his hour upon the ftage.
And then is heard no more.
Macbeth, Aft v. fc. 5.
O thou goodnefs,
Thou divine nature l how thyfelf thou blazon’ll
In thefe two princely boys ! they are as gentle
As zephyrs blowing below the violet,
Not wagging his fweet head ; and yet as rough
(Their royal blood inchaf’d) as the rudeft wind,
That by the top doth take the mountain-pine.
And make him ftoop to the vale.
Cymbeline, Aft iv. fc. 4.
“ Why did not I pafs away in fecret, like the
“ flower of the rock that lifts its fair head unfeen,
“ and ftrows its withered leaves on the blaft ?”
FingaL
As words convey but a faint and obfcure notion of
great numbers, a poet, to give a lively notion of the
objeft he defcribes with regard to number, does well
to compare it to what is familiar and commonly known.
Thus Homer compares the Grecian army in point of
number to a fwarm of bees j in another paffage he
compares it to that profufion of leaves and flowers
■which appear in the fpring, or of infefts in a fummer’s
evening : And Milton,
 As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s fon in Egypt’s evil day
Wav’d round the coaft, up call’d a pitchy cloud
Of locufts, warping on the eaftern wind,
That o’er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung
Like night, and darken’d all the land of Nile y
So numberlefs w'ere thofe bad angels feen,
Hov’ring on wing under the cope of hell,
’Twixt upper, nether, and furrounding fires.
Paradife Lojf, Book i.
Such comparifons have, by feme writers, been con¬
demned for the lownefs of the images introduced, but
furely without reafon ; for, with regard to numbers,
they put the principal fubjeft in a ftrong light.
The foregoing comparifons operate by refemblance 5
others have the fame eflfeft by contrail.
York. I am the laft of noble Edward’s fons.
Of whom thy father, prince of Wales, was firft j
In war, was never lion rag’d more fierce y
In peace, was never gentle lamb more mild,
Than was that young and princely gentleman.
His face thou haft, for even fo look’d he,
AccompliihM with the number of thy hours,
But when he frown’d, it was againft the French,
And not againft his friends. His noble hand
Did win what he did fpend ; and fpent not that
Which his triumphant father’s hand had won.
His hands were guilty of no kindred’s blood,
But bloody with the enemies of his kin.
Oh Richard, York is too far gone with grief,
Or elfe he never would compare between.
Richard II. Aft ii. fc. 3.
Milton has a peculiar talent in embelliftiing the prin¬
cipal fubjeft, by aflociating it with others that are
agreeable j which is the third end of a comparifon.
Similes of this kind have, befide, a feparate effeft:
they diverfify the narration by new images that are
not ftriftly neceflary to the comparifon ; they are
Ihort epifodes, which, without drawing us from the
principal fubjeft, afford great delight by their beauty
and variety.
He fcarce had ceas’d, when the fuperior fiend
Was moving toward the fhore y his pond’rous fliield,
Ethereal temper, mafly, large, and round,
Behind him call: the broad circumference
Hung on his {boulders like the moon, whofe orb
Through optic glafs the Tufcan artift views
At evening from the top of Fef@le.
Or in Valdarno, to defcry new lands,
Rivers, or mountains, in her fpotty globe.
Milton, Book L
 Thus far thefe beyond
Compare of mortal prowefs, yet obferv’d
Their dread commander. He, above the reft,
In ftiape and ftature proudly eminent,
Stood like a tow’r *, his form had not yet loft
All her original brightnefs, nor appear’d
Lefs than archangel ruin’d, and th’ excefs
Of glory obfcur’d : as when the fun new-rifea
Looks through the horizontal mifty air
Shorn of his beams; or, from behind the moon,
In dim eclipfe, difaftrous twilight {beds
On half the nations, and with fear of change
Perplexes monarchs. - Milton, Book h
As when a vulture on Imaus bred,
Whofe fnowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds,
Diflodging from a region fcarce of prey
To gorge the flelh of lambs, or yeanling kids,
On hills where flocks are fed, flies toward the fprings-
Of Ganges or Hyd^fpes, Indian ftreams,
But in his way lights on the barren plains
Of Sericana, where Chinefes drive
With fails and wind their cany waggons light:
So on this windy fea of land, the fiend
Walk’d up and down alone, bent on his prey.
Milton, Book iii.
Next of comparifons that aggrandife or elevate,
Thefe affeft us more than any other fort ; the reafon
of which will be evident from the following inftances :
As when a flame the winding valley fills,
And runs on crackling ftirubs between the hills,
Then o’er the ftubble up the mountain flies,
Fires the high woods, and blazes to the ikies,
This-
Compari.
fon.
COM
[ 363 ]
COM
This way and that, the fpreading torrent roars $
So fweeps the hero through the wafted ftiores.
Around him wide, immenfe deftruclion pours,
And earth is delug’d with the fanguine ftiow’rs.
Iliad xx. 569.
Methinks, King Richard and myfelf ftiould meet
With no lefs terror than the elements
-Of fire and water, when their thund’ring ftiock,
At meeting, tears the cloudy cheeks of heaven.
Richard II. A61 iii. fc. 5.
“ As ruftieth a foamy ftream from the dark fhady
u fteep of Cromla, when thunder is rolling above, and
“ dark brown night refts on the hill 5 fo fierce, fo vaft,
“ fo te-rrible, rufti forward the fons of Erin. The
“ chief, like a whale of ocean followed by all its bil-
“ lows, pours valour forth as a ftream, rolling its might
“'along the ftiore.” Fingal, Book i.
“ As roll a thoufand waves to a rock, fo Swaran’s
“ hoft came on ; as meets a rock a thoufand waves, fo
“ Inisfail met Swaran.” Ibid.
The laft article mentioned, is that of leffening or
deprefling a hated or difagreeable obje6t $ which is ef-
fettually done by refembllng it to any thing low or def-
picable.
Thus Milton, in his defcription of the rout of the
rebel-angels, happily exprefles their terror and difmay
in the following fimile :
-As a herd
Of goats or timorous flock together throng’d,
Drove them before him thunder-ftruck, purfu’d
With terrors and with furies to the bounds
And cryftal wall of heav’n, which op’ning wide,
Roll’d inward, and a fpacious gap difclos’d
Into the wafteful deep •, the monftrous fight
-Struck them with horror backward, but far worfe
Urg’d them behind ; headlong themfelves they threw
Down from the verge of heav’n. Mi/ton, Book vi.
By this time the different purpofes of comparifon,
and the various impreflions it makes on the mind, are
fufficiently illuftrated by proper examples. This was
an eafy work. It is more difficult to lay down rules
about the propriety or impropriety of companions $
in what circumftances they may be introduced, and
in what circumftances they are out of place. It is evi¬
dent, that a companion is not proper upon every occa-
lion *, a man in his cool and fedate moments is not
difpofed to poetical flights, nor to facrifice truth and
reality to the delufive operations of the imagination j
far lefs is he fo difpofed when opprefled with care,
or interefted in fome important tranfa6Hon that occu¬
pies him totally. On the other hand it is obferved,
that a man when elevated or animated by any paf-
fion, is difpofed to elevate or animate all his fubjedts 5
he avoids familiar names, exalts objedls by circumlo¬
cution and metaphor, and gives even life and voluntary
adlion to inanimate beings. In this warmth of mind,
the higheft poetical flights are indulged, and the
boldeft fimiles and metaphors reliffied. But without
foaring fo high, the mind is frequently in a tone to
relifh chafte and moderate ornament j fuch as com¬
panions that fet the principal objefl in a ftrong point
of view, or that embellilh and diverlify the narration.
In general, when by any animating paflion, whether Compari-
pleafant or painful, an impulfe is given to the imagi- ion.
nation ; we are in that condition difpofed to every
fort of figurative expreffion, and in particular to com-
parifons. T his in a great meafure is evident from
the comparifons already mentioned j and lhall be fur¬
ther illuftrated by other inftances. Love, for example,
in its infancy, roufing the imagination, prompts the
heart to difplay itfelf in figurative language, and in
fimiles I
Troi/us. Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love,
What Creffida is, what Bandar, and what we ?
Her bed is India, there fhe lies a pearl:
Between our Ilium and where fhe refides,
Let it be call’d the wild and wand’ring flood j
Ourfelf the merchant, and this failing Bandar
Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark.
Troilus and Creffida, A6t i. fc. I,
Again:
Come, gentle night} come, loving black-brow’d
night!
Give me my Romeo: and when he lhall die,
Take him and cut him out in little ftars,
And he will make the face of heav’n fo fine,
That all the world (hall be in love with night,
And pay no worftrip to the garifh fun.
Romeo and Juliet, A61 iii. fc. 4.
But it will be a better illuftration of the prefent
head, to give examples where comparifons are impro¬
perly introduced. Similes are net the language of a
man in his ordinary Hate of mind, difpatching his
daily and ufual work : for that reafon the following
fpeech of a gardener to his fervant is extremely im¬
proper :
Go, bind thou up yon dangling apricots,
Which, like unruly children make their fire *•
Stoop with oppreffion of their prodigal weight:
Give fome fupportances to the bending twigs.
Go thou, and, like an executioner,
Cut off the heads of two fall growing (prays,
That look too lofty in our commonwealth :
All muff be even in our government.
Richard II. A6t iii. fc. 7.
The fertility of Shakefpeare’s vein betrays him fre¬
quently into this error.
Rooted grief, deep anguifti, terror, remorfe, de-
fpair, and all the fevere difp.riting paffions, are decla¬
red enemies, perhaps not to figurative language in ge¬
neral, but undoubtedly to the pomp and folemnity of
comparifon. Upon this account, the fimile pronoun¬
ced by young Rutland, under terror of death from an
inveterate enemy, and praying mercy, is unnatural;
So looks the pent-up lion o’er the wretch
That trembles under his devouring paws ;
And fo lie walks infulting o’er his prey,
And fo he comes to rend his limbs afunder.
Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy fword,
And not with fuch a cruel threat’ning look.
Third Part Henry VI. A61 i. fc. j.
A man fpent and difpirited after lofing a battle is
not difpofed to heighten or illuftrate his difeourfe by
fimiles,
Tork.
Z z 2
COM [ 364 ] COM
York. With this we charg’d again : bsit out! alas,
Ws bodg’d again ; as I have feen a fwan
With bootlefs labour fvvim againft the tide,
And fpend her ftrength with over-matching waves.
Ah ! hark, the fatal followers do purfue,
And I am faint and cannot fly their fury.
The fands are number’d that make up my life j
IJere muft I flay, and here mv life muft end.
Third Part Henry VI. A6t i. fc. 6.
Similes thus unfeafonably introduced are finely ridi-
euled in the Rehearfal.
“ Bayes. Now here (he muft make a fimile.
“ Smith. Where’s the neceflity of that, Mr Bayes?
'‘'■Bayes. Becaufe (he’s furprifed j that’s a general
i4 rule •, you muft ever make a fimile when you are fur-
** prifedj ’tis a new way of writing.”
A comparifon is not always faultlefs, even where it
is properly introduced. A comparifon, like other hu¬
man productions, may fall fhort of its end ; of which
defeCt inftances are not'rare even among good writers :
and to complete the prefent fubjeCt, it will be necef-
fary to make Come obfervations upon fuch faulty com-
paiifons. Nothing can be more erroneous than to in-
ftitu^e a comparifon too faint : a diftant refemblance or
eontrait fatigues the mind with its obfcurity, inftead of
amufing it •, and tends not to fulfil any one end of a
uomparifon. The following fimiles feem to labour un¬
der this defeft.
K. Rich. Give me the crown.—Here, coufin,
feize the crown.
Here on this fide, my hand *, on that fide, thine.
Now is this-golden crown like a deep well,
1 hat owes two buckets, filling one another j
The empWer ever dancing in the air,
The other down, unfeen, and full of water •,
That bucket down, and full of tears, am I,
Drinking, my griefs, wbilft you mount up on high.
Richard II. ACt iv. fc. 3.
K. John Oh ! coufin, thou art come to fet mine
eye )
The tackle of my heart is crack’d and burnt ;
And all the fhrouds wherewith my life fhould fail,
Are turned to one thread, one little hair :
My heart hath one poor tiring to ftay it by,
Which holds but till thy news be uttered.
K. John, Aft iv. fc. IQ.
York. Mv uncles both are flain in refeuing me :
And all my followers to the eager foe
Turn back, and fly like (hips before the wind,
Or lambs purfu’d by hunger ftarved wolves.
Third Part Henry VI. Aft i. fc. 6.
The latter of the two fimiles is good : the former,
hecaufe of the faintnefs of the refemblance, produces
no good effeft, and crowds the narration with an ufelefs
. . j r . • «
In an epic poem, or in any elevated lubjeft, a wri¬
ter ought to avoid raifing a fimile upon a low image,
which never fails to bring down the principal fubjeft.
In general, it is a rule, that a grand objeft ought ne¬
ver to be refembled to one that is diminutive, how-
eyex: delicate the refemblance may be : for it is the pe-
I
culiar charafter of a grand objeft to fix the attention, Compart,
and fwell the mind ; in which (late, it is difagreeable fon.
to contraft the mind to a minute objeft, however ele- """v—*
gant. The refembling an objeft to one that is greater,
has, on the contrary, a good eft'eft, by raifing or fwell-
ing the mind j for one pafles with fatisfaftion from a
fmall to a great objeft \ but cannot be drawn down,
without reluftanct, from great to fmall. _ Hence the
following fimiles are faulty.
Meanwhile the troops beneath Patroclus’ care,
Invade the Trojans, and commence the war.
As wafps, provok’d by children in their play,
Pour from their manfions by the broad highway,
In fwarms the gdiltlefc traveller engage,
Whet all their flings, and call forth all their rage j
All rife in arms, and with a general cry
Affert their waxen domes and buzzing progeny :
Thus from their tents the fervent legion fwarms.
So loud their clamours, and fo keen their arms.
Iliad, xvi. 312.
So burns the vengeful hornet (foul all o’er)
Repuls’d in vain, and thirfty ftill of gore ;
(Bold fon of air and heat) on angry wings
Untam’d, untir’d he turns, attacks, and flings.
Fir’d with like ardour, fierce Atrides flew,
And fent his foul with every lance he threw.
Iliad, xvii. 642.
An error oppofite to the former, is the introducing
a refembling image, fo elevated or great as to bear
no proportion to the principal fubjeft. Their re¬
markable difparity, being the moft linking circum-
flanee, ftizes the mind, and never fails to deprefs the
principal fubjeft by contrail, inftead of raifing it by
refemblance : and if the difparity be exceeding great,
the fimile takes on an air of burlefque : nothing being
more ridiculous than to force an objeft out of its pro¬
per rank in nature, by equalling it with one greatly
fuperior or greatly inferior. This will be. evident from
the following comparifon.
Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring,
So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the fpring.
Odysfey,xx\. yx.
Such a fimile upon the fimpleft of all aftions, that of
opening a lock, is pure burlefque.
A writer of delicacy will avoid drawing his compa-
rifons from any image that is naufeous, ugly, or re¬
markably difagreeable for however ftrong the refem¬
blance may be, more will be loft than gained by fuch
comparifon. Therefore we cannot help condemning,
though with fome reluftancy, the following fimile, or
rather metaphor.
O thou fond many ! with what loud applaufe
Didtl thou beat heaven with blefling Bolingbroke
Before he was what thou would’ll have him be ?
And now being trimm’d up in thine own defires,
Thou, beaftly feeder, are fo full of him.
That thou provok’d thyfelf to call him up.
And fo, thou common dog, didtl thou difgorge
Thy glutton bofom of the royal Richard,
And now thou wouldft eat thy dead vomit up,
And. howl’d to find it.
Second Part Henry IV. Aft 1. fc. (S*
The
f
Gompari-
fon.
COM [ 365
The ftrongeft obje£Hon that can lie againil a com-
parifon is, that it confifts in words only, not in fenfe.
Such falfe coin, or bailard-wit, does extremely well in
burlefque ; but it is far below the dignity of the epic,
or of any ferious compofition.
] COM
This fword a dagger had his page,
That was but little for his age ;
And therefore waited on him fo,
As dwaris upon knight-errants do.
Hudibras,
Compan¬
ion
Compafs.
canto X.
The noble filler of Poplicola,
The moon of Rome ; ehafte as the icicle
That’s curdl’d by the froft from pureft fnow,
And hangs on Dian’s temple.
Coriolanus, A£l v. fc. 3.
There is evidently no refemblance between an icicle
and a woman, challe or unchafte : but chaftity is cold
in a metaphorical fenfe •, and an icicle is cold in a pro¬
per fenfe; and this verbal refemblance, in the hurry
and glow of compofing, has been thought a iufficient
foundation for the fimile. Such phantom fimiles are
mere witticifms, which ought to have no quarter, ex¬
cept where purpofely introduced to provoke laughter.
Lucian, in his differtation upon hiftory, talking of a
certain author, makes the following companion, which
is verbal merely.
“ This author’s defcriptions are fo cold, that they
“ furpafs the Cafpian fnow, and all the ice of the
“ north.”
■ ■ But for their fpirits and fouls
This word rebellion had froze them up
As fith are in a pond.
Second Part Henry IV. Aft i. fc. 3*
Pope has feveral fimiles of the fame (tamp.
And hence one mafter palfion in the breaft,
Like Aaron’s ferpent, fwallows up the reft.
Epi/l. ii. 131.
And again talking of this fame ruling or mafter paf-
lion $
Nature its mother, habit is its nurfe :
Wit, fpirit, faculties, but make it worfe j
Reafon itfelf but gives it edge and pow’r 5
As heaven’s bleft beam turns vinegar more four.
' Ibid. 145.
“ Books, like men, their authors, have but one way
of coming into the world ; but there are ten thou-
fand to go out of it, and return no more.”
Tale of a Tub.
“ The moft accompliftied way of ufing books at pre-
“ fenl is, to ferve them as fome do lords, learn their
“ titles, and then brag of their acquaintance.”
Ibid.
“ He does not confider, that fincerity in love is as
“ much out of faftiion as fweet fnuff j nobody takes it
“ now.” Care/efs Hujband.
COMPARTITION, in ArchiteRure, denotes the
ufeful and graceful difpofition ol the whole ground-
plot of an edifice, into rooms of office, and of reception
or entertainment.
COMPARTMENT, in general, is a defign com*
pofed of feveral different figures, ditpoied with fymme-
try, to adorn a parterre, a ceiling, &c.
A compartment of tiles or bricks, is an arrangement
of them, of different colours, and varniftied, for the de¬
coration of a building. Compartments in gardening,
are an affembiage of beds, plots, borders, walks, &c.
difpofed in the moft advantageous manner that the
ground will admit of. Compartments in heraldry, are
otherwife called partition1.
COMPASS, or Manner's Steering COMPASS, is an
inftrument ufed at fea by pilots to diredl and afcertain
the courfe of their {hips. It confifts of a circular brafs
box, which contains a paper card with the 32 points of
the compafs, fixed on a magnetic needle that always
turns to the north, excepting a fmall declination vari¬
able at different places. See VARIATION.
The needle with the card turns on an upright pin
fixed in the centre of the box. In the centre of the
needle is fixed a brafs conical focket or cap, whereby
the card hanging on the pin turns freely round the
Where the fubjeft is burlefque or ludicrous, fuch
fimiles are far from being improper. Horace fays
pleafantly,
^uanquam tu levior cortice. Lib. iii. od. 9.
And Sbakefpeare.
In breaking oaths he’s ftronger than Hercules.
And this leads to obferve, that befides the forego¬
ing comparifons, which are all ferious, there is a fpe-
cies, the end and purpofe of which is to excite gaiety
or mirth. Take the following examples.
Falftaff fpeaking to his page :
“ I do here walk before thee, like a fow that hath
4< overwhelmed all her litter but one.”
Second Part Henry IV. A£l i. fc. 10.
“ I think he is not a pick-puvfe, nor a horfe-
44 ftealer $ but for his verity in love, 1 do think him
“ as concave as a covered goblet, or a worm-eaten
44 nut.” As you like it, Acl iii. fc. 10.
centre.
The top of the box is covered with a glafs that the
card’s motion may not be difturbed by the wind. The
whole is enclofed in another box of wood, where it is
fufpended by brafs hoops or gimbals, to preferve the
card horizontal. The compafs-box is to be fo placed
in the (hip, that the middle feftion of the box, parallel
to its fides, may be parallel to the middle feflion of
the (hip along its keel.
The compafs being of the utmoft confequence to
navigation, it is reafonable to expe£t that the greateft
attention ftiould be paid to its conftru&ion, and every
attempt tc*improve it carefully examined, and if pro¬
per, adopted. But fo carelefs are the generality of
commanders of this moft; ufeful inftrument, that altnoft:
all the compaffes ufed on board merchant fhips have
their needles formed of two pieces of fteel wire, each
of which is bent in the middle, fo as to form an ob-
tufe angle ; and their ends being applied together,
make an acute one ; fo that the whole reprefents the
form of a lozenge ; in the centre of which, and of
the cards, is placed the brafs cap. Now, if we exa-
Compafs.
■COM [3
mine a nurr.ber of thefe cards, we fliall rarely, if ever,
find them all in the fame direction, but they will all
vary more or lefs, not only with regard to the true
dire&ion, but from one another.
J hefe irregularities are owing to the ftrufture of
the needle j for the wires of which it is compofed are
only hardened at the ends j now, if thefe ends are not
equally hard, or if one end be hardened up higher
than the other, when they come to be put together,
in fixing them to the card, that end which is hardeft
will deitroy much of the virtue of the other ; by which
means the hardeft end will have the moft power in
direcfting the card, and confequently make it vary to¬
wards its own direflion : and, as the wires are difpo-
ied in the form of a lozenge, thefe cards can have but
little force, fo that they will often, when drawn afide,
Hand at the diftance of feveral degrees on either fide
the point from whence they are drawn : for all mag-
netical bodies receive an additional ftrength by being
placed in the dire&ion of the earth’s magnetifm, and
aft proportionably lefs vigoroufly when turned out of
it 5 wherefore, when thefe kind of needles are drawn
afide from their true point, two of the parallel fides
of the lozenge will confpire, more direftly than be¬
fore, with the earth’s magnetifm ; and the other two
will be lefs in that direftion j by' which means the
two fides will very much impede its return 5 and
the two latter will have that impediment to over¬
come, as well as the friftion, by their own force
alone.
To remove thefe inconveniences, fome needles are
made of one piece of fteel of a fpring temper, and
broad tow’ards the ends, but tapering towards the
middle, where a hole is made to receive the cap. At
the ends they terminate in an angle, greater or lefs
according to the {kill or fancy of the workman. Thefe
needles, though infinitely preferable to the other, are,
however, far from being perfeft j for every needle
of this form hath fix poles inftead of two, one at each
end, two where it becomes tapering, and two at the
hole in the middle : this is owing to their fhape; for
the middle part being very {lender, it has not fub-
ftance enough to conduft the magnetic ftream quite
through from one end to the other : all thefe poles
appear very diftinftly, Avhen examined with a glafs
that is fprinkled over with magnetic fand. This cir-
cumftance, however, does not hinder the needle from
pointing true ; but as it has lefs force to move the
card than when the magnetic ftream moves in large
curves from one end to the other, it.is certainly an im-
perfeftion.
Thtfe inconveniences induced the ingenious Dr
Knight to contrive a new fea-compafs, which came in¬
to ufe on board all the {hips of war. The needle in
this inftrument is quite ftraight, and fquare at the
ends and confequently has only two poles, though
about the hole in the middle the curves are’ a little
confided. Needles of this conftrufticn, after vibra¬
ting a long time, will always point exaftly in the
fame direftion ; and if drawn ever fo little on one
fide, will return to it again, without any fenfible dif¬
ference. We may therefore conclude, that a regular
parallelepiped is the* beft form for a needle, as well as
the fimpleft, the holes for the caps being as fmall as
pofifible.
66 ] C O M
And as the weight ftiould be removed to the great-
eft diltance from the centre of motion, a circle of
brafs, of the fame diameter of the card, may be ad¬
ded, which will ferve alfo to fupport the card, which
may then be made of thin paper, without any thing
to ftiffen it. This ring being fixed below the card,
and the needle above it, the centre of gravity is placed
low enough to admit ot the cap being put under the
needle, whereby the hole in the needle becomes unne-
ceffary.
The above obfervations will be eafily underftood
from viewing the feveral parts of the inftrument as re-
prefented on Plate CL. where fig. 6. is the card with
the needle KL, and its cap M, fixed upon it, being
one-third of the diameter of the real card. Fig. 8. is
a peHpeftive view of the backfide of the card, where
AB reprefents the turning down of the brafs edge, C
the under part of the cap, £> and E two Aiding weights
to balance the card, and F, G, two fcrews that fix
the brafs edge, &c. to the needle. Fig. 7. is the pe-
deftal that lupports the card, containing a fere wing
needle, fixed in two fmall grooves to receive it, by
means of the collet C, in the manner c'f a port-crayon.
D, the ftem, is filed into an oftagon, that it may be
the more eafily unferewed. For its further illuftration
and application to ufe, fee Navigation.
The invention of the compafs is ulually afc'ribed to
Flavio da Melfi, or Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about
the year 1302 j and hence it is, that the territory of
Principato, which makes part of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, where he was born, has a compafs for its arms.
Others fay that Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, making
a journey to China, brought back the invention with
him in 1260. What confirms this conjefture is,‘that
at firft they ufed the compafs in the fame manner as
the Chinefe ftill do j i. e. they let it float on a little
piece of cork, inftead of fufpending it on a pivot. It
is added, that their emperor Chiningus, a celebrated
aftrologer, had a knowledge of it 1120 years before
Chrift. The Chinefe only divide their compafs into 24
points. Fauchette relates fome verfes of Guoyot de Pro«
vence, who lived in France about the year 1200, which
feem to make mention of the compafs under the name
of tnarinette, or mariner's /tone ; which fhow it to have
been ufed in France near 100 years before either the
Melfite or Venetian. The French even lay claim to
the invention, from the fleur de lys wherewith all na¬
tions ftill diftinguifh the north point of the card. With
as much reafon Dr Wallis aferibes it to the Englifh,
from its name compafs, by which name moft nations
call it, and which he obferves is ufed in many parts of
England to fignify a circle.
Though the mariner’s compafs has been long in ufe,
the beft confiruftion of it was attended with many
inconveniences, till the improvements which it re¬
ceived from the invention and experiments of Dr
Knight, and the farther emendation of Mr Smea-
ton.
The compafs is fometimes obferved to be difturb-
ed by the eleftricity of its glafs cover ; and this
from fo flight an application of the finger as was
barely neceffary to wipe off a little duft. The fame
glafs, rubbed a little more with the finger, a bit of
muflin, or paper, would attraft either end of the needle
fo as to hold it to the glafs for feveial minutes, far out
of
Ccmpafs.
4
Plate
CLI.
I '
C O M [ 3
2ompais. of the due direction, according to that part of the
—r““~ glafs which was moft excited. And when the needle,
after adhering to the glafs, has dropped loofe, and
made vibrations, thofe would not be bife£ted as ufual
by that point where the needle fhould reft, but would
either be made all on one fide, or be very unequally
divided, by means of fome remains of electrical virtue
in that part of the glafs which had attracted the needle,
until at length, after 15 minutes or more, all the elec¬
tricity being difcharged, the magnetical power took
place. The remedy for this inconvenience is to moi-
ften the furface of the glafs j a wet finger will do it im¬
mediately and effectually. The mariner’s compafs with
a chart is much lefs dangeroufly moved than the com¬
mon compafs with a bare needle ; and the deeper, or
farther diftant, the needle hangs below the glafs, the
lefs difturbance it is likely to receive.
Improved fea-compaffes have lately been conftruc-
ted by Mr M‘Culloch of London, for which he ob¬
tained a patent. The particulars are as follows.
Fig. 1. is a feftion of the fleering coropafs. a a a a a,
The common wooden box, with its lid. b b, The brafs
compafs-box. c f, The glafs cover to ditto, dd. The
hollow conical bottom, e, The prop upon which the
compafs is fupported inftead of gimbals ; the fpherical
top of which is finely polifhed, and the apex of the hol¬
low cone is fitted in a peculiar manner to receive it.
ff A quantity of lead run round the bottom and cone
of the compafs-box, to balance and keep it fteadily
horizontal, gg, The card and the magnetical needle,
bent in fuch a manner that the point of the conical
pivot on which it moves and is fupported, may be
brought very near to the centre of gravity, as well as
to the centre of motion, h h, Two guards, which by
means of two pins i;, affixed to the compafs-box, pre¬
vent it from turning round and deceiving the fteerf-
man.
Fig. 2. a perfpeflive view of the fleering compafs,
with the lid off and the front laid open. ^ The
guards. Z<, The compafs-box. e. The prop, &c. as
in fig. I.
Fig. 3. a view of the azimuth compafs. b. The
compafs-box. h. One of the guards. e, The prop,
as in fig. 1. and 2, with this difference, that in an azi¬
muth compafs, inftead of being fcrewed to the bottom
of the wood-box, it Hands in a brafs focket, and may
be turned round at pleafure. 1. A brafs bar upon which
the fight-vanes are fixed. 2. A dark glafs, which moves
up and down on 3, the fight-vane. 4. A magnifying
glafs, which is alfo moveable on the other vane. 5.
The nonius or vernier. 6. A Aide for moving the
vernier fo as to flop the card in taking the azimuth.
'7. A double convex-glafs, by w'hich the divifion on
the vernier may be read with accuracy.
£• 4* Fig. 4. is a fedlion reprefenting another application
of the magnetic needle and card, conftru&ed by Mr
M‘Culloch. a a a a, The common wood-box. b b.
The brafs compafs-box. c c, The brafs fupport for the
circle and pendulum, d. The pendulum, e. The agate,
jf/i The magnetic needle and card, g g, The brafs
circle, hh, The glafs cover and brafs ring, z, The
lead weight. N. B. All the centres of motion are in
the fame plane.
“ In one particular this patent compafs is confidered
as an improvement on the common compaffes, in as far
67 1
C O M
S-3>
as the needle is both longer and broader $ hence its Compafs.
magnetifm muft be ftronger, and of courfe the line of v—
its magnetic direction correfpondent with the card. In
another particular, in order to prevent the motions of
the veffel from affefting the needle, which is the moft
defirable objeft, the patent compafs-box, inftead of
fwinging in gimbals at right angles to each other, is
fupported in its very centre upon a prop j and what¬
ever motion the other parts of the box may have, this
centre being in the vertex of the hollow cone, may be
confidered as relatively at reft ; and therefore gives
little or no difturbance to the needle. Again, the pi¬
vot or centre upon which the needle turns, is fo con¬
trived as to ftand always perpendicular over the centre
of the compafs-box, or apex of the hollow cone, as
upon a fixed point j and is therefore ftill lefs affected
by the motions of the veffel. Thus the centres of
motion, gravity, and of magnetifm, are brought almoft
all to the fame point ; the advantages of which will be
readily perceived by any perfon acquainted with me¬
chanical principles.” McCulloch's Account.
The following is a defcription of Dr Knight’s azi¬
muth compafs, with the improvements of Mr Smeaton.
Plate CLI. fig. 6. is a perfpedlive view of the com¬
pafs, when in order for obfervation; the point of
view being the centre of the card, and the diftance
of the eye two feet. AB is the wooden box. C and
D are two milled nuts 5 by means whereof the axes of
the inner box and ring are taken from their edges on
which they move, and the friction increafed, when
neeeffary. EF is the ring that fupports the inner box.
GH is the inner box \ and I is one of its axes, by
which it is fufpended on the ring EF. The magnet
or needle appears palling through the centre together
with a fmall brace of ivory, that confines the cap to its
place. The card is a Angle varnilhed paper, reaching
as far as the outer circle of figures, which is a circle of
thin brafs $ the edge whereof is turned down at right
angles to the plane of the card, to make it grow ftiff.
O is a catgut line, drawn down the infide of the box,
for determining the degree upon a brafs edge. PQRS
is the index bar, with its two ftiles and catgut threads;
which being taken off from the top of the box, is
placed in two pieces, T and V, notched properly to
receive it. W is a place cut out in the wood, ferving
as a handle.
The ufe of the azimuth compafs is for finding the
fun’s magnetical azimuth, or amplitude; and thence the
variation of the compafs. If the obfervation be for an
amplitude at fun-rifing, or for an azimuth before noon,
apply the centre of the index on the weft point of the
card, within the box; fo that the four lines on the
edge of the card, and thofe on the infide of the box,
may meet. If the obfervation be for the fun’s am¬
plitude fetting, or an azimuth in the afternoon, turn
the centre of the index right againft the eaft point of
the card, and make the lines within the box concur
with thofe on the card : the inftrument thus fitted
for obfervation, turn the index be towards the fun, till
the ftiadovv of the thread a e fall dire£tly on the flit of
the fight, and on the line that is along the middle of
the index : then will the inner edge of the index cut
the degree and minute of the fun’s magnetical azimuth
from the north or fouth. But note, that if, when the
compafs is thus placed, the azimuth is lefs than 540
frogi
COM [3
Compufs. fouth, and the indt x turned towards the fun,
——y^— jt will pais otF the divifions of the limb : the inftrument
therefore in this cafe muft be turned jull a quarter of
the compafs, i. e. the centre of the index muft be
placed on the north or fouth point of the card, accord¬
ing as the fun is from you •, and then the edge will cut
the degree of the magnetic azimuth, or the fun’s azi¬
muth, from the north as before.
'Fhe fun’s magnetical amplitude thus found, the va¬
riation of the needle is thus determined. Being out
at fea the 15th of May, 1717, in 450 north latitude,
the tables gave me the lun’s latitude 190 north, and
his eaft amplitude, 270 25' north ; by the azimuth cora-
pafs, I find the fun’s magnetical amplitude at his rifing
and fetting ; and find he rifes, e. gr. between the 62d
and 63d degree, reckoning from the north towards the
eaft point of the compafs, i. e. between the 27th and
28th degree, reckoning from the eaft. The magneti¬
cal amplitude, therefore, being here equal to the true
one, the needle has no variation •, but if the fun at his
rifing fliould have appeared between the 52d and 53d
degree from the north towards the eaft, his magnetieal
amplitude would then have been between 37 and 38
degrees, i. e. about ten degrees greater than the true
amplitude : therefore the needle would vary about 10
degrees north-eafterly. If the magnetical eaft ampli¬
tude found by the inftrument fhould be lefs than the
true amplitude, their difference would ftiow the varia¬
tion of the needle eafterly. If the true eaft amplitude
be fouthward, as alfo the magnetical amplitude, and
this laft be the greater $ the variation of the needle
will be north-weft 5 and vice veffa.
What has been faid of north-taft amplitudes holds
alfo of fouth-weftj and what of fouth-eaft amplitudes
holds of north-weft. Laffly, if amplitudes be found
of different denominations, e.gr.M the true amplitude
be Itk degrees north, and the magnetical amplitude be
fix degrees fouth j the variation, which in this cafe is
north-weft, will be equal to the fum of the magnetical
and true amplitudes $ anderftand the fame foi; weft am¬
plitudes.
The variation may likewife be found from the azi¬
muth : but in that cafe the fun’s declination, latitude
of the place, and his altitude, muft be given, that his
true azimuth may be found.
This inftrument is alfo ufeful for fettling the drip’s
wake, in order to find the leeway •, and alfo to find the
bearings of headlands and other obje&s.
Experience evinces, that the needle of a compafs,
like every other magnet, whether natural or artificial,
continually lofes fomething of its magnetic powers,
which frequently produces a difference of more than a
point j and we mav venture to aflert, that the great
errors in fhips reckonings more commonly originate
from the incorreftnefs of the compafs than from any
other caufe.
Steel cannot be too highly tempered for the needle
of a fea-compafs, as the more it is hardened, the more
permanent is the magnetifm it receives 5 but to pre-
ferve the magnetifm, and of courfe the polarity of the
needle, it fhould he cafed with thin, well pollfhed, foft
iron. It has been found by repeated experiments, that
the cafed needle preferves its magnetifm in a more
perfect degree than a needle not cafed } and perhaps
63 ] COM
the magnetic power of the cafed needle may increafe,
while that of the uncafed needle lofes of its polarity.
This is not an opinion haftily adopted, but the refult
of a fair and judicious trial, as the gentleman from
whom the above obfervations were in fubflance taken,
placed a cafed and uncafed needle in a room for three
months, having at firft exactly the fame direction, and
about the fame degree of force. At the end of this
period it was found that the cafed needle had not in
the leaf! changed its dire£Hon, while the uncafed had
varied two degrees, and its magnetic power was confi-
derably diminifhed.
Thefe remarks have, the air of novelty, and may per¬
haps contribute to the improvement of the compafs.
But the defeats of this inftrument are not confined to
the needle. The heavieft brafs compaffes are not to
be implicitly trutled in a hollow or high fea, as they
have the box hanging in two brafs rings, thus allow¬
ing it to have only two motions, both vertical and at
right angles with each other *, by which confinement
of the box, upon any fuccuflion, particularly fudden
ones, the card is always too much agitated, and before
it can recover itfelf, another jerk prevents it from
pointing to the pole. It is even not uncommon to fee
the card unfhipped by the violence of the ftup’s pitch-
ing-
All thefe defers are abundantly fupplied by giving
the box a vertical motion at every degree and minute
of the circle, and combining thefe motions with a ho¬
rizontal one of the box as well as of the card. By this
difpofition of the box, the effe&s of the jerks on the
card are avoided, and it will always with fteadinefs
point to the pole. Mr Bernard Romans found by ex¬
perience, that the card not only is not in the fmalleft
degree affefted by the hollow fea, but that, in all the
violent {hocks and. whirlings which it is poflible for the
box to receive, the card lies as ftill as in a room unaf¬
fected by the leaft motion.
A compafs was recently invented and made in Hol¬
land having aft thefe motions. It is about the fize of
the brafs compafs commonly ufed. The bottom of
the brafs box, inftead of being fhaped like a bowl, muft:
be a hollow cone refembliug the bottom of a common
glafs bottle ; the vertex of .it muft be raifed fo high as
to leave only one inch between the card and the glafs j
the.box muft be of the ufual depth, and a quantity of
lead muft be poured in the bottom of the box, round
the bafe of the cone, which fecures it on the ftile
whereon it traverfes.
This ftile is firmly fixed in the centre of a fquare
wooden box, like the common .compafs, but with a
thicker bottom. The ftile is made of brafs about fix
inches long, round, and one-third of an inch thick,
having its head blunt like that of a fewing thimble,
and of a fine polilh, and placed perpendicular. The
inner vertex of the cone mult likewife be well polifti-
ed. The vertical part of the cone ought to be fuffi-
ciently thick to allow a well-polilhed cavity for hold¬
ing a fttort ftile, proceeding from the centre of the
card on which it traverfes. “ The compafs I faw,
(fays Mr Romans), was fo conftru£ted ; but I fee no
reafon why the ftyle might not proceed from the centre
of the vertex of the cone, and fo be received by the
card the common way. The needle muft be a mag¬
netic
COM
CAmpafs. netic bar, blunt at each end ■, the glafs and cover are
«—v—— put on in the common way.”
The above gentleman informs us, that a fimilar com-
pafs was fubmitted to his infpe&ion by the captain of
a Hoop of war, who declared, that during a hard gale
of fome days continuance, he had no other compafs
that was of the fmalleft ufe. In the opinion of Mr
Homans the account was not exaggerated j in which
conclufion we are difpofed to join iffue with him.
Yet Mr Nicholfon in his interefting journal is of an
oppofite fentiment, who believes that the compafs is
very little dilturbed by tilting the box on one fide, blit
Very much by fudden changes of place in a horizontal
direction ; that provifion made againft the latter in a
fcientific manner is the chief requifite in a well con-
ftrufied inftrument of this nature ; and that no other
provifion is neceffary than good workmanfhip agree¬
ably to the common conftruftion, and properly adjuft-
jng the weight refpe&ing the centres and axes of fu-
fpenfion. He conceives it will improve the compafs
very much to make the needle flat and thin, and to
fufpend it, not in the common way, with its flat fide
but with its edge uppermoft ; for, as it is known that
hard fteel retains its magnetifm longer than foft, it
follows that, except both fides of a needle be equally
hard, the magnetic virtue will incline towards the hard¬
er fide in procefs of time.
The Chinefe compafs has fome advantages over the Eu¬
ropean, from which it diflers in the length of the needle,
and the manner of its fufpenfion. The needle of the
Chinefe feldom exceeds an inch in length, and is fcarce-
ly a line in thicknefs. It is polled with great nicety,
and is remarkably fenfible. This is effe<aed by the fol¬
lowing contrivance.
A piece of thin copper is flrapped round the centre
of the needle. This copper is rivetted by its edges to
the upper part of a fmall bemifpherical 'cup of the fame
metal, turned downwards. The cup thus inverted
ferves as a focket to receive a fteel pivot riling from a
cavity made in a round piece of light wood or cork,
which forms the compafs-box. The furfaces of the
focket and pivot, intended to coincide, are highly po-
lilhed, to prevent friftion as much as poflibie. The
cup has a proportionably broad margin, which not
only adds to its weight, but from its horizontal pofi-
tion tends to keep the centre of gravity, in every fitua-
tion of the compafs, nearly coinciding with the centre
of fufpenfion.. The cavity in which the needle is fu-
fpended, is circular, and little more than capable to
remove the needle, cup and pivot. A thin piece of
tranfparent talc is placed over the cavity, which hin¬
ders the needle from being afte&ed by the motion of
the external air j but allows the apparent motion of
the former to be eafily obfervcd. The fmall ftiort
needle of the Chinefe has a lingular advantage over
thofe commonly ufed in Europe, in refpeft of the dip
towards the horizon ; which, in the latter, requires
that one extremity of the needle Ihould be made fo
much heavier than the other as will fufficienily counter-
a£r the magnetic attra&ion. This being different in
different parts of the world, the needle can only be
accurately true at the place for which it has been con-
ftru&ed. But in Ihwrt and light needles, fufpended
after the Chinefe manner, the weight below the point
of fufpenfion is more than fulHcient to overcome the
Vol* VI. Part I.
1 369 ]
COM
Plate CL.
fig- $•
magnetic dip in all fituations of the globe j and confe-
quently fuch needles will never deviate from their ho¬
rizontal pofition.
Compass is alfo an inftrument of confiderable ufe in
furveying land, dialing, &c.
Its ftrudture, in the main, is the fame with that of
the mariner’s compafs 5 confifting like that of a box and
needle : the principal difference confifts in this, that
inftead of the needle’s being fitted into the card, and
playing with it on a pivot, it here plays alone ; the card
being drawn on the bottom of the box, and a circle di¬
vided into 360 degrees on the limb. See fig. 5. This
inftrument is of obvious ufe to travellers, to diredl them
in their road ; and to miners, to {how them what way
to dig, with other confiderable ufes.
1. To take the declination of a wall by the Compafs.
Apply that fide of the compafs whereon the north is
marked along the fide of the wall ; the number of de¬
grees over which the north end of the needle fixes
will be the declination of the wall, and on that fide ;
e. gr. if the north point of the needle tends towards the
north, that wall may be {hone on by the fun at noon •,
if it fix over fifty degrees, counting from the north to-
waids the eaft, the decimation is fo many degrees from
north towards eaft.
But fince the needle itfelf declines from the north
towards the weft, with us, 130; it muft be noted, that
to retrieve the irregularity, 130 are always to be added
to the degrees ftiown by the needle, when the declina¬
tion of the wall is towards the eaft j on the contrary,
when the declination is towards the weft, the declina¬
tion of the needle is to be fubtra&ed.
2. To take an angle with the Compafs. Suppofe the
angle required be DAE, fig. 4. apply that fide of the nv. 44
compafs whereon the north is marked to one of the ° ^
lines AD : when the needle refts, obferve the degrees
at which its north point Hands, which fuppofe 80 : fo
many degrees does the line decline from the meridian.
In the fame manner take the declination of the line
AE, which fuppofe 2I5°-, fubtradl 8o° from 2150,
the remainder is 1350; which fubtra&ed from 1800’
there will remain 450 ; the quantity of the angle re¬
quired. But if the difference between the declination
°f the two lines exceed 180° ; in that cafe, 180° muft
be fubtrafled from that difference ; the remainder then
is the angle required.
In meafuring angles by the compafs, there needs
not any regard be had to the variation 5 that being fup-
pofed the fame in all the lines of the angles.
3.. To take a plot of afield by the Compafs. Suppofe
the field A, B, C, D, E, fig. 10. for the greater ac-p;
curacy let there be two fights fitted to the meridian line S’
of the compafs ; place it horizontally, and through
the fights look along the fide AB, or a line paralleHo
it ; applying the eye to the fight at the fouth point of
the compafs. Draw a rough fketch of the field by the
eye, and on the correfponding line enter down the de¬
gree to which the needle points, which fuppofe 90® j
meafure the length of the fide, and enter that too,
which fuppofe 10 chains.
In this manner proceed with all the reft of the fides
and angles of the field $ the fides, which fuppofe 70,
^5’ 7°> 44i 5° fathom ; and the angles, which fup¬
pofe 30, 100, 130, 240, 300 degrees. To protraft
the field, fet down the feveral angles obferved, one
3 A* after
Compafs.
COM [
Compafs, after another, and fubtraft the leffer from the
CompafiVs. greater : thus will you have the quantity of the feveral
angles, and the length of the lines that include them.
For the reft, fee Geometry.
Note. All the angles of the figure taken together,
muft make twice as many right angles j abating two if
no miftake has been committed.
Azimuth Compass. See Azimuth.
COMP ASS-Did Is, are fmall horizontal dials, fitted in
brafs or filver boxes, for the pocket, to (how the hour
of the day, by the dire61ion of a needle that indicates
how to place them right, by turning the dial about till
the cock or ftyle ftands dire&ly over the needle \ but
thefe can never be very exafl, becaufe of the variation
of the needle itfelf. See Compass and Dialing.
COMPASSES, or Pair of COMPASSES, a mathe¬
matical inftrument for defcribing circles, meafuring
figures, &c.
The common compaffes confift of two ftiarp-pointed
branches or legs of iron, fteel, brafs, or other metal,
joined together at the top by a rivet, whereon they
move as on a centre. 1 hole compaffes are of the
bell fort in which the pin or axle on whicli the joint
turns, and alfo half the joint itfelf, is made^of fteel, as
ihe oppofite metals wear more equably. The perfec¬
tion of them may be known by the eafy and uniform
opening and /hutting of their legs 5 one of which is
fometimes made to take in and out, in order to make
room for two other points to defcribe with ink, black-
lead or other materials.
There are now ufed compaffes of various kinds and
contrivances, accommodated to the various ufes they
lire intended for j as,
COMPASSES of three legs, or Triangular Compaffes,
are, felling afide the excefs of a leg, of the fame ftruc-
ture with the common ones; their ufe being to take
three points at once, and lo to form triangles 5 to
lay down three pofitions of a map, to be copied at
once, &c.
Beam-CQMPASSES cowhOi of a long branch, or beam,
made of brafs or wood, carrying two brals curfors,
the one fixed at one end, the other Aiding along the
beam, with a fcrew to fallen it occafionally. To the
curfors may be fcrewed points of any kind, whether
fteel for pencils, or the like. It is ufed to draw large
circles, to take great extents, &c. To the fixed curfor-
is fometimes applied an adjufting or micrometer fcrew,
by which an extent is. obtained to extreme nicety.
Mr Jones of Holborn has made beam-compaffes to ad-
juft to the ^oodth of an inch.
Calibre-COMPASSES. See Caliber.
Clockmaker's COMPASSES are joined like the com¬
mon compaffes, with a quadrant, or bow’, like the fpring
compaffes j only of different ufe, ferving here to keep
the inftrument firm at any opening. They are made
very ftrong, with the points of their legs of well tem¬
pered fteel, as being ufed to dra\V lines on pafteboard
or copper.
Cylindrical and Spherical COMPASSES, confift.of four
branches, joined in a centre, two of which are circular,
and two flat, a little bent on the ends : their ufe is to
take the diameter, thicknefs, or caliber of round or
cylindric bodies •, fuch as cannons, pipes, &c.
Elliptic COMPASSES. Their ufe is to draw ellipfes,
or ovals of any kind: they confift of a beam AB
370 ] COM
next about a foot long, bearing three curfors ; to one of Compaffes.
which may be fcrewed points of any kind : to the
bottom of the other two are rivetted two Hiding dove¬
tails, adjufted in grooves made in the crofs branches of
the beam. The dove-tails having a motion every way
by turning about the long branch, go backwards and
Plate CL.
fig. 9.
forwards along the crofs •, fo that when the beam has
gone half-way about, one of thefe will have moved the
whole length of one of the branches ; and when the
beam has got quite round, the fame dove-tail has got
back the whole length of the branch. Underftand the
fame of the other dove-tail.
Note. The diftance betw’een the two Hiding dove-
tails is the diftance between the two foci of theellipfis j
fo that by changing that diftance, the ellipfis will be
rounder or flender. Under the ends of the branches
of the crofs are placed four fteel points to keep it fall.
The ufe of this compafs is eafy 5 by turning round
the long branch, the ink, pencil, or other point, will
draw the elliplis required. Its figure fhows both its
ufe and conftru&ion.
German COMPASSES have their legs a little bent out¬
wards, towards the top*, fo that when Ihut, the points
only meet.
Hair COMPASSES are fo contrived W'ithin fide, by a
fmall adjufting fcrew to one of the legs, as to taka an
extent to a hair’s breadth.
Lapidary's COMPASSES are a piece of wood, in form
of the lhaft of a plane, cleft at top, as far as half its
length j with this they meafure the angles, &c. of
jewels and precious ftones, as they cut them. Ihere
is in the cleft a little brafs rule, faftened there at one
end by a pin ; but fo that it may be moved in the man¬
ner of a brafs level: with this kind ol Iquare they take,
the angles of the ftones, laying them on the ftiaft as
they cut them.
Proportional COMPASSES are thofe whofe joint lies
between the points terminating each leg : they are
either fimple or compound. In the former fort the
centre is fixed, fo that one pair of thefe ferves only for
one proportion.
Compound proportional COMP ASSESconhO. of two parts piate CLb.
or fides of brafs, which lie upon each other fo nicely fig. 6.
as to appear but one when they are ftiut. Thefe fides-
eafily open, and move about a centre, which is itlelf
moveable in a hollow canal cut through the greateft
part of their length. To this centre on each fide is
affixed a Hiding piece A of a fmall length, with a fine
line drawn on it ferving as an index, to be fet againft
other lines or divifions placed upon Jthe compaffes on
both fides. Thefe lines are, 1. A line of lines. 2. A
line of fuperfices, areas, or planes. 3. A line of folids..
4. A line of circles, or rather of polygons to be in-
fcribed in circles. Thefe lines are all unequally di¬
vided ; the three firft from I to 20, the laft from 6 to-
20. Their ufes are as follow
By the line of lines you divide a given line into any
number of equal parts; for by placing the index A
againft 1, and fcrewing it fall, if you open the com¬
paffes, then the diftance between the points at each end
will be equal. If you place the index againft 2, and
open the compaffes, the diftance between the points of
the longer legs BB, will be twice the diftance be¬
tween the fhorter ones CC j and thus a line is bife£led,
or divided into two equal parts. If the index be placed,
agalnii
Coining.
/ J/.t yz; c/..
Com pas s .
/J/,A 77^67,/
6 .
A'///. A.
COM [3
'orapafTcs.
agalnil 3, and the compaffes opened 5 the diftance be¬
tween the points will be as 3 to 1, and fo a line is di¬
vided into 3 equal parts j and fo you proceed for any
other number of parts under 10.
The numbers of the line of planes anfwer to the
fquares of thofe in the line of lines ; for becaufe fuper-
fices or planes are to each other as the fquares of their
like fides j therefore, if the index be placed againft
2 in the* line of planes, the didance between the
fmall point will be the fide of a plane whofe area is
one; but the dillance of tiie larger points will be the
like fide of a plane whofe area is two; or twice as
large. If the index be placed at 3, and the compaiTes
opened, the diftances between the points at each end
will be the like fide of planes whofe areas are as 1 to 3 j
and fo of others.
The numbers of the line of folids anfwer to the
cubes of thofe of the line of lines; becaufe all folids
are to each other as the cubes of their fides or diame¬
ters j therefore, if the index be placed to number 2, 3, 4,
&.Q. in the line of folids, the diftance between the leffer
and larger points will be the like fides of folids,
which are to each other as 1 to 2, 1 to 3, I to 4, &c.
For example 5 If the index be placed at 10, and the
compafies be opened fo that the fmall points may take
the diameter of a bullet whofe weight is one ounce,
the diftance between the large points will be the dia¬
meter of a bullet or globe of 10 ounces, or which is 10
times as large.
Laftly, Th.e numbers in the line of circles are the
fides of polygons to be infcribed in a given circle, or
by which a circle may be divided into the equal parts,
from 6 to 20. Thus, if the index be placed at -6,
the points of the compafles at either end, when opened
to the radius of a given circle, will contain the fide
of a hexagon, or divide the circle into fix equal
parts. If the index be placed againft 7, and the com¬
pafles opened fo that the larger points may take in the
radius of the circle, then the (horter points will divide
the circle into feven equal parts for infcribing a hep¬
tagon. Again, placing the index to 8, and opening
the compafles, the larger points will contain the radius,
and the lefler points divide the circle into eight equal
parts for infcribing an o£fagon or fquare. And thus
you may proceed for others.
Proportional COMPASSES with the feSlor lines. The
ftru&ure of thefe is fo like that of the common propor¬
tional compafles, only a little nicer, that it needs no
particular defcription. The lines on the firft face are
the line of lines, marked lines ; it is divided into 100
equal parts, every tenth numbered ; and the line of
chords, which goes to 6o°, is marked chords. On the
other face are a line of fines to 90°, and a line of
tangents to 450. On one fide are the tangents from
450 to 710 34'} on the -other, fecants from o° to
70° 30k
For the ufe of thefe compafles: 1. To divide a line
into any number of equal parts lefs than 100 : divide
100 by the number of parts required j flip the curfor till
the line on the Aiding dove-tail be againft the quotient
on the line of lines : then, the whole line being taken
between the points of the compafles moft remote from
the centre, the aperture of the other will (how the di-
vifion required. 2. A right line given, fuppofed to be
divided into ICO parts, to take any number of thofe
71 ] COM
parts ; flip the line on the Aiding dove-tail to the num- Compafos.
ber of parts required : the whole line being taken be- —v— ■1
tween the points fartheft from the centre, the aperture
of the other two will include the number of divifions
required. 3. The radius being given, to find the
chord of any other under 6o° j flip the line on the Aid¬
ing dove tail to the degrees required on the line of
chords : the radius being taken between the points far¬
theft from the centre, of the curfor ; the aperture of
the other line will be the chord required, provided the
number of degrees be greater than 29 : if it be lefs,
the aperture taken from the radius will leave the chord
required. 4. If the chord of an arch under 6o° be
given, and the radius required *, flip the line on the
dove-tail to the degrees given on the line of chords :
the given chord being taken between the two points
next the curfor, the aperture of the other will be the
radius required. 5. The radius being given, to find
the fine of any number of degrees; flip the line on
the dove tail to the degree on the line of fines whofe
fine is required : the radius taken between the points
furtheft from the curfor, the aperture of the other will
give the fine of the angle required. But if the fine
fought be lefs than 30°, the difference of the apertures
of the oppofite points will be the fine required. 6. The
radius being given, to find the tangent of any number
of degrees under 71 ; if the tangent required be under
26° 30', then flip the line on the dove-tail to the de¬
gree propofed on the tangent line ; the radius taken
between the points fartheft from the curfor, the aper¬
ture of the others will be the tangent of the degrees
required ; if the tangent required be above 26° 30',
but under 450, the line on the curfor muft be flipped
to the degrees given on the tangent line ; then the ra¬
dius being taken between the points furtheft from the
curfor, the aperture of the others will be the tangent.
If the tangent required be greater than 450, but lefs
than 56° 20', flip the notch on the tangent fide of the
turned cheek to the degree o in the tangent line on
the fide of the compafs ; the radius taken between the
points furtbeft from the curfor; the difference between
the aperture of the other and thefe, added together,
will be the tangent required. Thus, for the tangents
of the degrees under 71. After the like manner
may the fecant of any number of degrees under 71 be
found.
Mr Heath, a mathematical inftrument-maker in
London, conftru&ed a pair of proportional compaffes,
in 1746, with a curious and ufeful contrivance for pre¬
venting the ftrorter legs from changing their pofition,
when thefe compafles were ufed. It confided of a
fmall beam foldered to a fcrew, and running parallel to
the leg of the compaffes nearly of the length of the
groove ; in this beam a flit was made, which admitted
of a fliding-nut, the other end of which fell into a hole
in the bottom of the fcrew, belonging to the great nut
of the compafles. The fcrew-pin of the beam paffed
through an adjufter, by means of which the mark on
the Aider might be brought exadlly to any divifion. But
the proportional compaffes have been much out of ufe
fince the invention of the fedfor.
Spring COMPASSES, or dividers ; thofe with an
arched head, which by its fpring opens the legs ; the
opening being directed by a circular fcrew faftened to
one of the legs and let through the other, worked
3 A 2 with
COM [ 372 ] COM
Compaires with a nut. Xhefe eompaffes are made of hardened
II _ fleel.
Competi- TrifeEling COMPASSES confift of two central rules,
■ and an arch of circles of 120 degrees, immoveable,
with its radius, which is fattened with one of the
central rules like the two legs of a feftor, that the cen¬
tral rule may be carried through all the points of the
circumference or the arch. The radius and rule fhould
be as thin as pothole : and the rule fattened to the ra¬
dius tliould be hammered cold, to attain the greater
elatlicity *, and the breadth of the central rule thould
be triple that of the radius 5 there mutt alfo be a groove
in this rule, with a dove-tail fattened on it for its mo¬
tion, and a hole in the centre of each rule. The ufe
of this inftrument is to facilitate the trifedion of angles
geometrically •, and it is faid to have been invented by
M. Targen for that purpofe.
Turn-np-COM?ASSES. The body of this inftrument
is like the common compaffes; but towards the bottom
of the legs, without-fide, are added two other points
befides the ufual ones; the one whereof carries a
drawing pen point, and the other a port-crayon, both
adjufted fo as to turn round, and be in the way of ufe,
or out of it, as occafion requires. Thefe compaftes
have been contrived to fave the trouble of changing
the points.
COMPASSION, or Commiseration, in Ethics, a
mixed paftion compounded of love and lorrow, and
excited by the fight or recital of diftrefs. Hobbes
makes this a merely felfifti paffion, and defines it as be¬
ing fear for ourfelves j Hutchefon refolves it into in-
itinft; but Dr Butler, much more properly, confiders
compaffion as an original, diuinfl, particular aftedlion
in human nature.
COMPATIBLE, fomething that may fuit or con¬
fift with another. See Incompatible.
COMPEIGNE, a handfome town of France, in
the department of Oife, with a palace or caftle,
where the king often refided. The maid of Orleans
was taken prifoner here in 1430. It is feated on the
river Oife, near a large foreft. E. Long. 2. 55. N.
Lat. 49. 25. It Hands about 45 miles north-eaft of
Paris.
COMPENDIUM, in matters of literature, denotes
much the fame as epitome or abridgement. See A-
BRIDGEMENT.
COMPENSATION, in a general fenfe, an a&ion
whereby any thing is admitted as an equivalent to
another.
Compensation, in Law. When the fame perfon is
debtor and creditor to another, the mutual obligations,
if they are for equal fums, are extinguiftied by com^
penfation 5 if for unequal, the leflfer obligation is ex¬
tinguiftied, and the greater dimmiftied, as far as the
concourfe of debt and credit goes.
COMPETENCE, or Competency, in a general
lenfe, fuch a quantity of any thing as is fufficient.
Competency, in Law, the right or authority of a
judge, whereby he takes cognizance of any thing.
COMPETENTES, an order of catechumens, in
the primitive Chriftian church, being the immediate
candidates for baptifm. See Catechumen.
COMPETITION, in a general fenfe, is the fame
with rivaUhip, or when two or more perfons contend for
the fame thing.
2
Competition, in Zflm. In efcheats, fee Law, Co
Part III. N° clxvi. 17, &c. In confirmations by the tiorT'*
fuperior, in refignations, and in perfonal rights of |j
lands, ibul. clxviii. 5—9. In inhibitions, in adjudica- Complex,
lion, amongft aftignees, arrefttrs, and poinders, ibid.
clxxi. 6. clxxii. 3, clxxvii. 2. clxxviii. 8, 9, 10. A-
mongft creditors of a defunft, clxxxi. 19.
COMPETALIA, or Compitalita, feafts held
among the ancients in honour of the /ares. The word
comes from the Latin, compitum, a crofs-way 5 becaufe
the feaft was held in the meeting of feveral roads.
The compitalia are more ancient than the building
of Rome. Dionyfius Halicarnafleus, and Pliny, in¬
deed fay, they were inftituted by Servius Tullius ; but
this only fignifies that they were then introduced into
Rome. The feaft being moveable, the day whereon
it was to be obferved was proclaimed every year. It
was ordinarily held on the 4th of the nones of Fe¬
bruary, i. e. on the 2d of that month. Macrobius
obferves, that they were held not only in honour
of the lares, but alfo of mania, madnefs. The priefts
who officiated at them were flaves and liberti, and
the facrifice a fow. They were re-eftabliftied, after
a long negleft, by Tarquin the Proud, on occafion
of an anfwer of the oracle, that they Jhou/d facrijice
heads for heads ; i, e. that for the health and profpe-
rity of each family, children were to be facrificed :
but Brutus, after expelling the kings, in lieu of thofe
barbarous viiftims fubftituted the heads of garlic and
poppy 5 thus fatisfying the oracle which had enjoined
capita, heads. During the celebration of this feaft,
each family placed at the door of their houfe the
ftatue of the goddefs Mania: they alfo hung up at
their doors figures of wool, reprefenting men and wo¬
men } accompanying them with fupplications that the
lares and mania would be contented with thofe figures,
and fpare the people of the houfe.
COMPLEMENT, in Geometry, is what remains
of the quadrant of a circle, or 90°, after any certain
arch has been taken away from it. Thus, if the arch
taken away be 40°, its complement is jo j becaufe
50-I-40—90. The fine of the complement of an arch
is called the eojine, and that of the tangent the co-
tangent, &c.
COMPLETUS flos, in Botany. A flower is faid
to be complete, which is provided with both the co¬
vers, viz. the calyx or flower-cup, and the petals. The
term was invented by Vaillant, and is fynonymous with
calyculatus fos in Linnaeus. Berkenhout erroneoufly
confounds it with the auSius and calyculatus calyx of the
fame author.
COMPLEX, in a more general fenfe, a term fyno¬
nymous with compound ; though in ftriftnefs of fpeech
there is fome difference.
Complex is properly applied where a thing contains
many others, or confifts of different parts not really di-
ftintft from each other, but only imaginarily, or in
our conceptions. In this fenfe the foul tnay be faid to
be complex, in refptft of the underfianding and will,
which are two things that our reafon alone diftinguifties
in it.
COMPLEX Term, or Idea, is a term compounded of
feveral Ample or incomplex ones. Thus, in the propofi-
tion, a jujl God cannot leave crimes unpunifhed; the
fubjeft of this propofition, viz. a jujl God, is a com¬
plex
COM [ 373 ] COM
Complex, P^ex term, or (lands for a complex idea compofed of
Complex- two fimple or incomplex ones, viz. God an&jujt.
ion. COMPLEXION, among phyficians, the tempera-
1 v ' ment, habitude, and natural difpofition, of the body j
but more often the colour of the face and Ikin.
Few queftions in philofophy have engaged the at¬
tention of naturalifts more than the diverfities among
the human fpecies, among which that of colour is the
molt remarkable. The great differences in this refpe£l
have given occafion to ‘feveral authors to affert, thal
the whole human race have not fprung from one origi¬
nal 5 but that as many different fpecies of men rvere at
firft created as there are now different colours to be
found among them. Under the article America, N° 8l
—100, we have lliown that all the arguments which
can be brought for fpecific differences among man¬
kind, whether drawn from a difference of colour, fta-
ture, or difpofition, muff neceffarily be inconclufive.
It remains, however, a matter of no fmall difficulty to
account for the remarkable variations of colour that
are to be found among different nations. On this fub-
je£l Dr Planter has publifhed a thefis, in which he
confiders the matter more accurately than has com¬
monly been done, and determines abfolutely againfl;
any fpecific difference among mankind. He introduces
his fubjecfl by obferving, that when the queffion has
been agitated, whether all the human race conllituted
only one fpecies or not, much confufion has arifen from
the fenfe in which the term fpectes has been adopted.
He therefore thinks it neceffary to fet out with a defi¬
nition of the term. Pie includes under the fame fpe¬
cies all thofe animals which produce iffue capable of
propagating others refembling the original (lock from
whence they fprung. This definition he illuftrates by
having recourfe to the human fpecies as an example.
And in this fenfe of the term he concludes, that all of
them are to be confidered as belonging to the fame
fpecies. And as, in the cafe of plants, one fpecies
comprehends feveral varieties depending upon climate,
foil, culture, and fimilar accidents j fo he confiders the
diverfities of the human race to be merely varieties of
the fame fpecies, produced by natural caufes. Of the
different colours obfervable among mankind, he gives
the following view :
Black. Africans under the line.
Inhabitants of New Guinea.
Inhabitants of New Holland.
Swarthy. The Moors in the northern parts of
Africa.
The Hottentots in the fouthern parts
of it.
Copper coloured. The Eaft Indians.
Red coloured. The Americans.
Brown coloured. Tartars.
Perfians.
Arabs.
Africans on the coall of the
Mediterranean.
Chinefe.
Brownish. The inhabitants of the fouthern parts
of Europe •, as Sicilians, and Spa¬
niards ; as well as the Abyffinians in
Africa.
Brownish. Turks, and likewife the Samoiedes and Complex-
Laplanders. ion.
White. Mod of the European nations j as
Swedes,
Danes,
Engliffi,
Germans,
Poles, Sec.
Kabardinlki,
Georgians,
Inhabitants of the iflands in the Pacific
ocean.
In attempting to inveftigate the caufes of thefe dif¬
ferences, our author obferves, that there can be no
difpute of the feat of colour being placed in the Ikin j
that it is not even extended over the whole of this,
but confined to that part named the cuticle, confifting
of the epidermis and reticulum •, and that it chiefly
occupies the latter of thefe. The cuticle is much
thicker and harder in black people than in white ones ;
the reticulum in the latter being a thin mucus, in the
former a thick membrane. He concludes that this
feat of colour in w'bites is tranfparent, and either to¬
tally deprived of veffels, or only furnitlied with very
few ; as the yellow colour appearing in jaundice va-
nilhes on the caufe of the difeafe being removed j
which is nut the cafe with ftains in the cuticle from
gunpowder, or fimilar caufes. He next points out
three caufes deftroying the pellucidity of the cuticle,
giving it a brown colour, and rendering it thicker.
Thefe are, accefs of air, naftinefs, and the heat of the
fun. The influence of each of thefe he proves by
many examples ; and from them he is inclined to con-
fider the laft as by much the moll powerful. If, how¬
ever, it be admitted that thefe caufes have this effeft,
he thinks that all the diverfity of colour which is to
be obferved among mankind, may be thus accounted
for. He remarks, that all the inhabitants of the tor¬
rid zone incline more or lefs to a black colour. When
we obferve the differences which occur among them,
we mull at the fame time remember, that a black co¬
lour is not referred to heat alone, but to the other
caufes alfo : and when we attend to the diverfity of
temperature that occurs even in the torrid zone, the
exiftence of a white nation there would by no means
deftroy the argument. He is farther of opinion, that
the exiflence of a brown colour, and of confiderabla
varieties from white, in the northern and coldeft parts
of Europe, may very eafily be explained. This he ac¬
counts for from the manner of life of the inhabitants, by
which they are either expofed to the inclemency of the
air, or to conflant naftinefs from fmoky houfes.
Having thus attempted to account, from natural
caufes, for the varieties which occur among mankind
with refpefl to colour, our author obferves, that, to all
this reafoning, an objedlion will naturally be made,
from confidering that infants bring thefe marks into
the world along with them, before they can be expo-
fed to any fuch caufes. Dr Hunter imagines, how¬
ever, that this may readily be explained upon the
fuppofition that many peculiarities acquired by parents
are tranfmitted to their pofterity j and of this, he
thinks, no one can entertain the leaft doubt who at¬
tends
C O M
Complex- tends to hereditary difea'fes. ^ Thus, gout, fcrophula,
ion. mania, and many other affeftions, although at firft in-
i.j... y1—'— duced by particular accidents, will continue to affeft
families for many generations. In the fame manner
a parent expofed to caufes deftroying the natural
whitenefs of his complexion, will beget fwarthy chil¬
dren •, and the fame caufes continuing to operate upon
the fon, the blacknefs will be increafed. Thus all the
different (hades may have been at firft induced, and af¬
terwards continued.
The objection here obviated, however, might have
been fhortly anfwered by denying the faift ; for it is
now generally known, that the children of the black-
eft negroes are abfolutely born white, as will be after¬
wards noticed.
This fubjefl of complexion has been very well illuf-
trated by Mr Clarkfon, in a differtation introduced in
his Effay on the commerce and flavery of the human
fpecies. I. he firft point that occurs to be afcertamed,
is “ What part of the fkin is the feat of colour ?” The
old anatomifts ufually divide the fkin into two parts or
laminse ; the exterior and thinneft, called by the Greeks
epidermis, by the Romans cuticula, and hence by us
cuticle ; and the interior, called by the former derma,
and .by the latter cutis, or true Jkin. Hence they muft
neceffarily have fuppofed, that, as the true fkin was
in every refpe£l the fame in all human fubje£ts, how¬
ever various their external hue, fo the feat of colour
muft have exifted in the cuticle or upper furface.
Malpighi, an eminent Italian phyfician of the laft
century, was the firft perfon who difcovered that the
fkin was divided into three laminae or parts; the cu¬
ticle, the true fkin, and a certain coagulated fubftance
fituated between both, which he diftinguifhed by the
title of rete tnucofum; which coagulated fubftance ad¬
hered fo firmly to the cuticle, as, in all former anato¬
mical preparations, to have come oft with it; and,
from this circumftance, to have led the ancient ana¬
tomifts to believe, that there were but two laminae, or
divifible portions in the human fkin. See Anatomy
Index.
This difcovery was fufEcient to afcertain the point
in queftion } for it appeared afterwards that the cu¬
ticle, when divided according to this difcovery from
the other lamina, was femitranfparent; that the cu¬
ticle of the blackeft negro was of the fame tranfpa-
rency and colour as that of the pureft white ; and
hence the true (kins of both being invariably the fame,
that the rete mucofum was the feat of colour.
This has been farther confirmed by all fubfequent
anatomical experiments; by which it appears, that
whatever is the colour of this intermediate coagulated
fubftance, nearly the fame is the apparent colour of
the upper furface of the fkin. Neither can it be
otherwife j for the cuticle, from its tranfparency, muft
neceffarily tranfmit the colour of the fubftance be¬
neath it, in the fame manner, though not in the fame
degree, as the cornea tranfmits the colour of the iris
of the eye. This tranfparency is a matter of ocular
demonftration in white people. It is confpicuous in
every blufh ; for no one can imagine that the cuticle
becomes red as often as this happens : nor is it lefs dif-
eoverable in the veins, which are fo eafy to be dif-
cerned ; for no one can fuppofe that the blue ftreaks,
which he conftantly fees in the faireft complexions, are
COM
painted, as it were, on the furface of the upper (kin. Complex.
From thefe, and a variety of other obfervations, no ion.
maxim is more true in phyfiology, than that on the
rete mucofum depends the colour of the human bo¬
dy ; or, in other words, that the rete mucofum being
of a different colour in different inhabitants of the
globe, and appearing through the cuticle or upper
furface of the fkin, gives them that various appearance
which ftrikes us fo forcibly in contemplating the hu¬
man race.
As this can be incontrovertibly afcertained, it is
evident, that whatever caufes co-operate in producing
this different appearance, they produce it by a&ing
upon the rete mucofum *, which, from the almoft in¬
credible manner in which the cuticle is perforated, is
as acceflible as the cuticle itfelf. Thefe caufes are pro¬
bably thofe various qualities of things, which, com¬
bined with the influence of the fun, contribute to form
what we call climate. For when any perfon confiders,
that the mucous fubftance before mentioned is found to
vary in its colour, as the climates vary from the equa¬
tor to the poles, his mind muft be inftantly ftruck with
the hypothefis, and he muft adopt it without any he¬
ft tation, as the genuine eaufe of the phenomenon.
This fafl, of the variation of the mucous fubftance,
according to the fituation of the place, has been clear¬
ly afcertained in the numerous anatomical experiments
that have been raadej in which fubjeds of all nations
have come under confederation. I he natives of many
of the kingdoms and ifles of Afia are found to have
their rete mucofum black : thofe of Africa, fituated
near the line, of the fame colour; thofe of the mari¬
time parts of the fame continent, of a dufky brown,
nearly approaching to it; and the colour becomes
lighter or darker in proportion as the diftance from
the equator is either greater or lefs. The Europeans
are the faireft inhabitants of the world. Thofe fitua¬
ted in the moft fouthern regions of Europe, have in
their rete mucofum a tinge of the dark hue of their
African neighbours : hence the epidemic complexion
prevalent among them, is nearly of the colour of the
pickled Spanifh olive j while in this country, and thofe
fituated nearer the north pole, it appears to be nearly,
if not abfolutely, white.
Thefe are fads which anatomy has eftabliftied ; and
we acknowledge them to be fuch, that we cannot di¬
vert ourfelves of the idea, that climate has a confider-
able (hare in producing a difference of colour.
The only objedion of any confequence that has ever
been made to the hypothefis of climate, is this, that
people under the fame parallels are not exadly of the
fame colour. But this is no objedion in fad *, for it
does not follow that thofe countries which are at an
equal diftance from the equator, (hould have their
climates the fame. Indeed nothing is more contrary
to experience than this. Climate depends upon a va¬
riety of accidents. High mountains in the neighbour¬
hood of a place make it cooler, by chilling the air that
is carried over them by the winds. Large fpreading
fucculent plants, if among the produdions of the foil,
have the fame effed } they afford agreeable cooling
fhades, and a moift atmofphere from their continual
exhalations, by which the ardour of the fun is confi-
derably abated. While the foil, on the other hand,
if of a Tandy nature, retains the heat in an uncommon
degree,
[ 374 3
COM
Complex- degree, and makes the fummers confiderably hotter
ion. than thofe which are found to exift in the fame lati-
■—'V"”*' tude where the foil is different. To this proximity of
what may be termed burning funds, and to the fulphu-
reous and metallic particles which are continually ex¬
haling from the bowels of the earth, is afcribed the
different degrees of blacknefs by which fome African
nations are diflinguifhed from each other, though
under the fame parallels. To thefe obfervations we
may add, that though the inhabitants of the fame pa¬
rallel are not exa&ly of the fame hue, yet they differ
only by fhades of the fame colour ; or, to fpeak with
more precifion, that there are no two people, in fuch
a fituation, one of whom is white and the other black.
To fum up the whole Suppofe we were to take a
common globe ; to begin at the equator ; to paint
every country along the meridian line in fucceflion from
thence to the poles ; and to paint them with the fame
colour which prevails in the refpe61ive inhabitants of
each, we fhould fee the black, with which we had
been obliged to begin, infenfibly changing to an olive,
and the olive, through as many intermediate colours,
to a white ; and if, on the other hand, we fhould
complete any one of the parallels according to the
fame plan, we fhould fee a difference perhaps in the
appearance of fome of the countries through which it
ran, though the difference would confift wholly in
fhades of the fame colour.
The argument, therefore, which is brought againfl
the hypothefis, is fo far from being an objedlion, that
it may be confidered as one of the firfl arguments in it$
favour } for if the climate has really an influence on the
mucous fubftance of the body, it is evident that we
muff not only expedl to fee a gradation of colour in
the inhabitants from the equator to the poles, but al-
fo different fhades of the fame colour in the inhabi¬
tants of the fame parallel.
To this argument may be added one that is incon¬
trovertible, which is, that when the black inhabitants
of Africa are tranfplanted to colder, or the white in¬
habitants of Europe to hotter climates, their children,
born there, are of a different colour from themfelves j
that is, lighter in the firft, and darker in the fecond.
inftance.
As a proof of the firft, we fhall give the words of
the Abbe Raynal, in his admired publication. “ The
children,” fays he, “ which they (the Africans) pro¬
create in America, are not fo black as their parents
were. After each generation the difference becomes
more palpable. It is poflible, that after a numerous
fucceflion of generations, the men come from Africa
Would not be dillinguiflied from thofe of the country
into which they may have been tranfplanted.”
This circumftance we have had the pleafure of hear¬
ing confirmed by a variety of perfons who have been
witneffes of the fa£t j but particularly by many intel¬
ligent Africans, who have been parents themfelves in
America, and who have declared, that the difference
is fo palpable in the northern provinces, that not only
they themfelves have conftantly obferved it, but that
they have heard it obferved by other*.
Neither is this variation in the children from the
colour of the parents improbable. The children of
the blackeff Africans are born white. In this Hate
[ 375 ] COM
they continue for about a month, when they change Complex-
to a pale yellow. In procefs of time they become ion.
brown. Their fkin (till continues to increafe in dark- —v''"—
nefs with their age, till it becomes of a dirty fallow
black ; and at length, after a certain period of years,
gloffy and fliining. Now, if climate has any influence
on the mucous fubftance of the body, this variation in
the children from the colour of their parents is an
event which muft be reafonably expe&ed j for being
born white, and not having equally powerful caufes
to a£l Upon them in colder, as their parents had in
the hotter climes which they left, it muft necef-
farily follow, that the fame effeff cannot poflibly be
produced.
Hence alfo, if the hypothefis be admitted, may be
deduced the reafon why even thofe children who have
been brought from their country at an early age into
colder regions, have been obferved to be of a lighter
colour than thofe who have remained at home till they
arrived at a ftate of manhood. For having undergone
fome of the changes which we mentioned to have at¬
tended their countrymen from infancy to a certain
age, and have been taken away before, the reft could
be completed, thefe farther changes which would have
taken place had they remained at home, feem either
to have been checked in their progrefs, or weakened in
their degree, by a colder climate.
We come now to the fecond and oppofite cafe j for
a proof of which we fhall appeal to the words of Dr
Mitchell in the Philofophical Tranfadlions, N° 476.
fedt. 4. “ The Spaniards who have inhabited Ameri¬
ca under the torrid zone for any time, are become as
dark coloured as our native Indians of Virginia, of
which I myfelf have been a witnefs $ and were they
not to intermarry with the Europeans, but lead the
fame rude and barbarous lives with the Indians, it is
very probable, that, in a fucceflion of many generations,
they would become as dark in complexion.”
To this inftance we fliall add one, which is mention¬
ed by a late writer, who, defcribing the African coaft
and the European fettlements there, has the following
paflage. “ There are feveral other fmall Portuguefe
fettlements, and one of fome note at Mitomba, a river
in Sierra Leone. The people here called Portuguefe
are principally perfons bred from a mixture of the firft
Portuguefe difcoverers with the natives, and now be¬
come, in their complexion and woolly quality ©f their
hair, perfedt negroes, retaining, however, a fmattering
of the Portuguefe language.”.
Thefe fadts with refpedt to the colonifts of the Eu¬
ropeans are of the higheft importance in the prefent
cafe, and deferve a ferious attention. For when we
know to a certainty from whom they are defcended ;
when we know that they were, at the time of their
tranfplantation, of the fame colour as thofe from whom
they feverally fprung j and when, on the other hand,
we are credibly informed that they changed it for
the native colour of the place which they now inhabit:
the evidence in fupport of thefe lads is as great as if a
perfon, on the removal of two or three families into
another climate, had determined to afcertain the cir¬
cumftance 5 as if he had gone with them and watched,
their children ; as it he had communicated his obferva¬
tions at his death to a fucceffor
as if his fucceflbr had
profecuted.
COM [ 37
Complex- profecuted the plan ; and thus an uninterrupted chain
ion. of evidence had been kept up from their firlt removal
to any determined period of fucceeding time.
But though thefe fadls feem fufficient of themfelves
to confirm our opinion, they are not the only fadts
which can be adduced in its fupport. It can be (hown,
that the members of the very fame family, when divi¬
ded from each other, and removed into different coun¬
tries, have not only changed their family complexion,
but that they have changed it to as many different co¬
lours as they have gone into different regions of the
world. We cannot have, perhaps, a more linking in-
ftance of this than in the Jews. Thefe people are feat-
tered over the face of the whole earth. They have
preferved themfelves diftinft from the reft of the world
by their religion ; and as they never intermarry with
any but thofe of their own feft, fo they have no mix¬
ture of blood in their veins that they Ihould differ from
each other ; and yet nothing is more true, than that
the Englifh Jerv is white, the Portuguefe fvrarthy, the
Armenian olive, and the Arabian copper ; in fhort,
that there appear to be as many different fpecies of
Jews as there are countries in which they refide.
To thefe fa£ts we fhall add the following obferva-
tion, that if we can give credit to the ancient hiftori-
ans in general, a change from the darkeft black to the
pureft W'hite muft have a6tuallybeen accomplilhed. One
inftance, perhaps, may be thought fufficient. Herodo¬
tus relates, that the Colchi were black, and that they
had crifped hair. Thefe people were a detachment of
the ^Ethiopian army under Sefoftris, who followed him
in his expedition, and fettled in that part of the world
where Colchis is ufually reprefented to have been fitua-
ted. Had not the fame author informed us of this
circumftance, we fhould have thought it ftrange that
a people of this defcription ftiould have been found in
fuch a latitude. Now, as they were undoubtedly fettled
there, and as they were neither fo totally deftroyed,
nor made any fuch rapid conquefts, as that hiftory
ffiould notice the event, there is great reafon to pre¬
fume that their defcendants continued in the fame, or
fettled in the adjacent country j from whence it will
follow, that they muft have changed their complexion
to that which is obferved in the inhabitants of this par¬
ticular region at the prefent day ; or, in other words,
that the black inhabitants of Colchis muft have been
changed into the fair Circaflian. Suppofe, without
the knowledge of any hiftorian, they had made fuch
eonfiderable conquefls as to have fettled themfelves at
the diftance of 1000 miles in any one direction from
Colchis, ftill they muft have changed their colour: For
had they gone in an eaftern or weftern direftion, they
muft have been of the fame colour as the Circaffians j
If to the north whiter ; if to the fouth, of a copper-
colour. There are no people within that diftance of
Colchis who are black.
From the whole of the preceding obfervations
on the fubje£V, we may conclude, that as all the
inhabitants of the earth cannot be otherwife than
the children of the fame parents, and as the difference
t>f their appearance muft have of courfe proceeded from
incidental caufes, thefe caufes are a combination of
thofe qualities which we call climate: that the blacknefs
of the Africans is fo far engrafted in their conftitu-
tion, in the courfe of many generations, that their chil-
6 1 COM
dren wholly inherit it, if brought up in the fame fpot ; Complex
but that it is not fo wholly interwoven in their nature, ion.
that it cannot be removed if they are born and fettled
in another.
The fame principles with the above we find adopted
and further illuftrated by Profeffor Zimmerman of
Brunfwick, in his celebrated work, The Geographical
Hiftory of Man, &c. He there proves in the moft fa-
tisfaclory manner, That the complexion of the human
fpecies is uniformly correfpondent with the degree of
heat or cold to which they are habitually expofed. In
maintaining this pofition, he makes a very proper di-
ftin&ion Vvith regard to climate. By climates we are
to underftand, not limply or folely thofe diftinguilhed
by the geographical divifions of the globe, to the ex-
clufioH of what he {.exms phijjical climate, or that which
depends on the changes produced in any given lati¬
tude by fuch adventitious circumftances as the lower
or more elevated fituations of a country, its being en-
compafied by water or large tra£ls of land, overfpread
or furrounded with forefts, placed in an extenfive plain,
or environed by lofty mountains. Peculiarities of the
like kind, as has been already noticed, frequently pre¬
vent the phyjical climate from correfponding entirely
with the geografihicali, as a country influenced by them
is often much warmer or colder than other regions pla¬
ced under the fame degree of latitude. The influence
of thefe fecondary or modifying circumftances has been
already adverted to, and need not be further enlarged
upon : we {hall here only obferve, that the erroneous
reafoning of Lord Kames on this fubjeft fee ms to have
been owing to this inattention to the difference, above
mentioned. At Senegal, and in the adjacent lands,
the thermometer is often at 112 or 117 degrees in the
lhade j and here we find the inhabitants jet black with
woolly hair. The heat is equally great in Congo and
Loango, and thefe countries are inhabited by negroes
only 5 whereas in Morocco, to the north of thefe re¬
gions, and at the Cape of Good Hope, to the fouth,
the heat is not fo intenfe, nor are the inhabitants of fo
deep a hue. Lord Kames alks, Wherefore are not the
Abyffinians and the.inhabitants of Zaara of as dark a
complexion as the Moors on the coaft of Guinea r
M. Zimmerman anfwers, that “ thefe countries are
much cooler. The defert is not only farther from the
equator, but the winds blowing over the Atlas moun¬
tains, which like the Alps are covered with fnow, and
the wefterly wind coming from the fea, muft confider-
ably mitigate the heat. Nor is Abyffinia fo warm as
either Monomotapa or Guinea. The north-eaft winds-
from the fide of Perfia and Arabia are cooled by their
paffage over the Red fea : the northern winds from
Egypt lofe much of their heat on the chain of moun¬
tains that is extended between the countries ; the
winds from the fouth and the weft are fea winds. Thus,
the only quarter from which they can derive exceffive
heat is from the eaft, as the air on this fide muft pafs
over trails of heated lands.’’ For a fimilar reafon it is
that negroes are not found either in Alia or South A-
merica under the equator. The fituations of thefe
countries, our author obferves, expofe them to fea-
breezes and cooling winds from the continent. He
confirms this hypothefis by obferving, that the moun¬
taineers of warm climates, as in Barbary and Ceylon,
are much fairer than the inhabitants of the valleys:
that
COM [ 377 ] CO M
Complex- that the Saracens and Moors who conquered the north-
ion call part of Africa in 1700, from being brown, are
II become like the negroes near the equator : that the
Comp me. portUgUefe, who fettled at Senegal in 1400, became
blacks ; and Tudela the Jew alferts, that his country¬
men in Abyffinia acquired the dark complexion of the
original natives.
Upon the whole, colour and figure may be ftyled
habits of the body. Like other habits, they are cre¬
ated, not by great and fuddt-n impreffions, but by con¬
tinual and almoft imperceptible touches. Of habits
both of mind and body, nations are fufceptible as well
as individuals. They are tranfmitted to offspring, and
augmented by inheritance. Long in growing to ma¬
turity, national features, like national manners, become
fixed only after a fucceflion of ages. They become,
however, fixed at laft j and if we can afcertain any ef-
feft produced by a given ftate of weather or of cli¬
mate, it requires only repetition during a fufficient
length of time to augment and imprefs it with a per¬
manent chara£ler. The fanguine countenance will,
for this reafon, be perpetual in the higheft latitudes of
the temperate zone ; and we fhall for ever find the
fwarthy, the olive, the tawny, and the black, as we de-
fcend to the fouth.
The uniformity of the effedil in the fame climate,
and on men in a fimilar ftate of fociety, proves the
power and certainty of the caufe. If the advocates of
different human fpecies fuppofe that the beneficent
Deity hath created the inhabitants of the earth of dif¬
ferent colours, becaufe thefe colours are beft adapted
to their refpe&ive zones; it furely places his benevo¬
lence in a more advantageous light to fay, he has given
to human nature the power of accommodating itfelf to
every zone. This pliancy, of nature is favourable to
the union of the moft diftant nations, and facilitates the
acquifition and the extenfion of fcience, which would
otherwife be confined to few objedls and to a very limi¬
ted range. It opens the way particularly to the know¬
ledge of the globe which we inhabit j a fubjeft fo im¬
portant and interefting to man. It is verified by ex¬
perience. Mankind are for ever changing their habi¬
tations by conquefts or by commerce ; and we find them
in all climates, not only able to endure the change, but
fo affimilated by time, that we cannot fay with certain¬
ty whofe anceftor was the native of the clime, and whofe
the intruding foreigner.
_ All the foregoing obfervations have been well reca¬
pitulated, illuftrated by new fadts, and enforced by ad¬
ditional reafoning founded on experience, by the Re¬
verend Dr S. S. Smith, profeffor of moral philofophy
in the college of New Jerfey, in his Ejjay on the Caufes
of the variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human
fpecies; to which the reader who wifhes for further fa-
tisfadtion on the fubjedt is referred.
COMPLEXUS •, and COMPLEXUS Minor, or Tra-
lelo-mafoidaus; two mufcles in the pofterior part of
the trunk. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
COMPLICA l ION, in general, denotes the blend¬
ing, or rather interweaving, of feveral different things
together: thus, a perfon afflidted with feveral diforders
at the fame time, is faid to 'labour under a complication
ef diforders.
COMPLINE, the laft divifion of the Romifli bre¬
viary. It wTas inftituted to implore God’s protedUon
Vol. VI, Part I.
during the night, as the prime is for the day. It is Ccmidin*
recited after funfet ; and is fo called, becaufe it com- g
pletes the office for the day. Cornpofi-
COMPLUTENSIAN Bible. See Bible (TW.j tIW~ ,
COMPONE, or Componed, or Gobony, in He¬
raldry. A bordure compone is that formed or cotn-
pofed of a row of angular parts, or chequers of two co¬
lours.
COMPONED, or Composed, is alfo uftd in ge¬
neral for a bordure, a pale, or a fefs, compofed of two
different colours or metals difpofed alternately, fepa-
rated and divided by fillets, excepting at the corners ;
where the jundtures are made in form of a goat’s
foot,
COMPOSITE, in general, denotes fomething com¬
pounded, or made up of feveral others united together :
thus,
COMPOSITE Numbers, are fuch as can be meafured
exadtly by a number exceeding unity j as 6 by 2 or 3,
or 10 by 5, &c. fo that 4 is the loweft compofite num¬
ber. Com polite numbers, between them (elves, are
thofe which have fome common meafure befides unity $
as 12 and 15, as being both meafured by 3.
COMPOSITE Order, in Architecture, the laft of the
five orders of eolumns ; fo called becaufe its capital is
compofed out of thofe of the other columns, borrow¬
ing a quarter round from the Tufcan and Doric, a row
of leaves from the Corinthian, and volutes from the
Ionic. Its corniche has fimple modillions, or dentils.
It is alfo called the Roman or Italic order, as having
been invented by the Romans. By moft authors it is
ranked after the Corinthian, either as being the next
richeft, or the laft invented. See Architecture,
N° 48.
COMPOSITION, in a general fenfe, the uniting
or putting together feveral things, fo a's to form one
whole, called a compound.
COMPOSITION of Ideas, zn adt of the mind, whereby
it unites feveral fimple ideas into one conception or
complex idea.
When we are provided with a fufficient flock of fim¬
ple ideas, and have byhabit and ufe rendered them fa¬
miliar to our minds, they become the component parts
of other ideas ftill more complicated, and form what
we may call a fecond order of compound notions. This
procefs may be continued to any degree of coropofition
we pleafe, mounting from one ftage to another, and en¬
larging the number of combinations.
Composition, in Grammar, the joining of two words
together j or prefixing a particle to another word, to
augment, diminifh, or change its figniffcation.
Composition, in Logic, a method of reafoning,
whereby we proceed from fome general felf-evident
truth to other particular and fingular ones.
In difpofing and putting together our thoughts, there
are two ways of proceeding equally within our choice ;
for we may fo fuppofe the truths, relating to any part
of knowledge, as they prefented themfelves to the mind
in the manner of inveftigation : carrying on the fenes
of proofs in a reverfe order, till they at laft terminate
in firft principles : or beginning with thefe principles,
we may take the contrary way ; and from them deduce,
by a direft train of reafoning, all the feveral propofi-
tions we want to eftablifh.
This diverfity in the manner of arranging our
3 B thoughts
COM [ 378 3 COM
Compofi- thoughts gives rife to the twofold divifion of method
tion. eftablilhed among logicians j the one called analytic
“     method, or the method of refolutioriy inafmuch as it
traces things back to their fourcer and refolves know¬
ledge into its firft and original principles. This me¬
thod (lands in contradillinftion to the method of com-
pofition ; or, as it is otherwife called, the fynthetic
method j for here we proceed by gathering together
the feveral feattered parts of knowledge, and combin¬
ing them into one fyftem, in fuch a manner as that the
underftanding is enabled diftinflly to follow truth
through all the different tlages of gradation.
Composition, in Mufcc, is the art of inventing and
writing airs ; of accompanying them with a luitable
harmony ; in fhort, of forming a complete piece of mur
lie in all its parts.
The knowledge of melody, harmony, and its rules,
is the foundation of compofition^ Without doubt,
it is neceffary to know in what manner chords (hould
be filled, how to prepare and refolve diffonances, how
to find the fundamental bafs, and how to put in prac¬
tice all the other minutiae of elementary knowledge :
but with the mechanical rules of harmony alone, one
is by no means better qualified to underhand the art,
and operate in the pra£lice of compofition, than to form
himfelf for eloquence upon all the rhetorical precepts
exhibited in grammar. We need not fay, that beiides
this, it is necelfary to underftand the genius and com-
pafs of voices and inftruments ; to judge what airs may
be of eafy, and what of difficult, execution ; to ob-
ferve what will, and what will not, be produdlive of
any effedl j to feel the charadler of different move¬
ments, as well as that of different modulations, that
both may be always fuitably applied yto know the dif¬
ferent rules eftabliffied by convention, by tafte, by ca¬
price, or by pedantry, as fugues, imitations, or in pie¬
ces where the fubjedl is confined to uniform laws in its
harmony, melody, rhythmus, &c. All thefe acquifi-
tions are dill no more than preparatives for compofi¬
tion •, but the compofer muff find in his own genius
the fources of beautiful melody, of fublime harmony,
the pidlurefque, and the expreffive in mufic j he muff,
in (hurt, be capable of perceiving, and of forming, the
order of the whole piece ; to follow the relations and
aptitudes of which it is fufceptible in every kind •, to
inflame his foul with the fpirit and enthufiafm of the
poet, rather than childifely amufe himfelf with pun¬
ning in harmony, or adapting the mufic to each parti¬
cular word. It is with reafon that our muficians have
given the name of words to the poems which they fet
to mufic. It appears evident from their manner of ex-
preffing them, that, ia their apprehenfion, they feem-
ed words, and words alone. One would be tempted
to imagine, particularly during fome of thefe lad years,
that the rules for the formation and fucceffion of chords
have caufed all the red to be negk&ed or forgotten \
and that harmony has made no acquifitions but at the
expence of what is general and effential in the mufical
art. All our artids know how to fill a chord with its
condituent founds, or a piece of harmony with its con-
dituent parts j but not a foul amongd them feels a ray
of compofition. As to what remains, though the fun¬
damental rules of counterpoint, or mufic in parts, con¬
tinues dill the fame, they are more or lefs rigorous and
inflexible in proportion as the parts increafe in num¬
ber •, for according as the parts are multiplied, the Com-!cfi.
difficulty of compofition is heightened, and the rules tion.
are lefs fevere. Compofitions in two parts are called
duettos when the two performers fing equally 5 that is
to fay, when the fubjeft is no further extended ; but
divided between them : but it the fubjedl is in one
part alone, and the fubordinate harmony no more than-
an accompanyment, the firft part is then either called,
a recitative or a folo ; and the other an accompamjmtnt,
or continued bafs, if it is a bafs. It is the fame cafe
with the trio, with compofitions in three, in four, or in
five parts.
The name of compojition is likewife given to fuch
pieces of mufic themfelves as are formed according to
the rules of the art. For this reafon the duets, trios,
quartettos, which, have juft been mentioned, are called
compofitions.
Compofitions are either formed for the voice alonev
or for inftruraents, or for voices and inftruments join¬
ed. Full chorufes and fongs are the only compofitions
principally intended for the voice, though fometimes-
inftruments are joined with it to fupport it. Compo¬
fitions for inftruments are intended to be executed by
a band in the orcheftra, and then they are called
fymphonies, concertos; or for fome particular fpeciea
of inftruments, and then they are called pieces or fo*
natas.
Such compofitions as are deftined both for voices
and inftruments, have been generally divided into
two capital fpecies, viz. the faered and the fecular.
The compofitions deftined for the church, whether
pfalms, hymns, anthems, or refponfives, are in gene¬
ral diftinguiffied by the name of church-mufic, and
charadterifed by their intention to be fung with words.
Secular mufic in general may likewife be divided into
two kinds ; theatrical and chamber mufic. Of the firft.
kind is that ufed in the operas j the fubdivifions of the
fecond are endlefs. Solos, concertos, cantatas, fongs,.
and airs, almoft of every kind, which ara not adapted,
to the church or the ftage, may be included in the idea
of chamber-mufc.
In general, it is thought, that (acred mufic requires
deeper fcience, and a more accurate obfervatioa of
rules 5 the fecular fpecies gives more indulgence to ge¬
nius, and fubfifts in greater variety.
But we mud here obftrve, that the ecclefiaftical*
mufic now ufed, or rather profaned and murdered,
amongft us, though regular in its harmony, is Ample
in its eompofition, and demands not that profound
knowledge in the art, either to form or comprehend
it, which Rouffeau, whom till now we have followed
in this article, feems to imagine. His affertion caa
only be applicable to the church-mufic of Italy. That
which is now eftabliffied amongft us feems not to be
indigenous, but transferred with the Calviniftical li¬
turgy from Geneva ; and as it is intended for popular
ufe, it can by no means be efteemed a high exertion
of the mufical art ; yet, however fimple, it is pleafing j
and, when properly performed, might elevate the foul
to a degree of devotion, and even of rapture, which
at prefent we are fo far from feeling, that we rather
feem to deep or to howl, than to fing the praife of
God. Perhaps our clergy may find more advantage in
cultivating their farms *, but they would furely feel a
higher and diviner pleafure in cultivating the taftes and
voices
COM
[ 379 ]
L'ampofi-
tion.
voices of tlieir people. The one, however, is not in¬
compatible with the other. An hour of relaxation in
a winter evening might ferve for the accomplilhment
of this pious purpofe j and one (hould imagine, that,
independent of religious confiderations, the fpirit of
the craft might didate fuch a meafure, as calculated to
produce popular entertainment and gain popular affec¬
tion.
In compofition, the author either confines himfelf,
as a fubjed, to the mere mechanical modulations and
arrangements of found, and, as his end, to the plea-
fure of the ear alone 5 or otherwife he foars a nobler
height 5 he afpires to imitative mufic j he endeavours
to render the hearts and fouls of his auditors dudile by
his art, and thus to produce the nobleft emotions and
moft falutary effeds. In the firft view, it is only
neceffary that he fhould look for beautiful founds and
agreeable chords j but in the fecond he ought to con-
fider mufic in its conformity with the accents of the
human voice, and in the expreffive powers of notes
harmonically combined to fignify or paint fuch objeds
as are fufceptible of imitation. In Rouffeau’s article
opera, fome ideas may be found by which the art may
be ennobled and elevated, by forming mufic into a
language more powerful and pathetic than eloquence
itfelf. See OPERA.
Composition, in literature, the art of forming and
arranging fentiments, and clothing them with lan¬
guage fuitable to the nature of the fubjed or difcourfe.
See the articles Language, Oratory, Poetry,
Dialogue, Epistle, and History.
Composition, in Chemi/iry, is the union and com¬
bination of two or more fubllances of different natures,
from which a compound body refults. from this union
of bodies of different natures, a body is formed, of a
different nature, which Becker and Stahl have called a
mixture, and which may be called a combination, or che¬
mical compojition, to avoid the equivocal fenfe of the
word mixture. By this laft, we underftand only a
mere appofition of parts j and which would therefore
give a very falfe idea of chemical compofition, in
which a mutual adhefion takes place between the com¬
bined fubfiances. See Affinity under CHEMISTRY.
Composition, in Fainting, includes the invention
as well as difpofition of the figures, the choice of atti*
tudes, &c.
Compofition, therefore, confifts of two parts *, one
of which finds out, by means of hiftory, proper objeds
for a pidure j and the other difpofes them to advan¬
tage. See Painting.
Composition, in Pharmacy, the art or ad of mix¬
ing divers ingredients together into a medicine, fo as
th 7 may affill: each other’s virtues, fupply each other’s
defeds, or corred any ill qualities thereof. See PHAR¬
MACY.
Composition, in Commerce, a contrad between
an infolvent debtor and his creditors, whereby the
latter accept of a part of the debt in compofition for
the whole, and give a general acquittance accord-
ingly.
Composition, in Printing, commonly termed com-
pefinv, the arranging of feveral types or letters in the
oompoang-flick, in order to form a line j and of fe¬
veral lines arranged in order, in the galley, to make a
COM
pages to make a form.
See
page; and of feveral
Printing.
COMPOSITE, in Botany, the name of a clafs
in Hermannus and Royen j as likewife of an order in
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confifting
in general of the plants which have the charaders
enumerated in the following article. A particular
defeription of this order is given under the article
SyngenESIA, which includes all the compound
flowers.
COMPOSITUS FLOS, in Botany, an aggregate
flower, compofed of many jlofculifeJJUes, on a common
entire receptaculum, with a common perianthium, and
whofe antherae being five in number unite in the form
of a cylinder 3 the flofeuli are monopetalous, and under
each of them is a monofpermous germen. Compound
flowers are either ligulati, tubuloji, or radiati.
COMPOST, in Agriculture, denotes a certain kind
of mixture defigned to aflift the foil in the way of ve¬
getation, inftead of dung. The requifites for a com-
pnfl are, 1. That it ought to be cheaper than the
quantity of dung required for an equal extent of foil.
2. It ought to be lefs bulky j and, 3. It ought to
produce 'equal eflfeds.
Under the article Agriculture we have endea¬
voured to Ihow, that the true vegetable food confifts
in reality of the putrid effluvia proceeding from de¬
cayed animal and vegetable fuftances. If this theory
is admitted, the hope of making comports as a fucce-
daneum for dung is but very fmall, unlefs they are
made of putrefied animal and vegetable fubftances j in
which cafe, nnlefs in very Angular circumftances, they
will prove much dearer than dung itfelf. Several at¬
tempts, however, have been made by thofe who had
other views concerning the nature of the true vege¬
table food. An oil compoft is recommended in the
Georgical Eflays, upon a fuppofition that the food of
vegetables is of an oily nature. It is made as follows :
“ Take of North American potafti 12 lb. Break the
fait into fmall pieces, and put. it into a convenient vef-
fel with four gallons of water. Let the mixture Hand
48 hours: then add coarfe train oil 14 gallons. In a
few days the fait will be diffolved, and the mixture,
upon ftirring, will become nearly uniform. T ake 14
bufhels of fand, or 20 of dry mould : upon thefe pour
the above liquid ingredients. Turn this compofition
frequently over, and in fix months it will be fit for ufe.
When the liquid ingredients are put to one or two
hogfheads of water, a liquid compoft will be formed,
which muft be ufed with a whaler cart.”
This compoft, however, the inventor himfelf owns
to be inferior to ratten dung, as indeed may very na¬
turally be fuppofed 3 yet in fume cafes it feems capable
of doing fervice, as will appear from fome of the follow¬
ing experiments which we extraft from the effays above
mentioned.
Exp. I. By the author of the eflays. “ I took four
pots, N° 1, 2, 3, 4. N° I. contained 12 lb. of barren
land, with I oz. of the fand oil-compoft. N° 2. con¬
tained 12 lb. of fand without any mixture. N° 3. had
12 lb. of fand with half an ounce of flaked lime. N° 4.
had 12 lb. of fand with 4 oz. of the fand oil-compoft.
In the month of March I put fix grains of wheat in¬
to each pot, and during the fummer I occafionally
3 B 2 watered
Compofi¬
tion
fl
Compoft:.
COM [ 380 ] COM
Oom<K>ft. watered the plants with filtrated water. All the time
t|ie plants were conluming the farina, I could obferve
very little difference in their appearance. But after
one month’s growth, I remarked that N° I. was the
belt ; N0 2. the next j N° 3. the next j and N° 4.
much the word.” The fame differences were oblerved
in Augull, when N° I. the belt, had five fmall ears,
which contained a few poor grains of wheat.”
Exp. II. By the fame. “ In the month of June,
I feiedted four iahds of equal goodnefs in a field in¬
tended for turnips. The foil was a light land, with a
tolerable quantity of vegetable earth amongft it. It
was ploughed out of fward in November, and had not
borne a crop for many years. I Ihall diftinguifh my
experimental lands by N° 1. 2, 3, 4. N° 1. was ma¬
nured with rotten dung $ N° 2. with oil compoft $ N° 3.
with lime •, N° 4. was left without any dreffmg. On
the 20th of June they were all fown with turnip feed
broadcaft, and during the courfe of the feafon were
twice hoed. In November I viewed the field, and made
the following remarks. N° X. the belt ; N° 2. the next ;
N° 3. the word ; N° 4. belter than N° 3.” Here the
oil compoft appears in a favourable light ; but other
trials, made with equal accuracy, feem rather to prove,
that it is not proper for turnips, barley, or quick-
growing vegetables. It requires being meliorated by
the atmofphere, and therefore is better adapted for win¬
ter crops.”
Exp. III. By the fame. “ In the month of May,
I planted 1 2 alleys that lay betw'een my afparagus beds
with cauliflower plants. Each alley took up about
30 plants. One of the alleys I fet apart for an experi¬
ment with the oil-compoft, prepared according to the
directions already given. About an handful of the
compoft was put to the root of each cauliflower plant.
In all other refpe&s the alley was managed like the
reft. The plants in general flowered very well ; but
thofe to which I applied the compoft fprung up haftily
with final] (talks, and produced very poor flowers. I
imputed this unfavourable appearance to the frefh.
nefs of the compoft, which was only a few weeks old.
In the September following this unfuccefsful experi¬
ment, I planted the fame alleys with early cab¬
bages. The neceffity of meliorating the compoft was
in this trial fully confirmed : For the cabbages that
grew upon the alley, which in May had received the
compoft, were larger and in all refpefts finer than the
others.”
Exp. IV. by Junes Stovin, Efq. of Doncafter.
“ In the year 1769, I made the following trial with
the oil-compoft, prepared as above direCted. One acre
fown with barley, and manured with oil compoft at
18s. produced five quarters five bufbels. An acre
adjl ining, fown with barley, and manured with 12
loads of rotten dung at 3I. produced four quarters
three buftiels and two pecks. The coropoft barley
was bolder and better corn than the other. In the
year 1770, the dunged acre produced of rye, three
quarters. The compoft acre of ditto, two quarters
fix buftiels. In the year 1771, the fame lands were
fown with oats, and the produce was greatly in fa¬
vour of the dunged acre. Thefe experimental lands
were in a common field that had been long under the
plough.”
Exp. V. by Richard Tcwnley, Efq. of Belfield,
“ In the fpring I prepared a piece of ground Compoft.
for onions. It was laid out into fix beds of the fame 'r~~‘
fize, and which were all fown at the fame time. Over
two of them, the oil-compoft was fcattered in a very
moderate quantity. Over other two, pigeon’s dung j
and over the remaining two, fome of my weed compojl-
(formed of putrified vegetables), which I elteem one
of the bell manures, for moft vegetables, that can be
made. The onions came up very well in all the beds j
but in about fix weeks, thole that were fed with the
oil eompoft, plainly diicovered the advantage they had
over the reft by their luxuriancy and colour, and at
the end of the fummer perfedled the fineft crop I had
ever feen, being greatly fuperior to the others both in
quantity and fize. The fame fpring I made an expe¬
riment upon four rows of cabbages, (et at the diftance
of four feet every way. Two were manured with oil-
compoft, and two with my own. All the plants were
unluckily damaged, juft before they began to form, by
fome turkeys getting into the field and plucking off
the greateft part of the leaves. However, they fo far
recovered, in the September following, from 22 to
281b. a-piece. The rows proved fo equal in goodnefs,
that I could not determine which had the advantage.
The fame year, one part of a field of wheat expofed to
the north-eaft winds, which that fpring continued to
blow for a month or five weeks, appeared very poor
and languid at the time of tillering. Over it I order¬
ed fome of the oil-compoft to be fown with the hand j
which not only recovered, but alfo puftied forwards,
the wheat plants in that part of the field, fo as to
make them little inferior, if any, to the reft. The fame
fpring, I made a comparative experiment, upon four
contiguous lands of oats, between the oil-compoft
and my own weed-compoft. The latter had manifeft-
ly the advantage, though the other produced a very
farge and fine crop. I alfo tried the oil-compoft up¬
on carrots, and it anfwered exceedingly well. T
did the fame this year (1771) both upon them and
my onions, and have the fineft crops of thefe vege¬
tables I ever faw anywhere upon the fame compafs of
ground.”
Exp. VI. by Mr J. Broadbent of Berwick, in El-
met near Leeds. “ On the firft of O&ober 1771,
I Lowed two acres of a light channelly foil with wheat,
and harrowed in the compoft with the grain. Being^
at a confiderable diftance from a large town, we find
it very difficult and expenfive to procure rotten dting
in fufficient quantity for our tillage lands, for which
reafon we have recourfe to land dreffihgs both for our
winter and fpring corn. Rape-duff and foot are prin¬
cipally ufed ; but the prefent price of both thefe ar¬
ticles is a heavy tax upon the farmer. To obviate that
inconvenience, I refolved to make trial of the oil-
compoft 5 and from what I have obferved in this one
experiment, I am encouraged to make a more exten-
five ufe of it the next year. Being well acquainted
with the nature and efficacy of foot, I am fatisfied,
that the above two acres produced as good a crop of
wheat as if they had been dreffcd with that excellent
manure.”
On the fuppofitfon that vegetables are fupported by¬
matters of a faline nature, compoffs formed of diffe¬
rent forts ot faits have been contrived, but with left
fuccefs than the one above treated of. A famous com-
pofition.
C O M [ 381 ] COM
Com poll, pofitlon of this kind was lately fold by patent, under
«—v~—the name ot Baron Van Hank's Compoft. The follow¬
ing experiment is mentioned in the Georgical £ffays,»
as made with a view to determine the virtues of it
compared with the oil-compoft and foot mixed with
apiies.—“ In the beginning of April 1773, an acre of
land was town with early oats. I pitched upon one
land in the middle of the piece, which I eiteemed bet¬
ter than any of the reft, and upon this I fcattered Ba¬
ron Van Haak’s compoft, in the quantity direfted in
his inftrudtions. On one fide I manured a land with
the oil-cornpoft, but rather with a lefs quantity than
directed \ and, on the other fide, I manured two lands
with dry coal-afties lifted fine, and an equal quantity
of foot. The lands upon which this experiment was
made, were much worn out with a long fuecefiion of
crops. The lands which had the benefit of the allies
and foot produced an exceeding fine crop ; the oil-
compoft produced a tolerable good one j but that
which had only the afliftance of the baron’s compoft,
produced a very poor one. It could not have been
worfe had it been left deftitute of every aftiftance.”
Compofts, made with putrified animal fubftances
will no doubt anfvver much better, in moft cafes, than
any other kind of manure, but they are difficult to be
procured. The following is recommended by Dr Hun¬
ter of York.—“ Take a fufficient quantity of faw-
duft, incorporate it with the blood and offal of a
flaughter houfe, putting a layer of one and a layer of
the other till the whole becomes a moift and fetid eom-
pofition. Two loads of this compoft, mixed with
three loads of earth, will be fufficient for an acre of
wheat or fpring-eorn. Being a kind of top-dreffing,
it ffiould be put on at the time of fowing, and har¬
rowed in with the grain. I he prefent year I have a
field of wheat manured in this manner, and have the
pleafure to fay, that it is extremely clean, and has all
the appearance of turning out an excellent crop. As
this kind of compoft lies in a fmall compafs, it feems
well adapted for the ufe of fuch farmers as are obliged
to bring their manures from a diftance. It is befides
extremely rich, and will probably continue in the land
much longer than fold-yard or ftable-dung. I appre¬
hend that it is capable of reftoring worn-out land to
its original freflmefs 5 and I am induced to be of that
opinion, from the appearance of the above crop, which
is now growing upon land much impoveriffied by bad
management.”
Another compoft, prepared from whales fleffi, is
recommended by Mr Charles Chaloner.—4! I have a
particular pleafure (fays he) in deferibing and ma¬
king public the beft method of forming a compoft
from whales fleffi, as recommended to me by Dr Hun¬
ter. Having marked out the length and breadth of
your intended dung-hill, make the firft layer of earth
about a foot in thicknefs. Moor-earth, or fuch as is
taken from-ant hills, is the beft for this purpofe. O-
ver the earth lay one layer of long litter, from the
fold-yard or ftable, above 12 inches in thicknefs,
then a layer of whale-fleffi, and over that another layer
of dung. Repeat the operations till the head be rai-
fed about fix feet, then give it a thick covering of
earth, and coat the heap with fods. In this manner
each layer of fleffi will be placed between two layers of
dil&g. In about a month turn the whole in the ufual
X
manner, which will occafion a ftrong degree of heat Compoft
and fermentation. When turned, coat with earth as {)
before, with a view to confine the putrid fleam which Compound,
would otherwife efcape. In a month or two the heap '
will be found to be coniiderably fallen, when it ftiould
have a fecond turning as before. The operation of
turning murt be repeated at proper intervals, till the
whole becomes an uniformly putrid mafs. The whale-
fleffi is of different degrees of firmnefs, fome of it be¬
ing almoft liquid \ and, in proportion to its firmnefs,
the heap will become fooner or later fit for ufe. In
general, the compoft ffiould not be ufed till 12 months
old \ but that depends upon circumftances. Guard the
heap from dogs, pigs, badgers, and vermin, as thefe
animals are remarkably fond of whale-fleffi. This ani¬
mal compoft may with great advantage be applied to
all purpofes where good rotten dung is required. I
have ufed it with great fuccefs for cabbages, and find
it an excellent dreffing for meadow-ground. Accord¬
ing to the beft computation, one hoglhead of whale
refufe, will make eight loads of dung j which when we
confider the great facility with which this bafis of our
dung-hill may be carried, is a momentous concern to
fuch farmers as lie remote from a large town.” See
Manure, under Agriculture, where the method of
preparing it from peat earth, is particularly detailed.
We may here recommend a moft ingenious thermome¬
ter, invented by Mrs Lovi of Edinburgh, for regula¬
ting the temperature of compoft dunghills, which the
farmer will find of great ufe in managing the procefs.
Compost, in Gardening, is a mixture of feveral ear¬
thy fubftances and dungs, either for the improvements
of the general foil of a garden, or for that of particular
plants. Almoft every plant delights in fome peculiar
mixture of foils or compoft, in which it will thrive bet¬
ter than in others.
COMPOSTELLA, a celebrated town of Spain,
and capital of Galicia, with an archbiffiop’s fee, and
an univerfity. The public fquares, and the churches,
particularly the metropolitan church, are very magni¬
ficent. It has a great number of monafteries, for both
fexes, and about 2000 houfes. It is pretended that tha
body of St James was buried here, which draws a great
number of pilgrims from moft parts’ of Chriftendom-
They walk in proceffion to the church, and vifit his
wooden image, which ftands on the great altar, and is
illuminated with 40 or 50 wax candles. They kifs it
three times with a very refpe£tful devotion, and then
put their hats on its head. In the church there are 30
filver lamps always lighted, and fix chandeliers of fil-
ver five feet high^ The poor pilgrims are received in¬
to an hofpital, built for that purpofe, which ftands near
the church j and round it are galleries of free-ftone,
fupported by large pillars. The archbiftiop is one of
the ricbeft prelates in Spain, having 70,000 crowns a-
year. From this town the military order of St Jago,-
or St James, had its origin. It is feated in a peninfula,
formed by the rivers Tambra and Ulla, in a pleafant
plain, 265 miles north-weft of Madrid. W. Long.
8. 17. N. Lat. 42. 52.
Hew COMPOSTELLA, a town of North America, in
New Spain, and province of Xalifco, built in 1531* .
It is fituated near the South fea. W. Long. 109. 42'.
N. Lat. 21. 20.
COMPOUND, in a general fenfe, an appellation
given •
c o m r 38
tompoundgiven to whatever is compofed or made up of differ-
II ent things j thus we fay, a compound word, compound
^ found, compound ,tafte, &c.—Compound differs from
a complex, and ftands oppofcd to funple. See Complex
and Simple.
Compound Flower. See Compositus Flos.
COMPOUND Interejl, called alfo interejl upon interejl,
is that which is reckoned not only upon the principal,
but upon the intereft itfelf forborne j which hereby
becomes a fort of fecondary principal. See INTE¬
REST.
COMPOUND Motion, that motion which is effected
by feveral confpiring powers. Powers are faid to con-
tpire if the diredlion of the one be not quite oppofite to
-that of the other, as when the radius of a circle is con¬
ceived to revolve about a centre, and at the fame time
a point to move ftraight along it.
COMPOUND Numbers, thofe which may be divided
by fome other number befides unity, without leaving
-any remainder j fuch as 18, 20, &c. the firft being
meafured by the number 2, 6, 9 and the fecond by
the number 2, 4, 5, 10.
Compound Quantities. See Algebra.
COMPOUND Ratio, is that which the produft of the
antecedents of two or more ratios has to the produft of
their confequents. Thus, 6 to 72 is in a ratio com¬
pounded of 2 to 6, and of 3 to 12.
Compound (fubftantive), the refult or effect of a
compolition of different things •, or a mafs formed by
the union of many ingredients.
COMPREHENSION, in Englilh church-hiffoty,
denotes a feheme propofed by Sir Orlando Bridgman
in 1667 8, for relaxing the terms of conformity in be¬
half of Proteftant diflenters, and admitting them into
the communion of the church. A bill for this pur-
pole was drawn up by Lord Chief-Baron Hale, but
difallovved. The attempt was renewed by Tillotfon
and Stillingfleet in 1674, and the terms were fettled
to the fatisfadlion of the nonconformiffs*, but the bi-
ihops retufed their afient. This feheme was likewife
revived again immediately after the Revolution; the
king and queen exprefled their delire of an union :
however, the defign failed after two attempts; and the
aft of toleration was obtained.
Comprehension, in Metaphyjics, is that aft of the
mind whereby it apprehends or knows any objeft that
is prefented to it, on all the.iides whereon it is capable
of being apprehended or known. To comprehend a
thing is defined by the fchoolmen, rem aliquam totam
et totahter coqnafcere.
Comprehension, in Rhetoric, a trope or figure
whereby the name of a whole is put for a part ; or
that of a part for a whole ; or a definite number of
any thing for an indefinite.
COMPRESS, in Surgery, a bolfter of foft linen
cloth, folded in feveral doubles, frequently applied to
cover a plafter, in order not only to pre.ferve the part
from the external air, but alfo the better to retain the
dreflings or medicines.
COMPRESSION, the aft of prefling or fqueezing
fome matter together, fo as to fet its parts nearer to
each other, and make it poflefs lefs fpace. Compref-
properly differs from condenfation, in that the lat¬
ter is performed by the aftion of cold, the former -by
fome external violence.
2 ] COM
COMPROMISE, a treaty or contraft, whereby two Conipro.
contending parties eftablilh one or more arbitrators to mile
judge of and terminate their difference in an amicable II
manner. t'ornpuU.
COMPTON, Henry, biftiop of London, was the , tl°n’ x
youngelt fon of Spencer earl of Northampton, and
born in 1632. After the reftoratiwn of Charles II.
he became cornet of a regiment of horfe ; but foon af¬
ter quitting the army for the church, he was made bi¬
ftiop of Oxford in 1674 ; and about a year after tranf-
lated to the fee of London. He was entrufted with
the education of the two princefies Mary and Anne,
whom he alfo afterwards married to the princes of
Orange and Denmark ; and their firmnefs in the. Pro¬
teftant religion was in a great meafure owing to their
tutor, to whom, when Popery began to prevail at court,
it was imputed as an unpardonable crime. He %vas
fufpended from his eccleliaftical funftion by James II.
but was reftortd by him again on the prince of Orange’s
inva’fion. He and the biftiop of Briftol made the ma¬
jority for filling the vacant throne with a king : he
performed the ceremony of the coronation ; was ap¬
pointed one of the commiflioners for revifing the litur¬
gy ; and laboured with much zeal to reconcile diflen¬
ters to the church. His fpirit of moderation made him
unpopular with the clergy, and in all probability
checked his further promotion. He died in 1713 ;
but living in bufy times, did not leave many writings
behind’him.
COMPTROLLER. See Controller.
COMPULSOR, an officer under the Roman em¬
perors difpatcbed from court into the provinces, to
compel the payment of taxes, &c. not paid with¬
in the time preferibed. The word is formed of the
verb compellere, “ to oblige, conftrain.” Thefe were
charged with fo many exaftions, Under colour of
their office, that Honorius caftiiered them by a law in
412.
The laws of the Vifigoths mention military Com-
pulfors ; which were officers among the Goths, Whofe
bufinefs was to oblige the tardy foldiers to go into the
fight, or to run to an attack, &e.
Caflian mentions a kind of monaftic compulfors,
whofe bufinefs was to declare the hours of canonical
office, and to take care the monks went to church at
thefe hours.
COMPUNCTION, in Theology, an inward grief
in the mind for having offended God. The word comes
from compungere, of pungere, “ to prick,”—The Roman-
ifts own their confeffion infignificant unlefs attended
with compuftion or pricking of heart. 'v
Among fpiritualifts, compunftion bears a more ex-
tenfive fignification ; and implies not only a grief for
having offended God, but alfo a pious fenfation of grief,
forrow, and difpleafure, on other motives.—Thus, the.
miferies of life, the danger of being loft in the world,
the blindnefs of the wicked, &c. are to pious people
motives of compunftion.
COMPURGATOR, one that, by oath, juftifies an¬
other perfon’s innocence. Compurgators were intro¬
duced as evidences in the jurifprudence of the middle
ages. Their number varied according to the import¬
ance of the fubjeft in difpute, or the nature of th*
crime with which a perfon was charged.
COMPUTATION, in a general fenfe, the man-
ner
4
CON C 383 ] CON
tomputa- ner of eftimating time, weights, meafare, moneys, or
tion quantities of any kind.—The word is fometitnes alfo
II ufed among mathematicians in the like fenfe as calcula-
Conca. • 45
, tion..
COMUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Orobii, of an ancient Handing, and formerly powerful,
daring to difpute with the Romans ; Comcnfes, the peo¬
ple ■, Comenjis Ager, the epithet. It became afterwards
no inconfiderable municipium, to which Julius Csefar
added 5000 new colonifts (Strabo) j whence it was ge¬
nerally called Novocomurn, and the ^eoyAvNovocomenfes.
But in time it recovered its ancient name, Comum ; Pli¬
ny the younger, a native of that place, calling it by
no other name. Now Como, in the duchy of Milan,
at the fouth end of the lake of that name. E. Long.
9. 37. N. Lat. 46. It is about 80 miles N. E. of
Turin.
COMUS, in Mythology, the god of jollity or feft'i-
vity. There is great reafon to believe he was the
Chamos of the Moabites; Beel-Phegor, Baal-Peor,
Priapus, and Bacchus.. He is reprefented under the
appearance of a young man, with an inflamed red
countenance, his head inclined, and crowned with
flowers his air drowfy; leaning on a huntfman’s
fpear in his left hand, and holding an inverted torch
in his right. His ftatue was placed at the chamber
doors of new married perfons 5 his pedeftal crowned
with flowers.
CON, or COND. See CoND.
CON ANT, Dr John, a learned Englifh divine,
born in 1608. He took his degrees at Exeter college
Oxford ; was, by the parliament, conflituted one of
the aflembly of divines, though he feldom, if ever, fat
with them ; and in 1657 was admitted vice-chancellor
of the univerfity. On the reftoration he was one of
the commiflioners, and aflifted at the conferences in
the Savoy ; but was deprived by the aft of uniformi¬
ty ; after eight years he was^ confirmed, and was made
archdeacon of Norwich, and prebendary of Worcefter.
In 1686 he loft his fight ; and died in 1693 ; leaving
a number of admired fermons, afterwards publiftied in
fix volumes.
CON ARION, or Conoides, a name for the pineal
gland. See Anatomy Index.
CONATUS, a term frequently ufed in philofophy
and mathematics, defined by fome to be a quantity of
motion, not capable of being expreffed by any time
or length ; as the conatus recedendi ab axe motus, is
the endeavour which a body, moved circularly, makes
to recede, or fly off, from the centre or axis of its mo¬
tion.
CONCA, Sebastian, called Cavalier, a celebrated
hiftory and portrait painter, was born at Gaeta in
1679, and placed as a difciple with Francefcn Solime-
na, an incomparable mafter. Under his direftion
Conca exerted his utmoft induftry to obtain a proper
knowledge of the true principles of the art of paint¬
ing ; nor did he permit any kind of amufement to
withdraw his attention from his ftudies. Solimena
foon perceived in his difciple fueh talents, and fuch a
difpofition, as would qualify him to make a very great
progrefs ; and on that account he conceived fo ftrong
an affeftion for him, that he not only afforded him the
beft inftruftions, but often emploved him to fketch af¬
ter his own defignsj took him along with him to
Monte Caffino, where he-was to paint a chapel in fref- Conca.
co; and there made Conca acquainted with every thing —y—■»
relative to that manner of painting. At his return to
Naples with Solimena, he was, if poflible, ftill more
afliduous to improve himfelf to the utmoft ;, and en¬
tered on a projeft that might at once advance his in¬
come, and add to his expertnefs in his profeffion. That
projeft was, to paint portraits in a fmall fize and at a
low rate ; by which fcheme all ranks of perfons crowd¬
ed to him ; and befide the pecuniary advantages refult-
ing from it, he acquired an extraordinary freedom of
hand in penciling and colouring ; a good habit of imi¬
tating nature with an elegant choice ; and likewife
great diverfity of airs of heads, which were of extra¬
ordinary ufe to him in his future beautiful compofitions.
As he had a great defire to fee Rome, he obtained
permiflion from Soliraena to indulge his inclination ;
and although he was near thirty years of age when he
vifited that city, yet he fpent eight years in conftant'
ftudy after the antiques, after Buonaroti, Raphael,
and the Carracci, and perfefted himfelf in every part
of his profeflion. The fame of his works foon fpread
throughout Rome, and procured him the patronage of
Cardinal Ottobuoni, who was a princely encourager
of artifts ; and Conca having Ihown an elegant proof
of his abilities in a compofition reprefenting Herod
inquiring of the wife men the place of the birth of
the Mefliah, the figures being as large as life, the Car¬
dinal thought it fo excellent a performance, that he
rewarded him in a munificent manner, entertained him
in his own palace, and introduced him to Pope Cle¬
ment XI. who appointed Conca to paint the pifture of
the prophet Jeremiah in the church of St John Late-
ran ; which he executed with univerfal applaufe. On
that occafion the pope was defirous of giving him fome
particular mark of his efteem ; and therefore, in a ge¬
neral aflembly of the academicians of St Luke, he
conferred on him the order of knighthood, and the
cardinal prefented him with a rich diamond crofs,
which Conca, out of refpeft to his patron, always
wore at his bofom. From that time he was inceflant-
ly employed, and his works were folicited by moft of
the princes of Europe. The churches and chapels of
every part of Italy are enriched with fome of his com¬
pofitions ; of which he painted an incredible number,
as he lived bo a very advanced age, and never difeon-
tinued his labours. He was earneftly invited by Phi¬
lip V. of Spain to vifit his court, but he could not be
prevailed on to leave Rome. He painted two admi¬
rable pieces for the king of Poland, with figures aa
large as life ; in one was reprefented Alexander pre-
fenting Bucephalus to Philip, after he had managed
him ; a grand compofition, with a multitude of fi¬
gures, correftly defigned, and charmingly grouped
and difpofed ; the whole being adorned with moft ele¬
gant architefture, in true and beautiful perfpeftive.
The other was the marriage of Alexander with Rox¬
ana, the daughter of Darius, which was in every re¬
fpeft equal to the former. He was at laft fo ftrong-
ly preffed to go to Naples, that he undertook the
journey ; and was received in that kingdom with all
the refpeft and honour due to his merit ; and there he
finiihed feveral noble defigns, as alfo at Gaeta his na¬
tive city. While he continued at Naples, he received
in the royal prefence a fnuff-box of very great value,
prefented
CON [ 3U ] CON
Conca pfefentcd tD him in the king’s name by the marquis of
II Tanucei, at^hat time prime minifter j and in the year
Conccp. t|ie i.jng NVas pleafed to ennoble him and all his
—defcendants. At that time he was 78, and it is confi¬
dently faid, that he died in 1761, aged 82, which is
very probable, though not pofitively certain. He un-
derftood perl'peftive and architeflure thoroughly, and
added to it a fine underftanding of the chiaro-fcuro.
His ftyle of compofition is grand and elegant ; his de-
fign very correfl 5 his difpofition ingenious j his atti¬
tudes and expreffion full of truth, nature, and variety 5
and his colouring is excellent. I he hiflory of Diana
and A£1 aeon, by Conca, is in the pofieflion of the earl
•of Pembroke at Wilton*
CONC ALE Bay, is on the coaft of France in Brit¬
tany, where the Bntifh forces landed in June 1758,
in order to go to St Maioes which they did, and
burnt all the fhips in that harbour, which were above
100, of all forts. Concale is the town which gives
name to the bay, and is famous for oylteis. It is j8
miles eaft of St Maioes, and 197 weft of Paris. Wr.
Long. I. 47. N. La?. 48. 41. .
CONCARNEAU, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Finifterre, with a harbour and a caftle.
E. Long. 4. 2. N. Lat. 47. 46. .
CONC ATEN ATION, aterm chiefly ufed in fpeak-
,Jng of the mutual dependence of fecond caufes upon
each other.
CONCAVE, an appellation ufed in fpeaking of the
inner furface of hollow bodies, but more efpecially of
fpherical ones.
CONCAVE Ghtjfes, fuch as are ground hollow, and
are ufualiy of a fpherical figure, though they may be
of any other, as parabolical, &c. All objefts feen
through concave glafles appear tredl and dimimfhed.
CONCENTRATION, in general, fignifies the
bringing things nearer a centre. Hence the particles
of fait, in fea-water, are faid to be concentrated ; that
is, brought nearer each other, by evaporating the wa¬
tery part.
CONCENTRIC, in Mathematics, fomething that
has the fame common centre with another : it Hands in
oppofition to ex centric.
CONCEPTION, in Logic, the Ample appreherfion
or perception which we have of any thing,, without
proceeding to affirm or deny any thing about it. Some
writers, as Lord Karnes, diftinguifh between concep¬
tion and perception ■, making the latter to denote the
confcioufnefs of an objedf when prefent, or to include
the reality of its objeft •, whereas conception expreffes
the forming an idea of nn object whether prefent or
abfent, or without any convi&ion of its reality.
Conception, in Medicine, denotes the firft forma¬
tion of the embryo, or foetus in the womb.
Conception is no other than fuch a concourfe and
commixture of the prolific feed of the male with that
of the female, in the cavity of the uterus, as immedi¬
ately produces an embryo*
The fymptoms of conception or pregnancy are,
when, in a few days after the conjugal a£t, a fmall
pain is perceived about the navel, and is attended with
Tome gentle commotions in the bottom of the abdo¬
men ; and within, one, two, three, or even four
months, the menfes ceafe to .flow, or prove in lefs
quantity than ufual. Upon the firft failure of this
kind, the woman begins to count the feries of her Concep.
weeks, without taking any notice of the time before ^on-
el a p fed j after this, or between the fecond or third
months, but generally about the third, the motions of
the embryo become perceivable to the mother 5 who
hereupon becomes troubled with a naufea, vomiting,
loathing, longing, &c. About this time the breads
begin to fwell, grow' hard and painful, and contain a
little milk •, the nipples alfo become larger, firmer, and
darker coloured, a livid circle appearing round them j
the eyes feem funk and hollow. During the two firft
months of pregnancy, the woman grows thinner and
flenderer j the abdomen being alfo deprefied 5 though
it afterwards diftends, and grows gradually larger.
The manner wherein conception is effedted is thus
laid down by the modern writers: In the fuperfices of
the ovaries of women, there are found little pellucid
fpherules, confifting of two concentric membranes fill¬
ed with a lymphatic humour, and conne&ed to the
furface of the ovaria underneath the tegument, by a
thick calyx, contiguous to the extremities of the mi¬
nute ramifications of the Fallopian tubes.
Thefe fpherules, by the ufe of venery, grow, fw-ell,
raife and dilate the membrane of the ovary into the
form of papillae ; till, the head propending from the
ftalk, it is at length feparated from it} leaving behind
it a hollow cicatrix in the broken membrane of the
ovary } which, however, foon grows up again.
Now, in thefe fpherules, while ftill adhering to the
ovary, foetufes have been frequently found } whence it
appears, that thefe are a kind of ova, or eggs, deriving
their ftru&ure from the veffels of the ovary, and their
liquor from the humours prepared therein.
Hence alfo it appears, that the Fallopian tubes be¬
ing fwelled and ftiffened by the adft of venery, with
their mufcular fimbrise, like fingers, may embrace the
ovaries, comprefs them, and by that compreffion ex¬
pand their own mouths : and thus the eggs, now ma¬
ture, and detached as before, may be forced into their
cavities, and thence conveyed into the cavity of the
uterus} where they may either be cherifhed and re¬
tained, as when they meet with the male feed : or, if
they want that, again expelled.
Hence the phenomena of falfe conceptions, abor¬
tions, foetufes found in the cavity of the abdomen, the
Fallopian tubes, &c. For in coition, the male feed,
abounding with living animalcules, agitated with a
great force, a bulk heat, and probably with a great
quantity of animal fpirits, is violently impelled through
the mouth of the uterus, which on this occafion is
opener, and through the valves of the neck of the ute-
rus, which on this occafion are laxer than ordinary,
into the uterus itfelf} which now, in like manner, be¬
comes more a£live, turgid, hot, inflamed, and moiften-
ed with the flux of its lymph and fpirits, by means of
the titillation excited in the nervous papillae by the at¬
trition again ft the rugae of the vagina.
The femen thus difpofed in the uterus, is retained,
heated, and agitated, by the convulfive conftriffion of
the uterus itfelf} till meeting with the ova, the fineft
and .moft animated part enters through the dilated
pores of the membranula of the ovum, now become
glandulous} is there retained, nouriffied, and dilated }
grows to its umbilicus, or navel } ftifles the other lefs
lively animalcules} and thus is conception tffedled.
Hence
CON' [ 385 ] 'CO N
Concep- Hence it appears, that conception may happen in corps that is ftldom complete. None of the fortinca- Concep¬
tion. any part where the fenaen meets with an ovum : thus tions are confiderable; but thofe towards the land are tkn
 * ’ whether it be carried through the Fallopian tube to wretched. The Spaniards now live in tolerable fecu- H
the ovary, and there caft upon the ovum ; or whether rity with refped to the Indians, and have no notion Condl°’!1,
it meet with it in fome recefs of the tube itfelf j or, of any attack from the land fide. It is faid indeed 'r*^
laftly, whether it join it in the cavity of the uterus, it that not only this but all the fettlements in Chili and*
may (fill have the fame effett, as it appears from obfer- Peru would fall an eafy prey to the attacks of a foreign
vation a&ually to have had. But it is probable, that enemy ; the fortifications being in ruins, and the gar-
conception is then moil; perfeft when the two, viz. the rifons fearce half the number required* by the king :
femen and ovum, are carried at the fame time into the owing to the avarice, ignorance, and fupine negligence
uterus, and there mixed, &c. _ of the governors, who ftudy nothing but to* enrich
According to other phyfiologiils the male feed is themfelves.
taken up, before it arrives in the uterus, by the veins Conception, a town of North America in New
which open into the vagina, &c. and thus mixed with ^ Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala. It is feated
the blood j by which, in the courfe of circulation, it is near the fea coaft, 100 miles weft of Porto-bello, and
carried, duly prepared, into the ovary, to impregnate the a fmall river that runs into the fea. W. Long. 8i’. 4 %
eggs- N. Lat. 10. Q. "
It has been advanced by feveral writers, that women CONCERT, or Concerto, in Mufic, a number or
may poftibly conceive in their deep, and be with child company of muficians, playing or fingin^ the fame
without any knowledge of the occafion of it. As ridi- piece of mufic or fong at the fame time. & ^
culous and abfurd as this doftrine may appear to the ge- CONCERTATO intimates the piece of mufic to be
nerality of the world, no lefs an author than Genfili has compofed in fuch a manner, as that all the parts may
thought it worthy a particular dilfertation. have their recitativos, be it for two, three, four, or
CONCEPTION, Immaculate, of the Holy Virgin, is a more voices or inftruments.
feaft eftablifhed in honour of the holy virgin, particu- CONCERTO GROSSi, the grand chorus of a con-
larly with regard to her having been conceived and cert, or thofe places where all the feveral parts per-
born immaculate, i. e. without original fin, held in the form or play together. 1
Romifti church on the 8th of December. The imma- CONCESSION, in general, fignifies either the aft
culate conception is the great head of controverfy be- of granting or yielding any thing^ or the thin» itfelf
tween the Scotifts and Thomifts j the former main- which is fo granted or yielded. °
taining, and the latter impugning it. In the three Concession, in Rhetoric, a figure, whereby fome-
Spanifti military orders, of St James of the fword, Ca- thing is freely allowed, that yet might bear difpute,
latrava, and Alcantara, the knights take a vow at to obtain fomething that one would have granted to
their admiflion to defend the immaculate conception, him, and which he thinks cannot fairly be denied as
This refolution was firft taken in 1652. Peter d’Alva in the following conceflion of Dido, in Virgil:
has publiftied 48 huge volumes in folio on the myfte- « ... .r . *
ties of the conception. << nuP^ials difclaims, I urge no more 5
Conception, an epifcopal town of Chili in South u et him putfue the promis’d Latian fhore.
America. It is fituated in W. Long. 72. 50. S. Lat. (( V" 1 lort delay is all I alk him now ;
36. 40 ; and is the oldeft European fettlement in Chi- pau.e of grief, an interval from wo.”
li, and the fecond in point of dignity. On their firft CONCHA, in Zoology, a fynonyme of the Myti-
fettlement here, the Spaniards were repeatedly driven EUS, SoLEN, and other Ihell-fifti.
off by the Indians, fo that they were obliged to take CONCHES, a town of Normandy, with a Bene^
up their refidence at St Jago. Since that time both diftine abbey, which carries on a confiderable trade.
the cities of Conception and St Jago have been fre- It is feated on the top of a mountain, in the territory
quently deftroyed by earthquakes. In the year 1751 of Ouche, 45 miles north-weft of Paris. E. Long.
both of them were laid in ruins by a dreadful Ihock, o. 51. N. Lat. 48. 58.
the firft concuflions of which were attended with an un- CONCHITES MARMOR, a name given by the an-
ufual fwelling of the fea, that overturned thefewhoufes cients to a fpecies of marble dug near Me'/ara, and
which had efcaped the ravages of the earthquake, remarkable for containing a great number of fea-ftiells
The harbour is good, and pretty much frequented ; on and other marine bodies immerfed in it.
which account the city is regarded as a place of con- CONCHOID, in Geometry, the name of a curve,
fequence. The king allows annually 350,000 pieces given to it by its inventor Nicomedes. See*
of eight for the fupport of a garrifon of 3500 men j a Fluxions.
1
itroduc-
an.
CONCH OLOGY,
IS that department of natural hiftory which treats of
A teftaceous animals. In the Linncean arrangement
it conftitutes the third order of the clafs of Vermes.
This is the order tejlacea, of which we propofe to lay
Vol. VI. Part I.
before our readers a pretty full view in the prefenfc
treatife. The peculiarity and extent of this order of
animals have induced us to confider it in a feparate
treatife, by which means we lhall avoid fwelling out to
3 C m
386
Hiftory,
2
Importance
of eoncho-
logy.
CONCHOLOGY.
an inconvenient magnitude, the clafs of Vermes, which
will be treated of in its proper place in the courfe of
the work.
The fine polifh, fplendid colours, and elegant form
of (hells, have been long admired, and have procured for
them a confpicuous place in the cabinets of the curious.
Indeed in this refpedt, mankind have difcovered no
fmall degree of folly and extravagance, in the high
price which has been given for rare and beautiful (hells,
and often only on account of their rarity. But the fiudy
of conchology acquires a higher degree of importance
and utility in another view. In many parts of the
world, different kinds of teftaceous animals are em¬
ployed as an excellent and nutritious food j and fome
tribes fupply the table with a delicate luxury. Dif¬
ferent (hells furnifh employment to ingenuity and art,
in the manufa£ture of mother-of-pearl for various pur-
pofes $ and the pearl itfelf, fo much fought after as an
ornament of drefs, and often the rival of the richeft
gems, in the eftimation of mankind, is the produ£lion
of teftaceous animals. Its nature and mode of formation,
therefore, cannot fail to be objefts of curious invefti-
gation. But teftaceous animals and their produftions
are not only beneficial and ornamental j fome are found
to be highly pernicious. The fnail ravages the garden
and the field, and marks its progrefs with the deftrudlion
of fome of the faireft of the vegetable tribes; while
the (hip-worm is juftly the dread of the mariner : fe-
cure, as it were, in its infignificance, it humbles the
glory and pride of man ; and labouring in fecret, de-
moliflhes the nobleft efforts of ingenuity. In thefe
views, then, the economy and habits of teftaceous ani¬
mals, which at firft fight might appear a barren and
ufelefs purfuit, become an important and beneficial
fubjeft of inveftigation. The following chapters, there¬
fore, (hall be occupied in the claflification and natural
hiftory of this tribe of animals.
CHAP. I. HISTORY OF CONCHOLOGY.
3
©ultivatecl THE few fcattered fragments concerning the natu-
by the an- rai hiftory of (hells, or teftaceous animals, which are
ients. ke foun(j jn the writings of the ancients, when com¬
pared with the more extended and fyftematic labours
of the moderns, are fo unimportant and inaccurate,
that it would be altogether fuperfluous to trouble our
readers with an account of the information which they
contain. It appears, however, from the works of A-
riftotle and Pliny, the great naturalifts of Greece and
Rome, that the ftudy of conchology was not entirely
negle£led in their time. It appears too, that admirers
and eolle£lors of (hells were not then wanting. Scipio
and Laelius, we are informed, found a relaxation^ from
the toils and cares of war and government, by indul¬
ging in this elegant amufement (a).
By the mo- Nor wil1 lt be attended with much advantage, to
derns. give a particular account of the works of the earlier
•writers on this fubjeft, among the moderns. Thefe
are Gefner, Johnfton, Rondeletius, Aldrovandus, Bel-
lonius, Wormius, and fome other authors, who culti¬
vated this department of natural hiftory, and^ accompa¬
nied their defcriptions with figures, illuftrative of the
objedfs which they defcribed.
The firft author who attempted a fyftematic divifion
of (hells, according to their external form and charac¬
ter, was John Daniel Major, profeffor of medicine in
the univerfity of Kiel in Holftein. His method is pub-
lifhed at the end of his curious and interefting remarks
on the treatife concerning the purpura of Fabius Co-
lumna, printed at Kiel in 1675. The fyftem of the
German naturalift was followed by that of our coun¬
tryman Dr Lifter, on a more extended and improved
plan, which was publiftied ten years after. Succeeding
naturalifts turned their attention to the ftudy of concho-
logy, and to the improvement of the claflification of
the numerous objedls of this department of natural hi¬
ftory. Such were Buonanni, Rumfius, Langius, Brey-
nius, Tournefort, Gualtieri, D’Argenville, Klein, Lin¬
naeus, Adanfon, Geoffrey, and Muller.
We (hall here exhibit fome of the moft celebrated
fyftems of conchology which have been propofed by
writers on this fubjedh This, we truft, will not be
unacceptable to our readers, and particularly as the
works of thefe authors are in few hands, and there¬
fore become lefs acceflible.
I. The firft general arrangement of (hells is thatSyftemoi
publiftied by Dr Lifter in a work with the following
title. Martini Lifter, M. D. Hiftorue Jive Synopjis me¬
thodic ce Conchyliorum libri quatuor, continentes loyq ft-
guras cere nitidiftime infeu/ptas, a Sufanna et Anna Li¬
fter depiSias, Londini, 1685—*-i-6h8, folio. A fecond
edition of the fame work was publiftied at Oxford in
1770, with additional figures.
SYSTEM of LISTER.
Lib. I. De Cochleis Terreftribus.
Pars I. De Buccinis et Turbinibus terreftribus.
Se£L 1. De Buccinis terreftribus a finiftra dextrorfum
tortilibus, Igevibus,. edentulis.
Soft. 2. De Buecinis terreftribus a finiftra dextrorfum
tortilibus, edentulis, ftriatis.
Se£t. 3. De Buccinis terreftribus a finiftra dextrorfum
tortilibus, apertura dentata.
Sett. 4. De Buccinis terreftribus a dextra finiftrorfum
tortilibus, apertura plana.
Sett. 5. De Buccinis terreftribus a dextra finiftrorfum
tortilibus, apertura dentata.
Sett. 6. De Turbinibus terreftribus cochleaeformibus,
id eft compattiore figura.
Sett.
(a) Lselium et Scipionem conchas et umbilicos ad Cajetam et ad Laurentum legere confueffe, et ad omnem
animi remifiionem ludumque defeendere. Cic, de Oral. lib. ii.
Chap. I. CONCHOLOGY. 387
Hiftorv. Seft. 7. Troohilus. Cap. 8. De Pe&unculis ftriatis, ex latere multo ma- Hiltory.
_■ ■v—^ Se£h 8. De Turbinibus terreftribus, compreflis eden- gis diflFufis, latioribus. Cap. 9. De Peftunculis flri- —■y-*-—'
tails, ipfo ambitu acuto. alls, ex latere difFufis anguftioribus. Cap. 10. De
Seft. 9. De Turbinibus compreflis, ambitu obtufiore, Peftunculis ftriatis imbricatis.
apertura edentula. Seft. 6. Cap. t. De Mufculis marinis, cardine laevi
Seft. 10. De Turbinibus terreftribus compreflis, a ft- minimeque dentate. Cap. 2. De Mufculis marinis
niftra dextrorfum tortilibus, apertura dentata.
Seft. XI. De Turbinibus terreftribus compreflis, aper¬
tura dentata, a dextra finiftrorfum tortilibus apice
inverfo ex ipfa aperturas parte.
Pars II. Cochleae nudae terreftres, limaces quibufdam
diftae.
Lib. II. De Turbinibus et Bivalvibus aquce duicis.
Pars I. De Turbinibus.
Seft. 1. De Buccinis fluviatilibus.
Seft. 2. De Cochleis fluviatilibus.
Seft. 3. De Cochleis fluviatilibus compreflis.
Pars II. De Teftaceis bivalvibus fluviatilibus.
Seft. I. De Mufculis fluviatilibus, cardine dentato.
Seft. 2. De Mufculis fluviatilibus, cardine laevi.
Seft. 3. De Peftunculis fluviatilibus.
Lib. III. De Tejlaceis bivalvibus marinis.
Pars I. De Teftaceis bivalvibus, imparibus teftis.
Seft. I. Cap. 1. De Peftinibus ex utraque parte aequa-
liter auritis, ftriatis. Cap. 2. De Peftinibus aequa-
liter auritis, laevibus. Cap. 3. De Peftinibus inae-
qualiter auritis, non dentatis. Cap. 4. De Peftini¬
bus inaequaliter auritis dentatis.
Seft. 2. Cap. 1. De Oftreis apophyfi plana longa re-
curva, angulo acuto delinente. Cap. 2. De Oftreis
apophyfi brevi, fubter et quafi in occulto pofita.
Seft. 3. De Spondylis.
Pars II. De Teftaceis bivalvibus, paribus teftis.
Seft. I. Cap. I. De Peftinibus margaritiferis. Cap. 2.
De Pefttnibus, binis apophyfibus longis conjunftis.
Cap. 3. De Peftinibus margaritiferis polyginglymis.
Seft. 2. Cap. 1. De Peftunculis polyleptoginglymis,
margine ex altera parte produftiore. Cap. 2. De
Peftunculis polyleptoginglymis, margine rotunda,
ftriatis. Cap. 3. De Peftunculis polyleptogingly¬
mis, margine rotunda, Isevibus.
Seft. 3. Cap. 1. De Peftunculis laevibus, triquetris
fere, eervice anguftiore. Cap. 2. De Peftunculis
laevibus, triquetris, cervice latiore. Cap. 3. De
Peftunculis laevibus, roftro recurvo.
Seft. 4. Cap. I. De Peftunculis fafciatis, lunula nota-
tis, margine ftriata. Cap. 2. De Peftunculis fafcia¬
tis, lunula quadam notatis, margine laevi. Cap. 3.
De Peftunculis fafciatis, ad roftrum integris.
Seft. 5. Cap. 1. De Peftunculis ftriatis produfti-
oribus, ftriis a roftro ad medium ufque dorfum
concurrentibus. Cap. 2. De Peftunculis ftriatis di-
verfimode exaratus, five diflimilibus. Cap. 3. De
Peftunculis ftriatis, ftriis fimilibus, dorfo ad alte-
rum latus paululum eminente. Cap. 4. De Peftun¬
culis ftriatis, dorfo in aciem compreflb. Cap. 5. De
Peftunculis ftriatis, muricatis afperifve. Cap. 6.
De Peftunculis ftriatis, ftriis a roftro tantum deduc-
tis laevibus. Cap. 7. De Peftunculis cancellatis.
polyleptoginglymis.
Seft. 7. Cap. 1. De Pinnis, margine velut praecifa ob-
tufave. Cap. 2. De Pinnis, margine produfta et
auftiore.
Seft. 8. Cap. 1. De Tellinis, id eft conchis fere cunei-
formibus, ambitu ferrata. Cap. 2. De Tellinis qui-
bus ambitus ex interna parte lasvis eft.
Seft. 9. De Solenis, id eft conchis tenuibus longifli-
mifque ab utraque parte naturaliter hiantibus.
Seft. 10. Cap. 1. De Chamis, ab altero tantum latere
fere naturaliter hiantibus. Cap. 2. De Chamis pho-
ladibus.
Pars II. De Teftaceis multivalvibus.
Seft. x. Cap. 1. De Pholadibus triumve teftarum con¬
chis, cardinibus loculis quibufdam quafi perforatis.
Cap. 2. De Pholadibus, cardine integro.
Seft. 2. De Conchis quinque teftarum anatiferis ple-
rifque diftis.
Seft. 3. De Balanis, id eft, duodecim teftarum con¬
chis praeter operculum mitratum.
Seft. 4. Sive appendix ad librum tertium de conchitis
iifve lapidibus, qui quandum fimilitudinem cum con¬
chis marinis habeant.
Lib. IV. De Buccinis marinis, quibus etiam vermiculi
dentaha et patellce, numerantur.
Seft. x. Cap. I. De Patellis, vertice perforato. Cap. 2.
De Patellis, vertice integro, laevibu®. Cap. 3. De
Patellis, vertice integro, ftriatis, margine quafi ra-
diata. Cap. 4. De Patellis, vertice adunco mar¬
gine aequali. Cap. 5. De Patellis, vertice adunco,
margine obliqua. Cap. 6. De Patellis, vertice a-
dunco, quibus ex interna parte cavitas quaedam quafi
arcuata, longis compreflis. Cap. 7. De Patellis,
vertice acuto, ftilo quodam interno donatis.
Seft. 2. De Dentalibus.
Seft. 3. De Vermiculis.
Seft. 4. Cap. 1. De Nautilis caudatis, five e plurimis
tabulatis confeftis. Cap. 2. De Nautilis vacuis, five
non tabulatis.
Seft. 5. Cap. I. De Cochleis marinis, apice brevi,
umbilicatis, finu aurito. Cap. 2. De Cochleis ma¬
rinis, apice brevi, umbilico fimplici. Cap. 3. De
Cochleis marinis, apice brevi, centre minime finua-
to. Cap. 4. De Cochleis marinis, bafi brevi, apice
ad oris initium parum elato. Cap. 5. De Cochleis
marinis, apice mediocriter produfto, ore dentato.
Cap. 6. De Cochleis marinis, apice mediocriter pro¬
dufto, ore edentulo, lasvibus. Cap. 7. De Coch¬
leis marinis, apice mediocriter produfto, ftriatis.
Cap. 8. De Cochleis marinis, clavicula tenui et
longiflima, ftriatis. Cap. 9. De Cochleis marinis,
clavicula tenui et longiffima, laevibus.
Seft. 6. Cap. 1. De Neritis dentatis, clavicula paulu¬
lum prominente. Cap. 2. De Neritis dentatis, cla¬
vicula comprefla, ftriatis. Cap. 3. De Neritis den¬
tatis, clavicula comprefla, laevibus. Cap. 4. De
Neritis ad columellam dentatis, labio produftiore
3 C 3 edentulo.
388
Hiftory.
-—v ■—
r-
CONCHOLOGY. Chap. I,
edentulo. Cap. 5. De Ncritis edentulis Icevibus.
Cap. 6. De Neritis edentulis muricatis.
Se£l. 7. De Auribus marinis.
Seel. 8. Cap. 1. De Trocbis pyramidalibus, apertura
five ball leviter tmuida. Cap. 2. De Trochis pyra-
niidalibus, ball paululum cava five finuata. Cap. 3.
De Trochis, apertura five bafi plana. Cap. 4. De
Trochis brevioribus, umbilicatis, dentatis. Cap. 5.
De Trochis cochleaeformibus, umbilicatis, edentu¬
lis. Cap. 6. De Trochis clavicula breviore, colu¬
mella paulo eredliore integra. Cap. 7. De Trochis,
bafi media leviter tumida, quafi altera clavicula.
Cap. 8. De Trochis, unico dente ad columellam
acuto.
Se£l. 9. Cap. I. De Conchis venereis unicoloribus.
Cap. 2. De Conchis venereis, lineis nigris fecundum
longitudinem depiflis. Cap. 3. De Conchis unda-
tim depidlis. Cap. 4. De Conchis venereis fafeia-
tis, immaculatis j et de conchis venereis fafeiatis et
maculatis, aut alias cum fafeiis variegatis. Cap. 5.
De Conchis venereis, punftis nigris diftindlis. Cap. 6.
De Conchis venereis, maculis albis nigrifve inter-
fperfis infignitis •, et de conchis venereis maculis al¬
bis quafi reticulatim depi&is. Cap. 7. De Conchis
venereis, flriis eminentibus confpicuis. Cap. 8. De
Conchis venereis, punftis elatis exafperatis, nodifve
incequalibus. Cap. 9. De Conchis venereis, aper-
tuia non dentata, bafi integra. Cap. 10. De Con¬
chis venereis, bafi umbilieata cochleata.
Se£l. 10. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindraceis columella
dentata, craflis, unius colons. Cap. 2. De Rhom¬
bis cvlindraceis dentatis, maculofis. Cap. 3. De
Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, fafeiatis. Cap. 4. De
Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, undatis. Cap. 5.
De Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, dorfo gibbofo.
Cap. 6. De Rhombis cylindraceis edentulis, ore
ftrifliore. Cap. 7. De Rhombis edentulis tenuibus,
ore patulo, clavicula paululum exferta. Cap. 8. De
Rhsmbis edentulis, ore patulo, clavicula comprelfa.
Pars II. Cap. I. De Rhombis cylindrico pyramidali¬
bus, unius colons. Cap. 2. De Rhombis cylindri-
co-pyramidalibus, quibus lineae maculatas circum in-
jiciuntur. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyrami-
dalibus, llriatis. Cap. 4. De Rhombis cylindrico-
pyramidalibus, undatis. Cap. 5. De Rhombis cy-
lindrico-pyramidalibus, fafeiatis. Cap. 6. De Rhom¬
bis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, reticulatis. Cap. 7. De
Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, dentatis.
Sefl. 11. Cap. I. De Buccinis perficis di£lis. Cap 2.
De Buccinis muficis diflis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis
columella dentata, clavicula longiflima et tenuif-
fima.
Se£l. 12. Cap. 1. De Buccinis bilinguibus, laevibus.
Cap. 2. De Buccinis bilinguibus, llriatis. Cap. 3.
De Buccinis bilinguibus, afperfis et muricatis. Cap. 4.
De Buccinis bilinguibus, digitalis.
Se£l. 13. Cap. 1. De Buccinis ampullaceis laevibus,
aut certe minus afperis. Cap. 2. De Buccinis am-
pullaceis, muricatis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis ampul¬
laceis, ad finiftram convolutis.
Se£t. 14. Cap. 1. De Buccinis utrinque produ&ioribus,
laevibus. Cap. 2. De Buccinis utrinque produfliori-
bus, ftriis denfis et tenuioribus exafperatis. Cap. 3.
De Buccinis utrinque produ£tioribus, ftriis pauciori-
bus donatis, labro firnplici. Cap. 4. De Buccinis Hiftory.
utrinque produdlioribus, ftriis paucioribus, labro du-
plicato donatis. Cap. 5. De Buccinis utrinque pro-
du£tioribus, muricatis.
Seft. 15. Cap. 1. De Buccinis breviroftris, nodofis*
Cap. 2. De Buccinis breviroftris, ftriatis. Cap. 3.
De Buccinis breviroftris, laevibus, fere clavicula
produdliore. Cap. 4. De Buccinis breviroftris, labro
repando, tenuibus. Cap. 5. De Buccinis breviroftris,
labro repando, craflis. Cap. 6. De Buccinis brevi¬
roftris, compreflis. Cap. 7. De Buccinis auritis,
five roftro recurvo donatis, ventriculofis. Cap. 8.
De Buccinis breviroftris, finu reflexo,laevibus. Cap. 9.
De Buccinis breviroftris-, roftro reflexo, clavicula
produdiiore.
Scdt. 16. Seu appendix de buccinitis, iifve lapidibus que
buccina omnigena valde referant.
6
II. In 1722, Langius prefented to the world the fol-Of Langha,
lowing work on conchology. Caro/i Nicolai Langii
Lucernen. Helvet. Phil, et Med. (h’c. Methodus nova
et facilis, tejlacea marina plceraque, quee hue ufque nobii
nota Jint, in fuas debitas et djiinbias claJJ'es, genera, et
fpecies, dijlribuendi, nominibufque fids propriis,fru£iurce
potijjimum accommodatis nuncupandi, h’c. Lucerniev
1722, 4to, p. 102.
SYSTEM of LANGIUS.
Pars Prim a, Tejlacea marina univalvia non turbi*
nata.
ClaSSIS Prima. Teftacea marina univalvia non tur-
binata, et in fe non contorta.
Sedl. 1. Teftacea marina univalvia non turbinata, et
in fe non contorta nullo modo, vel folummodo in
fummo apice tantillum incurv'ata. Gen. 1. Patellae.
Gen. 2. Balani. ^
Sedl. 2. Tubuli marini, feu teftacea marina univalvia,
non turbinata, et in fe non contorta, eiongata tubuli
inftar concava. Gen. 1. Penicilla. Gen. 2. Den-
tales. Gen. 3. Tubuli radiciformes. Gen. 4. Tu-»
buli vermiculares.
Classis Secunda. Teftacea marina univalvia, non
turbinata, fed ita in fe contorta, ut eorum fpirse non
promineant.
Sedl. 1. Teftacea marina univalvia ita in fe tranfverfim,
vel oblique fecundum longitudinem contorta, ut eo¬
rum circumvolutiones vix appareant. Gen. 1. Nau¬
tili. Gen. 2. Nuces marirse.
Sedl. 2. Porcellanse, feu teftacea marina univalvia non
turbinata. Gen. 1. Porcellanae vulgares. Gen. 2.
Porcellanae fimbriatae. Gen. 3. Porcellanse fpirales.
Gen. 4. Porcellanse thoracicce. Gen. 5. Porcellanae
minores integrae.
Sedl. 3. Divif. 1. Cornua ammonis, quae funt teftacea
marina univalvia non turbinata, et ferpentum in
modum in fe contorta, ut eorum circumvolutiones
nulla ex parte promineant, et tamen ex utroque la¬
tere omnes appareant. Gen. 1. Cornua ammonis
unita. Gen. 2. Cornua ammonis anomala. Divif. 2.
Gen. 1. Cornua ammonis fimpliciter divifa. Gen. 2.
Cornua ammonis integra divifa.
Par
2
CONCHOLOGY.
>hap. I.
Kiftory. .
—v~* Pars Secunda. Cochlece martnce, feu tejiacea marina
univalvia turbinata, quce unica tantum conjiant vulva
etfgura fua cochlearwn in modum intorta funt, ita ut
intima eorwn fpira aliquo faltem modo prominent et
producatur.
Classis Prima. Cochleae marinae longae, feu coch¬
leae marinae ore admodum elongate et fuperius a-
perto.
Seft. I. Cochleae marinae longae ore labiis redlis.
Gen. i. Cochleae pyramidales. Gen. 2. Cochleae
cylindroideae.
Se£l. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes, feu cochleae ma¬
rinae longae ore labiis leviter incurvatis, ideoque
etiam leviter ventricofis. Divif. I. Cochleae longae
pyriformes minores. Gen. I. Cochleae longae pyri¬
formes minores, vulgares. Gen. 2. Cochleae longae
pyriformes minores intortae integrae. Gen. 3. Coch¬
leae longae pyriformes minores intortae et infulcatae.
Divif. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores. Gen. 1.
Cochleae longae pyriformes majores vulgares. Gen. 2.
Cochleae longae pyriformes majores, intortae integrae.
Gen. 3. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores intortae
cylindroideae.
Classis Secunda. Cochleae canaliculatae, feu coch¬
leae raarinae ore elongate et fuperius in canaliculum
abeunte.
Seft. 1. Cochleae marinae canalicula redla. Gen. 1.
Cochleae canaliculata? reftae tenuiores. Gen. 2.
Cochleae canaliculatas re£lae cradiores. Gen. 3. Pur¬
puras reftiroftrae.
Se£t. 2. Cochleae marinae canaliculatae incurvatae. Gen.
1. Cochleae canaliculatae introrfum incurvatae. Gen.
2. Cochleae canaliculatae extrorfum incurvatae. Gen.
3. Murices. Gen. 4. Cochleae muriciformes in-
figniter incrifpatae. Gen. 3. Purpurae curviroflrae.
Gen. 6. Cochleae caflidiformes umbilicatae. Gen. 7.
Calfidae.
Classis Tertia. Buccina funt cochleae marinae ore
et mucrone fimul elongatis, primaque fpira notabi-
liter ventricofa.
Seft. 2. Buccina parva mucrone raediocriter elongato
et tenuiter acuminato. Gen. 1. Buccina parva pruni-
formia acuminata. Gen. 2. Buccina parva pruni-
formia canaliculata. Gen. 3. Buccina parva curvi-
roftra. Gen. 4. Buccina parva fulcata. Gen. 5.
Buccina parva fulcata et canaliculata. Gen. 6. Buc¬
cina parva Integra ore perpendiculari. Gen. 7. Buc¬
cina parva integra ore obliquo.
Seft. 2. Buccina majora, quae funt Buccina mucrone
admodum elongato et acuminato. Gen. 1. Buccina
majora canaliculata roftrata ore fimplici. Gen 2.
Buecina majora canaliculata, ore labiofo. Gen. 3.
Buccina majora canaliculata roitrata, ore labiofo,
fimbriata. Gen. 4. Buccina majora canaliculata et
fulcata.
Classis Quarta. Strombi, qui funt cochleae marinae
ore et mucrone fimul infigniter elongatis, et prima
^ fpira notabiliter anguftiore quam in Buccinis.
Seft. 1. Strombi ore fuperius aperto. Gen. 1. Strombi
canaliculati acuminati. Gen. 2. Strombi canalicu-
lati roftrati, ore fimplici. Gen. 3. Strombi canali-'
culati roftrati, ore angulofo. Gen. 4. Strombi cana¬
liculati roftrati, ore labiofo. Gen. 5. Strombi fulca-
ti vulgares. Gen. 6. Strombi fulcati, ore labiofo.
Se£L 2. Strombi integri, ore fuperius elaufo, feu inte-
gro. Gen. 1. Strombi integri vulgares, ore fimplici.
Gen. 2. Strombi integri, ore labiofo. Gen. 3. Strom¬
bi integri, ore fimbriato et dentato.
Classis Quinta. Cochleas marinae, ore admodum
brevi feu parvo, mucrone vero infigniter elongato.
Se£l. 1. Turbines aperti, feu cochleae marinae, ore ad¬
modum brevi feu parvo fuperius aperto, mucrone
longiflimo. Gen. I. Turbines aperti lati. Gen. 2;
Turbines aperti acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines aper¬
ti canaliculati re£te roftri. Gen. 4. Turbines aperti
canaliculati oblique incurvati. Gen. 5. Turbines
aperti fulcati.
Sedf. 2. Turbines integri, ore fuperius claufo feu inte-
gro. Gen.. I. Turbines integri vulgares. Gen. 2.
Turbines integri acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines in¬
tegri fimbriati.
Se£t. 3. Trochi feu cochleae marinae ore admodum
brevi, feu parvo e bafi lata et quafi plana in mucro-
nem quafi redtilineam conoideum infigniter elonga-
tum abeuntes. Gen. 1. Trochi ore angufto et hori-
fontaliter compreffo. Gen. 2. Trochi ore ampliore
et fubrotund©.
Classis Sexta. Cochleae marinae breviores, feu
cochleae marinae ore et muerone breviores, magifque
contradlo.
Sedl. 1. Cochleae breviores proportionate. Gen. 1.
Cochleae trochiformes breviores proportiouatae et
mucronatae. Gen. 2. Cochleae marinae terreftri-
formes breviore proportionatae. Gen. 3. Cochleae
depreflae.
Sedl. 2. Cochleae marinae breviores perpendiculariter
anomalae. Gen. 1. Neritae. Gen. 2. Cochleae um¬
bilicatae foramine fpirarum femicirculari. Gen. 3.
Cochleae umbilicatae foramine fpirarum rotundo.
Sedl. 3. Cochleae marinae breviores horifontaliter ano¬
malae. Gen. 1. Cochleae planae. Gen. 2. Aures
marinse.
Sedl. 4. Varia hucufque enarratarum cochlearum oper-
cula quae aut propter ufutn aut propter fingularem
ftrudluram, magis nota funt. Gen. 1. Opercula
cochlearum marinarum fubrotunda. Gen. 2. Un¬
gues marini, feu opercula cochlearum marinarum
oblonga.
Pars Tertia. Concha marina, id ejl tefacea marina
bivalvia qua duahus confant va/vis in car dine, arti-
culatione quadam inter fe conjunBis, ut commode claudi
et aperiri queant.
Sedl. I. Conchae marinae notabiliter umbonatae et redlae
incurvatae. Gen. 1. Conchae inarinae valvis aequali-
bus aequilaterae. Gen. 2. Conchae cordiformes um-
bone cardinum dedudlo. Gen. 3. Conchae marinae
cordiformes aequilaterae, umbone cardinum unito.
Sedl. 2. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus aequilaterae
leviter umbonatae. Gen. 1. Conchae crafiae. Gen. 2.
Pedlines
389
Hiftory.
 v '
390
HiftcHy.
' v"  
7
Of Brey-
nius.
CONCHOLOGY,
Peftlnes tenues. Gen. 3. Peflunculi. Gen. 4. Con-
chae peftiniformes gequilaterae fubrotundse. Gen. 5.
Conchae pe£tiniformes oequilateroe.
Se6t. 3. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus aequilaterae,
notabiliter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. r.
Conchae marinae incurvatae fubrotundae vulgares.
Gen. 2. Chamae aequilaterae.
Se£t. 4. Conchae marinae, valvis aequalibus aequilaterae
levitur umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus fubrotundae. Gen.
2. Tellinae aequilateroe.
Se£t. 5. Pinnae, feu conchae marinae valvis aequalibus
aequilaterae, cardine umbone deftituta. Gen. 1. Pin¬
nae reflae. Gen. 2. Pinnae incurvatae.
Classis Secunda. Conchae inaequilaterae, feu conchse
marinae valvis aequalibus ex utroque cardinis latere
inaequaliter effufae.
Seft. 1. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae
notabiliter umbonatae, et redtae incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae fub¬
rotundae. Gen. 2. Conchae marinae cordiformes in¬
aequilaterae, umbone cardine dedudo. Gen. 3. Con¬
chae marinae cordiformes inaequilaterae, umbone car-
dinum unito.
Sed. 2. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae,
leviter umbonatae et redae incurvatae. Gen. 1. Con¬
chae marinae leviter umbonatae et redae incurvatae
fubrotundae.
Sed. 3. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilate¬
rae, notabiliter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae, fub¬
rotundae vulgares. Gen. I. Chamae inaequilaterae.
Gen. 2. Conchae rhomboidales.
Sed. 4. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae
leviter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae, &c. fubrotundae. Gen. 2. Conchae
pediniformes inaequilaterae triangulares. Gen. 3.
Tellinae inaequilaterae. Gen. 4. Conchae tellinaefor-
mes. Gen. 5. Mufculi. Gen. 6. Conchae longae-
rugofae. Gen. 7. Conchae foleniformes. Gen. 8.
Mytili.
Sed. 5. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae
leviter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae, ftrudura et
ftriis peculiaribus. Gen. 1. Conchae imbricatae. Gen.
2. Pholades. Gen. 3. Dadyli. Gen. 4. Hyftero-
conchae. Gen. 5. Conchae alaeformes. Gen. 6. Con¬
chae quadratae.
Sed. 6. Conchae inaequilaterae non umbonatae, feu con¬
chae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae, cardine
umbone deftituto. Gen. 1. Solenes. Gen. 2. Conchae
marinae, See. ftrudura peculiari.
Classis Tertia. Conchae anomalae, feu conchae ma¬
rinae valvis inaequalibus.
Sed. I. Conchae marinae anomalae umbonatae et auritae.
Gen. I. Pedines anomali. Gen. 2. Spondyli.
Sed. 2. Oftreae, feu conchae marinae anomalee omnino
non vel irregulariter tantum umbonatae rugofae.
Gen. I. Oftrea vulgaris. Gen. 2. Oftrea denticu-
lata. Gen. 3. Oftrea roftrata. Gen. 4. Oftrea pe-
culiaris.
III. A different fyftem was propofed for the claflx-
fication of teftaceous animals by Breynius, in the fol¬
lowing work, which was publiftied in the year 1732.
Chap. I,
Joannis Philippi Breynii dijfertatio phyjicct de pohjthala- Hiftory.
miisy nova tejlaceorum claffe, cui queedam preemittuntur l" . v .0
de methodo tejlacea in clajjes et genera dijlribuendi: huic
adjicitur commentatiuncula de belemnitis prujjicis, tandem-
que fchediafma de Echinis methodice difponendis ; Gedani,
1732, qto.
SYSTEM of BREYNIUS.
In this fyftem the author has divided {hells into the
eight following claffes, viz. i.Tubulus. 2. Cochlidium.
3. Polythalamium. 4. Lepas. 5. Concha. 6. Con-
choides. 7. Balanus. 8. Echinus.
1. Tubulus, eft tefta tubulofa monothalamia, vel in
lineam redam extenfa, vel incurva, vel contorta, vel
aliquando ad fpiram, fed irregulariter, accedens. Huic
pertinent dentalia, entalia, folenes univalvi, Sic.
2. Cochhdium, eft tefta tubulofa, monothalamia, co-
nica, infpirans conftanter regularem, eonvoluta ali¬
quando opercula praedita, fepius vero eo deftituta. Ad
hanc claffem fpedant nautili tenues five vacui vulgo
didi ; aures marinae, neritae, cochleae, buccina, muri-
ces, caflides, cylindri, volutae, porcellanae, et omnes
teftae turbinatae, exceptis nautilo et anomia, ad claffem
tertiam referendis.
3. Pelythalarnium, eft tefta tubulofa polythalamia,
conica, reda, vel in fpiram regularem convoluta, cum
fyphunculo thalamos tranfeunte : huic reducendi nau¬
tili anomia, litui, et orthocerata.
4. Lepas, eft tefta vafculofa fimplex, referens vaf-
culum magis minufve cavum, orificio multum patenta,
ut patellae fimilefque.
5. Concha, eft tefta vafculofa compofita bivalvis, id eft
quae ex duabus componitur valvis, five vafeulis magis
minufve concavis in cardine articulatione quadam inter
fe iundis ut aperiri et claudi queant $ ut chamae, my¬
tili, tellinae, pinnae, oftreae, pedines anoraiae.
6. Conchoides, eft tefta vafculofa compofita bivalvis,
fed quae praeterea et aliquot minoribus portiunculis tef-
taceis componitur, ut pholades anatiferae.
7. Balanus, eft tefta vafculofa compofita, que prae-
ter unicam teftam majerem alias portiones minores ha-
bet ex quibus componitur, ut balanus vulgo didus.
8. Echinus, eft tefta vafculofa compofita, undique
claufa •, magis minufve concava, duobus tantum fora-
minibus feu aperturis pro ore et ano perforata, externe
aculeis vel claviculis mobilibus teftaceis armata.
g
IV. The fyftem of Tournefort appeared for the firft 0£ Xourn^
time, and was publiftied from the author’s manufeript, fort,
in the treatife on conchology by Gualtieri. In this
fyftem (hells are divided into three claffes, viz. Mono-
toma, Ditoma, and Polytoma.
SYSTEM of TOURNEFORT.
Teftacea dicuntur quorundam animalium integumen-
ta, quae teftae feu lateris duritiem habent, et in quibus
tantum, in tefta animalia vivant.
Teftacea autem omnia quae hucufque in mufaeis cu-
rioforum adverfari et congeri folent, ad tres claffes facile
revocari poffunt. Haec enim vel monotoma funt, vel
ditoma, vel polytoma.
Monotoma teftacea appellantur ea quorum tefta in-
divifa eft j ditoma quae geminis conftant teftis ad car-
dinem
Chap. I.
Hiftory. dinem connixis; polytoma vero quae ex pluribus fimul
i-/ adnexts compinguntur.
Classis Prima. Quce teftacea monotoma com-
pleftitur. Teftacea nionotoma quorum tefta indi-
vifa eft, in tres familias abeant : alia enim univalvia
funt, alia fpiralia, alia fiftulofa.
Familia I. Tejlaceorum univalvium. Monotoma u-
nivalvia dicimus quorum tefta fimplex eft, in os amplius
effufa. Gen. I. Lepas. Gen. 2. Eruca.
Familia II. Tejlaceorum fpiralium. Monotoma fpi¬
ralia dicimus teftacea quorum pars inferior in fpiram
contorquetur : horum autem fpirae feu helices exterius
patent, et fimpliciter fpiralia dicuntur, vel eorum fpira
intus reconditur, et convoluta dicuntur.
Divis. I. Teftacea monotoma fimpliciter fpiralia, feu
quorum fpira exterior eft. Gen. I. Murex. Gen. 2.
Murex alatus. Gen. 3. Murex aporrhais. Gen. 4.
Murex venereus. Gen. 5. Murex pyramidalis. Gen. 6.
Buccinum. Gen. 7. Buccino-murex. Gen. 8. Purpu¬
ra. Gen. 9. Buccino-purpura. Gen. 10. Peribolus.
Gen. 11. Turbo. Gen. 12. Verticillus. Gen. 13.
Cochlea. Gen. 14. Cochlea terreftris. Gen. 15. Ce-
ratites. Gen. 16. Cochlea marina. Gen. 17. Nerita.
Gen. 18. Auris marina.
Divis. 2. Teftacea monotoma fpiralia convoluta, quce
cochleam interiorem habent vix foris confpicuam.
Gen. 1. Concha venerea. Gen. 2. Concha perfica.
Gen. 3. Nautilus. Gen. 4. Conchilium.
Familia III. Tejlaceorum JiJluloforum. Teftacea
monotoma fiftulofa feu tubulofa, ut ex nomine patet,
fiftulae in modum tenuantur. Gen. 1. Dentale. Gen.
2. Entale. Gen. 3. Tubuli marini.
Classis Secunda, quae teftacea ditoma continet.
Teftacea ditoma femper ex duabus teftis ad cardinera
articulatis compinguntur, et vel ar£Ie undique claudun-
tur, vel utrinque hiant 5 unde in duas familias dividi
poffunt.
Familia I. Teftaceorum ditomorum quae ar£Ie clau-
duntur. Gen. 1. Concha. Gen. 2. Conchula. Gen. 3.
Oftreum. Gen. 4. Mytilus. Gen. 3. Pinna. Gen. 6-
Perna. Gen. 7. Pholas. Gen. 8. Peften. Gen. 9.
Pe&unculus.
. Familia II. Teftaceorum ditomorum quae femper
hiant. Gen. 1. Chamae. Gen. 2. Solen.
Classis Tertia, quae teftacea polytoma continet.
Polytoma teftacea dicurjtur quorum teftae ex pluribus
partibus vel articulatis, vel per cartilaginem connexis
compinguntur 5 unde in duas familias abeunt.
Familia I. Eorum quorum partes articulantur. Gen.
I. Echinus.
Familia II. Eorum quorum partes per cartilaginem
connedluntur. Gen. 1. Balanus.
9
D’Ar. V. M. D’Argenville in 1742, publiftied at Paris a
ivifte. treatife on Conchology with 33 plates. A fecond edi¬
tion of the fame work appeared at Paris in 1757. In
this edition the number of the plates was increafed to 41.
A more fplendid edition was publiftied after the death
of the author, by M. M. de Favanne de Montcerville
father and fon. This edition is extended to 3 volumes,
two of which confift of letter prefs; and the 3d contains
391
the engravings, which are 80 in number, and are exe- Hiftory.
cuted with great accuracy and elegance. But the de- *" y
fcriptions of the genera and fpecies only reach the 19th
plate 5 fo that the work which was publilhed in 1780
is ftill unfiniftied.
SYSTEM of D’ARGENVILLE.
In this fyftem (hells are divided into four parts. I.
Sea-(hells. II. Frefti-water (hells. III. Land-ftiells.
IV. Foflil-(hells.
Part I. Sea-(hells are divided into 3 Clafles. 1. Uni¬
valves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves.
Clafs I. contains 15 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Oreil-
les de mer. 3. Tuyaux et Vermiffeaux de mer. 4.
Nautiles. 5. Lima^ons a bouche ronde. 6. Lima-
90ns a bouche demi-ronde. 7. Lintons h bouche
aplatie. 8. Cornets ou Volutes. 9. Olives ou Cylin-
dres. 10. Rochers ou Murex. 11. Tonnes. 12.
Porcelaines. 13. Buccins. 14. Pourpres. 13.
Vis.
Clafs II. contains 7 families, viz. 1. Huitres. 2. Ca¬
rnes. 3. Tellines. 4. Moules. 3. Coeurs. 6. Peignes.
7. Manches de couteaux.
Clafs III. confifts of 7 families, viz. 1. Ofcabrions,
ou lepas h huit pieces. 2. Ourfins. 3. Glands de
mer. 4. Poulfe-pieds. 3. Conques anatiferes. 6.
Pholades. 7. Tuyaux de mer multivalves.
Part II. Frefti-water (hells are divided into 2 Clafles.
1. Univalves. 2. Bivalves.
Clafs I. contains 8 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Nauti¬
les ou comes d’ammon. 3. Lima^ons a bouche
ronde. 4. Lima^ons h bouche demi-ronde. 3. Li-
ma^ons a bouche triangulaire. 6. Tonnes. 7. Buc¬
cins. 8. Vis.
Clafs II. is compofed of two families. 1. Games. 2.
Tellines.
Part III. Land (hells, conftituting a fingle clafs, viz.
Univalves, which contains 6 families j viz. 1. Lepas.
2. Lima^ons a bouche ronde. 3. Lima^ons a bouche
demi-ronde. 4. Lima^ons a bouche aplatie. 5. Buc¬
cins. 6. Vis.
Part IV. Foftil (hells, which confift of 3 clafles. 1.
Univalves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves.
Clafs I. is compofed of 13 families having the fame
names as the firft clafs of fea-fliells.
Clafs II. contains 7 families fimilar to the 2d clafs of
fea-(hells.
Clafs III. confifts of 3 families, viz. 1. Ourfins. 2.
Glands de mer. 3. Pouffe-pieds. 4. Pholades. 3.
Tuyaux multivalves.
IV. A fyftem of Conchology was publilhed by Klein of Klein,
in 1733, and illuftrated with engravings. In the fame
work the author enters into an inveftigation concern¬
ing the formation,' increafe, and colours of (hells. The
following is an abridged view of this arrangement.
SYSTEM
1
CONCHOLOGY.
392
Hiftory.
XI
Of Adan-
fon.
CONGHOLOGY,
SYSTEM or KLEIN.
In this fyftem, fliells are divided into 6 parts.
Part I. which is entitled Cochlis, is divided into 2
feftions, viz. Cochlis fimplex, and Cochlis com-
pofita.
Se£t. I. confifts of 8 claffes, viz. Cochlis plana, con¬
taining 4 genera. 2. Cochlis convexa, 6 genera.
3. Cochlis fornicata, 5 genera. 4. Cochlis elliptica,
6 genera. 5. Cona cochlis, 16 genera. 6. Cochlea,
8 genera. 7. Buccinum, 5 genera. 8. Turbo, 14
genera.
Se£t. II. Confifts of five, clafles, viz. 1. Cochlis roftra-
ta, 7 genera. 2. Voluta longa, 15 genera. 3. Vo-
luta ovata, 8 genera. 4. Alata, 6 genera. 5. Mu-
rex, 2 genera.
Part II. Concha, is alfo divided into two fedtions, viz.
Monoconchse and Diconchae aequales.
Se£t. I. contains 2 claffes, viz. I. Patella, 2 genera.
2. Anfata, 4 genera.
Se£t. II. confifts of three fubdivifions, viz. I. Diconchae
conniventes. 2. Diconchoe interruptae. 3. Diconchae
inaequales.
Subdiv, 1. is compofed of 6 claffes, viz. 1. Diconchae
figuratae, 4 genera. 2. Oftreum, 6 genera. 3.
Mufculus, 3 genera. , 4. Cyclas. 5. Diconcha au-
rita, 9 genera. 6. Diconchae cordiformes, 3 ge¬
nera.
Subdiv. 2. confifts of 5 claffes, viz. 1. Diconcha fulca-
ta. 2. Diconchae umbilicatae, 3 genera. 3. Diconchae
finu profundo, feu chatnae, 3 genera. 4. Diconchae
linu protninulo, feu tellinae, 6 genera. 5. Pyloris,
9 genera.
Subdiv. 3. Diconchae inaequales, 7 genera.
Part III. Polyconcha, confifts only of one genus.
Part IV. Niduli Teftacei, comprehends one clafs, viz.
Balanus, which includes 4 genera.
Part V. Echinus marinus, feu echinodermata, is di¬
vided into 3 fedtions, viz. 1. Anocyfti. 2. Catocy-
fti. 3. Pleurocyfti.
Sedl. I. contains 2 claffes, viz. 1. Cidaris, 9 genera. 2.
Clipeus, 1 genus.
Seft. II. is compofed of four claffes, viz. 1. Fibula, 2
genera. 2. Claffis, 2 genera. 3. Scutum, 2 genera.
4. Placenta, 3 genera.
Sedt. III. confifts of 3 claffes, viz. 1. Arachnoides, I
genus. 2. Cor marinum, 2 genera. 3. Ovum ma-
rinum, 2 genera.
Part VI. Tubulus marinus is compofed of 11 genera.
In the fyftems of Conchology which we have now
exhibited, the characters are taken from the fhells. In
the three following, the marks of difcrimination are
derived from the animal as well as from the fhell. The
firft by M. Adanfon was publifhed in 1757.
SYSTEM of AD ANSON.
This fyftem confifts of 3 claffes, viz. 1. Lima^ons. 2.
Les conques. 3. Les conques multivalves.
Class I. Lima^ons. Seft. I. Lima^ons univalves.
Seft. II. Limatjons opercules.
Se6t. I. Famille 1. Les lima^ons univalves qui n’ont ni Hiftory. |
yeux ni cornes. Gen. 1. La gondole, cymbium.
Famille 2. Les lima^ons univalves qui ont deux
cornes, et les yeux places a leur racine et fur leur
cote interne. Gen. 2. Le bulin, bulinus. Gen. 3.
Le coret, coretus. Gen. 4. Le pietin, pedipes.
Famille 3. Les lima^ons univalves qui ont quatres
cornes, dont les deux exterieures portent les yeux
fur leur fommet. Gen. 5. Le lima^on, cochlea.
Gen. 6. L’ormier, haliotis. Famille 4. Les li-
ma^ons univalves qui ont deux cornes, et les yeux
places a leurs ratines, et fur le cote externe, ou par
derriere. Gen. 7. Le lepas, lepas. Gen. 8. L’yet
yetus. Gen. 9. La vis, terebra. Famille 5. Les
lima^ons univalves qui ont deux cornes et les yeux
pofes un peu au-deffus de leur racine, et fur leur
cote externe. Gen. 10. La porcellaine, porcellana.
Gen. 11. Le pucelage, cyprsa. Gen. 12. Le man¬
telet, peribolus.
Seft. II. Famille 1. Lima^ons opercules qui ont deux
cornes, avec un renflement, et qui portent les yeux
ordinairement au-deffus de leur racine, et h leur cot6
externe. Gen. I. Le rouleau, Gen. 2.
La pourpre, purpura. Gen. 3. Le buccin, buc-
cinum. Gen. 4. Le cerite, cerithium. Famille 2.
Lima^ons opercules, qui ont deux cornes fans ren¬
flement, et les yeux places h leur racine, et fur leur
cote externe. Gen. 5. Le vermet, vermetus. Gen.
6. La toupie, trochus. Gen. 7. La natice, natica.
Famille 3. Les lima^ons opercules, qui ont quatre
cornes, dont les deux exterieures portent les yeux
fur leur fommet. Gen. 8. Le fabot, turbo. Gen. 9.
La nerite, nerita.
Class II. Les conques. Se<EI. I. Les conques bi¬
valves. Famille 1. Les conques bivalves, qui ont
les deux lobes du manteau fepares, dans tout leur
contour. Gen. 1. L’huitre, ojlerurn. Famille 2.
Les conques bivalves dont les deux lobes du manteau
forment trois ouvertures fans aucun tuyau. Gen. 2.
Le jataron, jataronus. Gen. 3. Le jambonneau,
perna. Famille 3. Les conques bivalves dont les
deux lobes du manteau forment trois ouvertures dont
deux prennent la figure d’un tuyau affez long. Gen.
4. La came, chama. Gen. 5. La telline, tellina.
Gen. 6. Le pe&oncle, pe&unculus. Gen. 7. Le folen,
folen.
Class III. Les conques multivalves. Famille T. Les
conques multivalves, dont aucune des pieces de la
coquille ne prend la forme d’un tuyau. Gen. 1.
La pholade, pholas. Famille 2. Les conques multi¬
valves, dont une des pieces de la coquille prend la
forme d’un tuyau qui enveloppe entierement toutes
les autres. Gen. 2. Le taret, teredo.
12
VIII. The method of Geoffroy, formed on fimilar Of Geof=
principles with the laft, was publifhed at Paris in 1767,
in a work entitled “ A Summary Treatife on the Tefta-
ceous Animals found in the vicinity of Paris.” The
following is a view of this method.
SYSTEM of GEOFFROY.
Sect. I. Coquilles univalves.
Gen. 1. Le Umax, cochlea. Quatre tentacules, dont
deux plus grands portent des yeux a leur extremitd.
Coquille univalve en fpirale.
Gen.
Chap. I.
Hiftory. Gen. 2. Le buccin, buccinwn. Deux tentaeules plats
u*“nr~" en formes d’oreilles. Les yeux places H la bafe des
tentacules du cole interieur. Coquille univalve en
fpirale et conique.
Gen. 3. Planorbe, plattorbis. Deux tentacules fili-
formes. Les yeux places a la bafe des tentacules du
co.e interieur. Coquille univalve en fpirale, et or-
dinairement applatie.
Gen. 4. La nerite, nerita. Deux tentacules. Les
yeux places a la bafe des tentacules du cote exterieur.
Opercule & la coquille. Coquille univalve en fpirale
et prefque conique.
Gen. 5. Ancile, ancylus. Deux tentacules. Les yeux
places & la bafe des tentacules du cote inferieur.
Coquille univalve concave et unie.
Apertura repanda, poris pertufa.
Sect. III. Teftacea univalvia, tefta operculata.
Gen. 16. Triton’tum. Libera, apertura canaliculate,
tentaculis duobus linearibus, angulo extrinfeco ocu-
latis.
Gen. 17. TrocJius. Libera, apertura fub-tetragona,
tentaculis duobus fetaceis, coliiculo extrinfeco ocula-
tis.
Gen. 18. Nerita. Libera, apertura lunari, tentaculis
duobus fetaceis, angulo extrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 19. Va/vata. Libera, apertura circinnata, ten¬
taculis duobus fetaceis, angulo poftipo oculatis.
Gen. 20. Serpula. Adnata, apertura orbiculari, ten¬
taculis pinnatis.
C 0 N C H O L O G Y.
Gen. 13. Ha/iotis.
;93
Hiftory.
Sect. II. Coquilles univalves.
Gen. x. La came, chama. Deux fiphons fimples et
alongees. Cbarniere de la coquille dentelle. Coquille
arondee.
Gen. 2. La moule, mytilus. Deux fiphons courts et
franges. Charniere de la coquille membraneufe et
fans dents. Coquille alongee.
13
)fMuller. qqie py^em 0p JVIuller firft publifiied in 1773,
and afterwards extended in a different work which ap¬
peared in 1776, arranges teftaceous animals into three
families. The following is a view of this arrangement
taken from the latter work on the zoology of Denmark
and Norway.
SYSTEM of MULLER.
F AM ILIA I. TeJIacea Univalvia.
Sect. I. Teftacea univalvia, tefia pervia.
-Gen. x. Echinus. Tefta cruftacea, ano vertical!, ten¬
taculis fimplicibus.
Gen. 2. Spatagus. Tefta cruftacea, ano infero, tenta¬
culis penicillatis.
Gen. 2. Dentalium. Tefta calcarea, tefta rudi, ten¬
taculis nullis.
Sect. II. Teftacea univalvia, tefta patula.
Gen. 4. Ahera. Apertura effufa, tentaculis nullis,
Gen. 5. Argonauta. Apertura profunda, tentaculis
binis.
Gen. 6. Bulla. Apertura repanda, tentaculis binis
fetaceis, coliiculo extrinfecus oculatis.
Gen. 7. Buccinum. Apertura ovata, tentaculis binis
triangularibus, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 8. Carychium. Apertura ovata, tentaculis binis
truncatis confpicuis, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 9. Vertigo. Apertura fubquadrata, tentaculis bi¬
nis fublinearibus, apice oculatis.
Gen. 10. Turbo. Apertura orbiculari, tentaculis bi¬
nis fetaceis, confpicuis, angulo extririfeco oculatis.
Gen. 11. Helix. Apertura lunari, tentaculis quatuor
linearibus, apice oculatis.
Gen. 12. Planorbis. Apertura femilunari, tentaculis
binis fetaceis, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 13. Ancylus. Apertura total! tentaculis binis
truncatis, occultis, angulo extrinfeco oculatis.
Gen 14. Patella. Apertura total!, tentaculis binis fe¬
taceis, occulto angulo, extrinfeco oculatis.
Yol. VI. Part I.
Familia II. TeJIacea Bivalvia.
Sect. I. Teftacea bivalvia cardine dentata.
Gen. 1. Alya. Tefta altera extremitate hiante $ car¬
dine dente craffo folitario.
Gen. 2. Solen. Tefta utraque extremitate hiante;
cardine dente reflexo, faepe gemino.
Gen. 3. Tellina. Siphone duplici, murico; cardine
dentibus utrinque tribus alternis.
Gen. 4. Cardium. Siphone duplici, cirrato, pedeque
falciformi j cardine dentibus mediis alternis, remotis
penetralibus.
Gen. 5. Venus. Siphone duplici, cirrata, pedeque la-
minaeformi $ cardine dentibus tribus approximatis,
lateralibus divergentibus.
Gen. 6. Alactra. Cardine dente medio complicato,
adjacente foveola.
Gen. 7. Donax. Cardine dentibus duobus, lateralique
folitario.
Gen. 8. Area. Cardine dentibus numerofis, alternis,
penetrantibus.
Gen. 9. Terebratula. Branchiis circinnatis; cardine
dentibus alterius uncinatis, valvula fuperiore deorfum
perforata.
Sect. II. Teftacea bivalvia, cardine edentulo.l
Gen. 10. Anomia. Branchiis fimplicibus j valvula in-
feriore perforata.
Gen. 11. O/lrea. Branchiis fimplicibus, pede nullo ;
cardines foffula cava.
Gen. 12. PeElen. Branchiis cirratis, pede juxta auri-
culam cardine foffula ovata, byffum emittens.
Gen. 13. Mytilus. Siphone duplici brevi ; foffula li-
neari, byffum eroittens.
Familia III. TeJIacea Multivalvia.
Gen. I. Chiton. Valvulae dorfales, tentacula nulla.
Gen. 2. Lepas. Valvulae eredlae, tentacula bipartita.
Gen. 3. Pholas. Valvulae ad cardinem minores.
X. To this account of the different methods of ar-Da Cofta.
ranging jfhells, we {hall only add the fyftem propofed by
Da Cofta in his Elements of Concihology. In this fyf.
tetn the author adopts the ufual general divifion into
Univalves, Bivalves, and Multivalves.
I. Univalves are diftributed into 16 families, which
are divided into four orders.
Order I. Simple ; confifts of four families. 1. Pa¬
tella. 2. Haliotis. 3. Vermituli. 4. Dentalia. Order II.
includes only one family. 5. Polythaiamia. Order III.
Revolved.Fam.6.Turbinata involuta. Order IV.Turbi-
3 nated
394 CONCH
Animals nated. Fam. 7. Cymbium. Fam.8. Auriscochlea.Fam.in.
u^hidi inha-Cylindri. Fatn. lo.Voluta. Fam. 1 j. Globofa. Fam.i2.
1 lt ne Caffides. Fam. 13- Irochi. IHani. 14. Cochleae. Fam.
v " ’ 15. Baccina. Fam. 16. Murex.
II. Bivalves compofed of 3 orders.
Order I. With unequal valves, and (hut clofe.
Fam. 1. Pe£ten. Fam. 2. Spondylus. Fam. 3. Oftre-
um. lam. 4. Anomia. Ord. II. With equal valves, and
O L O G Y. Chap. 1:
(hut clofe, is divided into three fedtions. Sedl. 1. Mult- Animals I
articulate. Fam. 5. Pedtinoides. Fam. 6. Pedtunculi. which irih|
Fam. 7. Area. Sedl. 2. Articulate. Fam. 8. Pedtun- hitShellsi
cuius. Fam. 9. Tellina. Fam. 10. Placenta. Sedt. 3.
Inarticulate. Fam. 11. Margaritifera. Fam. 12. Mul-
eulus. Ord. III. With valves that never fhut clofe.
Fam. 13. Chama, Gapers.
III. Multivalves contain one order. Fam. 14.
Pholas. Fam. 15. Anatiferae. Fam. 16. Balani.
CHAP. II. OF THE ANIMALS WHICH INHABIT SHELLS.
IS
Generic
characters
of telface-
ous animal:
BEFORE we proceed to the claflification of {hells,
we lhall here give a (hort defeription of the animals
which inhabit them. Of thefe, however, a minute and
accurate anatomical defeription is not to be expedted ;
for little more is known of the llrudture of thefe ani¬
mals than what has been given by naturalifts concern¬
ing their external charadters.
Some of the animals, which inhabit {hells, are alfo
found in the mollufca Hate; that is without any tefta-
ceous covering. Such, for inftance, is the Umax, or
fnail.
The animals which have been found inhabiting
{hells are the following ; viz. Doris, Triton, Afcidia,
Tethys, Limax, Spio, Amphitrite, Terebella, Ne¬
reis.
Doris.—The body is creeping, oblong, and flat be¬
neath ; the mouth is placed below on the forepart;
vent behind on the back, and furrounded by a fringe.
Feelers two or four, fituated on the upper part of the
body in front, and retradlile within the proper re¬
ceptacles.
The animal which inhabits the chiton belongs to
this genus.
Triton.—The body is oblong, and the mouth is fur-
niflied with an involute fpiral probofeis : tentacula or
arms 12, fix on each fide, divided nearly to the bafe.
The hind ones cheliforous. ,
The triton inhabits different fpecies of lepas.
Afcidia.—The body is fixed, roundilh, and apparent¬
ly iffuing from a fiieath ; apertures two, generally
placed near the upper end, one beneath the other. The
animals are found in the fea, and adhere by their bafe
to rocks, {hells, and other fubmarine fubftances : they
are more or lefs gelatinous. The only powers of
motion which they poffefs feem to be that of contract¬
ing and dilating themfelves alternately ; by which
means they are enabled to throw out the water which
they take in with confiderable force.
This animal inhabits the pholas, folen, fome fpecies
of the mya, matra, and other bivalves.
Tethys.— The body is detached, rather oblong,
flefiiy, without peduncles: the mouth is furnifiied
with a terminal cylindrical probofeis, under an ex¬
panded membrane or lip: apertures two, on the left
fide of the neck.
The tethys inhabits a great proportion of bivalve
{hells, as many fpecies of tellina, cardium, ma£tra, ve-
nus,. oftrea, and others.
Limax.—The body is oblong, creeping, with a flefliy
kind of fliield above, and a longitudinal flat dife be¬
neath : aperture placed on the right fide within the
fliield : feelers 4, fituated above the mouth, with an
eye at the tip of each of the larger ones.
The animals belonging to this genus inhabit the
turbinated univalve {hells ; but it appears that all the
animals which inhabit thefe {hells do not exadtly cor-
refpond with the above generic characters.
Spio.—The body projecting from a tube, jointed
and furnilhed with dorfal fibres; peduncles or feet rough
with briftles, and placed towards the back; feelers 2;
long, fimple; eyes 2; long.
This animal inhabits fome fpecies of fabella.
Amphitrite.—Body projecting from a tube, and an¬
nulate ; peduncles or feet fmall, numerous, with lateral
fafeieuli, and branchiae ; feelers 2, approximate, fea¬
thered ; no eyes.
The amphitrite inhabits fome fpecies of fabella and
ferpula.
Terehel/a.—Body oblong, creeping, naked, furnifli-
ed with lateral fafciculi or tufts, and branchiae ;
mouth placed before, furnithed with lips, without teeth,
and protruding a elavated probofeis; feelers numerous,
ciliated, capillary, and placed round the mouth.
This animal is an inhabitant of,many fpecies of den-
talium, ferpula and fabella.
Nereis.—Body long, creeping, with numerous late¬
ral peduncles or feet on each fide; feelers fimple, rare¬
ly none; eyes 2 or 4, rarely none. According to
fome naturalifis, the nereis inhabits fome fpecies of
fabella.
Sepia —-Body flefliy, receiving the breaft in a fheatb,
with a tubular aperture at its bafe ; arms 8, befet
with numerous warts or fuckers, and in moft fpecies 2
pedunculated fenlacula ; head fliort; eyes large; mouth
refembling a parrot’s beak.
The animal which inhabits the argonauta is confi-
dered by naturalifts as belonging to this genus.
Clio.—Body oblong, natant, generally fheathed, and
furnifhed with two dilated membranaceous arms or
wing-like pmceffes; tentacula 3, befides 2 in the mouth.
According to fome natural!'Is, it is an animal be¬
longing to this genus which inhabits the argonauta.
CHAP
CONCHO LOGY.
"hap. HI.
v/ VJ IN Vy xl vJ Lj x . 3 95
>rms e.m" Terms em¬
ployed in ployed in
[efcribmg CHAP. III. OF THE TERMS WHICH ARE EMPLOYED IN DESCRIBING d^ribins
Shells.
SHELLS.
Shells.
ermsex- AS it will tend to facilitate our progrefs in the flu-
ained. dy 0f Conchology, clearly to underftand the terms which
are employed in defcribing {hells, and the names by
which the different parts have been diftinguilhed by
naturalifts j we {hall here give a few definitions of the
principal terms. And that thefe definitions may be
eafily confulted, we {hall obferve the fame order as in
the claffification which is to be adopted. They may
be conveniently arranged, therefore, into the three divi-
fions of multivalves, bivalves, and univalves.
^ i. Explanation of the Terms of Multivalve Shells.
ulti- Multivalve {hells are compofed of more than two
Ives. •
pieces.
Articulated (tefias articulatae), when the different pieces
of which the (hell is compofed are fo ftrongly united
that they feem to form one (hell.
lEquivalve [hells (teftse aequivalves), when the valves
of the two fides have the fame form, fize, and pofi-
tion.
A (hell is faid to adhere (tefta adherens), when it is
attached to folid bodies by feme of the pieces of
which it is compofed : It is faid to be loofe (tefla
libera), when it is not attached by any point.
Pedunculated (tefla pedunculata), when all the pieces
of which it is compofed, are fupported by a tendi¬
nous peduncle which is fixed to folid bodies.
Tubular (tefta tubulofa), when the greateft part of
the fhell is formed of a cylindrical tube.
Bafe of the fhell (bafis teftre), that part on which it is
fupported.
Ligament (ligamentum), is a membranous or tendi¬
nous fubftance which connedts the valves together,
and fometimes lines the cavity of the {hells. Of
this there are fe.veral varieties.
—— ' ' fcaly (ligamentum fquamatum), when the fur-
face is covered with fmall granular feales.
prickly (ligamentum aculeatum), when the
furface is furnifhed with fmall rough points.
►' ■■ fmooth (ligamentum laeve), when the furface
has neither points, feales, nor tubercles.
—  pun&ated (ligamentum pun£latum), when the
furface is marked with fmall cavities.
Lid (operculum), is the name given to four fmall tri¬
angular valves articulated in the form of a crofs,
which fhut up the fuperior orifice of fome fpecies of
raultivalve {hells.
Peduncle (pedunculus) is the tendinous fubftance which
fupports fome of the multivalve {hells. It is flexi¬
ble while the animal is alive, and is fmooth or
fcaly.
Pays (radii) ; thefe are impreflions on the external fur¬
face of fome {hells ; they are of a conical form,
having the vertex turned towards the bafe of the
fhell. They are only diftin&ly feen in adult
fhells.
    filiform (radii filiformes) are long and narrow.
—  fmooth (radii leves.) 
■■ -■■■• ftriated (radii tranfverfim ftriati.)———
Valves (valvulte) are the different pieces of which mul¬
tivalve (hells are compofed.
2. Explanation of the Terms applied to Bivalve Shells.
iS
A BIVALVE fhell is faid to adhere (tefta adherens), Bivalves,
when it is fixed by any part of one of its valves to
a folid body.
It is faid to have ears (tefta aurita), when it forms at
its bafe, one or two compreffed angles.
Gaping (tefta hians), when the valves do not (hut
cloie.
Bearded (tefta barbata), covered externally with an
epidermis compofed of ftrong hair or briftles.
Comprefed (tefta compreffa), when the valves are flat,
forming a fmall cavity.
Heart-Jhaped (tefta cordata), having the form of a
heart ; (fubcordata) approaching to that form.
Toothlefs (edentula), without teeth at the hinge.
Equilateral (tefta aequilatera), when the anterior and
pofterior part of the fhell is equal in form and fi-
gure.
Equivalve (equivalvis), when the two valves are fimilar
in form and convexity.
Irregular (tefta irregularis), when the form varies in
the individuals of the fpecies.
Lenticular (lenticularis), when the valves are round,
and little elevated in the middle, and diminifti gra¬
dually in thicknefs towards the edges.
Linear (tefta linearis), when the length confiderably
exceeds the breadth, but without a cylindrical
form.
Tongue-fhaped (linguaeformis), flat and oblong, having
the two extremities round and obtufe.
Boat-fhaped (navicularis), refembling the figure of a
boat.
PeBinated (pefHnata), when the valves being furnifh¬
ed with longitudinal ribs, have on their anterior fur¬
face ribs nearly tranfverfe, which form by their union
with the firft: acute angles.
Radiated (radiata), when it is marked on the external
furface with rays, ribs, or elevated ftrise, which pro¬
ceed from the extremity of the fummits, and termi¬
nate in the circumference of the valves.
Beaked (roflrata), when one of its furfaces, either an¬
terior or pofterior, being contracted and elongated,
terminates in form of a beak.
Bafe (bafis). The fituation in which Linnaeus has de-
feribed and confidered bivalve {hells, confifts in
placing the beaks of the (hell turned downwards,
in fuch a way that the ligaments of the valves may
be feen, fo that the bafe of the (hell is the region of
its beaks.
Margin of the (hell (margo teftae) fignifies the whole
circumference of the {hell, parallel to the edge of
the valves. It is divided into anterior, pofterior, and
fuperior.
   anterior (margo anterior), when the (hell is
placed on the beak of the valves, commences at
the fide of the ligament, on the fore-part of the
3 D 2 beaks,
?95 CONCH
Terms em- beaks, and extends to one-third of the whole circum-
ployed mi fere nee of the valves.
d^fcrrhing Margin pofterior (raargo pofterior), extends to one-
, ^ third of the circumference from the beaks of the
valves behind.
   fuperior (margo fuperior), includes the upper
part of the circumference of the valves comprehend¬
ed between the fuperior extremity of the anterior
margin, and the fupenor extremity of the pofterior
margin. Hence the whole circumference of the
{hell is divided into three equal parts.
Margins of the valves (margines valvularum), fignify
the whole interior circumference of the valves, in¬
cluding about the breadth of a line of the outer
edge. They are divided into
     furrowed (margines canaliculati), having on
fome part of the anterior circumference, a fmall gut¬
ter parallel to it.
  notched (margines crenulati), furniftred inte¬
riorly with rounded notches.
   toothed (margines dentati), provided with
pointed teeth.
. folded (margines plicati), furnifhed with folds
which reciprocally correfpond with thofe of the op-
pofite valve.
    iimple (margines fimplices) having neither
folds, teeth, nor notches.
   ftriated (margines ftriati), having longitudinal
ftisae.
Binge. The hinge of a (hell is the moft folid and thick-
eft part of the circumference of the valves, confti-
tuting their bafe. It is almoft always furniftred with
teeth of different proportions, which ferve to fix the
valves together. I he hinge is
  compreffed (Cardo deprefi'us), formed of one
compreffed tooth.
    lateral (cardo lateralis), when it is placed at
one of the fides of the ibell.
    oblong (cardo oblongus), when it occupies
the whole bafe of the (hell.
  refleffted (cardo reflexus), when its edges are
folded back externally towards the convexity of the
valves.
, terminal (cardo terminalis), fituated at the
inferior extremity of the {hell.
    truncated (cardo truncatus), when the bafe
of the (hell terminates tranfverfely and fuddenly,and
the teeth of the hinge are fixed in this part.
7'eeth (dentes), are folid protuberances, commonly
pointed, with which the hinge of {hells is ufually
furniftred, and which are deftined to fix the two
valves together. They are divided into
  alternate (dentes alternati), when they are
placed in a line parallel to the edges of the hinge ;
and when the teeth of one valve are received into
the interfaces of the teeth of the other valve.
, articulated (dens infertus), when it is recelv-
' ed in a correfponding cavity at the oppofite
valve.
  forked (dens duplicatus feu bifidus), having
the point divided into two.
L cardinal (dens primarius feu cardinalis), is the
tooth which is placed immediately oppofite.
__ compreffed (dens depreffus), which is very
jjjuch ftatlcned.
‘ a
O L O G Y. Chap. HI
Teeth (dens ereflus), when the valve is laid on Terms em.]
the convex fide, the tooth rifes perpendicularly. ployed m
  — longitudinal (dens longitudinalis), when it ex- deferibing
tends like a rib on the bafe of the valves.
The dipt (difeus), fignifies the convex centre of the
valves, which is ufually fituated between the belly
of the {hell and its limb.
Limb (limbus), is the circumference of the valves from
the diik to their edges.
Be/iy of the fhell (tellse umbo), is the moft inflated
part of the valves.
It is vaulted (umbo fornicatus) when in the interior of
the valves it exhibits a cavity feparated from the
hinge by a vertical membrane.
Nates are two protuberances of a conical figure,
fomewhat fpiral, which accompany the external bafe
of moft bivalve {hells. They are
. flattened (nates depreffae), when the furface
is fenfibly comprefled.
  approximate (nates approximatse), meeting to¬
gether when the {hell is fhut.
  horned (nates corniformes), when the angles
being confiderable, and their diredtion waved or fpi-
ral, they refemble a horn.
—   — bent (nates incurvatae), when the curvature of
the one is direfled towards that of the other.
  — feparated (nates diftantes), when they are
feparated from each other, at leaft the diflance of
a line.
——  diftant (nates remotiflimse), when the interval
is very great.
—  refledled (nates recurvae), when the curva¬
ture is diredled towards the pofterior furface of the
{bell.
  wrinkled (nates rugofae), when the furface is
marked with unequal lines.
 fpiral (nates fpirales), when the curvature ex¬
hibits more than one circumvolution.
Vu/va, is fituated at the lower part of the anterior mar¬
gin of the valves. It is divided into
  hollowed (excifa, feu canaliculata), when it
is marked with a groove during its whole length.
—   diftinft (diftindla), marked by a perceptible
difference of colour.
 lettered (feripta feu literata), when the fur¬
face is marked with lines refembling written cha-
radlers.
   infledted (inflexa), when the edge of the lips
is bent towards the inner furface of the valves.
Anus, is an impreflion ufually hollow, placed at
the lower part of the pofterior furface. It is divid¬
ed into
  bordered (marginatus), when it is circum-
feribed by a diftindt elevation.
  — heart-ftiaped (cordatus), exhibiting the form
of a heart.
  toothed (dentatus), furniftied with teeth or
notches.
...     lanceolated (lanceolatus), when the length is
greater than the breadth, and the extremities are
pointed.
 — open (patulus feu hians), forming by the fe-
paration of its edges, a confiderable opening, which
penetrates into the interior of the ftiell.
. oval (ovatus), of an elliptical figure.
Valvesi
hap.
rm-> em-
oyed in
dcribin^
Shell*.
III.
Valves, of bivalve fhells, are divided into right and
left, equal and unequal, equilateral and inequilateral,
funerior and inferior.
  right valve (dextra), is diftinguifhed from the
left, by placing the ihell on its bafe, having the car¬
dinal ligament before, and the anus behind. In this
pofkion the right valve of the (hell correfponds to
the left of the obferver, and the left valve (finiltra)
to the right of the obferver.
. equal (equales), when the right valve corre¬
fponds with the left in form, fize, and other external
chara&ers.
   fuperior (valvula fuperior). In an irregular
{hell, fuch as the oyfter, one of the valves is attach¬
ed to folid bodies j the other in this cafe is fuperior.
This valve is fometimes called by Linnaeus, the lid
(operculum) : in fome fpecies it is flat and fmall,
end in others more convex than the inferior valve.
—  keel fhaped (valvulse carinatae), when one
part of their convexity prefents a (harp edge.
chambered (qoncameratae), when they exhi¬
bit in their cavity teftaceous plates, detached and
raifed.
  fpinous (fpinofae), when the whole furface is
furnifhed with fpines.
  banded (fafciatae), exhibiting large coloured
tranfverfe ftripes or bands.
— - lamellated (lamellofae), when the furface is
furniflied with plates more or lefs feparated.
—■ radiated (radiatae), exhibiting divergent or
coloured rays.
  finuated (lacunofae), when one of the valves
has a fenfible depreflion at the middle of its mar¬
gin, and a correfponding elevation of the oppofite
valve.
—  flriated (ftriatae) when the furface is marked
with ftriae.
 tranfverfe, when the ftriae are parallel to the
margin of the valves.
• longitudinal, when they run from the bafe to
the circumference.
Mufcular itnprejjions (imprefliones), are marks on the
interior furface of the valves, where the mufcles of
the animal are attached.
—  folitary (folitariae), when the inner furface of
each valve has only one.
—■ ■■ . ■ double (duplicatae), two on the inner furface
of each valve.
•  ^ triple or ternate (ternatae), three in each
valve.
Ligament (ligamentum), is a horny fubftance, of little
flexibility, which unites the two valves near their
bafe, and which in almoft all bivalve fhells is placed
at the lower part of their anterior furface. It is di¬
vided into
  — gaping (hians), when its upper extremity is
divided into two.
•  double (duplex), when under the external li¬
gament there appears a fecond, in a particular hol¬
low of the hinge, which does not appear externally.
•  internal (internum), when it unites the valves
without' appearing externally.
  profound (retraftum feu intradlum), when it
is fo deep in the future as fcarcely to be feen when
the valves are fhut.
397
 truncated (truncatum), when fliorter than its Terms em-
future. ployed in
Furrows (fulci), are thofe impreflions or interftices
between the ribs or rays on the furface of the ‘ ' .
valves.
—   fquare (quadrati), when the bottom is flat.
   lamellated (lamellofi), when the bottom is
marked with fmall tranfverfe fcales.
*   pundtated (excavato pundlati), when the whole
lurface is marked with fmall cavities or dots.
3. Explanation of Terms applied to Univalve Shells.
ley*
The bafe (bafis), is the moft elevated part of the Univalvesj
{hell, oppofite to the fpire. It is divided into
 notched (emarginata), when it is accompanied
with a deep notch.
. -  tubular (tubulofa feu cordata), when it is form¬
ed by a tube.
■ ■ ■   - Ample or entire (fimplex aut Integra), without
notch or tube.
Summit (vertex) fignifies the top of fome patellae, and
from its pofition is central, marginal, or fubmar-
ginal.
The Jhell (tefta) is divided with regard to its pofition
into fuperior and inferior.
The anterior part (pars antica), is that which forms the
fpire of the {hell ; and it is alfo the fuperior part.
The form of {hells is
    bordered (marginata), when the two fides of
the opening are broader and thicker than the reft of
the diameter.
  chambered (polythalamia), when it is inter--
nally divided by different partitions parallel to the
opening.
—   convoluted (convoluta), when the fpires turn
round a lengthened cone, nearly vertical to each
other.
—  — rooted (radicata), when it is attached to a fo¬
lid body by a ligament proceeding from its bafe.
■ ■ interrupted (interrupta), when the fucceflive
additions to the {hell are marked with diftinft
rings.
   umbilicated (umbilicata), when the axis round
which the fphere turns, being empty, forms a cavi¬
ty at the bafe of the {hell, whofe diameter is at leaft
a fixth part of that of the fhell.
■ imperforated (imperforata feu exumbilicata), *
when its inferior axis has neither hole nor umbili¬
cus.
• oval or elliptic (ovales), the longitudinal dia¬
meter exceeding the tranfverfe, and the two extre¬
mities equal and a little contra£led.
.. ■ ■ ■'■■■■ egg-fhaped (ovata), the longitudinal diameter
exceeding the tranfverfe, and the extremities termi¬
nated by the fegment of a circle.
■ beaked (roftrata), when the two extremities,
fometimes tubular, form a projection in form of a
beak.
—  imbricated (imbricata), when the furface is co¬
vered with- parallel fcales, fo arranged as to cover
each other.
  —. turbinated (turbinata), when the belly of the
{hell is large in proportion to the fpires, which feem
to proceed from its centre.
Opening-;
CONCH OLOGY.
398
Terms em- Opening or month (aperlura), is that part of the ca-
ployed in vity of the ihell which is vifible. It is
deicrihing   angular (angulata), when its circumference
_ has leveral angles.
gaping (deliifcens), when one of the extremi-
CONCHOLOGY. Chap. HI,
lineated (lineati), marked with coloured lines. Terms em.
radiated (fpinofo-radiati), having the circum- ployed iu
ties is wider than the other.
bimarginated (bimarginata), when the right
lip forms a double margin.
compreffed (coarftata), when it is diftinflly
flattened.
femicircular (femiorbiculata), when it forms
half a circle.
linear (linearis), when it is narrow, and the
length confiderably exceeds the breadth.
longitudinal (longitudinalis), tvhen the length
is greater than the breadth, and the greateft dimen-
fion is parallel to the axis of the (hell.
 orbicular (orbicularis), forming an entire
circle.
   ftriated (ftriata), when the cavity is marked
with ftriae, parallel to the direflion of the convolu¬
tions.
tranfverfe (tranfverfa), when the breadth is
greater than the length.
Pi/iar (columella), is that part of the fhell fituated
within the opening, near its axis, round which the
fpires turn. It is brought into view by dividing the
ihell its whole length. It is
 flattened (plana), when the furface is flat and
fmooth.
caudated (caudata), when it is lengthened be¬
yond the bafe of the (hell.
folded (plicata), marked with tranfverfe and
diftinfl folds.
fpiral (fpiralis), proceeding from the bafe, and
forming a fmall twifted elongation.
truncated (truncata), cut tranfverfely at the
bafe.
Convolutions (anfra£lus), are the turnings of the fpire
round the pillar, from the opening to the bafe of
the Ihell. They are
—— bifid (bifidi), when each is divided into two
equal parts by a furrow or fpiral line.
grooved (canaliculati), when the fuperior edge
is marked with a groove.
   keel-fhaped (carinati), when the outer turn of
the Ihell is marked with an angle more or lefs
acute.
-   crowned (coronati), when the upper furface is
bordered at a little diftance from the futures, with a
Angle row of tubercles or fpinous fcales.
dextral (dextri), turning from the left to the
right.
 finiftral (finiftri), turning from the right to
the left.
 lettered (fcripti), marked with charafters.
fpinous (fpinofi), having fhort fpines on the
furface.
entire (fimplices), without furrows or tuber¬
cles.
banded (fafciati), when the furface is marked
with broad coloured ftripes.
 - lamellated (lamellati), the furface marked
with longitudinal or tranfverfe excrefcences, and la¬
minated like membranes.
4
ference bordered with ftraight fpines, feparating and defcribmg
divergent. Shells.
feparated (disjundli), having an interval be-
tween each convolution.
furrowed (fulcati), having the furface marked
with furrows, which are always broader than ttrise.
decuflated (decuffati), when the ftriae crofs
each other at right angles.
Spire (fpira), fignifies all the convolutions taken to¬
gether. It is
- -- pointed (acuta), when the convolutions join¬
ed together form an acute angle.
■  flattened (depreffa), forming a flat furface.
convex (convexa), when it is rounded, and
the point of the bafe has little elevation.
convex (convexo-acuta), rounded at the outer
edge, but elevated into an acute angle.
— convex and elevated (convexo-exferta), round¬
ed at the outer edge, and elevated without forming
an acute angle.
., — convex and pointed (convexo-mucronata), ob-
tufe and almoft rounded at the outer edge, and ter¬
minated at the centre with a pointed elevation.
  crowned (coronata), when the outer edges of
each convolution are accompanied with a row of
fpines or tubercles.
capitate (capitata), the convolutions united,
forming a fwelling refembling a head.
obtuie (obtufa), the convolutions united, form¬
ing an obtufe angle.
plano-concave (plano-concava), the convolu¬
tions forming no elevation, but are flightly grooved,
pyramidal (pyramidata), of a conical form.
Sutures (futuroe), fignify the place of junftion of the
different convolutions, forming a fpiral line. They
are
 — grooved (canaliculatse), when they arc fo deep
as to form a fmall canal.
notched (crenulatae), when the points of con¬
tact are marked with notches.
double (duplicate), accompanied with two
ftriee, which run parallel.
effaced (obfoletee), when the place of jundlion
is not perceptible.
Siphon (fipho), is a ftnall canal fituated in the inter¬
nal part of the (bell of the nautili, which penetrates
into the divifions of which it is compofed. It is
 central (centralis), when it is fituated in the
middle of the divifions.
 lateral (lateralis), fituated at one fide.
oblique (obliquus), cutting the axis of the di¬
vifions obliquely.
Veins (varices), are elevations or ribs, running in the
direction of the length of the (hell, formed by the
junction of the different additions which the {hell
has received. They cut the convolutions of the
fpire tranfverfely. They are
  continued (continuatce), proceeding from the
bafe of the fpire to the convolution at the opening,
without interruptioi ,
 fpinous (fpinofae), furniflied with ftrong fpines.
interrupted (decufl'atae), not correfponding with
the different convolutions.
CHAP.
CONCHOLOGY.
Hhap. IV.
Claffifica-
tion of
Shells.
CHAP. IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS.
399
Claflifica-
tion of
Shells.
1 —"i y-.
20
;laffiSca- SHELLS are divided by Linnaeus into multivalve,
on. bivalve, and univalve. In the following claflification
the fame arrangement will be adopted ; and we lhail
firft exhibit in one view the chara&ers of each genus,
in the original language of Linnaeus, with a tranflation
oppofite for the fake of the Englilb reader; fo that
the genus of any fhell may be ealily determined. In
defcribing the fpecies, we fhall obferve the utmoft bre-
vity, giving fuch characters only as are neeeflary to af¬
ford precife marks of diftinclion. In arranging the
fpecies under each genus, the Britifli fpecies will be
diftinguillied with an afterilk ; fo that, with the ad¬
vantage of a general claffification, this will anfwer the
purpofe of a Britilh eonchology.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
I. MULTIVALVE SHELLS.
eneric i. Chiton. Animal doris. Teftae plures, fecun-
laraiter dum longitudinem fibi appofitae dorfo incumbentes.
multi-
2. Lepas. Animal triton. Telia ball affixa multi-
valvis : valvis insequalibus eredlis.
3. Ppiolas. Animal afcidia. Telia bivalvis divari-
cata, cum minoribus accelforiis difformibus: cardo re-
curvatus cartilagine connexus.
1. C. Animal inhabiting the fhell a doris. Shell
conlilting of feveral fegments or valves difpofed down
the back.
2. L. Animal a triton. Shell affixed at the bafe,
and confilling of many unequal eredl valves.
3. P. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, divaricate,
differently ffiaped ; accelfory valves: hinges bent back,
united by a cartilage : beneath the hinge, internally, is
an incurved tooth.
II. BIVALVE SHELLS.
bivalves. 4. Mya. Animal afcidia. Teha bivalvis hians, ut
plurimum, altera extremitate : cardo dente (plerifque
uno) folido, cralfo, patulo, vacuo ; nec inferto teha;
appofitas.
5. Solen. Animal afcidia. Terta bivalvis oblon-
ga, utroque latere hians. Cardo dens fubulatus reflex-
us, fiepe duplex, non infertus tehae appofitae; margo
lateralis magis obfoletus.
6. Tellina. Animal tethys. Tefia bivalvis, an-
terius hinc ad alterura latus fiexa. Cardinis dentes ut
plurimum tres : laterales plani alterius tefiae.
7. Cardium. Animal tethys. Tefia bivalvis fub-
sequilatera, aequivalvis plerumque convexa, longitu-
dinaliter cofiata, firiata aut fulcata, margine dentata.
Cardo^ dentibus mediis binis aiternatis : altero ut pluri-
mum incurvo ; lateralibus remotis infertis.
8. Mactra. Animal tethys. Tefia bivalvis, in-
sequilatera, aequivalvis. Cardo dente medio complicato
cum adjecla foveola, lateralibus remotis infertis.
, 9- Donax. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis, mar¬
gine faepe crenulato antico obtufiffimo. Cardo denti¬
bus duobus ; marginalique folitario (rarius duplice,
triplice, aut nullo) lubremoto fub ano.
^10. Venus. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis ; la-
biis margine antico incumbentibus. Cardo dentibus
tribus, omnibus approximatis lateralibus apice diver-
gentibus.
4. M. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, generally
gaping at one end. Hinge with broad, thick, ftrong
teeth (feldom more than one), and not inferted into
the oppofite valve.
5. S. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, oblong,
open at both ends. Hinge with a fubulate, refledted
tooth, often double, and not inferted in the oppofite
valve ; the lateral margin more effaced.
6. T. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
Hoping on one fide, in the fore part of one valve a
convex, of the other a concave fold, Hinge ufually
with three teeth : the lateral ones in one Ihell being-
fmooth.
7. C. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, nearly equi¬
lateral, aequivalve, generally convex, longitudinally
ribbed, ftriated or grooved, with a toothed margin.
Hinge with two teeth near the beak, and a larger re¬
mote lateral one on each fide, each locking into the
oppofite.
8. M. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, of unequal
fides, and aequivalve. Middle tooth of the hinge com¬
plicated, with a fmall hollow on each fide, lateral ones
remote and inferted into each other.
9. 1). Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
with a notched margin : the frontal margin very ub-
tufe. Hinge with two teeth, and a fingle marginal one
placed behind (rarely double, triple or none).
10. V. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve; the fron¬
tal margin fiattened with incumbent lips. Hinge with
three teeth, all approximate ; the lateral ones divergent
at the tip.
II. SPONDYLUS.
400
Clafllfica-
tion of
Shells.
CONCH
11. SPONI) YLUS. Animal tethys. Ted a incequi-
valvis rigida. Cardo dentibus duobus recurvis, cum
foveola intermedia.
12. Chama. Animal tetliys. Telia bivalvis craf-
fior, cardo callo gibbo, oblique inferto foiTulae obliquae.
13. Arca. Animal tethys ? Telia bivalvis cequi-
valvis. Cardo dentibus numerofis, acutis alternis in-
fertis.
14. Ostrea. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis, plu-
rimis inaequivalvis fubaurita. Cardo edentulus, foffu-
la cava, ovata, fulcifque (in plurimis) lateralibus tranf-
verfis.
15. AnoMIA. Animal corpus ligula emarginata ci-
liata : ciliis valvse fuperiori affixis j brachiis duobus
linearibus corpora longioribus conniventibus porredlis,
valvse alternis utrinque ciliatis : ciliis affixis valvae utri-
que : tella inaequivalvis, valva altera planiufcula, altera
ball magis gibba : parum altera ball faepe perforata.
Cardo cicatricula linear! prominente Jntrorlum dente
lateral! ; valvae vero planioris in ipfo margine. Radii
duo offer pro ball animalis.
16. Mytilus. Animal afcidia ? Telia bivalvis,
rudis, fepius affixa byffo, ut plurimum, craffiori. Car¬
do in plurimis edentulus, dillinflus, paucis exceptis,
linea fubulata, excavata longitudinali.
17. Pinna. Animal limax. Telia fub-bivalvis fra-
gilis, erefta hians, emittens barbam byffinam. Cardo
edentulus, coalitis in unam valvis.
O L O G Yf Chap, IV
11. S. Animal a tethys. Shell hard, folid, with
unequal valves. Hinge with two recurved teeth, fepa- tion of*'
rated by a fmall cavity. Shell?.
12. C. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, rather 7^“
coarfe. Hinge with a callous protuberance, obliquely
inferted in an oblique hollow.
13. A. Animal a tethy-. ? Shell bivalve equivalve.
Hinge with numerous ffiarp teeth, alternately inferted
between each other.
14. O. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
with unequal valves, and flightly eared. Hinge with¬
out teeth., but furniffied with an ovate cavity, and i-n
moft with lateral, tranfverfe furrows.
15. A. Animal an emarginate, ciliated, (Irap-ffiaped
body, with bridles attached to the upper valve ; arms
two, linear, longer than the body, projecting and ap¬
proaching together, alternate on the valve, and cili¬
ated on each fide, with bridles affixed to each valve.
Shell inequivalve, one of the valves flattilh, the other
protuberant at the bafe : one of the valves often per¬
forated near the bafe. Hinge with a linear prominent
-cicatrix, and a lateral tooth placed within ; but on the
very margin of the flat valve there are two bony rays
for the bafe of the animal.
1*6. M. Animal an afcidia ? Shell bivalve, rough,
generally affixed by a byffus or beard of filky filaments.
Hinge moflly without teeth, and in mod cafes with a
Tubulate, hollow, longitudinal line.
17. P. Animal a limax. Shell bivalve, brittle, gap¬
ing at one end, and having a byffus or beard. Hinge
without teeth, the valves being united into one.
III. UNIVALVE SHELLS.
Univalves. 18. ArgoNAUTA. Animal fepia aut clio. Teffa
univalvis, fpiralis, involuta, membranacea, unilocularis.
19. Nautilus. Animal? Tefla univalvis, idhmis
perforatis concamerata, polythalamia.
20. Conus. Animal limax. Tefla univalvis con-
voluta, turbinata \ apertura effufa, longitudinalis, line¬
aris, edentula, bafi integra ; columella levis.
21. CYPRiEA. Animal limax. Tefla univalvis, in¬
voluta, fub-ovata, obtufa, laevis. Apertura utrinque
effufa, linearis utrinque dentata longitudinalis.
22. Bulla. Animal limax. Tefla univalvis con-
voluta, inermis. Apertura fub-eoar£tata, oblonga, lon¬
gitudinalis, bafi integerrima. Columella obliqua, lae¬
vis.
23. Voluta. Animal limax. Tefta unilocularis
fpiralb. Apertura ecaudata, fub-effufa. Columella
plicata : labio umbilicove (ut plurimum) nullo.
24. Buccinum. Animal limax. Tefta univalvis,
fpiralis, gibbofa. Apertura ovata definens in canalicu-
lum (retufam lacunam) dextrum, cauda retufa. La¬
bium interius explanatum.
25. Strombus. Animal limax. Tefla univalvis,
fpiralis, latere ampliata. Apertura labro faepius dila-
-tato, definens in canalem finiftrum.
26. MuREX. Animal limax. Tefta univalvis, fpi-
.rali;, exafperata futuris membranaceis. Apertura defi-
18. A. Animal a fepia or clio. Shell univalve,
fpiral, involute, membranaceous, one cell.
19. N. Animal ? Shell univalve, divided into feve-
ral chambers communicating with each other.
20. C. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute,
turbinate j aperture effufe, longitudinal, linear, with¬
out teeth ; entire at the bafe. Pillar fmooth.
21. C. Animal a flug. Shell univalve, involute,
fubovate, fmooth, obtufe. Aperture effufe at each end,
linear, extending the whole length of the {hell, and
toothed on each fide.
22. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute,
without teeth. Aperture a little narrowed, oblong, lon¬
gitudinal, quite entire at the bafe. Pillar oblique and
fmooth.
23. V. Animal a limax. Shell one cell, fpiral.
Aperture without a beak, and fomewhat effufe. Pillar
twifted or plaited : generally without lips or perfora¬
tion.
24. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, gib¬
bous. Aperture ovate, ending in a ftiort canal, lean¬
ing to the right, with a retufe beak. Internal or pil¬
lar lip expanded.
2y S. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, en¬
larged at the fide. Aperture dilated with the lip ex¬
panding, and ending in a groove towards the left.
26. M. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral,
rough, with membranaceous futures. Aperture oval,
terminating
'hap. IV. ’'CONCH
nens in canalem integrum rectum five fubafcenden-
tem.
27. Trochus. ' Animal lirriax. Tefta univalvis
fpiralis, fubcortica. Apertura fubtetragono-angulata
feu rotundata, fuperius tranfverfe coarftata j columella
obliquata.
28. Turbo. Animal Umax. Tefta univalvis, fpi¬
ralis, folida. Apertura coarftata, orbiculata, inte-
gra.
29. Helix. Animal Umax. Tefta univalvis, fpi¬
ralis, fubdiaphana, fragilis. Apertura coar&ata, intus
lunata feu fubrotunda fegmento circuli dempto.
30. Nerita. Animal limax. Tefta univalvis, fpi¬
ralis, gibba, fubtus planiufcula. Apertura femiorbi-
cularis, vel femilunaris j labio columellae tranfverfo,
Iruncato, planiufculo.
31. Haliotis. Animal limax. Tefta aurifortnis,
patens : fpira occultata laterali difco, longiludinaliter
poris pertufa.
32. Patella.' Animal limax. Tefta univalvis
fiibconica, abfque fpira.
33. Dentalium. Animal lerebella. Tefta tubu-
lofa, refta, monothalamia, utraque extremitate pervia.
34. Serpula. Animal terebella. Tefta unival¬
vis, tubulofa, adherens (faepe ifthmis integris paffim
intercepta).
35. Teredo. Animal terebella. Valvis duabus
caleariis hemifphericis, anterius excifi?, et duabus lan-
ceolatis. Tefta teres, ftexiofa, lignum penetrans.
36. SaBELLa. Animal nereis. Ore ringente, ten-
taculis duobus craffioribus pone caput. Tefta tubulofa,
contexta cx arenulis confertim mcmbranfe vaginal! in-
O L O G Y.
terminating in an entire ftraight, or ftightly afcfending
canal,
27. T. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral,
fomewhat conic. Aperture fomewhat angular, or
rounded : the upper fide tranfverfe and contracted ;
pillar placed obliquely.
28. T. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, fo-
lid. Aperture contracted, orbicular, entire.
29. H. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, fub-
diaphanous, brittle. Aperture contracted, femilunar
or roundilh.
30. N. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, gib¬
bous, flattifti at bottom. Aperture femiorbicular or
femilunar, pillar lip tranfverfely truncated and flatten¬
ed.
31. H. Animal a limax. Shell ear-fhaped dilated,
with a longitudinal row of oriflees along the fur face}
the fpire lateral and nearly concealed.
32. P. Animal a limax. Shell fubconic, without
fpire.
33. D. Animal a terebella. Shell tubular, ftraight,
or flightly curved, with one cavity open at both ends.
34. S. Animal a terebeL'a. Shell tubular, generally
adhering to other fubftances (often feparated internally
by entire divifions.)
35. T. Animal a terebella. With two calcareous,
hemifpherical valves, anteriorly cut off, and two lan¬
ceolate ones. Shell round, fiexuous, penetrating
wood.
36. S. Animal a nereis. With a ringent mouth,
and two thicker tentacula behind the head. Shell tu¬
bular, confifting of particles of fand united to a mem¬
brane by a glutinous cement.
L MULTIVALVES.
H
Chiton. Gen. I. CHITON.
Gen. Char.—1 he animal inhabiting this ftiell is a doris.
rIhe ftiell confifts of feveral fegments or valves, ar-
I ranged along the back.
Species.
Vidus. I. C. (hell with fix plates or valves ftriated. Ame¬
rica.
dqffinus. 2. C. fhell fix-valved, glabrous, oval, a little con¬
vex, fea-green. America.
>mula- 3. C. fhell feven-valved, body tuberculated. Ame¬
rica.
hitus. * 4. C. fhell feven-valved, thick fet with fhort hairs,
4 inch long. Sandwich, Aberdeen.
deatus. 5. C. fhell eight-valved, ftriated 5 body prickly.
Alia.
• cicula- * 6. C. fhell eight-valved, apparently fmooth, but
when examined with a glafs, is found to be rough
like fhagreen. Coaft of Barbary, Salcomb bay, Devon-
fhire, Sandwich.
amofus. 7. C. eight valves, femiftriated j margin covered
with minute feales. America.
. -Status. 8. C. with eight valves, fmooth body with excavated
dots. Europe, America.
Vol. VI. Part II.
9. C. eight valves, fubftriated 3 ft rim covered, body ruler.
red. North feas.
* ic. C. eight valves, fmooth, with tranfverfe lines a/Lus.
at the margin of the valves 3 body -white, oval ; firft
valve notched on the hinder edge. Northern feas 3 on
cyfter fnells from Poole.
11. C. eight valves, fmooth, carir.ated, oval, com- drier cits.
preffed. Northern feas, Salcomb bay.
12. C. feven carinated valves flrongly beaked •J'eptemval-
beaks frequently rufous, 4 inch long. Salcomb bay, vis.
but rare. Montagu, Tejl. Brit. p. 3.
13. C. eight-valved, thick ridged 3 the out fide Se-z-Lico/cr.
green, infide fnowy, edged with black.
14. C. eight-valved, cherry colour, fmooth, with cerafmus.
fnowy marginal teeth.
15. C. eight-valved, thick, black brown. Straits magellani--
of Magellan. . cus.
16. C. eight-valved, brown, fmooth 3 infide teeth offufeus.
the margin fnowy. India.
17. C. eight-valved, fmooth, within fea-green, mar- maculatus.
gin covered with gray white feales.
18. C. eight-valved, fmooth, varied with white and m armor a.
black. Var. feven-valved. America. ' tus. '
19. C. flat above, with numerous raifed dots in granulate*'
rows 3 border broad, fpinous. America.
20. C. eight-valved, fmooth above, piceous and varied pic cut.
with white and black. America 3 Red fea.
3 e 21. a
402
indus.
C0NCH0L0GY.
fcf. C. eight-Vfflved, whitifli afh colour, with a
fcaly border ; middle valves finely pundtured. Ame¬
rica.
minimus. 22. C. eight-valved, fmooth, black, very fmall.
Norway feas.
cimex. 23. C. eight-valved, earinated, diaphanous, band¬
ed 5 extreme valves finely pundlured j fmall. Nor¬
way.
afe/Jus. 24. C. eight-valved, deep black, convex above,
with a yellowilh fpot on each valve. North feas.
gigas. 25. C. eight-valved, thick, convex, white; firft
valve notched, laft toothed, middle ones emarginate ,
four inches long. Cape of Good Hope.
iflandicus, 26. C. eight-valved, fubcylindrical,finely pundlured;
very minute and narrow at each end.
margina- * 27. C. eight-valved, carinated along the back-, the
tus. valves projecting over each other in a point. Salcomb
bay, Sandwich.
lavis,1 * 28, C. eight-valved, fmooth, w ith an elevated band
down the back 5 the length 4 inch. Loch Broom,
Rofs-lhire, Salcomb bay.
■amiculatus 20, C. eight-valved, kidney-fhaped, fragile j. valves
imbricated, Kurile ifiands.
* if-
fcaly
rings.
25
Lepas.
balanus.
balamides,
intertexta.
cornubien-
Jis . _
tintinabu-
lum.
diadema.
bahxnaris.
cojiata.
■conoides.
tejludina-
ria.
gakata.
palmipes.
tuiipa.
ydletta.
Gen. 2. Lepas, Acorn-JhelL
Gen. Char.— Animal a triton j fhell affixed at the bafe,
and compofed of many unequal eredt: valves.
Species.
* T. L. conic, grooved, lid lharp-pointed. European
feas, Britain.
* 2. L. conic, truncated, fmooth j lip obtufe. Ame¬
rican and Indian feas $ abundant on the coafts of Bri¬
tain.
* 3. L. fomewhat depreffed; valves imbricated and
obliquely flriated. Weymouth.
* 4. L. bafe dilated, aperture rather narrow j valves
grooved near the lower edges. Cornwall.
5. L. conic, obtufe, bell-lhaped, rugged and fixed.
Indian and American feas.
* 6. L. roundifh, fix-lobed 5 valves grooved longitudi¬
nally. European and Indian feas, Scotland.
7. L. fubconic, with fix elevated, wrinkled, 4-part-
ed lobes j lid membranaceous, and tw'o-toothed 5 found
adhering to the pedloral wrinkles of the balaena
boops.
* 8. L. fomewhat conic, with equidiftant ribs, diver¬
gent from the aperture 5 lid pointed. On rocks on the
Pembrokeffiire coaft.
* 9. L. conic, fmooth, valves pointed, aperture very
fmall 5 ffiell fmall, reddifh $ valves finely teffelated.
Weymouth.
10. L. plano-convex, with fix excavated ftriated
rays} lid compofed of four triangular pieces inferted
on a membrane.
11. L. helmet-form, with a lateral aperture j ffiell
boat-ffiaped, fmooth. Adheres to the gorgonia verru-
cofa, and ventilabrum.
12. L. ere&, conic ; valves palmated at the bafe }
fliell white.
13. L. fubcubic, fmooth $ lid acute, tranfverfely flri¬
ated. Northern ocean.
14. L. compre9ed,ere£l, irregularly flriated. Indian
ocean.
Chap. 1\
L. comprefied, 13-vaIved, fmooth, feated on afca/pellm,
peduncle, which is large, and compofed of
covered with ffiort hairs. North feas,. Ply¬
mouth.
* 16. L. comprefied, five-valved, ftriated, peduncula-^r/ff,•
ted. American and Atlantic feas, coaft of Devon-
ffiire is fometimes found in a foffil ftate.
* 17. L. compreffed, 5-valved, pedunculated j ad-anatifen
heres to the bottom of ffiips, when it is well known
by the name of bernacle.—It was from this fpecies of
ffiell that the bernacle goofe was fuppofed to have had
its origin. Gerard’s account of this transformation, as
it affords a remarkable inftance of the credulity of the
times, is too curious to'be omitted. “ There are found
in the north parts of Scotland, and the iflands adjacent
called Orchades, certain trees whereon do grow cer¬
tain ffiells tending to ruffet, w-herein are contained lit¬
tle living creatures : which ffiells in time of maturitie
do open, and out of them grow thofe little living
things, w-hich falling into the water do become fowles,
■which we call barnakles j in the north of England
brant geefe ; and in Lancaffiire, tree geefe $ but the
other that do fall upon the land periffi, and come to
nothing. 'I hus much from the writings of others, and
alfo from the mouths of people of thofe parts, which
may very well accord with truth.”
“ But what our eyes have feene, and hands have
touched, we ffiall declare. There is a fmall ifland in
Lancaffiire, called the Pile of Foulders, wherein are
found the broken pieces of old and bruifed ffiips, fome
whereof have been caft thither by ffiipwracke, and al¬
fo the trunks and bodies with the branches of old and
rotten trees, caft up there likewife : whereon is found
a certain fpume or froth that in time breedeth into cer¬
tain ftiells, in ffiape like thofe of the mulkle, but
(harper pointed, and of a whitiffi colour : wherein is
contained a thing in forme like a lace of filke, finely
woven, as it were, together, of. a whitiffi colour, one
end whereof is faftened unto the infide of the ffiell, even
as the fiffi of oifters, and mufldes are; the other end
is made faft unto the belly of a rude mafs or lumpe,
which in time commeth to the ffiape and forme of a
bird : when it is perfeftly formed the ffiell gapeth open,
and the firft thing that appeareth is the forefaid lace
or firing j next come the legs of the bird hanging out,
and as it groweth greater it openeth the {hell by de¬
grees, till at length it is all come forth and hangeth
only by the bill: in ffiort fpace after it eometh to
full maturitie, and falleth into the fea, where it ga¬
thered! feathers, and groweth to a fowl bigger than a
mallard, and leffer than a goofe, having blacke legs,
bill or beake, and feathers blacke and white, fpotted
in fuch manner as is our magpie, called in fome places
a pie-annet, which the people of Lancaffiire call by
no other name than a tree-goofe : which place afore-
faid, and thofe parts adjoyning do fo much abound
therewith, that one of the bed is bought for three¬
pence. For the truth hereof, if any doubt, let them
repaire unto me, and I ffiall fatisfie them by the tefti-
monie of good witneffes.” Herbal/, p. 1588.
18. L. membranaceous, ventricofe, feated on a tube aurila.
and eared, 8-valved. North feas.
19. L. hooked behind, 6-valved, wrinkled, not axipfutacuu
inch long. Chili.
20. L^.
;kap. IV.
CONCH
20. L. reddiih, 6-ralved, unequal j lid pointed.
India.
21. L. hemirpherieal, ferrated, 6-valved j 4 outer
valves and lid plaited. North feas.
22. L. elongated, finooth, 6-valved 5 aperture nar¬
row, lid minute.
23. L. granulated and ftriated, conic, tubular *, lid
obtufe. India.
* 24. L. cylindrical, fhowy, pellucid, 6-valved •, lid
obtufe, grooved and tranfverfely ftriated. Three inches
long. Iceland, Weymouth. Ba/arws Clavatus, Mon¬
tagu, p. xo.
25. L. 6-valved 5 outwardly violet mixed with white,
and marked with fine longitudinal ftriae $ valves denti¬
culate at the margin. Coromandel, very rare.
26. L. conic with 12 triangular valves, 6 more de-
prefled, whitilh and tranfverfely ftriated, and 6 purple
and longitudinally ftriated j all armed with tubular
recurved fpines. India.
27. L. 6-valved, thick, glabrous, white, with violet
rays. India.
28. L. many-valved, compreffed, ereft, fmooth j
feated on a Ihort, hard, fcaly peduncle. Mediterranean.
29. L. flightly curved, w'ith a large oblique orifice j
lip horned. Africa.
30. L. oval-truncated, conic, with 6 bluifti valves
{haded with white, and 6 reddifti, elevated, fpinous,
and perpendicularly ftriated j an inch high j is fre¬
quently perforated by the teredo.
31. L. folid, white, depreffed with carinous grooves,
unequally fmooth internally. Kurile iflands.
32. L. conico-convex, 4 valves ferrate-ftriated •, lid
2-valved. North feas.
* 33. L. 5-valved, fmooth, dorfal valve dilated at the
bafe. St George’s Channel.
Gen. 3. Pholas.
Gen. Char.—The animal is an afcidia. Shell bivalve,
divaricate, with feveral lefier differently aeceffory
ones at the hinge. Hinges recurved, united by a
cartilage. Beneath the hinge internally is an in¬
curved tooth.
Species.
* t. P. oblong, with reticulated, fubfpinous ftriae, on
the upper part. Europe. Salcomb bay, Devonftiire.
Five inches long ; is found in hard clay, marl, and
wood } has a phofphorefcent property.
2. P. ovate \ ftriated with elevated ribs j 6 inches
long. American feas.
3. P. ovate, multifarioufiy ftriated. Europe, India.
—This fpecies feems to be nearly equally deftru&ive
with the teredo navalis. The pholas perforates the w ood
acrofs the grain or fibre j the teredo infinuates itfelf a-
long the fibres, or in the fame dire&ion.
* 4. P. oblong, muricated on all fides, with decuffated
ftnae, Europe, America, Salcomb bay.
5. P. oblong, rounded } ftriae arched. America, In¬
dia. This animal penetrates the bottom of {hips.
* 6. P. oval) part next the hinge more obtufe, wa¬
ved, ftriated •, tooth of the hinge curved, large and
ftrong. Two inches long. Europe. Weft of Eng-
, land.
lentalis. 7. P. oblong, with a ftraight margin : one half quite
■nor.
irruca.
igujlata,
mfa.
'ongata.
itellaris.
inofa.
'olacea.
)llicipes,
ilindrica,
'ifpata.
triofa.
-cemia.
ifcicu-
'ris.
26
whs.
iByhui.
iflata.
nata.
mdida.
ifilla.
'ifpata.
O L O G Y. 403
fmooth, the other reticulated with ftriae. Siam and
Tranquebar.
8. P. narrow, white, finely ftriated. Bay of Czm-campechi-
peachy. ana.
9. P. ftiort, turgid, furrowed, with fine elevated rorah/ir.
tranfverfe ftriae ; aperture heart-lhaped.
10. P. oblong, depreffed, with diftant longitudinal
ftriae j five inches long. Chili.
11. P. oblong, white, with a longitudinal brown tcredula.
granular future ; penetrates timber. Belgic fliores
12. P. bivalve, white, with tranfverfe arched ftviae -,hians.
convex in the middle j aperture large, oval j perforates
calcareous rocks. American iflands.
*7
My a.
II. BIVALVE SHELLS.
Gen. 4. Mya.
Gen. Char.—The animal is an afcidia. The {hell is
bivalve, generally gaping at one end. The hinge
has broad, thick, ftrong teeth, feldom more than
one, and not inferted into the oppofite valve.
Species.
* \. M. ovate, truncated, gaping greatly behind;
tooth projefting, obtufe j 2\ inches long. Europe.
* 2. M. brittle, femitranfparent, Hoping downwardsdeclivis.
near the open end. Hebrides.—A fifli much efteem-
ed as food by the inhabitants.
* 3. M. ovate, rounded behind 5 2-|- inches long. Yjo-arenaria.
ropean feas, Portfmouth.
* 4. M. ovate ; a Angle, longitudinal, notched tool\pi£lorum.
in one hinge, and two in the other j near 2 inches
long, and 3^ broad. Europe, Barbary, River Ken-
net, Berkfliire.—This {hell is employed by painters for
holding water colours.
* 5. M. ovate, a little contra&ed in the middle of the margari-
thinner margin 5 primary tooth of the hinge conic'} tifera.
length 2-J inches, breadth 5 inches j inhabits moft parts
of the ar£Hc circle, and is moft frequently found in
mountainous rivers, and about catara&s.-—This {hell
yields mother of-pearl and pearl. The river Conway
in Wales, was formerly famous for producing pearls of
great fize and value. They have alfo been found in
the river Irt, in Cumberland. Sir John Hawkins ob¬
tained a patent for filhing them in that river.
6. M. oblong, dilated; the narrower bafe com-perna.
preffed. Straits of Magellan, Barbary.
7. M. tongue-lhaped; hinge terminal, femiorbicular j vulfella.
4 inches long, and i-J broad. Indies.
8. M. ftriated, valves with two fubfpinous xi&gesy arEUca.
hinge without teeth. North feas.
9. M. oval, equivalve, widely gaping, and ftriated yedentula.
I inch long. Shores of the Cafpian fea.
ic. M. equivalve, pellucid, finely ftriated. RiversrW/W.
of Malabar.
11. M. ovate, oblong ; 3 inches broad, i£ long. ob/onga.
12. M. globular, fnowy, pellucid. Guinea. anatina.
13. M. equivalve, fnowy, ovate, oblong 5 ftriae de-nicobarica.
cuffated. Nicobar iflands.
14. M. ovate, compreffed, clofed. New Zealand, aujlralis.
15. M. rounded, flattifh, tranfverfely ftriated. Ca-gaditana.
diz.
16. M. rhombic, ^reen, protuberant parts wrinkled.
Rivers of Coromandel.
3 E 2
17. M.
4°4
rugofa.
nodofa.
norwegiea
fpuria.
ghjcemeris
fijrmato-
phora.
nit id a.
membra-
nacea.
byjpfera.
dubia.
inmquival-
vis.
17. M. oval, wrinkled, outwardly greenilh, within
pearly. Rivers of Coromandel.
18. M. oval, gr'eenilh ; protuberant parts knotty.
19. M. oval, longitudinally and thickly ftriated j
one end rounded, the other truncated.
20. M. rhombic; protuberant part glabrous. Rivers
of Tranquebar.
. 21. M. gaping at both ends, thick, lamellous, ob-
^on&> °val} 5 inches long, 10 broad. Mediterranean
fea.
2 2. M. ovate, depreffed ; margin of the hinge with
a fubulate projeflion near the primary tooth j that of
the other valve dilated. Rivers of Guinea.
23. M. oval, fmooth 5 an obtufe tooth in each hinge.
Norway.
24. M. ovate, membranaceous, with a protrafted re-
fleiRed margin at the probofcis.
25. M. coarfe, thick, oblong, ftriated, convex j hinge
without a tooth. Greenland coaft.
*' 26. M. with an oval and large hiatus oppoftte to the
hinge ; length of a horfe bean. Weymouth.
* 27. M. fubtriangular, opaque, wdiite j under valve
deep j upper valve not half the fize of the other.
Cornwall, Devonlhire. Montagu, TeJ}. Brit. p. 38.
28. M. fubpellucid, faintly ftriated tranfverfely ;
CONG HO LOGY. Chap.l
5. S. linear, oval, ftraight; hinge in the middle 7.-legume}
t f n P> r 1 r\r\o. U !G J _ r * 1 1 1 ^
fuborbicu- t ___    ^ ^
laris. fides nearly equal, rounded ; hinge central, 4. of
pratenuist
d’Jiorta.
bidentata.
2t
SoIlh.
inch 3 found in hard limeftone at Plymouth. Montagu,
TeJ}. Brit. p. 49.
* 29. M. oval, thin, brittle, flat 3 ftrias fine, concen¬
tric. Falmouth harbour.
* 30. M. fubpellucid, thin, fragile, diftorted into Va¬
rious ftiapes. Falmouth. Montagu, TeJ}. Brit. p. 42.
*31. M. fuboval, compreffed 3 hinge with tw'o broad,
eredl, laminated teeth in one valve 3 none in the other.
Salccmb bay.
Gen. 5. Solen, Ra%or-Jheath.
Gen. Char.—The animal inhabiting this ftiell is an af-
cidia : ftiell bivalve, oblong, open at both ends 3
hinge with a fubulate refle&ed tooth, often double,
and not inferted in the oppofite valve.
Species.
magma.
Jiliqua.
'njisi
pcllucidus
I. S. linear, ftraight, roundilh 3 one end margined ;
hinge with a Angle oppofite tooth in each valve. Eu¬
ropean and Indian Teas, Caermarthenfhire, Wey¬
mouth.
* 2. S. linear, ftraight, one hinge 2-toothed. Euro¬
pean and Indian feas. Length 1 inch, breadth 8 inches.
Common on the fhores of Britain, where it is employed
as food.— I his fpecies lurks in the fand, near low-water
mark, in a perpendicular diredlion, and when in wrant
of rood, they raife one end above the furface, and pre-
trade the body a confiderable w'ay out of the fhell. At
the approach of danger they dart deep into the fand, as
far even as to the depth of two feet 3 and the place is
known by a fmall hollow on the furface. They are
fometimes taken by digging them out of the fand, or by
ftriking a barbed dart into their bodies.
* 3* S* linear, in form of a feymeter 3 one hinge 2-
toothed 3 ^ of an inch long, 5 inches broad. Europe¬
an feas 3 not uncommon on the Britifti fhores.
* 4. S. fubarched, fuboval, pellucid 3 one hinge
toothed 3^ length ^ inch, breadth above one inch. 1
giefta, Cornwall.
2-
An-
toothed, one of them bifid 3 inches broad. Europe¬
an and^ Atlantic feas,.Anglefea, Hampfhire.
. kidney-fhaped, a Angle tooth in one valve, two cultelhA
m the other. Europe and India, Cornwall.
7* °V£d> ftraight, fmooth, with a tranfverfe, de- radiatu\
prelled rib on one fide. India.
feaf S’ °bliqUely ftriated- Atlantic and IndianJirigilal
9. S. ovate, membranaceous, hairy, with a falcated anatinA
rib at the hinge. Indian ocean.
10. S. oval, oblong, truncated before. Pacific ocean, macha I
— 1 his fpecies produces pearl.
11. S. roundilh, inflated, fubftriated. Indian and A-
mencan feas.
12. S. oval 3 angles of the valves ferrated 3 fize of zminutuX
cucumber feed. Coral rocks in Norway and Green¬
land 3 in hard limeftone at Plymouth.
13. S. ovate, oblong, with tumid boffes. Java. virens.
14. S. oval, ftraight, fmooth, with prominent xnsm- diphos,
branes 3 2| inches long, 5 broad. Indian ocean.
15. S. linear, oval, ftraight. Tranquebar. minimui
16. S. linear, oval, ftraight, with arched ftriae. Ni- maxim\
cobar. A very rare fpecies.
17. S. tranfverfely wrinkled, contraffed in the md!- coarttaX
die, rounded at both ends j ^ of an inch long, 2i
broad. Nicobar iflands.
18. S. equivalve, rofy, tooth of the hinge fubbifid. rofeus.
Red Sea. J ' 1
9. S. oval, quite fmooth 3 hinge callous, two-tooth-
ed. Jamaica.^ Jentus.
20. S. equivalve, tranfverfely ftriated 3 hinge withrictus,
a fingle tooth. Nicobar illands.
21. S. tranfverfely ftriated, hinges 2-toothed, with a occidem
hollow in the middle 3 4 inches broad, and 2 long.
* 22. S. partly fmooth, partly rough, with undulated, crifpus.
crimped lines. River Tees in England.
23. S. protuberances or beaks of the fhell 2-parted,
an inch long, 2 j broad ; rounded at the ends. ^
*.24. S. pellucid, fragile, depreffed; fuboval, conctn-pinna't
trically wrinkled 3 a blunt tooth in each valve 3 f of
an inch long, and | broad. Torcrofs. Montagu, TeJ}.
Brit. p. 566.
2p
Tellina
Gen. 6. Tellina.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys : the fhell is bi¬
valve, generally floping on one fide 3 in the fore
part of one valve there is a convex, and in that of
the other, a concave fold 3 the hinge has ufually
three teeth, the lateral ones flat or nearly obfolete, in
one valve.
Species.
A. Ovate and thickijh.
1. T. roundifli, compreffed, wrinkled on the fore-^
part. Indian ocean, very rare.
2. T. fubovate, rough, with lunated feales, difpofed
in a quincunx. Indian ocean. felis.
3. T. angular, with tranfverfe, recurved ftri* 3 2’uirgata.
inches long, and 2~ broad. Indian and Atlantic 0- ■
ceans.
4. T. fubovate, angular before, with tranfverfe, re-angular
curved ftriae ; no lateral teeth 3 inch long, and 2
broad. Indian ocean. •
5* T*
[iSrap. IV.
la7'
j
I t rejfa.
ft'
[; ofa.
[I
I: 'ata.
i hangu-
II 7.
I njracea,
t t>ofa'
t qmla-
N u
U rii.
li nii.
} Hla.
) culata.
t alis.
.t ida.
Ir
J acea.
/ nata.
'■ labilis.
i 'igata.
i 'lata.
1 rata.
1 ’quival-
1 "afciata.
1 irnata.
1 aciria.
i ncata.
CONCH
5. T. ftriae recurved, tranfverfe 5 lateral teeth obfo-
lete. Indian ocean.
* 6. T. ovate, white, gibbous, with tranfverfe, re¬
curved flriae j beaks yellowifh. European feas, Bri¬
tain.
* 7. T. very thick, deprefled, oblong, with tranfverfe,
concentric ftriae. Europe, Britain.
* 8. T. very thick, broad, depreffed 5 concentric ftriae
numerous, 1^ inch broad, and long. Europe, Bri¬
tain.
9. T. wrinkles tranfverfely undulated, hinged with
two lateral teeth. Indian and American feas.
10. T. rounded, thick, gibbous j ftria; longitudinal,
fine.
11. T. ovate, venlricofe, inequivalve, with decolla¬
ted ftriae. Tranquebar.
12. T. thin, ovate, ventricofe, and tranfverfely ftri-
ated wrinkles on the fore part, plaited j 3 lines long,
and an inch and a half broad. Guinea.
13. T. angular, ventricofe; and finely ftriated tranf¬
verfely.
14. T. equivalve, roundilh, white, with a few tranf¬
verfe Urine round the edges.
15. T. rich red colour, with a violet margin; 2J
inches broad, and i-J long.
16. T. tranfverfely ftriated ; one fide bent and red-
dilh, with red rays ; inch long, and 2 inches broad.
17. T. ovate, ventricofe, thin, tranfverfely ifriated,
very minute. Rivers of Europe.
* 18. T. fubovate, thickiih, with decufiated ftriae, and
irregular fpots ; figure of the fpots different in different
(hells, but exactly fimilar in both valves of the fame
ftrell. Denbigh in England.
* 19. T. obliquely fubovate, tranfverfely grooved ; fize
of a pea. River Avon near Salifbury.
B. Ovate, comprejjed.
20. T. oval, fmooth, with prominent membranes ;
fize of an egg. European ocean.
21. T. oval, with rough pubes, flattened fides, fer-
rated ; inch long, and 3 broad. Indian ocean.
* 22 T. ovate, compreffed, tranfverlely fubftriated,
fmooth, with acute margins. European and Mediter¬
ranean feas ; common on the (bores of Britain.
* 23. T. ovate, oblong, with pale purple eyes. Eu¬
ropean and Atlantic feas, Britain.
24. T. ovate, fmooth, lateral teeth, margined. Eu¬
ropean and Indian feas.
* 25. T. oblong ; ftrise faint, longitudinal. European
and American feas, Britain.
26. T. oblong, the fore-part produced into an angular
beak. Indian ocean.
27. T. oblong, produced into a beak, upper valve
flat, lower convex ; length inch, breadth 1 inch.
European and North feas.
* 28. T. ovate, fmoothifti, triradiate, with red and
(lightly ftriated tranfverfely. European feas, Britain.
* 29. T. ovate, a little produced on the fore-part, flat-
tifti ; 2 inches broad. European and Mediterranean
feas, Britain.
* 30. T. ovate, flattifn, very obtufe on the fore-part.
Mediterranean, Sandwich, 'Weymouth.
31. T. oval, compreffed, fubftriated ; fore-part trun¬
cated. Java.
O L O G Y. 405
32. T. flat, fore-part truncated, yellow ; l-J inch trilatera.
long, and 2 broad.
33. T. oblong, brittle, yellowifti; rounded on ovie ablonga,
fide. Europe.
34. T. white, tranfverfely ftriated, and h\fono\\QyJperglen,
hooked on each fide. Nicobar iflands.
* 35. T. with rugged, concentric ftriae ; the fize of a rugoja.
filbert. Weymouth.
* 36. T. oval, oblong, deeply ftriated, parallel to cornubi-
margin. Cornwall. enjis.
* 37. T. oblong, ovate, compreffed, with fine, lxan{~fervenfis,
verfe ftriae ; 1 inch long, and 2 broad. North feas,
Weymouth, Yorkfhire.
38. 'T. purple, with white bands, and decuffated
ftriae; one valve convex, the other flat; 2^ inches
broad and long.
39. T. oval, inequivalve, flat, pellucid, with fine/fya/w;#.
decuffated ftriae ; i4- inch long, 3 broad. Guinea.
40. T. yellowifh, very thin, perpendicularly fti i- vitrea.
ated. North and Baltic leas.
qr. T. oval, very thin, tranfverftly ftr’ated; \q laneeolatq,
lines long, inch broad. India.
4?. T. oval, pellucid, with a rib In each valve, apelina.
reaching from the hinge to the outer margin ; v^ry
thin. Nicobar.
43. T. oval, pellucid, fcarlet, tranfverxely ftriated,coccir-ca,
very thin. Sea round Iceland.
44. T. ft rite fine, tranfverfe, lengthened forwards virginka,
into a beak, very fmall and rounded. Rivers of Vir¬
ginia.
45. T. nearly triangular, margin dilated ; 2 inches
broad, and ij- long.
46. T. rounded, flat, thin, with longitudinal peBlnala,
47. T. flattiih, red, with white rays ; one end point- Qignjlata*
ed, the other rounded.
48. T. oval, rounded at one end ; variegated, witiivariegala.
a whitifh ray at the crown.
49. T. oval, a little pointed at one end ; 2-J inches madagofi
long, and 34- broad. Madagafcar. , carienjir.
50. T. purplifh at each end ; inch long, and fome-purpuref-
thing broader. cenf*
51. T. pointed at one end, yellowKh within, xadaz- afpera.
ted and rough with tranfverfe ftriae without ; ij; inch
long, and 3 inches broad.
52. T. (lightly wedged, whitifh, and tranfverfely/rzfltfg&Zr-
ftriated ; inch, broad, and x long. ris,-.
53. T. white, with unequal (ides, pointed at one end
1 j- inch long, and 2 broad. Norway feas.
54. T. thick, beak, purplifh without. Jamaica. jamaicenjh
* 55. T. outwardly white and rough, with tranfverfe
ftriae ; within bluilh ; 2 inches broad, 1 long. River
Tees, England.
* 56. T. purplifh, tawny, with white rays ; 1 inch vinacea.
long, and i ^ broad. Britifh and Baltic feas.
57. T. rofy, with a white band. Shores of Hui-saonata.
cany.
58. T. whitifh, with a paler band ; within yellow, albicans.
59. T. reddiflx, with pale yellow fpots, and decuffa- rnfefcens.
ted ftriae ; \ inch long, i~ broad.
60. T. unequal fided, depreffed, minutely ftriqted,plana.
61. T. unequal fided, round at both ends, rofy white,y7nk/<7.
pellucid ; 2 inches broad, li long.
62. T. rofy, with thin ribs running from the hinge ro/Gr.
to the margin ; x inch long, 14 broad.
63. T.
4° 6
punicea*
comftla-
nata. >
fabula.
adanfoni.
cancellata,
jlrigofa.
C O N C H O L O G Y.
63.'T. oval, flat, e<^ual lided, traiifyerfely llrlated5
I inch long, 2 broad.
. 64* T- oboyate, flattened j obfoletely ftriated, red-
difh, vith a dilated margin •, 2 inches long, 3 broad.
^5* T. ovate, compreiTed, inflated, lengthened be¬
fore j one valve fmooth, the other with oblique, re¬
flected Itriai. Mediterranean, American and North
feas, Wales.
66. T. whitifh, with a violet hinge. Africa.
67. T. thin, with numerous longitudinal grooves
crofling the tranverfe wrinkles. Atlantic.
68. 1. with whitilh bands, glabrous and wrinkled
at the margin. African fliores.
Chap. I
94. T. tranfverfely ftriated, orbicular, angular onpolygotA
the fore-part. India.
Gen. 7. Cardium, Cock/e.
■ p
Cardiuffi!
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys : the (hell is bi¬
valve, nearly equilateral, equivalve, generally con¬
vex, longitudinally ribbed, ftriated or grooved, with
a toothed margin. Hinge of the two teeth near the
beak, and a larger remote lateral one on each fide 5
each locking into the oppofite.
Species.
balauJHna.
remies.
reticulata.
fcobitina.
la&ea.
carnaria.
bimaculata
bahliica.
pififormis.
divaricata.
digitaria,
cornea.
lacujlris,
«mnea»
Jlumina/is.
jluminea.
jluviati/is.
iberica.
adriatica.
.finuofa.
purpurata.
Candida,
gal lie a.
fenegalen-
f\s.
angulo/a.
C. Suborbicular.
69. T. dilated, orbicular, lateral teeth in one valve.
Mediterranean.
70. r.comprefled and tranfverfely wrinkled j 3 inches
S? broad. Indian and American oceans.
71. T. lentiform, comprefled, reticulate. India.
72. T. lentiform, rough, with lunated feales difpof-
ed in a quincunx 5 2| inches long, 2^ broad. Indian
ocean.
73. T. lentiform, gibbous, white, pellucid, fmooth.
Mediterranean.
* 74.. Ik white, with a rofy tinge within and without j
fine ftrite, difpofed obliquely. Europe and American
iflands, Britain.
* 75. T. triangularly rounded, fmooth, whitifli, with
two oblong red fpots on the infide j fcarcely an inch
broad. Europe and American feas, Britain.
76. T. roundifh, fmooth, outfide bloom colour j fize
of a horfe bean. Baltic.
77. T. fubglobular, fmooth, obliquely fubftriated j
fize of a pea •, mouths of rivers in Europe.
78. T. fubglobular, white, with oblique bifarious
ftrise. American feas.
79* T. fubglobular, pale, furrounded with oblique
uniform ftriae ; fize of a pea, nearly an inch long. Ame¬
rican and Indian feas.
80. T. globular, glabrous, horn-colour, with a tranf-
verfe groove ; fize of a pea. Ponds and frelh waters of
•Europe, Britain.
81. T. rhombic, flattifh, glabrous, with an acute pro¬
tuberance. -Pools and marfhes of Europe.
82. T. heart-fhaped, tranfverfely grooved. Pools
and ditches of Europe.
83. T. triangular, gibbous, tranfverfely ftriated. Ri¬
ver Euphrates.
84. T. triangular, gibbons, tranfverfely ribbed. China.
85. T. triangular, tranfverfely wrinkled. Canton.
86. T. globular, fmooth, poliftied. Shores of Ibe¬
ria.
87. T. fubglobular, margined, denticulated, white
without, pearly within. Shores of the Adriatic.
88. T. fubglobular, equivalve and equal-fided, with
a few tranfverfe ftriae.
89. T. equal fided, fmooth, lucid.purple colour j one
inch long, broad.
90. T. white, with fine tranfverfe ftria;.
91. T. triangular, pedlinated. France.
92. T. triangular, globofe, with tranfverfe grooves.
Africa.
93. T. oval, flattilh, tranfverfely ftriated, fore-part
angularly inflected. America.
1. C. gibbous, equivalve, with elevated, earinated,1
concave, membranaceous ribs $ three inches long; three
and a half broad, three high, African ocean.
2. C. heart-ftiaped, valves comprefied and carinat-c^r^j
ed with teeth ; two inches and a half long, above two
broad. Indian ocean.
_ 3- C. heart-lhaped j fore part furrounded with lines,
hind part with broader Arise, forming by their union
the figure of a heart. Nicobar iflands.
4. C. heart-ftiaped j valves ftriated, notched $ behindre/a/b
the beaks a lunated heart-lhaped gape ; two inches
long, and nearly the-fame breadth.iIndia, Arabia, and
■ Egypt.
5. C. heart-lhaped, fubquadrilateral 5 valves carina- hemicaX
ted, beaks diftant. Indian ocean. dium.
6. C. heart-lhaped, fubtrilateral •, valves tranfverfely
grooved, and the fore-part longitudinally ftriated j has Sum.
only been found in the foflil ftate.
7. C. heart-lhaped) carinated j fore-part obliquely
truncated, thin, quite fmooth, fnowy, with gilt ftria;
above an inch long.
* 8. C. fomething heart-lhaped, fubangular; valves an- medium
gular, grooved, fmooth. European and American feas,
coaft of Durham.
* 9. C. fomewhat heart-lhaped, ribs high, and grooved |
down the middle, and befet with large hollowed fpines . 1
near the circumference. European and Mediterranean
feas, Devonlhire.
* 10. C. llightly heart-lhaped ; ribs fpinous, carinated. eckimm
European feas, Britain.
* ji. C. flightly heart-lhaped, triangular ribs, befetciliare.
along the ridges with thin fpines j fize of a hazel-nut.
European feas, Cornwall.
12. C. flightly heart-lhaped, with elevated, fabtxi-ciliatumn
angular, ciliated grooves. North feas.
13. C. fomewhat heart-lhaped, with obtufe, knotty, tubercu-
tranfverfely ftriated grooves. Mediterranean. latum. ■
14. C. heart-lhaped, with arched imbricated fealesi
along the grooves. Mediterranean.
15. C. fomewhat heart-lhaped, fubangular. India.Jragwti. j
16. C. fubcordate, with lunated, coloured grooves. I
India.
17. C. fubcordate, grooved, and muricated at the muricat f
fides. America.
18. C. oblong, with angular grooves, ferrated at the magnue ]
fide. America and India.
19. C. fubovate, grooved j anterior margin rough,yfoww.
pofterior one toothed. India.
* 20. C. obovate, with obfolete, longitudinal ftriae,Uvig<t^\
and a few tranfverfe ones concealed by a glofly, yel-
lowilh brown epidermis. European and American feas,
Britain.
21. C.
(iiap . lV.
I-aturn: 21. C. obovate, fmooth, with obfolete firlae 5 inte¬
rior margin ferrated. Mediterranean and Indian Teas.
, !e, * 2 2. C. antiquated, with 28 depreffed ribs, with ob¬
folete, recurved fcales. Abounds frequently on all Tan¬
dy coafts, and is lodged a little beneath the fand. This
is employed as a wholefome and nourilhing food. It
is the common cockle of this country.
, 'andh 23. C. grooved with about 36 triangular, fmooth
t 7, ribs. Iceland and Greenland feas.
^ enlan- 24. C. antiquated, glabrous, thin, with angular fer-
c m. ruginous lines ; two and three-fourths inches long, three
and a half broad. Greenland and Iceland.
1 'icum. 25. C. antiquated, with 20 remote grooves, the in¬
termediate fpaces rugged. Mediterranean feas.
j ucum. 26. C. Subantiquated, hind-part with 20 grooves
imbricated upwards. Barbary.
27. C. {lightly heart-lhaped and pe&inated. Me-
diterranean. *
’ rinicum 28. C. triangular, rounded, equilateral, with tranf-
verfe, membranaceo-recurved wrinkles y hinges blue.
Mediterranean.
4° 7
46. C, rather oblong, white, with blaekiftx fpots j ambai-
ribs about 12, very convex •, inches long. ncnfe.
47. C. heart-lhaped, equilateral, tawny white zn&fquamo-
purplidi rvithin j ribs with imbricated fcales. fum.
48. C. reddilh, thin, rounded, with decuffated//h-
ft riser turn.
49. C. reddilh, unequal Tided $ ribs convex, tranf-
verfely ftriated. fum.
50. C. unequal fided, ribbed, whitilh, within albidum.
pie j minute.
51. C. inequilateral, oblong, with fine ribs doubled
above.
52. C. rounded, whitifli, with a brown band $ vibsfafciatum.
acute.
Gen.- 8. Mactra. Matte-,
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys; the {hell is bi¬
valve, unequal fided and equivalve : the middle tooth
of the hinge is complicated, with a fmall hollow on
each fide j the lateral ones are remote, and inferted
into each other.
C O N C H O L 0 G Y.
it aterum.
u icuia.
t V.
t. iftro-
H
/ 7.
29. C. triangular, gibbous, ftriated. Cafpian fea.
30. C. heart-fhaped, fubrhombic, 24 ribs on each
fide ; the grooves finely notched j two and one-fourth
inches long, one and three-fourths broad. Arabia and
Egypt.
3 i. C. oval, fmooth; margin ftriated on each fide
the beak.
32, C. gibbous ; one fide imprieffed and ochraceous,
the other convex, heart-ftiaped, and whitifti, fpotted
with yellow. Nicobar iflands. A very rare fpecies,
.33- C. gibbous, with prickly ribs; anterior ones
with recurved, membranaceous tubercles, crenated at
the fides. Nicobar iflands.
r ins.
P ra-
C 71.
a cum.
0< ngum.
v lum.
K '-cum.
» i’a-
u
k ofu/n.
^ vile,
0 a-
u
r lenfe.
34. C. rounded, ventricofe, white, with deep teeth
on the margin ; anterior ones rofy.' Africa and Ame¬
rica.
35. C. pellucid, cinereous, with thin longitudiaal
ftriae. India.
36. C. thick, with longitudinal anterior ftriae, and
tranfverfe pofterior ones. Guinea, Antilles iflands.
37. C. Yellow'ifh, oblong, turgid ribbed, anterior
parts glabrous ; margin notched ; three inches long,
two and a half broad, ribs about 30. Mediterranean.
38. C. brownifh, rather oblong, thick, antiquated,
with deeper teeth on the margin ; ribs about 23. Me¬
diterranean and North feas.
39. C. broad, unequal fided, within white ; ribs flat
and fpinulous : two inches long, two and a half broad,
Tranquebar and Nicobar iflands.
* 40. C. fomewhat heart-fhaped, fubangttlar ; grooves
imbricated, or befet with recurved fcales. Falmouth,
Sandwich.
41. C. with crowded, undulated wrinkles; ribs
broad, grooves narrow ; three inches long, three and
one-fourth broad. Bay of Campeachy.
42. C. rounded, brown; ribs flexuous, grooves
wrinkled ; i|- inch long, and about the fame breadth.
* 43. C. flattifh, thick, white, with flat ribs. Mouth
of the Tees, England. Rare.
44. C. rounded, yellowifh-white, varied with red,
green, and brown, and marked with decuffated ftrke.
Cadiz.
45’ C, rounded ; ribs flat, broad, finely notched,
Brazil,
Species.
1. M. fmooth, with aflat, anterior margin, on whichfpcrigteri
is a. lunated cape, 34- inches broad. Cape of Good
Hope.
2. M. with tranfverfe, wrinkled plaits, diaphanous \plicattsria+
anterior margin flattifh, fhell thin like paper ; from 1 *
to 2 inches long, 24- broad. Indian ocean.
3. M. thin, pellucid, white, convex, fore-part zpopyracea,
little gaping, finely ftriated and ribbed. Nicobar
iflands. Very rare.
4. M. fmooth, diaphanous; back fubftriated, vfithjlriatulcr*
a fmooth marginal impreffion before them,'furrounded
with a rim 3 24- inches long, 3 broad. Mediterranean
and Coromanddl coafts.
5. M. triangular, thick, w-ith ftrongr thick cxovd-Jlriata.
ed, arched ftria?.
6. M. obtufely triangular, whitifh, with milk-whiterotundata.
bands on the beak ; margins on each fide the beaks
violet; inch long, and nearly 2 broad. Mediter¬
ranean.
7. M. fmooth, diaphanous, ftriated ; beaks Smooth,g/abrata*
margins on each fide of them ftriated ; 14- inch long
and 2 broad. African and Indian oceans.
8. M. fnowy, gloffy, thick, diaphanous, fmooth ; nit Ida.
depreflions on each fide the beaks ftriated.
9. M. fmooth, fubdiaphanous, white, with yzlzxcoralHruh
bands; 2 inches broad, 14 long. Mediterranean and
Guinea.
10. M. thin, turgid, pellucid white ; fore-part fine-/aflea,
ly ftriated, with paler bands. Indian ocean.
* 11. M. femitranfparent, fmooth, gloffy, obfoletelyJhtltorum,
radiated, white without, purplifh within ; fides nearly
equal ; length i4- inch, breadth i^. European and
American feas, England, and fhores of Scotland.
12. M. femitranfparent, fmooth, fawn colour withgrandis.
pale rays ; beak and hinge placed beyond the middle ;
24 inches long, 34- broad.
* 13. M. ftrong, fubtriangular, of a yellowifh-white/o/^.
colour, with a few concentric ridges 3 equal fided ; 1-5-
inch longj i| broad. Common on European fhores,
and alfo in Britain.
*14. M. oval, oblong, fmooth, with irregular con- iatraria. ■
centric Arise 3 infide glofly white, gaping a little at both
endi, - -
5
4©s C O N C H
ends. Europe, near the mouths of rivers. Found
very large on the coaft of Caermarthen, and feme parts
of Cornwall.-—The animal which inhabits this flicll,
according to Montagu, is an afcidia ; and he obferves
that it frequently protrudes not lefs than 7 or 8 inches
from the feialler end in fearch of food. TeJ}. Brit.
p. 100.
cyghus. 15. M. three-fided, finely ftriated tranfverfely ; fore¬
part flattifh and fiightly wrinkled 5 1 inch long and ra¬
ther broader. Tranquebar.
macula. 16. M. obtufely triangular, fmooth, thin, with pel¬
lucid chefnut Ipots 5 within white, and finely ftriated *,
a heart-fhaped imprefixon behind the beaks j inch
long, and rather broader.
turgida. 17. M. inflated, faintly flriated, ochraceous and
white within ; hinge with a fupernumerary, triangular,
double tooth j l\ inches long, 3^ broad. Tranque¬
bar.
violacea. 18. M. thin, obfoletely radiated, finely ftriated
tranfverfely •, margins on each fide the beaks whitifh j
2 inches long and 3 broad. Tranquebar.
cunecta. 19. M. wedgc-fhaped, blue, with fine tranfverfe
ftrise; margin notched within j I inch long and fcarcely
fb broad.
glauca. 20. M. ovate, dirty white with glaucous rays, and
fine tranfverfe ftrite j 2^ inches long, 3-^ broad. Me¬
diterranean.
tellucida. 21. M. create, thin, pellucid, white, with unequal
tranfverfe fir he •, 1 j inch long, and 2 broad. Guinea.
fragi/is. 22. M. ovate, thin, fmooth, peUucid, flattifh •, an¬
terior gape tranfverfely ftriated, and wrinkled. Nico¬
bar iflands.
rugofa. ' 23. M. ovate, dirty white, with elevated longitudi¬
nal ftriae j crofling the tranfverfe ones, w hich are a lit¬
tle more raifed } 2-j inches long, 2|- broad : thick, and
white within.
nicoharica. 24. M. ovate, thin, pellucid, fmooth on the fore¬
part 5 the hind-part w ith cancellated ft rite. Nicobar
iflands,
cotnpla- 25. M. ovate, thin, with arched plates \ the plates
nata. Iranfveriely flriated 5 no lateral teeth 3 1 inch long,
2\ broad. India.
li/leri. * 26. M. very thin, nearly round, whitifh 3 hinge
with a triangular tooth, and large cavity 3 \~ inch
Ions, and 2 broad. Common on the fhores of Bri-
tain. Mactra compre/fa, Montagu, 'lejl. Brit. p.
96-
ppenta. 27. M. ovate, compreffed, tranfverfely flriated 3
hinge teeth very minute, with a large oblique hollow.
Mediterranean.
32 Gen. 9. Donax, or Wedge-Jhcll.
Don ax.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys. The fliell is bi¬
valve, with generally a crenulate margin ; the ante¬
rior margin very obtufe 3 hinge with two teeth, and
a fingle marginal one placed a little behind ; rarely
double, or triple.
Species.
triangular, heart-fhaped, with a flat frontal
Indian ocean.
puhrfceni. 2- ciliated with fpines on the anterior margin,
Indian ocean.
fear turn.
s. D.
margin.
o L O G Y. Chap. IV;
3. D: wrinkled and gibbous before, with notchedrWa.
margins. Mediterranean and Atlantic feas.
* 4. D. oblong, fmooth, gloffy, finely ftriated truncuhs
tudinally 3 margin crenated 3 an inch broad. Euro¬
pean coalls, Wales.
5. D. obtufe before, flriated, the margin denticula-y?nW.
ted. Southern Europe.
* 6. I). obtufe in front, lips tranfverfely wrinkled \ ienticula.
finely flriated longitudinally 3 margin denticulated./a.
European and American feas 3 fhores of Britain, but
cuneata.
7. D. wedge-fhaped, margins very entire 3 1 inch
long, 1^. broad. Tranquebar.
8. D. gibbous, finely flriated tranfverfely, fpotted/i^.
with yellow.
9. D. ovate, comprefTed, fmooth, marked with pur-yAz/j/tf.
pie waved lines 3 margins crenulate. Malabar coafls.
10. D. ovate, flriae muricated 3 margin denticulat-manoz/a.
ed. Indian ocean.
* 11. D. oval, with tranfverfe, rvaved, erefl, flriated,
membranaceous wrinkles 3 fize of a fmall kidney bean.
Mediterranean, fliores of Devonfhire and Cornwall,
w here it is found in the hardefl limeflone.
12. D. obtufe. before, obfoletely ftriated at the fides;hxvigatt,
margin very entire 3 hinge w ithout marginal teeth j
1 \ inch long, 2 inches broad. Tranquebar.
13. D. hind-part fmooth and perpendicularly P.'iizVfpinefa,
ed 3 fore-part truncated, and finely cancellated 3 angles
fpinous. Tranquebar. Very rare.
14. D. flefh-coloured, anterior part truncated, ^xnik-incarnata,
led, and marked with reticulated flriae 5 hind-part
wedge-fhaped, and furrowed with fine perpendicular
flriae. Tranquebar.
15. D. oval, fmooth, olive-green, within filvery ‘1 nrgentea.
margin with more elevated acute teeth, near the
hinge.
16. D. ovate with elevated flriae crofling a few bicolor,
tranfverfe ones 3 rufous with a white ray on one fide.
17. D. brown, with hyaline fpots 3 oulfide withradiata.
crowded, arched, tranfverfe flriae, infide with perpen¬
dicular ones 3 1 inch broad, long. Tranquebar.
18. D. with thin perpendicular flriae, eroding ^Jlrcminec-
tranfverfe ribs on the fore-part 3 draw colour, with
darker tranfverfe bands 3 margin tav.ney and entire be¬
hind 3 1 inch long, 4 broad.
19. D. entirely white, with a few thin, arched,
tranfverfe flriae, which are oblique towards the rim 3
hinge w ith three oblique middle teeth 3 margin entire 3
1 inch long, and femething broader.
* 20. D. oblong, fmooth, gloffy, light yellow, \Ci\hcompla-
fmall fpo s or breaks of white, and one broad ray
the fame from the back to the oppofite margin 3 4 inch
but
Montagu,
}°ng? 4 broad. Devonfhire,
Te/i. Brit. p. ic6.
* 21. D. oblong, fuboval, fmooth, gloffy, commonly
marked with two brown dripes longitudinally from the
beak 3 margin fmooth 3 fcarcely 4- inch long, 4 broad.
Weymouth, Dorfetihire. Montagu, Te/i. Bnt. 107.
Gen. 10. Venus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys 3 {hell bivalve, fron¬
tal margin flattened, with incumbent lips 3 hinge
with three teeth, all of them approximate 3 the la¬
teral ones divergent at the tip.
4 Species.
33
Venus.
Chap. IV.
C O N C H O L O G Y.
Species.
409
dione.
papliia'
marica.
i/ifera.
bajana.
excavata.
verrucofa
lapicida.
tlrjcqens.
cajfina.
canc elicit a,
gallina.
pineenjis.
petulea.
flexuofa,
nycina.
wercena-
ria.
Melon die a,
dione.
A. S/ie//fomewhat heart-Jljaped.
I. V. tranfverfely grooved, with a double row of
fpines on the flattened fide. American ocean. This
Ihell is very rare.
* 2. V. fomewhat heart-fliaped, with thickened wrinkles;
flattened fide with attenuated wrinkles; lips compli¬
cated; 2 inches long, broad. American iilands,
Cornwall.
3. V. heart-lhaped, with deculfated firice, flattened
margin, lamellated. American ocean. Very rare.
4. V. fomewhat heart-fliaped, with tranfverfe, re¬
mote, refle&ed grooves ; margin crenulated. Ameri¬
can ocean. Very rare.
5. V. brittle, glabrous, with a few tranfverfe ftrke.
Brazil.
6. V. lentiform, tranfverfely ftriated, with a deep,
heart-lhaped depreflion behind the beaks ; flat fide,
broad.
* 7. V. with membranaceous, tranfverfe, ftriated
grooves, forming tubercles towards the outer margin ;
margin crenulated ; 2 inches long, 2 broad. Mediter¬
ranean, Antilles iflands, Cornwall.
8. V. longitudinally ftriated forwards, and tranf¬
verfely backwards. American iflands.
9. V. white, with fine, crowded, divergent Arise.
American iflands.
10. V. with tranfverfe, recurved, acute grooves;
pofterior margin crenated, and grooved behind the
beaks. European feas. It is often found in a foflil
ftate.
11. V. with tranfverfe, membranaceous, remote
ftriae, and a heart-lhaped depreflion behind the beaks;
1 inch long, i-§- broad. Indian ocean.
* 12. V. radiate, with tranfverfe, obtufe Arise; hind
tooth of the hinge minute ; margin crenulated ; 1 inch
long, broad. American and European feas, Corn¬
wall.
. 13. V. with tranfverfe, acute ftriae ; lips finely ftri¬
ated and rofy ; margin very entire. Africa.
14. V. {lightly grooved, margin crenated ; fize of a
hazel-nut. South of Europe.
. I5- V. grooves obtufe, tranfverfe; lips of the ante¬
rior margin with an elevated angle ; 1 inch long,
broad. American and Indian oceans.
i6; V. grooves tranfverfe., parallel, obtufe; anterior
margin glabrous; depreflion behind the beaks ovate.;
inches long, 3 broad. India.
17' V. ftrong and thick, with flight tranfverfe ftriae,
and covered with a brown cuticle ; within, pale vio¬
let ; margin crenated ; 3 inches long, and nearly 3
broad. Europe, North America. Shells of this fpecies
are found foflil in the mountains of Sweden. In North
America they are called clams, and the Indians make
wampum or money of them.
18. V. thick and ftrong, with flight tranfverfe ftriae,
and covered w ith a brown cuticle; w ithin pure white,
and fmooth ; margin entire ; 34 inches long, 4 broad,
^.urope, Africa, Cafpian fea, Caermarthenlhire, and
lOies of Scotland. The fith is employed as food by
the Icelanders. , -
^ Y‘ bnooth, with fine tranfverfe wrinkles; mar¬
gin entire ; hind tooth of the hinge lanceolate; 2
- Vol. VI. Part II. * J 6
inches long, 3|. broad. Afiatic feas ; Cornwall, where
the Ipecies is called queen.
7.0. V. fmooth, with a few faint fpots; i-| inch long, maculata.
2,j broad. American ocean.
21. V. glabrous, with a brown gibbous flope before, meretrix.
gaping membranes; margin entire. Near the
and
mouths of rivers, Indian ocean.
2 2. V. fmooth, radiated with white; lips of the fata
terior flope violet; inch long, 1 ‘ broad. Mediter¬
ranean and Indian feas.
23. V. triangular, rounded, gibbous, fmooth, zn&ca/lrenfis.
marked with angular charadlers; inch loner, 2
broad. Indian ocean, Red fea.
. V. fmooth, tranfverfely ftriated before and hz-bhryne
hmd; pofterior flope obcordate, with violet veins.
Southern ocean.
25.. V. ovate, compreffed, tranfverfely ftriated, with meroe.
a gaping future behind ; inch long, 2-‘- broad. A-
merican and Indian ocean.
26. V. fubovate, tranfverfely ftriated, and fubpel- minula.
lucid ; membranes clofed; from 1 to 2 inches broad
1 i long. Iceland.
*27. V. oval, longitudinally wrinkled, femipellucid,^^.
iaintly radiated with purple and white; i-J inch long,
li broad. European and American feas, Falmouth.
28. V oval, gibbous, longitudinally ftriated, ^ndfimbriata.
traniveriely grooved ; margm crenated ; 2 inches lone
3 broad. Eaft Indies 5’
29* V ftriae elevated, decuffated ; heart-fliaped reticulata.
pretiion behind ; margin entire; 2 inches long-, 24-
broad. India. *
India V' reticulated’ and fca1^ on tIle back H^-fquamofa.
31. V. roundifti with decuffated, membranaceouspuertera
ftriae ; lips flexuous. India. r
32. V. triangular, fmooth, retufe behind and be-tripla.
fore; 1 inch long, and rather broader. Mediterra¬
nean.
33. V. with arched, membranaceous, tranfverfe Arise; plicata.
pofterior flope reddifti, heart-lhaped ; lips oblique.
Indian feas. Very rare.
34. V. gibbous, with tranfverfe, membranaceous, ruga fa t
arched ftriae ; pofterior flope heart-lhaped; margin J
crenated ; 2 inches long, 2 broad. India.
35. V. with tranfverfe, acute ftriae, anteriorly razxn.-calijk.
branaceous; anterior flope ftiort, pofterior indiftinfr.
Red fea.
36. V. rounded, with decuffated ftriae ; fore-part and granulate.
crenated margin violet. American ocean.
37. V. with perpendicular, imbricated ribs, txzntimbricata.
yerfely ftriated ; margin crenated. It has been found
in a foflil ftate in France.
38. V. with fine tranfverfe ftriae, crofling feme di- divaricate.
verging longitudinal ones towards the margin ; pofte¬
rior impreflion ovate ; margin crenated. E. Indies.
39. V. oblong, flattifti, tranfverfe ftriae runningcw/rorw.
contrary behind ; margin crenated. Guinea.
40. V. oblong, ovate, radiated, with thick, c^d-gallus.
ed, tranfverfe ftriae; anterior flope broad, ovate; po¬
fterior impreflion heart-fhaped ; 14 inch long, 2 broad.
Malabar.
41. V. tranfverfely ftriated, the back glabrous; zn-jlammea.
terior flope broad, with brown lines ; pofterior impref-
fions heart-fliaped, with brown lines. Red fea.
3 F 42. V.
4io
corbicula.
Jinuofa.
herma-
phrodiui.
coaxans.
cqfta.
qffinis.
oplma.
triradiata.
nebulofa.
contempta.
japonica.
Jlriata.
textilis,
corrugata.
monjirofa,
ponderofa.
Jubviridis.
rojirata.
fufca.
lujitanlca.
punBu la¬
ta.
fafciata.
earnea.
*Argata.
verjicolor.
CONCH
42. V. triangular, fmooth, truncated on eacli lide,
with yellowilh rays 5 Hopes heart-fhaped •, margin very
entire. Atlantic and American feas. Rare.
* 43. V. thin, convex, fomewhat triangular, with a
deep obtufe finus in the middle of the front. Bri-
tain. t
44. V. triangular, very fmooth, olive coloured, ob-
fcurely banded : anterior Hope heart-lhaped j pofterior
ovate. Rivers of Guinea. Rare.
^3, V. green, within white, with tranfverfe, une¬
qual, membranaceous ftriae *, margin acute j 2-^ inches
long, 3 broad. Rivers of Ceylon.
46. V. gibbous, fnowy j anterior part convex } with¬
in pale violet 5 anterior Hope roundiih, poHerior heart-
fliaped \ margin very entire. India.
47. V. thin, glabrous, convex j white variegated
with brown 5 pofterior Hope elongated, with oblique tu¬
mid lips ; four teeth in the hinge. Mauritius.
48. V. thick, convex ; anterior Hope ovate, pofterior
heart-ftiaped 5 hinge with three teeth. India.
49. V. convex, gray, with three blackifti blue
rays j pofterior Hope elongated 5 lips tumid. 'Iran-
quebar.
50. V. ochraceous, with cinereous and bluifh fpots j
anterior Hope oval j pofterior Hope ovate, bluifh. T ran-
quebar. . (
31. V. thick, triangular, equilateral, fmooth •, beaks
convergent j primary tooth ot the hinge crenulated :
minute. Malabar.
52. V. oblong, ovate, inequilateral j lid tranfverfe j
ftriae crowded at the lides j pofterior Hope oblong,
ovate. Japan.
33. V. ventricofe, anteriorly angular, with tranf¬
verfe, thick, fmooth and nightly arched ftriae : pofte¬
rior Hope heart-ftiaped. India. Rare.
34. V. Oval, quite fmooth, inequilateral j Hopes ob¬
long ; margin very entire j l-J inch long, 2^-broad.
Malabar, Red fea.
33. V. ovate, whitifti j ftriae tranfverfe, anteriorly
thick and ftrong, pofteriorly thin and undulating. Me¬
diterranean.
36. V. ovate, whitifti 5 ftriae decuffated ; hinge with
only two teeth in the left valve. Nicobar iflands.
37. V. folid, weighty, inequilateral, wrinkled on
both fides ^ margin crenulated j hinge with two teeth.
Southern ocean.
38. V. greenifh, glabrous, thick j margin entirej
beaks prominent.
39. V. ovate ; ftrise perpendicular, fcaly, crofling the
tranfverfe ones.
60. V. brown, with fine, perpendicular ftriae j 1^
inch long, 2^ broad.
61. V. oblong, with fine tranfverfe ftriae ; margin
crenated. Seas round Portugal.
62. V. ovate, white, with bay lines, and yellowifh
dots. Corfica.
63. "V. round, fmooth, with bay and yellowifh rays,
partly blue, and partly livid.
64. V. oval, inequilateral, flightly wrinkled, Hefti-
coloured, with three rays •, !-§- inch long, 2^ broad.
63. V. externally fteel blue, with yellow rays 5 in¬
ternally violet. Indian ocean.
66. V. oval, obliquely ftriated, whitifti; rays white,
iawney, bluilh and red.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV
67. V. ovate, inequilateral, finely ftriated and dot- variegata.
ted with blue : rays brownifti and black.
68. V. ovate, violet} ftriae perpendicular j i| inch amelhyjli.
long, 2? broad. ^ na.
69. V. pofteriorly ovate, tranfverfely and unequal-
ly ftriated, and marked with angular lines. Shores of
Lilbon.
70. V. ovate, with fine decuflated ftriae j white orfenegakn-
Hefti-coloured, varied with brown j I §- inch broad, notfu.
one inch long. Senegal.
71. V. triangular, white or yellow, with about
40 tranfverfe parallel grooves \ inch long. Sene¬
gal.
72. V. heart-ftiaped, with tranfverfe, remote, cxci-fuccinBa,
vated grooves j margin crenulated.
73. V. heart-ftiaped, much compreffed, tranfverfely row/ir^r,
grooved.
74. V. heart-ftiaped, polifhed, white, marked withauftralis.
brownifti characters j margin entire. Southern ocean.
73. V. ovate, livid, with numerous, interrupted,
bluifti rays j pofterior Hope ovate. Shores of Ceylon
and Florida.
B. Orbicular.
* 76. V. lentiform, with crenated, decuffated ftriae \tigerina,
polterior Hope impreffed, ovate. American and Indian
ocean, ftiores of Weymouth.
77. V. orbicular, tranfverfely ftriated, with xovgnprojlrata.
membranaceous lips j two inches long, not fo bread.
Coromandel.
78. V. lentiform, with glabrous wrinkles, white penfijlva-
a longitudinal groove anteriorly on each fide $ 2 inches nica.
long. America.
79. V. white, fomewhat glabrous, with a longitudi-^am.
nal groove anteriorly, and hinge without lateral teeth.
Shores of Iceland and Ferro iflands.
80. V. lentiform, glabrous, fmooth, with excavated incrupta.
dots. India.
81. V. lentiform, longitudinally grooved, dotted/wzto.
within ; 2 inches long, 2-^ broad. India, but rare.
* 82. V. lentiform, tranfverfely ftriated, pale, with exo/eta.
obfolete rays pofterior Hope heart-fhaped : 2 inches
long, and 2 broad. Norway, and coaft of Britain,
Cornwall.
* 83. V. thin, convex, orbicular, whitifh, tinged whh undata.
yellow, with thin tranfverfe ftriae j margin waved.
Britifh feas, Falmouth.
84. V. gibbous w ith tranfverfe, remote, rather ob- tumidula,
folete grooves 5 margin entire.
83. V. longitudinally ftriated, with tranfverfe, white,finenp,
and violet arches j margin interiorly crenated. Chinefe
ftiores.
86. V. lentiform, tranfverfely ftriated, with an ob-puata.
long gaping vent on the anterior Hope j hinge with 4
teeth. Nicobar iflands.
* 87. V. lentiform, with remote, tranfverfe, membra- loreahs
naceous ftriae j i-§- inch long, 2 broad. European feas,
Britain.
88. V. fitblentiform, with wrinkled longitudinal/fchw^7,
grooves, branched near the anterior margin 5 l4 inc^
long, 2 broad. Indian and American oceans.
89. V. lentiform, compreffed, ftriated, angular; theferipta.
hinder angle ftraight. Indian ocean, and Red fea.
Very rare.
90. v.
Chap- IV.
eientula.
cinfla.
CONCHOLOGY, 4™
lenticular, wrinkled, without den ftrise, and a broad yellow band towards the margin,
variegated with tranfverfe brown lines.
lij. V. orbicular, ventricofe, thick, brownilh, K%.-tnacaJf&"
diated with white j ftriae annular. Macaffar
go. V. fubglobular,
teeth ; polterior Hope ovate. American ocean.
gi. V. very convex, and furrounded with rings ; in¬
termediate grooves crenated ; pofterior dope heart-
rica.
ftiaped ; marg
in crenulated. A minute fliell.
concentric 92. V. white, fub-orbicular, compreffed, with con-
centric ftriae j margin very entire j potterior dope
heart-diaped. Atlantic and American feas. A large
fiieU.
juvenilis. 93- V. lentiform, with tranfverfe, crowded flriae j
anteriorly circular, and terminating in wrinkles be¬
hind ; pofterior flope heart-ftiaped •, margin very entire.
India.
hijlrio. 94- V. lentiform, with tranfverfe, acute, arched
ftriaej margin entire j pofterior dope heart-thaped. In¬
dia. Rare.
ghbofa. 95- V. globular, with fine tranfverfe ftrioe ; margin
very entire; hinge with two teeth j 1 inch long, 1^
broad. Red fea. Very rare.
peBuncu- 96. V. orbicular, equilateral, tranfverfely wrinkled,
lus. and variegated with rufous. Japan.
albida. 97- V. orbicular, fub-oompreffed, equilateral, white,
with fine tranfverfe ftriae. Jamaica.
cmpeach- 98. V. orbicular, inequilateral, with crowded, acute,
ienfis. tranfverfe ftriae 5 inch long. B"y of Campea-
ehy.
crajja. 99. V. orbicular, folid, comprefted, with fine tranf¬
verfe ftrise, and red rays.
purpuraf- 100. V. orbicular, with fine tranfverfe ftrim, and pur-
cens. pliih rays.
rubra. 101. V. orbicular, inequilateral, chefnut with dark¬
er rays, and crowded, thick, tranfverfe ftrise. Ja¬
maica.
violacea. 102. V. with perpendicular fcaly ftrise ; margin den¬
ticulated, violet within.
fpadicea. 103. V. ftriae perpendicular, and fcaly towards the
margin j colour chefnut j 2 inches long, 2^ broad.
canceHata. 104. V. fub-rufous, cancellated ■, a minute Ihell.
bengalen- 105. V. orbicular, nearly equilateral, with thick,
f'1'* perpendicular ftriae 5 beaks turned back. Bengal.
* 106. V. fub-orbicular, inequilateral, tranfverfely ftri-
ated, and marked with faint longitudinal ftrise : I inch
long, i-j- broad. Dorfetfhire.
107. V. brown, with thin perpendicular ftrise y
inch long, 2\ broad.
'nirpurata. 108. V. orbicular, fub-equilateral, perpendicularly
wrinkled, and with purple rays ; inch long,
broad.
109. V. lentiform, teftaceous, wrinkled j pofterior
flope heart-ftiaped. Ionian ftiores.
.110. V. orbicular, teftaceous, fub-equilateral, with
diftant tranfverfe wrinkles.
Hi. V. lentiform, tranfverfely ftriated, anteriorly
truncated.
112. V. orbicular, fmooth, golden, with a white ftar
at the beak. Lilbon.
113. V. orbicular, pale yellow, with elevated, tranf¬
verfe, diftant ftriae. Mediterranean.
114 V. lentiform, yellowifti brown, with thin, tranf¬
verfe, diftant ftrise 5 pofterior flope heart-ftiaped, bluilli;
anterior flope broad, bluifti. Brazil.
115. V. orbicular, pellucid, fmooth; anterior flope
pale golden, with chefnut fpots j pofterior flope heart-
fliaped, with red and green veins. Brazil.
116. V. orbicular, folid, white, with undulated, gol-
wta.
ibfuira.
tux.
‘ugata.
jbbula.
hilata.
talica.
wozilia.
ia.
'ellucida.
'tohfe
yen.
ea.
118. V. fub-orbicular, of an orange colour j 2 inches aurantia.
long, 24 broad.
119. V. lentiform, fulvous, with fine circular ftrise. fulva.
I 20. V. orbicular, white, with reticulated ftrise. Candida,
121. V. orbicular, tranfverfely ftriated, whitifti, vihh albicans.
brown fpots, lines, and angular charafters.
122. V. fub-orbicular, tranfverfely ftriated, ve\i\tcyundulata.
with reddifli undulated lines and dots.
1 23. V. orbicular, equilateral, white, with fine tranf-lineata.
verfe ftrise, thicker towards the margin.
124. V. fmooth, nearly equilateral, whitifh. Iczvis.
125. V. orbicular, fmooth, inequilateral, livid horn-
colour, with a white, tranfverfe line.
1 26. V. orbicular, fulvid, dotted with white at the guttata.
margin.
127. V. inequilateral, reddilh, fmooth, with a i<c\\ rufefeens.
tranfverfe lines.
128. V. lentiform, ftrice cancellated and radiated
margin crenulated j greenifti, with darker fpots.
129. V. white, with radiated fpots and arched iS.xicx.^maculofa.
in the middle a large gray fpot, tapering upwards.
130. V. entirely of a flelh colour, with longitudinalcojlata.
ribs crofting the remote tranfverfe w'rinkles ; inch
long, broad.
131. V. thin, convex, with fine tranfverfe Arise j with- wauaria,
in fnowy, w ithout marked with the letter IV, and many
fcattered dots : beaks inflated.
132. V. tumid, folid, fmooth ; with a few tranfverfe tumens.
wrinkles towards the margin j hinge with 4 teeth in
each valve 5. l|- inches long, 2 broad. Africa.
133. V. thin, orbicular, pellucid, fmooth, {novey -ydiapliana.
hinge with two teeth in each valve j i-J inch diameter.
Weftern ftiores of Africa.
134. V. fub-orbiculate, comprefled, hard, tranfverfely </z/r<5r.
grooved, reddilh, with brown raysj 6 inches broad,
long.
135. V. orbicular, comprefled, fnowy, with \ongitu- eburnea.
dinal rounded grooves, crofted with tranfverfe ftrise ; 9
lines in diameter. Africa.
136. V. tranfparent, pale, fulvous within and without, lucida.
with fine longitudinal grooves ; 16 lines long. Africa.
137. V. orbicular, a little convex, with longitudinal ^-orr.
ftrise perpendicular in the middle, obliquely divergent
towards the outfide, and crofted by tranfverfe ones ;
intermediate grooves and inner margin crenated.
138. V. orbicular, fub-equilateral, with elevated,
acute, tuberculated ribs j margin denticulated, and
crenated.
C. Oval, a little angular near the beaks.
* 139. V. ovate, anteriorly angular, with undulated
tranfverfe ftriae j 2 inches long, 2-? broad. Europe and
India, coaft of Britain.
140. V. Inequilateral, thin, with fine decuftatedgeographi.
Arise; white, reticulated with brown. Mediterranean.^.
141. V. ovate, anteriorly angular, with tranfverfe rotundata.
Arise ; intermediate tooth of the hinge bifid ; inch
long, 3 broad. Indian ocean. Rare.
* 142. V. ovate, with decuflated ftriae anteriorly angn- decujfata.
lar ; 14 inch long, 2 broad. Mediterranean, Britifti
coafts.
3 F 2 143. V,
412 CONCH
virgitiea, 142. V. fubovate, anteriorly fubangular, -with un¬
equal, tranfverfe Arise j anterior Hope tumid. Adri¬
atic.
•uirgmica. 143. V. ovate, tranfverfely wrinkled j 1 inch long,
broad. Virginia.
rhomb01- * I44* ^ depreffed or rhomboid, with concentric
Arise j pale brown, variegated j ^ inch long, i| broad.
BritiAi coaAs.
cruentata.
lutefcens.
fanguino-
lenta.
argentea.
donacina.
afra.
dealt at a.
lithophaga.
I45* V. ovate, inequilateral, tranfverfely Ariated
and fpotted with red.
146. V. ovate, tranfverfely Ariated j outwardly ra¬
diated and marked towards the margin with charaflers,
lines and fpots ; within yellowiAi.
147. V. oval, fmooth, yellowUh, with red fpots and
dots j inch long, 1^ broad. Shores of Naples.
148. V. oblongiih, fmooth, filvery, with black lines
united into bands. Shores of Cadiz.
149. V. oblongiAi, flattened, anteriorly tranfverfely
grooved j internal margin crenulated ; Aopes linear,
excavated *, i|- inch long, 1^ broad.
150. V. grooved, umbo pointed j poAerior flope
wrinkled and heart-ihaped ; grooves fine, about 130 ;
I inch broad. Africa.
131. V. oblong, thin, flattened, bluifh when the fi(h
is alive, and fnowy when it is dead j i|- inch broad, ^
long. Africa.
132. V. ovate, reticulated, gaping on each fide 3
hinge with 2 teeth, alternately bifid. Shores of Croa¬
tia, among rocks and Aones.
34
Spondylus.
Gen. 11. Spondylus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys; fhell hard, folid, with
unequal valves, one of them convex, the other rather
flat *, hinge with two recurved teeth, feparated by a
fmall Hollow.
Species.
gcedaro-
pus.
regius.
plicatus.
eitreus.
35
Chazna.
1. S. flightly eared and fpinous. Mediterranean,
Indian, and other feas.-—This fpecies varies greatly in
fize, thicknefs, and colours. Sometimes it is entirely
purple, orange, white or bloom colour, and fometimes
it is marked with various Areaks, fpots, dots, or bands.
2. S. without ears, and fpinous. In this fpeeies the
fhell is fub-globular, white within, without purplifh,
fcarlet, flame colour, orange or white : fpines generally
two inches long, fometimes cylindrical, with a crenated
margin. India, Malta. Very rare.
3. S. without ears or fpines, plaited. India, Ame¬
rica, and the Mediterranean. The fhell is white,
with yenowifh, reddifh, brownifh, or violet lines and
veins.
4. S. oblong, plaited, fpinous. In this fpecies the
fhell is imbricated, of a citron colour, or red, with
the inner margin orange. It is 2 inches long,
broad. The whole fliell is thin and nearly tranf-
parent.
Gen. 12. Chama, or Gaping Cocl/e.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys ; the fliell bivalve,
rather coarfe 5 hinge with a callous gibbofity, ob¬
liquely inferted m an oblique hollow j anterior flope
elofed.
Species.
cor.
* 1. C. roandifh, fmooth 5 beaks recurved j anterior
O L O G Y. Chap, IV
Hoped with a gaping fent. Adriatic and Cafpian feas,
Hebrides. Sometimes it is found of a large fize.
2. C. plaited, with arched fcales j pofterior flope gigas.
gaping, with crenulated margins. Indian ocean.— This
fpecies fometimes meafures only about an inch in length,
but fometimes it is found to be the largeA of fhells, and
equal to 3321b. weight. The fifh which it contains is
faid to furnifh a meal to 1 20 men 5 and its mufcular
Arength is fo great as to cut afunder a cable, or lop off
the hand of a man.
3. C. plaited, muricated, poAerior flope retufe, hippopus,
doled, toothed ; 3 inches long, 7 broad. Indian 0-
cean.
4. C. fomewhat heart-fliaped, with longitudinal a,
grooves, and tranfverfe Arias 3 ribs from 19 to 22. At¬
lantic and Indian feas.
3. C. trapeziform, gibbous, with longitudinal, crenu-/ra/rm
lated grooves $ about the fize of a pea. Norway feas,
6. C. fuborbicular, compreffed, coarfe, with decuf-/etnwrhi-
fated Arias. Culata.
7. C. oblong w ith imbricated grooves ; anterior Ci7«a/?ra.
part retufe j l inch long, 14 broad. American and In-lata.
dian feas.
8. C. heart-fliaped, tranfverfely Ariated j one M&cordata,
elongated, compreffed. Indian and Red feas. *
9. C. roundifli, with toothed grooves, mixed withfatiata,
dots } poAerior flope retufe 3 heart-fhaped.
10. C. oblong, fore-part angular, with anterior acute
teeth. Shores of Guinea.
11. C. imbricated, wdth jagged lamellae 5 beak alit-/fl!MW.
tie fpiral obliquely. India.
12. C. orbicular, muricated; one valve flatter, \hzgryphi-
other with a fub-fpiral, produced beak. Mediterra-dkr,
nean, American, and Indian feas.
13. C. with conic valves, and horn-fhaped, oblique,/wo/m
tubular beaks, longer than the valve. Indian and A-
merican feas.
14. C. grooved, muricated, with excavated dois: arcndla.
hinge with a fefiile callus; 2 inches broad and 2 long.
American ocean.
13. C. obtufely triangular, equilateral, plaited ; an-moltklan
terior flope elevated, with oblique plates and Arise : fize
of a hazel nut.
16. C. tranfverfely wrinkled, and longitudinallyoo/zoowf
Ariated. In the middle of each valve within is an ad-ntffl.
ditional chamber. American ocean. Small, whitifh.
Very rare.
17. C. rounded, with lamellae difpofed in rows ; m-macro-
ternal margin crenulated. American ocean. phylla.
18. C. white, with foliaceous, ferrated, tranfverfe^/wKW
flriae, the interflices crenated, beaks recurved. Medi¬
terranean and American feas.—This fpecies is found
foflil in Campania : it is fometimes round, and fome¬
times oblong.
19. C. rounded, white, and undulated with brown, aro/o.
with triangular, wrinkled, perpendicular ribs : margin
unequal. Shores of Syracufe.
20. C. wrinkled, oblong, narrow', brown ; \ov/trfufca>
valves with a proje&ing, rounded, fubincurvated beak.
21. C. roundifli, ventricofe, inequivalve, muricated,
■with fcattered, unequal, fcaly fpines. America.—This
fliell is of a citron colour.
22. C. roundifli, longitudinally Ariated ; poAerior
flope retufe. Shores of Chili, where it buries itfelf in
the fands. The fliell is white, violet, and yellow,
and
n
ihap. IV. CONG H
and within an elegant purple. It is about 4 inches
in diameter. The fith affords a rich and agreeable
food.
23. C. fuborbicular, with very deep grooves j wrin¬
kles llightly imbricated j margin doubly folded. The
grooves are about 30 in number.
24. C. oblique, with a lateral oblique pit, wrinkled j
callus of the hinge toothed. Barbary.
25. C. cylindrical, white, diaphanous, with decuf-
fated ftria; j the tranfverfe ftrise arched and imbri¬
cated.
igofa.
•yphica.
\nalio-
\aga.
36
\rtuofa.
otr,
arbata.
wdiolus,
slla.
vata.
ellucida,
ojlrata.
riata.
ulchella.
fra.
'ojjilis.
ancellata
ninuta.
'aEiea.
Gen. 13. Arc A, or Arh-Jhell.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys : The {hell bivalve,
equivalve j the hinge with a number of teeth, (harp,
alternate, and inferted all along the rim.
Species.
A. Margin venj entire ; beaks recurved.
I. A. parallelepiped, deeply flriated longitudinally }
leffer valve obliquely carinated. Indian ocean. Very
rare.
B. Margin entire; beak irJleSied.
* 2. A. Noah's ark ; oblong, ftriated, and emarginated
at the tip j beaks very remote, bent in j margin gaping.
Mediterranean and Atlantic Teas, Cornwall.
3. A. oblong, ftriated, bearded with byffus ; beaks
approximate ; margin clofed. Europe and Indian feas.
4. A. oblong, ftriated, anteriorly angular. Medi¬
terranean.
5. A. ovate, pellucid, fubftriated j anterior Hope dx-
ftindl, prominent; hinge ciliar. Mediterranean.
6. A. ovate, with decuflated ftriae, fnowy, and co¬
vered with a ruffet brown epidermis j margin gaping.
Red fea.
7. A. pellucid, brittle, round at each end, obfo-
letely ftriated j teeth of the hinge very fharp. Nicobar
iflands.
8. A. convex, with tranfverfe ftriae j hind-part round¬
ed, fore-part extended into an acute beak 5 1 ^ inch long,
l|: broad. Baltic and Norway feas.
9. A. lentiform, with numerous decuffated ftriae; la-
teritious and reddifh within ■, pofterior excavation trian¬
gular j hinge arched; an inch broad, and fomething
longer. Red fea.
10. A. roundifh, biradiated, with tranfverfe ftriae.
II. A. whitifh, covered with a whiter fkin, with de-
cuffated ftriae j grooved, and obliquely truncated ; from
4 to 5 lines long, and 3 broad. Africa.
12. A. thick, roundifh, longitudinally ftriated, and
tranfverfely ribbed •, ribs with undulated ftrioe; 3 inches
long, 3^ broad. Found in a foflil ftate in the duchy
of Limbourg.
. 13- A. with cancellated ftriae, and bearded j mar¬
gin gaping in the middle. American ocean.
* 14. A. a little compreffed, tranfverfely ftriated, ta¬
pering at the remoter end, and rounded at the oppofite
ones j 2i lines long, and 4 broad. Greenland feas,
Sandwich.
C. Margin crenated; beaks recurved.
* 15. A. with a rhomboidal, yellowifh white fhell,
and obfolete decuffated ftrite j fize of a horfe bean.
European feas, Devonfhire.
O L O G Y.
16. A. oblong, with ftiiated tubercles, y beaks in-wa/fw/o/fl.
curved, remote 5 margin entire, clofed. Denmark.
17. A. obliquely heart-ftiaped, with numerous \m-antiquata.
armed grooves. Mediterranean and Indian feas.
18. A. obliquely heart-fhaped, fmooth, with grooves
margin plaited 5 3 inches long, 4 broad. America,
Africa.
19. A. flightly heart-ftiaped, with muricaledgrano/a.
grooves 5 14 inch long, 1^ broad. American and In¬
dian oceans.
20. A. ovate comprefled •, with perpendicular knotty corbicu/a.
ftriae j beaks obtufe, approximate. Nicobar iflands.
21. A. lenticular, with longitudinal ftriae, croftod by decujfata.
faint, tranfverfe, ones 5 anterior flope clofed. American
ocean.
22. A. lenticular, nearly equilateral, perpendicularly cequilate-
ftriated without and within j white, with chefnut fpots.ro-
American ocean.
23. A. lenticular, a little oblique, with decuffated/'«//<?«J'.
ftriae , anterior flope, with a very narrow vent. Indian
and American oceans.
24. A. ventricofe j ftriae decuffated ; anterior flope cucullus.
heart-fhaped j 2 inches long, and 3 broad. Nicobar
{lands.
25. A. rounded on each fide j chefnut, and marked magellani-
wuth decuffated ftriae j external margin infle&ed, and ca.
repand in the middle j beaks approximate. Straits of
Magellan.
26. A. rhomboidal, white, with decuffated ftriae $ reticulata.
beaks approximate j anterior llope heart-fhaped.
27. A. pellucid, rhomboid, with decuffated ftriae j Candida.
fore-part produced \ hind-part truncated. American
ocean and African fhores.
28. A. inequivalve, ovate, with flat, longitudinal indica.
ftriae and deep grooves : anterior flope heart-fhaped j ^
inch long, T-| broad. Indian ocean.
29. A. rounded before and truncated behind, vi'gCtijamaicenfis
crenated or nodulous perpendicular ribs. Jamai¬
ca.
30. A. ovate, with broad, crenated, or {oddy, campeachU
pendicular ftriae j hinge arched. Campeachy bay and enjis.
Barbadoes.
31. A. broad, cancellated, truncated before j flatten-/^,
ed fide heart-fhaped.
32. A. ovate, longitudinally grooved, with Vdgfntfenegalen-
tranfverfe wrinkles 5 white j 8 lines long, 10 broadv/£r.
Africa.
D. Margin crenated; beak injle&ed
33. A. lenticular, without ears, fmooth, with a undata.
plaited margin; 2 inches long, 2 broad. American
ocean.
34. A. lenticular, flightly eared, with flightly \xn-peCiuncu-
bricated grooves 5 margin plaited j ii inch long, lus.
and fomething broader. American ocean and Red
fea.
35* lenticular, without ears, with fmooth, \onpi-pediinaiat
tudinal ftriae. American ocean.
* A. luborbicular, gibbous, and faintly ftriatedglycymeris
tranfverfely. European and Indian feas, Cornwall.
Area Pilcfa, Montagu.
37. A. fuborbicular,. equilateral, hairy j i£ inchespilofa.
long, 2| broad. Afiatic and American feas.
38. A. roundiflx, fmooth, flightly eared, and tranf-nummaria.
verfely ftriated. Mediterranean.
* 39- A.
nucleus.
rhomboi¬
ds a.
tnarmora-
ta.
angulofa.
Jbapha.
maxima.
jacolaa.
%ic%oc.
Jlriatula.
cninuta.
pleuronec-
tes.
laurentii.
japonic a.
* 39’ ^ obliquely ovate, fmobtMfh, with a triangular
hinge j fize of a hazel nut. European feas. It is
fometimes found foiTil. Shores of Britain.
40. A. entirely white, rhomboid, heart-fhaped, and
ribbed •, anterior and dorfal ribs knotty ; beaks remote.
Indian and American oceans.
41. A. equilateral, thin, flattifh, with fine decuffa-
ted ftriae ; beaks approximate j hinge arched. Ameri¬
can ocean.
42. A. ventricofe, with longitudinal ftriae and lines j
and angular on one fide 5 beaks approximate : hinge
arched 5 brown with a few fpots. Shores of Africa and
American ocean.
_ 43- A. oblong, much deprefled, ftriated 5 beak
{lightly prominent. Ceylon.
Gen. 14. OsrREA, Oyjler.
<Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys; the (hell bi¬
valve, generally with unequal valves, and (lightly
eared *, hinge without teeth, but furniftied with an
ovate hollow, and moftly lateral, tranfverfe grooves.
Species.
A. Valves furnifhed with ears, and radiated. The Sc allop.
a. Equilateral; ears of the valves equal.
* I. O. with 14 or 15 rounded ribs, longitudinally
grooved, with fine tranfverfe ftriae *, 5 inches long, 5!-
broad : ears large, with decuflated ftriae j lower valve
convex, white, often varied with red bands or fpots;
upper valve flat, reddifti. Found in large beds in moft
European feas, where they are dredged up, pickled,
and barrelled for fale. It is faid, that the greateft quan¬
tity is taken after a fall of fnow. This is the ihell
worn formerly by pilgrims on the hat or coat, as a mark
that they had crofled the fea for the purpofe of pay¬
ing their devotions to the Holy Land ; in commemora¬
tion of this it is ftill preferved in the arms of many
families.
* 2. O. with about 14 angular and longitudinally rtri-
ated rays; upper valves flat, with rounded rays, which
are finely ftriated tranfverfely ; lower valve with angu¬
lar rays, which are ftriated longitudinally. Ears con¬
cave and fmooth on the upper fide. European feas.
Dorfetfhire, but rare.
3. O. w'ith 18 flattened rays: ears finely wrinkled ;
lower valve convex \ rays finely ftriated tranfverfely j
upper valve flat, with about twice as many angular
lines as there are rays. American ocean.
4. O. with 16 faint rays with tranfverfe membrana¬
ceous ftriae : margin very entire ; valves nearly equal¬
ly flat. Indian ocean.
.5. O. with 20 convex rays j lower valve white
and very convex •, upper valve rvhite, clouded with
brown, flatter and plaited. Indian ocean.
6. O. equivalve, with 12 doubled rays, and fmooth
on the outfide 5 4J- inches long, gaping at each end.
Indian ocean.
7. O upper valve fub-convex, with very fine per¬
pendicular lines, crofting very fine, concentric, tranf¬
verfe ftriae ; lower valve with 48 rays, and 48 ftrise
within 5 24 inches long, about the fame breadth. S.
America. Rare.
8. O. equivalve, a little convex, margined with yel¬
low ; upper valve with faint lines crofting tranfverfe con¬
centric bands, and 48 elevated ftriae within 5- inches
long, about^the fame breadth. Guinea and Japan.
9. O. equivalve, glabrous, with oblong crowded ftrise ; magellani.
upper valve more convex, lower flatter than in moft ca.
others. Straits of Magellan.
10. O. with 9 or 10 rays 5 the interftices longitu-
dinally ftriated : margin repand within. Norway feas.v
11. O. nearly equivalveq with 12 convex rnysradula.
crofted by crenated ftriae 5 3^ inches long, 2-§- broad.
Indian ocean.
1 2. O. equivalve, flattifti, with 9 unequal rays, im- imbricate.
bricated with feales. Red lea.
13. O. roundilh with 9 convex chefnut rays 5 earsfubrotunda
roundilh, white with a yellowilh border } 1$ inches
long, 2 broad.
14. O. nearly equivalve, with 16 convex fmoothifhplica
rays, and ftriated acrofs j li inch long, 1 inch broad.
India.
15. O. roundilh with convex rays, outer ones finely crenata.
ftriated longitudinally $ margin deeply crenated ; ears
tranfverfely ftriated.
16. O. ovate with numerous fine ftrise $ margin cre-yfoott/ftf.
nated within.
17. O. oblong with fcaly rays j the interftices hroad-fquamofa,
er, and marked with perpendicular ftrite } ears wrink¬
led perpendicularly.
18. O. roundilh, with 18 rays imbricated with feales j duhin.
ears ftriated tranfverfely ; ^ inch long.
* 19.O. with 20 fmooth rays, the interftices tranf-yirJ’r/y'tf.
verfely ftriated 5 margin crenated ; 2 inches long, and
the fame breadth. Shores of Britain.
20. O. flattened, with 18 fmooth rays, the interftices verf color,
cancellated.
21. O. rounded with 5 rays j middle-fized. rofea.
22. O. brown with flat rays which difappear to-fufea.
wards the hinge j lower valve convex, upper flat. In¬
dian ocean.
23. O. thin, flat, purple, with very minute perpen- tenuis.
dicular ftriae crofting circular tranfverfe ones } the ftriae
are elevated within.
24. O. thin, pale yellow, with thick rays. lutea.
25. O. roundilh, white, with a mixture of iaEroxi', muricata,
the rays convex, and finely and fharply muricated j 2~
inches long.
26. O. roundilh, tawney, dotted with white and black; confperfa,
the rays thick.
27. O. roundilh, brown, with black tranfverfe Xmes nodulofa.
and dots j rays convex and knotty.
28. O. thin, whitilh, rofy, with white ftripes j rays radiata.
convex.
29. O. oblong, pale yellow, fpotted with white ;pun&ata.
beaks varied with white and brown j rays crenated }
2 inches long.
30 O. roundilh, thin, varied with rofy and whitilh j aculeata.
rays thick with aculeate feales.
31. O. thin, flat, white, with a faffron edge j roysplana.
round and broad.
32. O. oblong, red, minutely ftriated. puflla.
33. O, convex on each fide, yellowilh within 5 raysftavefeens.
convex.
34. O. roundilh, deep red, with a white hinge andyf^/Aw*
few fpots 5 rays fmooth.
35. O. glabrous, refembling a fpondylus j but thefpondyloi-
ears are equal, des.
36. O.
i
Jhap. IV.
iulacea. 36. O. fkttifii on each fide j outfide brown, infide
violet. Mediterranean.
urantia. 37. O. roundilh, plaited, and finely ftriated longi¬
tudinally $ a white femicircular band towards the
hinge.
38. O. within purple, without alternate brown and
red bands; rays convex.
39. O. white with confluent red fpots 5 rays rough;
convex valve, with tranfverfe, crifp lamellae j 1 ^ inch
ittata.
liniata.
ijlata.
illiurn.
\ngmno-
nta.
laculofa.
odofa.
fe/is.
1 -Uucens,
nherota.
nguinea.
iria.
long, l\ broad.
40. O. convex on each fide j clofed, oblong, pellucid $
32 rays; twice as long as it is broad. A rare fhell.
b. Ears unequal> one of them generalhj ciliated, with
/pines within.
41. O. Ducal mantle. Equivalve, with 12 convex
rays, ftriated, rough, and imbricated with fcales ; red,
varied with brown and white ; ears ftriated, crenated
or fcaly. India.
42. O. equivalve, with 9 thick obtufe rays 5 inter-
ftices longitudinally ftriated, tuberculated and prickly.
Red fea.
43. O. equivalve, pale yellow, with tawney fpots j
rays 12, thick and flattifti; ears white, with traniverfe
fcaly ribs.
44. O. with 9 rays, covered with apparently veficular
tubercles. American and African oceans.
45. O. with 9 ftriated rough rays 5 ©ne of the ears
very fmall.
46. O. nearly equivalve, with 9 rays ; fmooth, with
fpoon-like hemifpherical fcales on the lower valve ; mi¬
nute, pellucid ; upper valve fpotted with red. African
feas.
47. O. fmooth on the outfide, with 24 double rays.
Indian ocean.
48. O. equivalve, with 22 rays 5 ears fmall ; 2
inches long, broad. Mediterranean and Atlantic
feas.
*
jw
‘■ole (a.
vis.
abra.
Ir
49. O. equivalve •, rays about 30; compreffed, and
befet with tranfverfe, prickly fcales \ one ear very
fmall 5 2^ inches long, 2 broad. European feas, coaft
of Eritain.
* 50. O. equivalve, rays about 40, filiform j furface
often irregular or diftorted 5 2 inches long, i-i- broad.
European and American feas, Cornwall.
* 51. O. equivalve, femi-tranfparent, fmooth ^ dark
purple } with 8 nearly obfolete rays j ^ inch long.
Britilh coafts.
52. O. fmooth j ears red j -gAnc1n kmg* Anglefea,
Falmouth.
53. O. ears nearly equal, equivalve, fmooth, with
from 10 to 15 fmooth flattifti rays 5 infide with eleva¬
ted double fir iceq 2 inches long, 2 broad. European
and American feas.
rculans* 54. Q. rays 20; roundifh and rough, with decuffa-
ted ftriae j upper valve a little more convex ; 2^- inches
diameter. North feas, Devonlhire and Cornwall,
where it is called frill or queen.
55. O. equivalve, gibbous, with 20 glabrous rays.
American feas.
56. O. white, with flefli-coloured fpots ; rays gla¬
brous, 32 on the lower valve, 35 on the upper 5 i-J-
inch long. Malabar.
57. O. thin, flattened, pellucid, with fine tranfverfe
wrinkles, and 11 rays which are waved.
%a.
cata.
mica.
CONCHO LOGY. 415
58. o. orbicular, with purple circles, and about roo icdandica*
rays j 3^ inches long, 33 broad. Mediterranean. The
filh of this fpecies is employed as food.
59. O. equivalve, glabrous, immaculate, with minute triradiata*
ftriae 5 upper valve with 3 rays. Norway feas.
60. O. nearly equivalve, ftriated, fpotted, rough to-fuci.
wards the margin. Found on the fucus faccharinus in
the North feas.
61. O. nearly equivalve, ftriated, glabrous, red, with tigerina*.
whitilh fpots. On fuci in the North feas.
62. O. nearly equivalve 3 ftriated, glabrous, rays qyfeptemra-
convex. North feas. ' diata.
63. O. nearly equivalve 3 within and without grooved arata,
and red 3 one part rough, the other glabrous. North
feas.
64. O. convex on each fide, with 22 rounded trz.n{-fenatoria,
verfe, wrinkled rays 3 interftices with longitudinal,
granulated ftriae 3 2^ inches long. Indian ocean.
65. O. orange, with 22 rounded rays, and plaited citrina.
margin 3 lower valve flatter. India.
66. O. equally convex, both fides with 20 glabrous
rays 3 interftices with tranfverfe, crowded wrinkles 3
margin with plaited teeth. Indian and American feas.
67. O. flattened, thin, pellucid, flriated with mx-fulphurea,
merous imbricated rays 3 margin with crenated plates ,
2 inches long. Red fea.
68.0. convex, purple, within, white or red, with porphyria,
25 thick, rounded fcaly rays 3 2^ inches long. Red
fea.
69. O. hyaline, with an acute margin, very {lender vitrea.
rays, and concentric fcaly curves. North feas.
70. O. with 20 rounded rays 3. interftices finely wxin- tranqueba-
kled 3 margin repand 3 upper valve more convex, ria.
Tranquebar.
71. O. white, with purple fpots, and numerous xxn-fauciata,
equal rays 3 margin crenated. Red fea.
72. O. oblong, with undulated rays and ftriae 3 zodcrenulala,
tranfverfe, interrupted bands 3 a fmall (hell 3 margin
crenulated.
73. O. roundifh, fpotted 3 with deep grooves Eoo\y innomina~
ftriated tranfverfely : margin crenulated. Small. ta.
74. O. roundifh, pale, rufous, with 24 rays 3 earsrufefcens.
with decuffated ftriae ; middle-fized.
75. O. roundifh 3 rays thick, with diftant ya.r:d[\e\fqiiamata,
fcalcs, and prickly at the fides.
76. O. rather oblong, with narrow fcaly rays 3 in- anonyma,
terftices broader, and ftriated perpendicularly : ears
perpendicularly wrinkled.
77. O. flattened, with 10 fmooth, flat, unequal rays^decemra*
ears tranfverfely ftriated. diata.
78. O. thin, with depreffed, fcaly rays3 ears ftioxt.tenuis.
India, and North feas.
79. O. with 20 rays, and tranfverfe, femilunar bands. valentiL
India.
80. O. oblong, with crowded rays, middle-fized, media.
reddifh.
81.O. faffron-coloured, with muricatcd fcaly rays rrocetf„
alternately lefsj fmall.
82. O. roundifh, white, with rofy fpots, radiated ‘,jlorida.
fmall.
83. O. oblong, ochraceous, with rays fmooth on one ochroleuca
part, and granulated on the other 3 minute.
84. O. pale, tawney, with yellow fpots and bands, mnjlclina.
and fmooth rays 3 ears tranfverfely ftriated j inches
long.
85. (X
416 CONCH
\flatnmea. 85. O. fafFron-coloured, oblong, with fine perpendi¬
cular ftrhe j very minute.
zncarnata. 86. O. oblong, flefli-coloured, with interrupted red
bands, and flattened rays.
guttata. 87. O. yellowifli, rounded, dotted with red ; rays
unequally converging at the hinge.
deprejfa. 88. O. ochraceous, with flat bifid rays j 1 inch
iong.
regia. 89. O. roundifh, deep-red, with rounded rays.
palliata. 90. O. equivalve, w ith numerous fmooth rays : is
lefs round, and has fewer rays, than ojlrea pallium,
feminuda. 91. O. orange, oblong, muricated, with fcales as far
as the middle j rays 22 ; inch long, broad.
modejla. 92. O. roundiih, hoary, with brownifh, reddifh, and
bluifh fpots •, intertficcs of the rays broad j 2 filiform
bands at the hinge.
principalis. 93. O. purple, with a brown margin j rays fcaly from
the middle, and fmooth at the hinge.
'ver/icolor. 94. O. variegated, with pectinated fmooth rays.
c. Valves more gibbous on one Jide.
Jlavicans. 95. O. nearly equivalve, with 8 ftriated rays : mar¬
gin rounded on one fide. South fea.
fof data. 96. O. equivalve, with 20 rough rays $ interftices
ftriated ; ears equal, fmall. Atlantic feas.
fragilis. 97. O. equivalve, w ith 25 raysj margin very entire j
ears acute j 1^ inch long. Nicobar iflands.
lima. 98. O. equivalve, with 22 imbricated fcaly rays,
rounded at one margin j ears obliterated ; 3 inches
long, 2t broad. Mediterranean and Indian feas.
glacialis. 99. O. with 50 imbricated, interrupted rays 5 ears
equal; one of them unequally plaited. American 0-
cean.
hians. 100. O. whilith, thin, gaping on each fide, and ob¬
lique, with obfolete, undulated rays, and tranfverfe,
rounded, femilunar llriae j 1-^ inch long, | broad. Nor¬
way.
excavata. iot. O. dirty white, with longitudinal, undulated
ftrise, and a few tranfverfe rings j one ear obfolete j
margin entire j 5 inches long-3-J broad. Norway.
B. Rough, and generally plaited on the outjide. OYSTERS.
malleus. 102. O. equivalve, 3-lobed, 2 of them placed tranf-
verfely like the head of a hammer ; 6 inches long, and
4^ broad. Deep parts of the Indian and Southern
oceans. Very rare.
vulfella. 103. O. fub-pellucid, narrow', elongated, lamel-
lated ; one end rounded j 3-§- inches long, 1 broad.
Red fca.
anatina. 104. O. pellucid, lamellated, and laterally incurved j
1 inch broad, and including the curvature, 3 inches
long. Nicobar iflands.
dduviana. 103. O. plaited on the outfide j margin with ereCl,
acute, angular teeth ; fize of a common oyfler ; found
in a foffil flate in the calcareous mountains of Sweden.
folium. 106. O ovate, obtufely plaited at the fides ; para-
fitical j found adhering to gorgonia in the Indian
ocean.
orbicula- 107. O. orbicular, flat, with an entire crenated mar-
ris. gin j fize of the end joint of the thumb.
edulis. 108. O. eatable or common oyjler; orbicular and
rugged, with undulated, imbricated fcales •, one valve
flat, and very entire. European and Indian feas.—It
is found, either in large beds, or adhering to rocks.
The (hell is of various fizes, forms, and colours j \vith-
O L O G Y, Chap, IV
in wdiite, and often glofiy, and of a pearly appearance.
The old fhells have often an anomia fixed to them, and
they are frequently covered with the ferpula and lepas,
and the fertularia and other zoophytes.
The common oyfter has been long known as a nu- 0. r,
tritious food, and indeed in moff countries is greatly ployed as
efteemed as a delicate luxury of the table. The oy-icod.
fter is fuppofed by naturalifts to be a hermaphrodite
animal. The fpawn which they call in May, adheres
to the rocks and other fubftances at the bottom of the
fea ; and the fliell, it is fuppofed, is formed in the
fpaee of 24 hours, and which, according to fome,
never leaves the fpot till removed by violence. But
from the obfervations of M. Dicquemare, who has
particularly ftudied the economy of the oyfter, it ap¬
pears that it poffelfes the power of moving from place
to place, and that it varies its habits according to cir-
cumftances. Oyfters which are recently taken up from
places which are left dry by the fea open their fhell,
lofe their water, and die in a few days. But the
fame oyfters kept in refervoirs, where they are left oc-
cafionally by the fea, expofed to the rays of the fun,
to fevere cold, or are difturbed in their beds, acquire
the habit of keeping the {hell clofe when they are un¬
covered with water, and exift without injury from this
treatment for a long time. The oyfter ftiould be frelh,
tender, and moift. Thofe which are moft efteemed are
caught at the mouths of rivers, and in clear water.
The want of frefti water, it is faid, renders oyfters
hard, bitter, and unpalatable. Mud and fea weeds
are extremely injurious to the propagation and increafe
of the oyfter. Other fhell fifti, and cruftaceous animals,
as muflels, fcallops, ftar-fifti and crabs, are their moft
deftruftive enemies. ^
Oyfters are of different colours in different places: in Of differenl
Spain they are found of a red and ruffet colour j in Illy- kinds,
ria brown, with the fifh black, and in the Red fea of the
colour of the iris. The green oyfter, which is eaten in
Paris, is brought from Dieppe. This colour is aferibed
to the verdure which encompaffes the bed on which they
are produced. The oyfters from Britanny in France,
too, have been long famous $ but thofe which are brought
from Marennes in Saintogne, are inhigheft eftimation.
The oyfters which are edged with a fmall brown fringe
or beard, are generally preferred. Thefe are account¬
ed by the epicures fecundated oyjlers.
In tropical regions, the common oyfler is found at- Adhere to I
tached to trees. 'Phis affertion of the grow th of oyf- trees in
ters on trees has been often ranked among the exag-warm
gerated or groundlefs ftories of the marvellous travel-
ler $ but this circumftance, when properly explained,
will not appear different from the ufual economy of
this teftaceous animal. In warm climates where vege¬
tation is fo much more luxuriant than in northern lati¬
tudes, a great variety of plants, among which are feen
large trees, grow on the Ihores to the very edge of the
fea j and particularly on thofe places w hich are ftiel-
tered from the agitation of the waves. In fuch places,
at the heads of bays and harbours, great abundance of
mangrove trees grow up from the bottom, where it is
feveral feet deep, covered with water. It is generally
on the mangrove tree that the oyfter is found in the
Weft Indies. Without the trouble of picking them
from the trees, the branches growing under water- to
which they are attached, are cut off, carried home in,
ba/kets,
CON C H O L O G Y..
iap. IV.
bafkets, and in this {late tjrought to table, where they
are either eaten raw, or roafted, as the European oyf-
ter. We have eaten oyfters which were produced in
this way, in the lagoons at the head of Port Morant
harbour in Jamaica, a few minutes after they were ta¬
ken from the water. They were of a fmall fize, but
extremely delicate and high flavoured.
Britain has been noted for oyfters from the time of
Juvenal, who, fatirizing Montanus an epicure, fays,
    Circceis nata forent, an
Lucrinum adfaxum, Rutupinove edita fundo,
OJlrea, callebat primo deprendere morfu.
He,, whether Circe’s rock his oyfters bore,
Or Lucrine lake, or diftant Richborough’s fliore,
Knew at lirft tafte.
The luxurious Romans were very fond of this fifh,
and had their layers or ftews for oyfters as we have at
prefent. Sergius Grata was the firft inventor, as early
•lant's as the time of L. Craffus the orator. Pie did not make
Zoo/. theni for the fake of indulging his appetite, but through
1V‘ avarice, and made great profits from them. Grata got
A’ great credit for his Lucrine oyfters j for, fays Pliny,
the Britiih were not then known.
The ancients ate them raw, having them carried up
unopened, and generally eating them at the beginning
of the entertainment, but fometimes roafted. P'hey
alfo ftewed them with mallows and ducks, or with
4i filh.
ers of Britain ftill retains its fuperiority in oyfters over
!ln• other countries. Moft of our coafts produce them
naturally ; and in fuch places they are taken by dredg¬
ing, and are become an article of commerce, both raw
and pickled. The {hells calcined are employed in me¬
dicine as an abforbent, and in common with other {hells,
prove an excellent manure.
Stews or layers of oyfters are formed in places
which nature never allotted as habitations for them.
Thofe near Colchefter have been long famous j at pre¬
fent there are others that at leaft rival the former, near
the mouth of the Thames. The oyfters, or their fpats,
are brought to convenient places, where they improve
in tafte and fize. It is an error to fuppofe, that the
fine green obferved in oyfters taken from artificial beds,
is owing to copper •, this fubftance, or the folution of
it, is deftru&ive to all fifh. The following is the ac¬
count of the whole treatment of oyfters, from Bilhop
Sprat’s Hiftory of the Royal Society, from p. 307 to
309.
“ In the month of May the oyfters call their fpawn,
(which the dredgers call their Jpats) : it is like to a
drop of candle, and about the bignefs of a half¬
penny. The fpat cleaves to ftones, old oyfter-fhells,
pieces of wood, and fuch like things, at the bottom
of the fea, which they call cu/tch. It is probably
eonje&ured, that the fpat in 24 hours begins to have
a {hell. In the month of May, the dredgers "(by the
law of the admiralty court) have liberty to catch all
manner of oyfters, of what fize foever. When they
have taken them, with a knife they gently raife the
fmall brood from the cultch, and then they throw
the cultch in again, to preferve the ground for the
future, unlefs they be fo newly fpat, that they can¬
not be fafely fevered from the cultch 5 in that cafe
they are permitted to take the {tone or {hell, &c. that
Vol, VI. Part II. '•»
the fpat is upon, one {hell having many times 25
fpats. After the month of May, it is felony to carry
away the cultch, and punilhable to take any olher
oyfters, unlefs it be thofe of fize, (that is to fay) about
the bignels of a half-crown piece, or when, the two
{hells being {hut, a fair {hilling will rattle between
them.
“ The places where thefe oyfters are chiefly catch-
ed, are called the Perti-Burn/iam, Malden, and Colne-
•waters; the latter taking its name from the river of
Colne, which pafleth by Colchefter, gives name to
that town, and runs into a creek of the fea, at a
place called the Hythe, being the fuburbs of the
town. This brood and other oyfters they carry to
the creeks of the fea, at Bricklefea, Merfy, Langno,
Fingrego, Wivenho, Tolefbury, and Saltcoafe, and
there throw them into the channel, which they call
their beds or layers, where they grow and fatten ; and
in two or three years the fmalleft brood will be oyfters
of the fize aforefaid. Thofe oyfters which they would
have green, they put into pits about three feet deep
in the fait marfties, which are overflowed only at
fpring-tides, to which they have lluices, and let out
the fait water until it is about a foot and a half deep.
Thefe pits from fome quality in the foil co-operating
with the heat of the fun, will become green, and
communicate their colour to the oyfters that are put
into them in four or five days, though they commonly
let them continue there fix weeks or two months, in
which time they will be of a dark green. To prove
that the fun operates in the greening, Tolefbury pits
will green only in fummer j but that the earth hath
the greater power, Bricklefea pits green both winter
and fummer : and for a further proof, a pit within
a foot of a greening pit will not green j and thofe
that did green very well, will in time lofe their qua¬
lity. The oyfters, when the tide comes in, lie with
their hollow {hell downwards \ and when it goes out,
they turn on the other fide ; they remove not far from
their place, unlefs in cold weather, to cover themfelves
in the oofe. The reafon of the fearcity of oyfters,
and confequently of their dearnefs, is, becaufe they
are of late years bought up by the Ducth.
There are great penalties by the admiralty court
laid upon thofe that fifh out of thofe grounds which
the court appoints, or that deftroy the cultch, or that
take any oyfters that are not of fize, or that do not
tread under their feet, or throw upon the ftiore, a fifh
which they call a five-finger, refembling a fpur-rowl,
becaufe that fifh gets into the oyfters when they gape,
and fucks them out.
“ The reafon that fuch a penalty is fet upon any
that {hall deftroy the cultch, is, becaufe they find
that if that be taken away, the oofe will increafe
and the mufcles and cockles will breed there, and de¬
ftroy the oyfters, they having not whereon to ftick
their fpat.
“ The oyfters are fick after they have fpat ; but in
June and July they begin to mend, and in Auguft
they are perfectly w-ell; the male oyfter is black-fick,
having a black fubftance in the fin •, the female white-
fick (as they term it), having a milky fubftance in the
fin. They are fait in the pits, falter in the layers, but
falteft at fea.”
The oyfter affords the curious in microfcopic obfer-
3 G vations
4i S C O N C I! O L O G Y. Chap. 1\
42 vations a very pleafing entertainment. In the clear li-
y,iquit| a- qUor many little round living animalcules have been
oyfterften founc^> whole bodies being conjoined, form fpherical
with the mi-figures, with tails, not changing their place otherwife
crofcope. than by finking to the bottom, as being heavier than
the fluid ; thefe have been feen frequently feparating,
and then coming together again. In other oyfters,
animalcules of the fame kind were found, not conjoin¬
ed, but fwimming by one another, whence they feem-
ed in a more perfedi ftate, and were judged by Mr
Leeuwenhoek to be the animalcules in the roe or femen
of the oyfter.
A female oyfter being opened, incredible multitudes
of fmall embryo oyfters were feen, covered with little
fhells, perfedlly tranfparent, and fwimming along flow'-
ly in the liquor j and in another female, the young
ones were found of a browner colour, and without any
appearance of life or motion.
Monfieur Joblot alfo kept the water running from
oyfters three days, and it appeared full of young ey-
fters fwimming about nimbly in it j thefe increafed in
fize daily ; but a mixture of wine, or the vapour of vi¬
negar, killed them.
In the month of Auguft oyfters are fuppofed to
treed, becaufe young ones are then found in them.
Mr Leeuwenhoek, on the 4th of Auguft, opened an
oyfter, and took out of it a prodigious number of
minute oyfters, all alive, and fw imming nimbly about in
the liquor, by means of certain exceeding fmall organs,
extending a little way beyond their Ihells j and thefe he
calls their beards. In thefe little oyfters, he could dif-
cover the joinings of the (hells; and perceived that there
were fome dead ones, w ith their (hells gaping. Thefe,
though fo extremely minute, are feen to be as like the
large pyfters in form as one egg is to another.
As to the fize of them, he computes, that 120 of
them in a row would extend an inch; and confe-
quently, that a globular body, whofe diameter is an
inch, would, if they were alfo round, be equal to
1,728,000 of them. He reckons 3000 or 4000 are
in one oyfter, and found many of the embryo oyfters
among the beards; fome faftened thereto by (lender
filaments, and others lying loofe : he likewife found
animalcules in the liquor 500 times lefs than the em-
bryo-oyfters.
It is not uncommon to fee on oyfter-lhells, when in
a dark place, a (hining matter or bluifti light, which
(ticks to the fingers when touched, and continues ftiin-
ing and giving light for a confiderable time, though
without any fenfible heat. This (hining matter being
examined with a microfcope, is faid to confift of three
forts of animalcules ; but it is more probable that it is
the phofphorefcent light which fepar"tes from animal
matters, particularly filh, in the incipient ftage of the
putrefaftive procefs.
-Jsmiaura- 109. O. oval, (lightly eared, fmooth, with an ob-
ia. lique bafe; inch long, li broad. Mediterra¬
nean.
Jiriata. * no. O. oval, with longitudinal, irregular, undula¬
ted filiform ridges ; infide fmooth, gloffy white, with
a pearly hue. European feas, (bores of Britain.
fornicata. j 11. O. rough, oblong, linear, with divergent hinges;
internally vaulted. Red fea.
JinenJis. 112. O. rough, lamellated, unequal, and glabrous
w ithin ; lower valve large; 4 inches long. Chinefe
(hores.
113. O. equivalve, pellucid, flattened, oval, withjpvndyloi
perpendicular, undulated Arise on the upper valve: dea.
3 inches long, 2^ broad. India,
114. O. plaited, and terminating in a long, incurved,forJkaMl
hollow beak; middle ribs with imbricated, fpinous
wrinkles; 2 inches long, and 1 broad. Red fea.
115. O. with longitudinal, wrinkled plaits; lowerp/icatuk
valve fmaller and flatter; varies much in (hape and
fize. American and Mediterranean feas.
1x6. O. oblong, rugged; upper valve lamellated,ro/?rtf/a,
with a denticulated margin ; the knver excavated, and
longitudinally grooved. Mediterranean.
117. O. nearly equivalve, thick, rough, lamellous ; viriginic
one valve with a prominent beak ; 9 inches long, and
4 broad. American and Indian oceans.
118. O. upper valve flat, lower one, hollow and &.xi-cornuccp
ated ; rough w ith fcales, wrinkles and plaits, and ter¬
minating in an elongated beak. Indian and African
oceans.
119. O. thin; lower valve convex and thicker; the parafitc,
other flat. Atlantic and Indian feas.—This fpecies,
like the common oyfter, fixes itfelf to the roots and
branches of trees, particularly the mangrove, which
grow out of the water. It varies in form and fize,
and is often as large as the palm of the hand.
120. O. thin; upper valve longer and more con-exalbiis
vex. Adriatic.—It is found fixed to other (hells.
121. O. rugged, with imbricated lamellae ; margin
with obtufely plaited teeth ; 1 inch long.
122. O. equivalve, roundilh, fmooth, flat; 2 inchesy^w^Wfiij
diameter. Shores of Senegal. Jls.
123. O. thin, depreffed, rough, unequal;. upper/W/<M.|j
valve ribbed ; ribs with a few fpines. Guinea.
124. O. oval, thin, terminating in a (liort, acute, ovalis.
lateral channelled beak ; ftriae perpendicular, unequal,
obfolete ; I inch long.
125. O. roundifti, fnow;y, thin pellucid; upper/w/yw
valve terminating in a (hort, acute beak.
126. O. equivalve, orbicular, white, with concentric
femicircles. North feas.
127. O. equivalve, oblong, white, glabrous, {{via-retvfa.
ted ; with an umbo or knot remote from the hinge.
North feas.
C. Hinge with a perpendicular groaned line.
128. O. equivalve, obovate, unequal, rounder aiperna,
one end ; 2-J inches long ; has fome refemblance to a
gammon of bacon. Indian and American feas.
129. O. equivalve, with a larger lobe, forming aifogonw
right angle with the hinge ; from 5 to 7 inches long,
and x-J broad in the middle; (hell blackifti, violet
without, pearly within. Indian ocean and South feas.
Is a rare (hell. ,|
130. O. equivalve, orbicular, compreffed, membra-
naceous ; 5 inches long, 5-^ broad. Indian ocean and
Cape of Good Hope. Very rare.
131. O. equivalve, thin, pellucid, and pointed aXpi^o.
the hinge ; the other end dilated; margin acute ; 2
inches long, more than an inch broad. Red fea.
132. Q. flat, hoary, thin, pellucid, lamellated ; m-Iegutnu
terftices of the grooves black ; 2 inches long, 4 lines
broad. Nicobar iflands.
133- Q.
/
419
mf
torta
pH’
Chap. IV.   CONCH
Jnto. I33- flat, brittle, pellucid } dilated towards the
rt’ ’ margin. America.
til aide134- O- nearly equivalve, ovate, ventrieofe, ftraight.
1^5. O. equivalve, intorted.—This and the preced¬
ing Ipecies are found foflil in Alface.
, lutr(£, 136. O. equivalve, fmooth, wedge-flraped with 6
obtufe plates, varied with purpliflr and white, and
marked with fine longitudinal itriae ; margin {lightly
fcalloped.
Gem 15. AnoMIA.
Ainlnia. Gen. C/«7r.—-The animal is a ligula or ftrap-ftraped
body, emarginated and ciliated *, the briftles being
fixed to the upper valve. There are two linear
arms, longer than the body, open, firetched out, al¬
ternate on the valve, ciliated on both fides \ the hairs
are fixed to both valves; the (hell is inequivalve ;
one valve being rather flat, the other more gibbous
at the bafe, with a produced beak, generally curved
over the hinge •, one of the valves is often perforat¬
ed at the bafe j the hinge is without teeth. A fmall
linear fear appears prominent, with a lateral tooth
placed within ; but on the very margin of the flat
valve. There are twro bony rays for the bafe of
the animal.
Species.
cmiolarit 1. A. orbicular •, the gibbous valve conico-convex,
flat valve with three hollows at the bafe $ 1 inch long,
4 broad. Mediterranean feas and Philippine iflands.
It is fometimes found foflil.
peBinata. 2. A. oblong, with branched grooves •, the gibbous
valve with two hollows behind. An inch long, \ broad 5
flat valve perforated. Mediterranean.
ephippium. * 3. A. roundifh, pellucid, with wrinkled plates^ flat
valve perforated} diameter fometimes 34' inches, moft
frequently about 2. European and American feas,
{bores of Britain.—It is often found adhering to the
common oyfter. Mr Montagu thus accounts, for the
perforation in thefe (hells. The teflaceous plug, he ob¬
serves, by which the animal fixes itfelf to other bodies,
is firmly attached by ftrong ligaments to thefe bodies,
and fo clofely cemented, that they become infeparable.
When, therefore, the {hell is torn from its native place,
the plug is left behind upon the {tone or other (hell to
which it adhered.
fapa. * 4. A. obovate, unequal, violet} upper valve convex *,
lower perforated. European and American feas, fliores
of Britain.
(leBrica. 5. A. roundifh, yellow, fmooth one valve convex
and gibbous ; very thin. Coafts of Africa.
fauamula. * 6. A. fmall, orbicular, entire, thin like the fcale of
a fifh. European feas, Britain.
patellifor- 7. A. ovate, convex, fubdiaphanous, ftriated j pofte-
nis. rior beak recurved and fmooth. North feas.
fcobinata. 8. A. roundilh, fmooth, and rough within j beak
perforated
ourita, 9. A. fub-ovate, rtriated, and {lightly eared; beak
perforated. Norway feas.
retufa. 10. A. obovate, ftriated, retufe with a longitudinal
cavity j beak perforated. Nonvay feas, adhering to
zoophytes.
gryphus. 11. A. oblong, fmooth, with an obfolete lateral
plate on one valve, and incurved ^eak j the other
O L O G Y.
valve (hort and flattifti. Frequently found in a fulfil
ftate.
12. A. femiorbicular, depreffed, with numerous
one valve flat. Found in a foflil ftate.
13* A. roundifh, and a little dilated j gibbous onjinatu/a*
each fide j ftriated j valves equal. Has been only
found foffil.
14. A. fuborbicular, obfoletely ftriated hinge trim-1 rune at a.
cated. European feas.
15. A. heart-fhaped, with decuffated ftriae j ftymtex reticularis.
valve more gibbous. Found foflil.
16. A. dilated, lunated, plaited with longitudinally
ftriated grooves. Found only in a foflil ftate.
17., A. dilated, triangular, plaited with w rinkled
grooves j the middle broader. Found foflil in Eng¬
land and Switzerland,
18. A. roundifti, with numerous grooves; valveslacunofa.
plaited at the tip; one of them Ihorter and pitted.
Found only in a foflil ftate.
19. A. obovate, grooved; beak of one valve ovai-pub ejeens*
nent, the other gaping ; about the fize of a cucumber
feed, covered with fmall, eredl, diftant hairs, Nor¬
way feas.
* 20. A. conic, pointed, grooved; one valve convex cufpidata.
with an incurved beak ; the other pyramidal writh a
large triangular foramen. Found in Derbyfhire in a
foflil ftate.
21. A. roundiflr w ith numerous grooves ; the valvesfar£la.
convex, and 8-toothed at the tip. Found foflil in Swit¬
zerland and Weftphalia.
22. A. obovate, ftriated downy; one valve with acaput-fer-
longer perforated beak. Norway feas. It is generally/>e«/2j-,
found adhering to the madrepora prolifera.
23. A. obovate, fmooth, convex; one valve v/ith terebratu-
three plates; the other with two; the beak of one la.
valve prominent and perforated. Found frequently in
a foflil ftate. /
24. A. with comprefled plates at the fides of the \>a[e,angulata.
anteriorly ; the middle three-toothed. Found foflil.
25. A. dilated, fmooth, convex; ftriated with abo\\\. liyfierita.
3 lobes ; anterior part depreffed, with an acute margin.
Found foflil in Germany.
26. A. two-lobed, equal, ftriated. Only found foflil.
27. A. orbicular, flat, pellucid ; hinge with two l\-placenta.
near callofities growing within the fhell; 5 inches dia¬
meter. Indian ocean.
28. A. nearly quadrangular, convex, and nearly
clofed ; bronzed ; margin repand ; 7 inches diameter.
Indian ocean.
* 29. A. covered with fpines as long as the fatlh,fpinofa.
England, in a foflil ftate. -
30. A. roundift), prickly; crown fmooth and recur-aculeata.
ved behind ; lower valve flat, fmooth, and perforated
at the crowm. Nonvay feas.
31. A. hyaline, ventricofe ; crown bent towards tbemuricata.
right; upper valve longitudinally ftriated ; lower valve
flat, very thin, and the circumference of the perfora¬
tion elevated. Guinea.
32. A. oblong, with a rounded margin ; one valvefquama.
flat, thin, fmooth, with a large ovate perforation at the
tip ; the other convex, and longitudinally ftriated. Seas
of Norway.
33. A. orbicular, hyaline, thin, pun&ured ; flat valyepunclata.
perforated at the tip; fmall, brittle. Ferro iflands.
3 G 2 . 34- A.
420 CONCH
undulata. * 34. A. margin crenated ; flat valve thin and fmcoth,
with a large oval perforation j convex valve with tranf-
verfe arched ftriae, crofling undulated longitudinal ones*
Mediterranean, North feas, Devonlhire.
capenjts. 35. A. longitudinally ftriated, a little truncated j
with a rounded notched margin. C. of G. Hope.
detruncata 36. A. truncated, orbicular, longitudinally liriated j
flat valve with three ribs within j other valve longi¬
tudinally ftriated within, and divided by a partition in
the middle* Mediterranean.
fanguino- 37. A. horny, fmooth, and convex on each lide *,
lenta. upper valve emarginated, and radiated at the Tides,
with an elevated fanguineous back. India.
Vilrea. 38. A. ovate, ventrieofe, hyaline j lower valve with
two bony rays at the hinge, befides lateral teeth j upper
valve with a prominent perforated tip j inch long,
I inch broad. Mediterranean.
cranium. 39, A. fmooth, ventricofe, finely ftriated tranf-
verfely j inch broad, fomething longer. Norway feas.
dorfata. 40. A. heart-lhaped, folid, with arched tranfverfe
ring and wrinkles, and longitudinal ftriae and grooves.
Magellanic feas.—Is often found foffil.
pjitiacea. 41. A. horny and finely ftriated longitudinally j
fhorter valve gibbous j longer one flat, with an incur¬
ved tip, triangularly perforated 5 rather large, pellucid.
Greenland. Very rare.
tridentata, 42. A. yellowifh, pellucid, thin, finely ftriated
tranfverfely ; tricufpidate with tubular points \ valves
united. Mediterranean.
fpondyloi- 43. A. ovate, antiquated, with anobtufe channelled
des. beak.
ventricofa. 44. A. fubovate, folid, with a channelled beak.
gryphoides 45. A. oval, fmooth, folid, opaque; lelfer valve
with a ftraight, obtufe, truncated beak.
Jlexuofa. 46. A. very thin, lamellated, hollowed in the mid¬
dle ; upper valve flat j lower valve convex towards the
crovm, with an orbicular perforation beneath it. Nor¬
way feas.
rugofa. 47. A. obovate ; upper valve convex and finely
wrinkled j lower valve thin and fmooth, with a kidney-
fhaped perforation. Norway feas.
cylindrica. 48. A. very thin, cylindrical, and narrowed out¬
wardly j upper valve gibbous, lower hollow. North
feas.
nucleus. 49. A. glabrous, oval, longitudinally grooved.
North feas.
avenacea. 50. A. pyriform, protra&ed, and flightly comprefled
towards the hinges. North feas.
fandaleum. 51. A. turbinated ; back flat, with a ftriated cavity 5
lid flat and hemifpherieal. Germany, in a foflil ftate.
44
Mytilus, Gen. 16. Mytilus, The MuJJel.
Gen. The animal is allied to an afeidia j the
fhell bivalve, rough, generally affixed by a byflusor
beard of filky filaments $ hinge moftly without
teeth, with generally a fubulate, excavated, longitu¬
dinal line.
Species.
A. Tarafitical, affixed as it were by claws.
vt'iJla-gaJli. I. M. plaited, fpinous 3 both lips rough. Indian
ocean and Red fea.
hyctis. 1. M. plaited and imbricated, with broad compreiTed
feales 3 both lips fmooth. Inhabits the ocean, on beds
#f coral.
O L Q G Y. Chap. IV,
3. M. plaited, fmoothifh j one lip rough. Americanyimf,
ocean.
B. Flat, or compreffied into a flattened form, and flight ly
eared.
4. M. Pearl-bearing nmffiel. Flattened, nearly gxW\-mar garni
cular, with a tranfverfe bafe 3 imbricated with toothedferns,
tunics. American and Indian feas.—This fpecies is a-
bout 8 inches long, and fomewhat broader 3 tire iniide
is finely polifhed, and produces the true mother-of-
pearl 3 and frequently alfo it affords the moft valuable
pearls. When the outer coat of the fliell, which is
fometimes fea-green, or chefnut with white rays, or
whitifh with green rays, is removed, it exhibits the
fame pearly luftre as the infide 3 the younger (hells
have ears as long as the ftiell, and refemble Icallops.
5. M. roundifh 3 longitudinally ftriated, pellucid,
and flightly eared. Mediterranean.
C. Vent ncofe or convex.
6. M. cylindrical 3 rounded at both ends. Euro- lithflm.
pean, American, and Indian feas. It is about an inchgus.
broad, and 3 long.—It perforates and eats away coral
rocks, and even the hardeft marbles. Thofe which
are found in Europe have a thin brittle (hell : the fhell
of thofe found in India is foft, and nearly coriaceous.
7. M. ihombic, oval, brittle, rugged, antiquated, nyvo/im
and round at the ends. Seas and lakes, north of
Europe.—It is ufually found lodged in limeftone 3 each
individual in a feparate apartment, with apertures too
fmall for the fhell to pafs through.
8. M. ftriated with vaulted knobs, and a white par-biloculam
tition. Nicobar illands.
9. M. convex 3 one of the margins angular; theexuflus.
anterior extremity crenated 3 inch long. Ameri¬
can ocean and Red fea.
10. M. fmoothifh 3 ferruginous on the outfide, and
bearded at the tip 3 ^ inch long. Mediterranean and
Norway feas. . A I
* 11. M. Eatable or common muffiel. Smooth, violet ’,edulis.
valves flightly recurved on the obtufe fide, and fome¬
what angular on the acute fide 3 beaks pointed 3 from
2 to 3 inches long. European and Indian fea.—This
fpecies is obferved to be larger within the tropics, and
to diminifh gradually towards the north. It is found
in large beds, and generally attaches itfelf to other
bodies by means of its long filky beard. The fifti is
employed as food in many parts of the world, and is
efteemed rich and nutritious.
* 12. M. very crooked on one fide near the beaks, incurmfn
then generally dilated 3 within with a violet tinge.
Coaft of Anglefea.
* 13. M. oval, tranfparent, and elegantly radiated/eZ/ff^i/a;.
lengthwife with purple and blue 3 two inches long.
Anglefea, in oyfter beds.
* 14. M. contrafted into a deep rugged cavity, o^o-urnbilica-
file the hinge, forming a deep hollow when the valves///j-.
are clofed 3 5 inches long. Anglefea.
* 15- M. fhort, ventricofe, obtufe at the beaks, andcurtus.
dirty yellows Weymouth.
16. M. fmooth, (lightly curved; hind margin m-ungulaius>
flefted; hinge terminal, two-toothed. Mediterranean,
Cape of Good Hope, .and New Zealand. Found at the
latter place refembling M. edulis i but is 5 inches long,
and broad.
17. M.
Chap.
tidcns.
tnodio/us. *
cygneus.
nnotinus.
viriJis.
ruber,
albus.
atcr.
iifcors,
Jirundo,
phiadis.
Jlriatulus.
vulgaris.
plicatus.
uiveus,
ofer.
fmaragd'.-
nus,
Uerfuclor.
corallio.
phagus,
Hneatus.
\v. CONCH
17. M. ftriated, {lightly curved; hind margin in-
flefted ; hinge terminal, two-toothed; fcarcely an inch
long. Mediterranean and Atlantic feas.
18. M. fmooth, blackidi, obtufe at the {mailer end,
and rounded at the other; one fide angular, near the
beaks ; from 6 to 7 inches long, 3 broad. European,
American, and Indian feas, Devonfhire, Weymouth.
* 19. M. ovate, very brittle, tranfverfely wrinkled ;
anterior end comprelled, the other rounded ; hinge
lateral; from 2 to j inches broad, and 3 long. Fre¬
quent in the lakes and rivers of Europe, Britain.—It
is the largeft of Britiflr frelh-water {hells. It arrives
at the greateft fize in ponds and fiagnant waters.
20. M. oval, a little comprefled ; brittle and femi-
tranfparent, with a membranaceous margin. Frefh
waters of Europe.—It refembles the laft, but is longer
and narrower. Ducks and crows, it is faid, are ex¬
tremely fond of both this and the laft fpecies.
21. M. fmooth, ovate, membranaceous, pellucid,
with a terminal hinge. Southern ocean.
22. M. wrinkled ; valves oblique and anteriorly di¬
lated. Southern ocean.
23. M. tranfverfely ftriated ; beaks gibbous; hinge
lateral; 6 inches long, 34-broad. Shores of Chili.—
The filh is white, and affords a grateful food.
24. M. grooved, and fcaly behind. Chili.—The
fiih is black, and unfit for being eaten.
* 2?. M. oVal, horny, fubdiaphanous ; extremities
longitudinally ftriated ; middle tranfverfely. European
and fouthern feas, Cornwall and Devonftiire. From the
South feas it is inch broad; in Britain it rarely ex¬
ceeds 4 inch.
26. M. fmooth ; valves 2-lobed ; lobe at the hinge
longer and thinner. American, Mediterranean, and
Indian feas.
27. M. oblong; more obtufe on the fore-part;
rough, with tranfverfe wrinkles; 14 inch long, 14
broad. North feas.—This fpecies penetrates beds of
coral and other rocks, like the pholas.
28. M. finely ftriated, hinge terminal, 1 tooth ;
inch long, I-4 broad. Northern and Indian feas.
29. M. flattened on one fide and inflefted ; beaks
incurved, convergent; hinge I-toothed. American
ocean.
30. M. rhombic, inequilateral ; tranfverfely ftriated
and wrinkled ; beaks incurved. Nicobar iflands.
31. M. ovate, fubdiaphanous; finely ftriated longi¬
tudinally ; margin acute ; hinge 2-toothed ; ftiell fnowy
and polifiied within. Nicobar ifiands. Very rare.
32. M. nearly triangular, dilated before, and flat-
tifh gaping behind ; beaks pointed, turned back ; mar¬
gin very acute ; 4 inches long, 2 broad. Mediterra¬
nean and African {bores.
33. M. nearly triangular, flattifti; hinge 2-toothed
in one valve, i-toothed in the other. Tranquebar,
Guinea.
34. M. nearly triangular, flattifti ; hinge i-toothed ;
margin glabrous, acute ; 3 inches long, 2 broad.
Guinea. •
35. M. earinated in the middle, and crenated at the
margin, with an obtufe'knob ; 4 inch hmg. Indian
and American oceans. Perforates rocks like a pholas.
36. M. triangular and dilated outwards, wfith angu¬
lar, decuffated, and confluent lines; hinge 2-toothed.
A minute {hell.
O L O G Y. 42!
37. M. oval, rufous, ftriated, with a crenulatedjfofo.
margin. Seas of Greenland.——This fpecies is the food
of the anas hicmalis and hiflrionics.
38. M. thin, {lightly wedged ; beaks recurved zn^Jluviatiliso
large. Frefti waters of Europe.
39. M. oblong, narrow, finely ftriated tranfverfely \fufcus.
one fide emarginated, the other rounded ; beaks pro¬
minent, curved. A minute brown fliell.
40. M. broad, ftiort, and rounded behind; beaks
conic, protuberant. rius.
41. M. broad, and curved with a rough, rugged,-
yellow coat; within milky. Perfian fea.
42. M. broad, very fmooth, flammeous or rofe-co-Ttofifor.
loured, with white bands ; beaks obtufe. Portugal.
43. M. pellucid, fbining, bluifli, with a claret cd-fafciatux.
lour and pale red bands. Brazil.
44. M. broad and rounded at both ends ; claret co- undatus.
lour, with waved, bluifti, and greenifh ftriae ; margin
ferrated. Portuguefe fea.
45. M. rounded behind ; pale flefh-colour ; purpie/>w?ys»rc?/.rJ
within ; margin denticulated. Shores of Brazil.
46. M. ear-lhaped, with granulated wrinkles on i\\efaxati/is.
outer fide, dilated and rounded. Amboyna.
47. M. tranfverfely ftriated, rounded at each end \ argenteus.
brown, filvery within ; beaks rounded.
48. M. narrow, ftrining bluilh colour, with violetfulgidus.
fpots at the fides ; beaks rounded, dilated. Seas of
Magellan.
49. M. gibbous, azure, with yellowifh ftripes be-azureus*
neath ; beaks obtufe ; 1 inch broad, | long.
50. M. moufe-coloured, with violet fpots, and zmurinus.
broad, rounded, rofy margin ; beaks pointed ftraight.
Guinea.
51. M. long, narrow, covered with a tcftaceous tejlaceus.
{kin ; Ihining filvery beneath, varied with blue, red,
yellow, and brown.
52. M. dilated outwardly; greenifh yellow', with^irgains.
rofy ftripes ; beaks obtufe, curved.
53. M. oblong, very thin, white, with obfolete Vix\nt,cordatus4
and a heart-ftiaped gap behind. Indian and Southern
oceans.
54. M. oval, flattiih, and tranfverfely ribbed ; eight Jiagnalis.
inches broad, 44 long. In frefh rvaters.
55. M. oval, convex, rounded behind; elongated,.
and obtufely pointed before ; beaks obfolete ; 7 inches
broad, 3 long. Stagnant Avaters of Germany.
56. M. fuborbicular, Avith 15 triangular crefted ro/etfr.
grooves, and alternate triangular teeth ; 3 inches broad.
Africa. ,
57. M. gibbous, pointed, with 15 grooves; marginpuniceus% .
toothed ; 14 lines long, and half as broad ; hinge with
4 minute teeth. Africa.
58. M. flat, thin, with fine grooves ; coA'ered with niger.
a black {kin, under Avhich it is milky, and finely po-
liftied ; li inch long ; grooves about too. Africa.
59. M. flat, fmooth, covered Avith a thick fulvous
fkin, under which it is rofy ; 2-‘ inches long. Africa.
60. M. trarifverfely wrinkled ; obtufe at each end ydubius.
fulvous, within pearly ; beaks oblolete ; hinge Avithout
teeth ; 5 inches broad, 2 long. Frefti Avaters of Sene-
gal.
61. M. 5-celled ; valves carinated and flattifti empo!ymor~
the incumbent fide ; beaks obtufe and inflefled back-/»/«^.
Avards; fize of a plum ftone. Ruffian fea, and in frefti
Avaters, where it is much larger.
62. M.
42 2.
cnnalicu-
latus.
raft rum.
camellii.
cvonetijis.
. 45
Pinna,
rudis-.
pe&incda.
nobilis.
muricata.
rotundata.
fquamofa.
cornea.
faccata.
digitifor-
mis.
lobata.
vitrea.
incurva.
bicolor.
% left a.
vexillum.
popyrocec.
CONCH
62. M. fmoollufh, chefriut brown; within party co¬
loured ; focket of the hinge channelled.
63. M. oblong, thin, truncated ; be^ks (harp and
carinated ; valves gaping at the end. Amboyna.
64. M. oblong, thin, truncated ; beaks fharp and
carinated ; valves completely clofed. Japan.
* 65. M. with a fuboval (liell, of an olivaceous
brown colour, with concentric wrinkles; fize of the
M. anatinus, but broader in ^proportion to its length.
The pofterior fide generally more obtufe and rounded.
River Avon in Wiltfliire. Montagu, Tejl. Brit. 172.
Gen. 17. Pinna, Sea-lVing.
Gen. Char.—-The animal a Umax ; the fhell bivalve,
fragile, upright, gaping at one end, and furnifhed
■with a byfTus or beard. Hinge without teeth ; the
-valves united into one.
Species.
r. P. vaulted with arched fcales, arranged in rows;
from 12 to 16 inches long, and from 4 to 8 broad ;
red ; from 6 to 8 grooves. Atlantic, Indian, and Red
leas.
2. P. longitudinally flriated half way; one fide
flightly wrinkled tranfverfely ; 3 inches long, 4 broad.
Indian ocean.
3. P. ftriated, with channelled, tubular, fubimbri-
cated fcales ; inches long, 3^ broad. Mediterra¬
nean, Adriatic, and American Teas.
* 4. P. ftriated wdth concave, ovate, acute fcales ; from
3 to 9 inches long, and 1 to 3 broad. European and
Indian oceans, Weymouth.
5. P. vdth obfolete fcales, margin rounded; fome-
times 2 feet long. Mediterranean.
6. P. with fine undulated fcales, and flexuous,
broad wrinkles; fmaller end pointed and naked; 13
inches long, broad. Mediterranean.
7. P. thin, flefh colour, naked, longitudinally
grooved ; external margin acute and rounded.
8. P. fmooth, fatchel-fhaped ; a little erect, and
flightly faftigiated ; 3^ inches long, 2|- broad. Medi¬
terranean and Indian feas.
9. P..fmooth, tubular, finger-fhaped, incurved ; ex¬
treme margin membranaceous ; pellucid.
10. P. naked, lobed, ftraw coloured, with purple
ftrise.
11. P. hyaline, with longitudinal, waved ftriae;
the ftriae with a few fcales, and crofted by other tranf-
verfe ftriae at the margin. Indian ocean. Very rare.
12. P. narrow, long, naked, carinated, with tranf-
verfe, undulated wrinkles. Indian ocean.
13. P. thin, infle&ed at the lateral margin ; yellov--
ifh, wdth black brown rays; thinly ftriated longitudi¬
nally. Red fea.
14. P. flattifh, horny, with blackifh rays, fpots, and
clouds ; and many fmeoth ftriae. Southern ocean of
India. Red fea.
15. P. truncated at the outer margin ; dilated, na¬
ked, with a few black clouds ; ftriated longitudinally
on the fore-part, and tranfverfely wrinkled behind.
India. Very rare.
16. P. thin, brittle, horny, longitudinally ribbed;
extreme margin roundifh. Indian ocean.
o L O £ 1. Chap. 1
17. P. flattifh, flightly incurved, red, with a fewfanguinl
perpendicular fmooth ftriae ; 3 inches long.
18. P. very ftraight, thin, and perpendicularly ftri-iW/a/<7,
ated, with tranfverfe, fpinous wrinkles, on the lower
margin.
General Obfervations.—It has been doubted whether
the animal which inhabits the pinna be a limax or fiug,
according to the opinion of Linnaeus ; and it is even
afferted, that it has not the fmalleft affinity with this
animal, but approaches much more nearly to that
which belongs to the mytilus. In proof of this, it is
faid that the pinna poffeffes no locomotive power, but
remains fixed by its byffus or beard to other bodies ;
and fo firmly attached, that it can by no means be dif-
engaged at the .will of the animal ; for the fibres are
ftrongly agglutinated to the fand, gravel, or other ex¬
traneous bodies within reach. Indeed it feems not
at all improbable that all teftaceous animals, furniffied
with a fimilar beard, are intended by this ftrudture to
remain attached to the fpot where they are originally
produced. ;
This fhell-fifh was celebrated among the ancients on
account of the cloth which was made of the fine byffus
or beard by which it is attached. As a rare and "eoft-
ly production it brought a high price, and was held in
great eftimation. At the prefent day even, according
to the information of modern travellers, the inhabitants
of Palermo and Naples manufacture gloves and ftock-
ings from the fame fubftance.
The pinna has obtained a little reputation for the
praftice of fome of the moral virtues, in treating a
fmall fpecies of crab with hofpitality and friendfhip, by
receiving it into the {hell, and defending it againrt its
enemies. In.return for this kindnefs, the crab, like
the jackall with the lion, aCts the parts of a provider
and monitor, by warning its hoft of the prefence of its
prey or of the approach of an enemy. But this friend¬
ly intercourfe accords ill with the nature of the ani¬
mals between whom it is praftifed. The crab, it is
far more probable, is a troublefome intruder ^ and not-
withftanding all the fervice he can repay, is confider-
ed as a very unwelcome gueft, and is indebted for his
lodging to his own aftivity, and the fluggifh nature of
his hoft, rather than to his kindnefs and hofpitality.
III. UNIVALVE SHELLS.
46
Gen. 18. Argonauta. Argcnaul
Gen. Char.—The animal is a fepia or clio. The fhell
is univalve, fpiral, involute, membranaceous, one-
celled.
Species.
I. A. The paper nautilus. Keel or ridge of the (l\el\argo.
flightly toothed on each fide. The fhell, which is thin
as paper, brittle, and tranfparent, is white or yellow-
iffi, wdth fmooth or knotty ftrise or ribs, which are
fometimes forked; the keel is generally brownifh.
This fhell ppefents confiderable varieties. Sometimes
the keel is narrow, and marked with clofe bifurcated
wrinkles ; fometimes it has a broad keel with tubercu-
lated ribs; and fometimes a broad tuberculated keel
with few and fmooth ribs.
'Ihe lingular ftruCture and wonderful economy of
this
3
423
CONCHOLOGY.
Chap. IV.
this animal very early attracted the attention of na-
turaliits. To its progreflive motion on the furface
of the ocean, mankind are indebted, it is faid, for the
find hint of the art of navigation. This is alluded to
in the numbers of Pope.
Learn of the little nautilus to fail,
Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.
What is the particular organization which enables
this animal to rife to the furface or to fink to the bot¬
tom at pleafure, feems not to be underftood by natura-
lifts; whether it is by throwing out a quantity of wa¬
ter by which it becomes fpecifically lighter than the
element in which it lives, or by taking in a quantity
of air, which will produce the fame effeft. It is only
when the fea is calm and unruffled that the nautilus,
with his feeble bark, appears on the furface. In rifing
through the water, the fflell is reverfed, the tharp edge
of the keel prefenting lefs refiftance to the liquid ; and
when it reaches the furface, the animal, by exerting its
arms, reftores it to a proper pofition for its voyage. A
quantity of water is taken into the Ihell to balance it.
The animal then employs its arms as oars j or if a gen¬
tle breeze fweep the furface, it ftretches two of them
perpendicularly, by which means the membrane be¬
tween them is extended in form of a fail j the other
arms ferve as oars to direft the courfe, or to keep the
bark Heady, as well as part of the body which hangs
over the Ihell, and feems to anfwer for a rudder.
Thus equipped, the folitary navigator glides fmoothly
along the bofom of the ocean. But, on the approach
of the fmalleft danger, the appearance of an enemy,
or the flighteft ruffling of the furface of the water, it
inftantly retires within the Ihell, and taking in a quan¬
tity of water, or ejecting a quantity of air, quick as
thought it finks to the bottom. Mediterranean and In¬
dian ocean.
mtreus. 2. A. keel of the (hell toothed in the middle. The •
Ihell is conic, tranfverfely ribbed, with a convex keel;
aperture oval. It is a very rare fpeciesi
cymbium. 3. A. keel of the fflell wrinkled, and without teeth ;
deprefled, thin, wrinkled, with fine longitudinal ftriae
croffing the wrinkles. Mediterranean.
cornu. 4. A. keel with 4 fmooth elevated rings j I line
nigh, 5 broad. Cape of Good Hope.
arttica. 5. A. fflell perforated, with an entire keel; 34 lines
diameter. Greenland feas, where it is frequently feen
floating in fpring and autumn.
Some fpecies of the argonauta are met with in all cli¬
mates, from the Indian ocean to the fflores of Greenland.
Nautilus, Gen. 19. Nautilus.
Gen. Char—The nature of the animal which inhabits
this fflell is not w’ell known. The fflell is univalve,
divided into feveral compartments, communicating
by an aperture with each other.
Species.
A. Spiral, rounded, with contiguous whorls,
fo’npilius. I. N. aperture of the fflell heart-fflaped } whorls ob-
tufe; fmooth. Indian and African ocean.—This fpe¬
cies is often very large, and it is finely variegated with
brown flexuous ftreaks, fpots, and marks, under the
epidermis, which is white) within it exhibits a beauti¬
ful pearly glofs. It is employed for drinking cups by
the inhabitants of the eaft.
* 2. N. aperture of the fflell linear; whorls with C\c-calcar.
vated joints ; minute, white, opaque. Sheppcy illand.
* 3. N. with lateral fpires, with about 20 tlexuous,
crenated joints in the exterior whorl; marked by ele¬
vated ftriae ; aperture femicordate; fyphon central;
very minute. Mediterranean, Sheppey ifland, and Sand¬
wich.
4. N. aperture obovate ; 4 or 5 volutions, with deepfofwrffl
fulcated joints; 10 in the firfl: fpire, frequent on molt
fflores ; minute.
* 5. N. fimilar to the preceding fpecies, but w ith \\izperverfus.
fpires reverfed. Shores of Britain, frequent.
* 6. N. fpiral, with fmooth joints ; femipellucid, white,/ew^a/z.—
gloffy ; very minute. Sandwich. lus.
* 7. N. fpiral, flightly umbilicated on each fide, with.depreffulus
many depreffed joints. Reculver, England. Very
minute, and rare.
* 8. N. fpiral, umbilicated, with furrowed joints lumbilica-
colour opaque, white. Sandwich. Minute, not com-talus.
mon.
* 9.. R. thick, fpiral, doubly umbilicated, with hsizcrajjulus,
joints ; opaque, white. Reculver, England. Minute,
rare.
* io. N. fpiral, lobate; fpires rounded on one fide, lob at ulus.
depreffed on the other. Whitftable.
*' 11. N. oblong, carinated ; aperture oval, nzxrow.carinatu-
Sandwich. Minute, rare. lus.
12. N. a little bending, with raifed joints; lengOafubarcita*
one-tenth of an inch. tulus.
* 13. N. compreffed, fubcarinated, fpiral, Smooth,lacu/lris,
gloffy, horn-coloured, with 3 vifible volutions; dia^
meter one-fifth of an inch. Brooks, Kent ; mar (lies,
Rotherhithe. Not unfrequent. Lightfoot, Phil. Tranf.
76. Helix nitida, Lin. This is fuppofed to be the
only fpecies of freffl-water nautilus which has been de-
feribed.
14. N. white, convex; aperture linear; firft fpirebalthicus.
largeft. Baltic.
15. N. fpires of the fflells concealed ; very fmall. helicites.
Found in a foffxl ftate on St Peter’s mountain at Mae-
ftricht.
16. N. aperture linear; fpires compreffed, withrugofus.
thickened margins. Southern ocean. Very fmall.
17. N. aperture compreffed, linear y fpires compref-
fed ; umbilicus concave ; minute. Croatia. tus.
B. Spiral, rounded, with feparate whirls.
18. N. aperture orbicular ; whirl cylindrical; oxxefpicula.
inch in diameter. American and Indian oceans.
19. N. fmooth, with 4 conic, tubercles ; very mi-fpenglerii
nute. India.
20. N. diaphanous, middle partitions protuberant a«g-a/r»/<z-
outw ards ; furface with fix conic tubercles; minute, tus.
India.
C. Elongated, and nearly Jlraight.
* 21. N. incurved, fpiral at the tip ; whirls contigxx-femilitum..
ous; minute, convex ; the partitions appearing out¬
wardly. Croatia, Sandwich. Rare.
2 2. N. fflbconic; globular divifions growing gra- lituus.
dually lefs; tip incurved, fpiral. Red fea. Frequent¬
ly found foffil,'
23. N. with a flight curvature; divifions obliquely obliqutts*.
ilriated;
4H
raphatii-
jlrum.
raphanus.
granutn.
radicula.
fafcia.
incequalis.
Jiphuncu-
lus.
Icgumen.
cojlatus.
orthocera.
belemnita.
48
* Genus.
marmo-
reus.
imperialis.
literatus.
generalis.
virgo.
capitaneus
tribunus.
miles.
.cingulum.
CONCH
ftaiat'ed ; fyphon central. Mediterranean and Adriatic
feas. r ’ •
24. N. fubcylindrical, with thick divifions, marked
with 12 elevated ftriae ; fyphon central. Adriatic and
Mediterranean Teas.
25. N. jointed, divifions thick, with 17 elevated
ftriae j fyphon fublateral, oblique. Adriatic and Me¬
diterranean.
26. N. ovate, oblong, with thick divifions, marked
with 8 interrupted elevated flriae; fyphon oblique j
minute. Mediterranean.
* 27. N. oblong, ovate, with 8 or 9 fubglobofe arti¬
culations j aperture a fmall fyphon. Adriatic, Sand¬
wich.
28. N. divifions ftriated ; joints fmooth, elevated’,
obtufe at the tip \ denticulated at the margin j fyphon
central. Adriatic. Very fmall.
29. N. cylindrical, with 8 divifions; aperture mar¬
gined ; very minute. Red fea.
30. N. fmooth, with cylindrical, remote divifions j
joints tapering, cylindrical. Seas of Sicily.
* 31. N. compreffed, jointed, margined at one end j
fyphon lateral. Adriatic, Sandwich. Very rare.
* 3 2. N. ftraight, fubcylindrical, tapering •, joints 12,
raifed, with 4 equidiftant, ftrong, longitudinal ribs the
whole length ; inch long. Coaft of Kent. Monta¬
gu, Tejl. Brit. 199. A variety of this has been difeo-
vered with only 6 joints.
33. N. whirls of the fhell wdth carinated ftri£e. The
ocean. Frequently found foffil.
34. N. Thunder-Jlone. Equal, fmooth, conic, acute ;
varies in fize, from inch to 8 inches j found foflil in
molt parts of Europe. It has fome degree of tranfpa-
rency •, and when burnt or rubbed, emits a fmell like
rafped horn.
Gen. 20. Conus, Cone-Jhell.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax. The (hell uni¬
valve, convolute, turbinate ; aperture effufe, longi¬
tudinal, linear, without teeth, entire at the bafe j
pillar fmooth.
Species.
A. Spire or turban nearly truncated.
1. C. conic, brown, with ovate, fubangular, white
fpots j whirls of the fpire channelled. American 0-
cean.
2. C. whitifh, with longitudinal, livid bands, and di¬
vided brown and rvhite linear belts: fpire flat, paint¬
ed with brown undulated ftripes, often emarginated.
A rare (hell.
3. C. conic, white, with brown dots; fpire marked
with brown ftripes. Afiatic ocean.
4. C. conic, poliftied, with a pointed, muricated
fpire •, whirls channelled. India.
5. C. conic, with a bluifti bafe. African ocean.
. 6. C. conic, glabrous, with a brown bafe : fpire a
little convex, fometimes flat, and generally ftriped.
Afia.
7. C. white, with three yellowifti bands ; fpotted with
chefnut: fpire convex ; bafe tranfverfely ftriated.
8. C. conic, rough with a brown bafe : fpire convex.
India.
9. C. conic, yellowifti, with a (ingle elevated belt
in the middle : fpire acute. Friendly iflands.
O L O G Y. Chap, r
B. Pyriform with a rounded bafe ; cylinder half as long
again as the fpire.
10. C. yellow, with purplifli brown j longitudinal
branched lines, marked with two white bands, which
have a few brown fpots : fpire obtufe and finely ftriated
tranfverfely: inches long. Indies.
11. C. with rough pun&ures at the bafe.—This fpe- ammirnl
cies is divided into the following varieties. 1. With¬
out bands. 2. With irregular bands. 3. With
one regular band. 4. With two regular bands. 5.
With three regular bands. 6. With four regular
bands. 7. With five or more regular bands. 8. With
punftated, reticulated belts. To this laft divifion be¬
longs the cedo nulli, or celebrated admiral (hell, which
has been efteemed the rareft and moft precious of tef-
taceous productions. Some fpecimens of the C. cedo
nullih.2i\e brought the extravagant price of 100 guineas.
The endlefs varieties of this fpecies are found in the
feas of South America.
12. C. teftaceous, fpotted with white ; with four ye\-vacarku
low, immaculate bands j the fecond angularly divided.
Southern ocean.
13. C, conic, fmooth, glabrous j with obtufe, icxxl'p-fenntor.
tured whirls : yellow fpotted with white.
14. C. fubcylindrical, fmooth, glabrous j finely po-
liftied ; yellow or brown, fpotted with white.
15. C. with linear belts, articulated with white zrvdgenuam
brown : red, with bands alternately tefielated with
brown and red.
16. C. emarginated at the bafe, ftriated j fpire \m-glaucusA
armed, with contiguous whirls. India and Africa.
17. C. gibbous, clouded with bluifti brown j acute, *7/0/20^!
ftriated at the bafe j fometimes dotted in rows.
18. C. grayifti, furrounded with oblong dots. minimus
19. C. ovate, rugged, and muricated at the bafe ;
fpire conico-convex. Var. 1. Without band. 2. With
a band clouded whitifti. Africa.
20. C. ovate, white, with reticulated yellow bands, mercam
Africa.
21. C. (lightly emarginated at the bafe and wrinkled; betulinu.
fpire flattifti, mucronate. India. A large (hell.
22. C. (lightly emarginated at the bafe, and wrinkled •fguiinus
fpire acuminated, with flattifti whirls : three inches long.
India.
23. C. ovate, white, with black band, compofed ofebraus.I
tranfverfe fpots 5 a fmall (hell.
24. C. emarginated at the bafe, and ftriated : whirls
of the fpire channelled. Afia. mufearu
25. C. elongated, muricated : the fpire crowned and varius.
acute. Indian ocean.
26. C. elongated, finely ftriated tranfverfely 5 \zx\-achatint
oufly clouded, and fpotted with white : fpire ftiort,
fpotted with brown, and tipt with red. American
ocean.
27. C. with white rays and bands. radiatus
28. C. pale yellow or chefnut fpots, with white or leoninus
yellow tranfverfe bands j fpire rather acute.
29. C. light olive, with multifarious white dots, anA-jafpideu-
an oblique band : oblong. Small.
30. C. brown with blue clouds and white fpots. nebu/oju
31. C. conic, yellow’, with white eyes and banA: oculatus
bafe obliquely ftriated.
32. C. (hort, brown, with twro white bands: tbaicoffese.
neareft the fpire fpotted with brown.
33-c*
Chap-
fulmineus
(irachnoi-
deus.
cojlatus.
leucojlic-
lus.
citrinus.
infularis.
coronatus.
punBatus.
zeylani-
cus.
folidus.
clams.
v.ujfatella,
Urebellum,
coccineus.
Ixtus,
ocboleu-
cus,
Iccvis,
nJfinis.
Wlaceus.
granula-
tus.
pbyzo.
’das.
bifafcia-
tus.
jV. CONCH
^3. C. pale brown, with a broad band, and articula¬
ted belts above and beneath : fpire acute, crowned
with tubercles, and finely firiated tranfverfely.
34. C. with chefnut ftripes the whole length : fpire
acute, and with the pillar lip fpotted with chefnutthe
bafe acute and obliquely ftriated.
35. C. reticulated with chefnut, with two-or three
darker bands; fpire crowned and acute. A very rare
fpecies.
36. C. brown, with a white band undulated with
reddifh, thick, and broad ftriae j fpire nodulous, with a
granulated band.
37. C. white, clouded, ftriped, and fpotted with
brown 5 with numerous rows of white and brow-n dots :
fpire crowned with tubercles. American ocean.
38. C. citron with black lines, interrupted beneath-,
fpire crowned with tubercles, with the bafe white.
Cura^oa.
39. C. white, with chefnut clouds, fpots, and dots ;
fpire acute.
40. C. w-ith alternate articulated belts and tefielated
fpots ^ fpire crowned with tubercles j (hell often minute,
and with a white band.
41. C. with two yellowilh brown bands, and nu¬
merous lines of dots j fpire varied with yellow dots and
lines.
42. C. fnowy, with rofy and brown clouds, and nu¬
merous articulated belts, varied with white and chef¬
nut ; fpire pointed.
43. C. conic, thick, tranfverfely ftriated -, clouded
with white and browm, w ith a broad white band, and
pyramidal fpire whirls channelled.
C. Elongated and rounded at the bafe; cylinder as long
again as the fpire.
44. C. with convex fmooth ftriae; the bafe bluiflr.
Indian ocean. Very rare.
45. C. fubcylindrical, red, rough } ftriae tubercu-
lated. I (land of Nuffatella in Afia, but very rare.
. 46. C. white, (haded with blue j fubcylindrical, with
annular ftriae and yellow bands.
47. C. red, with tranfverfe lines, dotted with black j
with a white band, and fpire fpotted w'ith red.
48. C. fubcylindrical, with annular ribs -, red, with
darker clouds, and barred with white; fpire fpot¬
ted.
49. C. fubcylindrical, yellow- -, the bafe obliquely
ftriated, with a white band near it; fpire pointed with
ftriped fpots.
50. C. rufous with fulvous fpots, and tranfverfe
ftriae ; fpire fpotted with yellow 5 bale obliquely ftria¬
ted.
51. C. bluiftr white, with four fulvous linear bands,
and intermediate dull purple dots.
52. C. white with violet clouds and bands j rays pale
brown 5 fpire pyramidal, with fix whirls.
53. C. rough, unarmed, with fmooth, grooved ftriae.
African ocean. Shell red, w-ith white bands, and pur¬
ple linear dots.
54. C. white within j outfide yellovifli brown and
rough, with fine granulated lines, with a white band
at the fpire denticulated beneath j another at the bafe
with a paler tinge j fpire flattened, with ftriped fpots j
bafe outwardly dufky, and violet within.
55. C. white, with angular chefnut lines, and two
Vol. VI. Part II.
O L O G Y. 425
orange bands j fpire prominent j bafe furroundcd with
orange lines, and intermediate teffelated fpots.
56. C. conic, fnowy j fpire prominent, and crowned niveus^
with tubercles y aperture large.
57. C. orange fag, fmooth, with whitbh bands j whirls araufa-
grooved at the tips. India. cus.
58. C. fubcylindrical, with longitudinal bands, dot-magus.
ted \Yith white. India.
59. C. ovate, oblong, gibbous, clouded with hncflriatus.
parallel brown ftriae ; 4 inches long. Africa.
60. C. with reticulated yellow veins, and yellow- and textile.
brown fpots. Afia.
61. C. w-hite, with brown reticular veins and \viX.etc- auhcus.
rupted longitudinal bands. Afia. It varies much in
its colours.
62. C. fmooth, white, with bay charadlers and rowsthosneC'
of dots, with three white belts and fpots 5 the tip
reddilh j fpire conic, with grooved whirls. Indian
ocean.
D. Ventricofe in the middle, and contraEled at each
end.
63. C. ventricofe, yellow- with white eyes j bafe ir^-fnenfs.
verfely ftriated.
E. Thin, ventricofe, and tinlding when thrown upon its
back on a table.
64. C. bluiih, with yellow clouds and yellowifli thickfpeElrmn,
dots and ftriae •, fpire rather acute. Afiatic feas.
65. C. yellow clouded with white ; aperture large bullatus.
and bluiih fpire fometimes flat, fometimes acute.
66. C. oblong, gibbous, fmooth j aperture gaping.
India, South America.
67. C. oblong, gibbous, crowned j apertufe gafing‘,geographi-
w-rinkled at the bafe, and a little narrower 5 aperture czcr.
white ; fpire fometimes rofy. Indian and African
feas.
68. C. white, clouded and fpotted with orange, with nubecula.
fcattered white dots; fpire prominent, acute.
69. C. white, with alternate rows of irregular c\\e{-fpurius,
nut, or blackiih fpots, and interrupted, punflured
bands.
70. C. brown, iliaded with white, with a white in - vex ilium.
terrupted band ; the white band is fometimes cru¬
ciate.
71. C. brow-n, barred w-ith white, beneath narrows-ventrico-
er, (haded with bluifh, and fmooth j fpire conic, tx-fus.
ferted.
Gen. 21. Cyprjea, Cowrie. Cyprsea.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a (lug j (hell univalve, in¬
volute, fubovate, fmooth, obtufe at each end j aper¬
ture effufe at each end 5 linear, extending the whole
length of the (hell, and toothed on each end.
Species.
1. C. (lightly turbinated, ferruginous, with whitifti exanthe-
round fpots and eyes j line down the back a little via.
branched. American and Atlantic feas.
2. C. (lightly turbinated, and marked with irregular mappa.
charafters j line down the back branched. Indian and
African feas.
3. C. (lightly turbinated with irregular chariSters arabica.
ftripe dow-n the back Ample. India.
4. C. (lightly turbinated, fubcylindrical, fprinkled rfrrrW(r
3 H with
426
tefludina-
i'ia.
Jlercora-
ria.
carniola.
’zebra.
talpa.
amethu-
Jlea.
lurida.
venelli.
lota.
fragilis.
guttata.
cmerea.
plumbea.
oeulata.
hijlrio.
aurantium
ferrugi-
nofa.
livida.
gibba.
turbinata.
venerea.
purpuraf-
cens.
a Ibid a.
rufefcens.
tranjhcens
pun&ulata
C O N C H O L O G Y.
with eyes \ beneath 4 brown fpots j about 4 inches
long. Jndian and Atlantic feas.
5. C. obtufe, fub-cylindrical ; extremities depreffed.
Perfian gulf and Indian ocean. This is the largeil
Ihell of this genus.
6. C. flightly turbinated, gibbous, with livid and
teftaceous fpots $ emarginate on each iide, and flat be¬
neath. Guinea. <
7. C. ilightly turbinated, pale, with Helli-coloured
bands j mouth violet j 24-inches long. Ahatic ocean.
8. C. turbinated, cinereous, with brown bands ; is
twice as large as the lalt, and the fpire more prominent.
India.
9. C. nightly turbinated, fub-cylindrical, teftaceous,
with pale bands ; beneath thickened and brown ; 3
inches long. India.
10. C. ftightly turbinated $ fides gibbous and decorti¬
cated, 4 clouded, brownilh bands above. Madagafcar.
11. C. nightly turbinated, lurid and nightly barred j
extremities pale yellow, with 2 black fpots. Mediter¬
ranean and Atlantic feas.
I 2. C. nightly turbinated, fpotted, and marked with
yellowilh dots : extremities fpotted with brown j throat
rufous.
13. C. ftightly turbinated, white, with fubulate denti¬
cles. Sicily.
14. C. turbinated, ovate, glaucous, with longitudinal
teftaceous waves, and pale bands. Mediterranean.
15. C. thin, gibbous, fulvous, dotted with white, with
a horizontal line in the middle j beneath white with
yellow teeth.
16. C. thin, ventricofe, reddifh gray, with paler
bands.
17. C. ftightly turbinated thin ; black lead colour,
with four bands varied with blue and brown j undulated
with brownilh at the margin, and marked with blue and
brown lines. Guinea.
18. C. nightly turbinated, ruffet brown, with white
eyes, and three paler bands on the back. American
ocean.
19. C. ovate, nightly turbinated, with livid eyes ; be¬
neath dat, white ; fides thickened, black, fpotted with
brown. Indian ocean.
20. C. ftightly turbinated, orange, with a white im¬
maculate edge ; throat bright red. Friendly idands.
21. C. thin, elongated, yellowini or bluilh, with
ferruginous fpots ; within blue.
22. C. thin, elongated, uniformly ftraw-coloured,
pale yellow or reddifti j beneath dotted with brown j
teeth fubulate.
23. C. thin, gibbous ; back clouded, and tranfverfely
barred.
24. C. turbinated, ovate, glaucous, with angular
pale fpots.
25. C. oblong, brown, with ftripped gold fpots j with¬
in blue.
26. C. oblong, purplifti j beneath furrounded with a
white line.
27. C. oblong, whittilh 5 ends of the lips fpotted with
fulvous.
28. C. oblong, reddilh brown 5 beneath whitilh.
29. C. cylindrical, cinereous with pellucid bands.
30. C. cylindrical,fragile,white, wilhtranfverfe bands
of reddilh dots.
Chap. 1\
31. C. obtufe, ovate, nightly turbinated with a longi- tigrina.
tudinal teftaceous line.
32. C. oblong, ferruginous, with paler bands. dubia.
33. C. turbinated, thin, bluilh brown, with three yel- trifajcwi
lewith bands varied with brown at each end. Rare.
34. C. turbinated, bluilh, white, dotted and clouded
with brown. catat
35. C. oblong, lhaded with purple, with a Vlxvw- bifafeiak
coloured band, and another narrower white one, and a
brown border ; 4 inches long.
36. C. cylindrical, above; pale-violet, and fpotted cijlindrial
with brown at the fides, with two brown fpots at each
end.
37* C. cylindrical, milk-white j one fide bordered/erw,
and varied with a few pale yellow , narrow marks, backed
with three brownilh waved bands.
38. C. ovate, a little depreffed j one fide Ilightly ovata.
bordered ; back whitilh, with crowded yellowilh brown
dots and w aves, and 3 obfolete darker bands j i-J inch
long, 4 broad.
39. C. oblong, of one colour, with a tinge of bloom 5 minute,
beneath dotted with white, with the border of one fide
and the teeth of the lip white j above yellow at each
end ; fpire tipt with black.
40. C. thin, oblong, barred with brown, and dotted fa nguino-
with red at the fides. lento.
41. C. turbinated, glaucous, margined j above gib-jG/c/'^,
bous, with tranfverfe browmilh bands j throat glau¬
cous.
42. C. gibbous, glaucous, brown, with triangular,
teftaceous and wrhitilh fpots, and 3 tranfverfe bands j
throat blackilh, glaucous.
43. C. turbinated, undulated with brownilh, cloud- undulate,
ed with pale ochre j and deeper bands. Mauritius
iiland.
B. Obtufe, and without a manifejl fpire.
, 44* C* triangularly gibbous, and rather obtufe be- caput-
hind j brown, fpotted and white j beneath white j i^ferpentis.
inch long. Mauritius and Nuffatella illands.
45. C. roundilh, gibbous, brown, with w'hite, conflu- reticulum,
ent, reticulated eyes, and a white horizontal line mthe
middle of the back j beneath white.
46. C. triangularly gibbous j behind depreffed, acute j mauriti-
beneath black ; a large lliell, fpotted with brown. Java, ana.
Mauritius, and Nuffatella.
47- C. livid, with fmall white fpots; 2 inches long, vitellus.
Indian ocean.
48. C. retufe, gibbous, cinereous, with a longitudinal mus.
brown band j teeth of the aperture blackilh. Ameri¬
can and Mediterranean feas.
49. C. obvate, obtufe behind, and rounded before ; tigris.
ferruginous, with deep brown fpots, and a yellow longi¬
tudinal, dotfal line j 44 inches long. Indian ocean.
50. C. ovate, obtufe behind, and rounded before, with fammett,
waved yellow fpots : a rare Ihell.
51. C. ovate, olive, clouded with yellow, and olivacett,
ted with brown ; beneath flat, pale-brown : teeth of the
lip white.
52. C. ovate, thin, white, with greenilh yellow dotsfeminea,
difpofed in rows ; within violet.
S3- 9* ovate> with brown dots, and a yel-lynx.
lowiih line ; hind part a little acute, with a rufous
mouth j 2 inches long. Madagafcar.
54* C.
Chap'
ijabella*
ambigua.
fcurra.
onyx.
c/ande/h-
na.
JuccinBa.
zig-zag.
hirundo.
afellus.
erronea.
urfellus.
pyrum.
maculofa.
pulla.
indica.
mm.
felina.
atomaria.
nebulofa.
nchroleuca.
fiellata.
Jubflava.
leucog after
variolofa.
fulva.
leucofto-
ma,
Uneata,
cancellata.
iutea.
badia.
punBata.
Mnaria.
IV.
54. C. Tub-cylindrical, with pale yellow extremities ;
14. inch long. Mauritius.
j C. pyriform, dulky, with paler clouds and fpots.
56. C. ovate, oblong } beneath Hat; yellowiih, with
greenifh and livid confluent drops j tides varied with
fcattered brown dots. India.
C. Vmbilicated or perforated.
y-j. C. beneath brown, above whitifti j fmall. Ana.
38. C. with fine tranfverfe lines here and there meet-
ing together. India.
59. C. interior lip rounded at each extremity.
60. C. pale yellow, 'with brown dots ) the extremi¬
ties with 2 brown fpots.
61. C. above bluifh ^ extremities marked with 2
brown fpots. Maldivia itlands.
62. C. white, with 3 brown bands j oblong *, minute.
Madeira iflands.
63. C. with an equal teflaceous fpot.
64. C. oblong, white *, above fmooth, varied with
brown, and marked with 2 brown dots at the umbilicus
or perforation.
65. C. pale brown, with paler bands and ochra-
ceous fpots ; beneath and at the fides fulvous; within
blue.
66. C. narrow, long, with flefh-coloured fpots above,
varied with pale, fulvous, and glaucous ones } fides
chefnut.
67. C. thin ; fides rulfet brown 5 above white, or
pale brown, with tranfverfe bands, or a fainter hori¬
zontal line.
68. C. cylindrical, marked above with characters,
eyes, and a paler horizontal line ; fides bloom-colour,
dotted with black. India.
69. C. thin, oblong, olivaceous, with fcattered ferru¬
ginous fpots} beneath white.
70. C. oblong, narrow, plumbeous, with ferruginous
dots and fpots, and paler bands j marked at each ex¬
tremity with 2 brown fpots.
71. C. oblong, fnowy, dotted with brown *, each end
marked with 2 dulky dots 5 -§• inch long.
72. C. oblong, gibbous; brown, with chefnut fpots.
73. C. thin, ochraceous, with paler fpots.
74. C. thin, cinereous, dotted with brown, and mark¬
ed with tranfverfe, elevated ftrise.
75. C. oblong, gibbous, fmooth, yellowilh.
76. C. oblong, purple j beneath white.
77. C. oblong, dulky, with two bands on the back,
and whitilh fpots.
78. C. folid, oblong, fulvous, with brown fpots, dif-
pofed in row's, and two dulky bands j fides faffron.
79. C. oblong, gibbous, clouded with brown and
blue •, fides fpotted with black 5 mouth w hite.
80. C. ovate, marked above with lines ; borders
fpotted.
81. C. ovate, gibbous, with cancellated fpots, and a
horizontal line above.
82. C. brownifh, with two white bands', beneath
pale yellow, dotted with brown.
83. C. oblong, gibbous ; above bay, with brown
and white dots.
84. C. ovate, white, with teftaceous dots.
85. C. ovate, fmoothilh, yellowilh, with four brown
lunules. Shores of Guinea. Very rare Ihell.
C O N C H O L O G Y. 427
86. C. lip toothed within j with three row's of in-conoidea.
bercles j pillar lip without teeth.
D. Margined.
87. C. umbilicated, pale yellow, with white round.cribraria.
fpots.
88. C. whitilh, with a knotty margin. Mediterra-Twooe/tf.
nean, Atlantic, Ethiopic, and Indian feas.—This fpe-
cies is collected in great quantities, and tranfported
to Bengal, Siam, and other parts of India, w'here it
is employed by the natives as the medium of com¬
merce.
89. C. furrounded on the back with a yellow ring, annulus.
Arnboyna and Alexandria. *
90. C. gibbous, unequal, whitilh j margin dottedcaurica.
wfith brown ; back marked with teftaceous clouds. In¬
dian ocean.
91. C. with a jagged margin; yellow, dotted -with ero/a.
white ; fides with a browniih fpot. Mauritius and
Afcenfion illands.
92. C. with a jagged margin, flefh-colour, with -aderofa.
greenilh back, marked with fulvous dots ; fides dotted
with brown. Mediterranean.
93. C. with a jagged margin ; yellow, dotted withJlaveola.
white; fides marked with obfolete, fcattered, brown
dots.
94. C. llightly margined, yellowilh with deeperfpurca.
fpecks ; fides dotted with brown. Mediterranean.
95. C. oblong, ovate ; above bluifh, dotted and (\>ot- oblong a.
ted with brown ; beneath and at the fides white.
96. C. cinereous, variegated with teftaceous; whileJlolida.
beneath, and at the fides; inch long. Amboyna.
97. C. triangularly gibbous, dotted with white, jag- helvola.
ged behind ; beneath yellow, immaculate. Indian 0-
cean.
98. C. llightly margined, pale yellow with black
eyes; ;margin white, dotted with brown; inch
long.
99. C. pale violet, dotted with white ; a very fmallporaria
Ihell.
* 100. C. with numerous tranfverfe furrow's, fome oipediculus.
which are forked ; a fmall Ihell, and ovate, with vari¬
ous tints of red or white ; fometimes it is marked w ith
a longitudinal groove. Frequent on moft Ihorts. Bri¬
tain.
101. C. margined on each fide, llightly produced
and rugged, with railed tubercles above ; 1 inch long.
Nuffatella ifland.
102. C. whitilh, produced on each fide; back tuber- madaghf.
culated, and marked with tranfverfe undulated ftriae. carietijis.
Madagafcar.
103. C. fomewhat produced, with elevated dots; ex-Jiaphijlcea.
tremities pale yellow.
104. C. produced on each fide, and fprinkled with cicercula.
raifed dots. Mediterranean and Indian feas.
105. C. produced on each fide, and fmooth, white orglohdus.
yellow. Amboyna.
106. C. oblong, llightly produced, fmoolh, yellow ; qffinis.
ocellated on each fide before.
107. C. thin, oblong, white, with ferruginous fpotsy^u^//w<7>
and dots.
108. C. white or gray, with obfolete ferruginous
fpots and tranfverfe bands; lips of the mouth markecf
with violet fpots.
3H2
109. C,
4‘i8
£ 0 N C H O' LOG Y.
crucnta. 109. C. gibbous; Above bluilh with rufous dots; be¬
neath and at the lidts white ; lips citron.
reticulata. 11c. C. reticulated; margin varied with ftriped
fpots.
rubiginofe. ill. C. oblong, white ; within violet; back with a
ferruginous blotch; each end marked with two pale
yellow fpots ; teeth of the lips yellowilh.
miharis. 112. C. thin, fhort, yellowilh green, with milk-
white eyes, and marked with a lateral horizontal line.
aciculans, 113. C. folid ; above yellowilh dotted \\ith brorvn,
with a horizontal pale line; beneath milk-white, with
iinprpiled dots at the margin.
crajfa. 114. C. thick, yellowilh, with 3 whitilh bands;
mouth lojuilh ; 4 inches long.
vinofc* 115. C. above white, with a claret llain, and mark¬
ed with purple eyes, fnrrcunded with a black circle,
and a horizontal white line; blue within. Mediter¬
ranean.
angujlata. 116. C. narrow, brewn, with reddiih fpots at the
lide.
Jimilis. 117. C. oblong, gibbous, yellowilh, dotted with
white, with a blackilh fpot at the margin.
Jlriata. 118. C. convex, bluilh white, dotted with brown;
beneath yellow, llriated on one fide.
JtnenJts. 119. C. oblong, folid, variegated with orange lips.
pujillc. 120. C. bluilh, fpolted \wth brown, and marked with
3 bands.
Bvlhc° Gen. 2:. Bulla,. Dipper.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax ; the (hell univalve,
convoluted, unarmed with teeth ; aperture a little
ftraitened, oblong, longitudinal, very entire at the
bafe ; pillar oblique, fmooth (b).
Species.
ovum. 1. B. ovate, obtufe, llightly doubly beaked; one of
the lips toothed, from which it has the appearance of
a cypraea ; 4 inches long. Amboyna and Friendly
illands.
vofaia. 2. B. two beaked; the beaks lotig, llriated and acute.
Jamaica. A rare Ihell.
b.rojlris. 3. B. two-beaked, margin thickened outwardly ;
beaks long, fmooth ; lize of a bean. Java.
fpelta. 4. B. oblong, rather obtufe at both ends ; equal ;
lip arched ; margin thickened within ; twice the fize
of a grain of wheat. Mediterranean and Adriatic.
verruc-fa. 5. B. tranfverfely angular, ovate, with a bony d6t
on each lide. India.
gibbofe. 6. B. angular, with an elevated belt. Brazil.
naucum. 7. B. rounded, pellucid, llightly llriated tranfverfe¬
ly ; perforated at each end ; an inch long. African
and Indian fe&s.
eperta. * 8. B. roundilh, pellucid, tranfverfely fub-llriated ;
outlide a little wrinkled ; glofiy ; one ii.ch long. Eu¬
rope, Africa, Devonlhire.
hydatis. * 9. B. rounded, pellucid, llightly llriated longitudinal¬
ly; crown umbilicated ; lize of a pea. Mediterranean,
Dcvonlhire. ~ N
Chap. \\
* 10. B. rounded, obtufe at one end ; crown umbili- ampulk,
cated. Frequent on moll Ihores ; Britain.
* 11. B. oblong, oval, tranfverfely llriated; crownHgnarit.
narrow, and llightly umbilicated ; 3 inches long. Eu- I
rope an Ihores, Britain.
* 12. B. thick, white, opaque ; aperture comprefled inregulhia
the middle ; minute. Reculver, England.—Bulla ob-Jis.
tufa, Montagu, Tell. Brit. 223.
13. B. rounded, glabrous, pellucid, marked with/Jyyfr,
tranfverfe lines; fpire retufe. India.
14. B. roundilh ; fpire elevated, obtufe, with fielh amphh
coloured bands ; Ihell white. Alla.
15. B. obovate, with a clavated crown, indiltinclyfw.
fpire, and elongated beak ; furface marked with reti¬
culated llrise ; 3 inches long. American and Indian 1
oceans.
16. B. rounded, turbinated, {lightly llriated, with zrapa,
curvaied beak, and finely wrought fpire ; from 2 to 3 ;
inches long. Indian ocean.
1 7. B. cylindrical; whirls of the fpire grooved. canalxa.
18. B. oblong, turbinated, fmooth; bafe a \ittlt ccnoidea, \
llriated ; futures crenulated ; fize of an acorn.
19. B. ovate, pellucid; fpire obfolete ; whirls con-fontmhi
trary, or turning from right to left; aperture ovate, MA
oblong ; -§• inch long. Shores of the Danube ; lakes
and rivers of Europe ; Britain.
* 20. B. ovate, pellucid ; fpire contrary, prominent ; hypnom 1
aperture evate, lanceolate. Europe, Britain.— Lin¬
naeus fuppofes that this fpecies may be a variety of the
lail; but, according to Mr Montagu, the form of the
Ihell, the llrudlure of the animal, and its habitat, are
always ditlindl. Linnaeus fays, that this fpecies is ,
found among wet mofe. Mr Montagu found it only in
ditches, and in a place occafionally overflow ed by the
river Avon.
21. B. poiilhed, w’Sth a pointed fpire ; aperture ob- turrits.
l0ng-„ Northern Europe, in ditches and wet meadows.
22. B. brittle, with a deprefled contrary fpire; a-gelaiinojt \
perture ending in a beak ; 2~ lines long. Rivers of
Denmark.
23- h-‘Cs cylindrical, with a Tubulate fpire, trun-lerebelltt
cated at the bafe ; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.
24. B. ovate ; fpire indillindl, prominent at the top;
aperture more dilated behind; pillar twilled; fize of ".
an acorn. Mediterranean.
23. B. w’ith party-coloured double bands, and pur- virginet,
pie truncated pillar: aperture femilunar. Rivers of
Alia.
^6. B. conic, pointed with tranfverfe bands and ven-fafeiatc-
dulated fpots; aperture white. South America, India.
27- conic, pointed, glabrous, with undulated ful-frigatc.
vous llieaks ; 2 inches long ; 8 whirls m the fpire.
28. B. conic, white, llriated; pillar ftraight and re-friatuk
fledled.
29. B. oblong, pointed, white, grooved; fpire withexaratc.
6 or 7 whirls.
30. B. tapering, ereft ; white,: with a broad, reddiih bffittt
bands at the aperture ; a land fpecies.
31. B.
, .(EVr fTl0frthe fpecr ht'}impnS to this genus, it appears that the animal poffeiTes different charaaers
frorn noie of the Umax, and particularly that which inhabits the bulla lignaria, a Britilh Ihell, which is furnifli-
ed with a gizzard, of a teffaceous nature. See Lin. Tranf. vol. ii. p. 15.
Chap- IV.
CONCH
y Mi 31, B. a little tapering and compreffed ; pale, flefli-
° * coloured, 'with two remote bands ; one broader and
brown, the other blue.
ebra 32, ovate» pointed, with longitudinal brown
2 ’ . bands) pillar inileded, entire. Tranquebar. Aland
fpecies.
(ichatinG' 33* ovatej pointed, with a wide crimfon mouth
and lip j pillar truncated ) 8 inches long. American
ocean.
1 ai;n(!t B. oblong, horn-coloured) fpirc retufe ) thin ) 4
? inch long.^
ovata. 35- B* fubovate, flightly two-beaked ) flriatedon the
back, and gibbous in the middle ) chefnut with white
fpots and bands) within violet.
rrr ■ B. fub-ovate, equable, pale gray, undulated with
nofa. brown, and marked with ferruginous fpot?, and two
white bands) 14 inch long.
velum. 37* B* thin, umbilicated on each fide ) white, with
capillary brown lines, and a fnowy band, edged with
brown on each lide ) 1 inch long.
wfwa. d^* B. ovate,, oblong, within milk-white, folid, pel¬
lucid ) aperture wide ) two grooves on the back, Bra¬
zil.
cuUndrica. * 39* B. cylindrical, fmooth, white, thin, flightly um¬
bilicated ) twice as largp as a grain of wheat. Europe,
Britain.
oliva. 4°* B. cylindrical, aperture fub-orbicular, and dila¬
ted beneath.
wlutci, 41. B. fmooth, cylindrical, olive) aperture effufe )
pillar inflated, truncated ) 7 whirls in the fpire.
domini- 42* B. fub-cylindrical, fpiral, reddiih, with longitu-
chenfu. dinal ftriae, and fpotted ) futures crenulated ; pillars
finuated and truncated. St Domingo.
purpurea. 43* B. ventricofe, rugged, and longitudinally ftreak-
ed) aperture ovate, with a pointed lip, and deep black
border within. Africa, in rice fields.
fpretu. 44* B. ovate, thin, brown, and rough.
folida. 45. B folid, red, varied with violet 5 margin red )
fpire a little prominent.
Jfercus-pu- 46. B. inflated, glabrous, horny ) cinnamon colour)
iicum, five rows of dots ) pillar finuated, with an acute lip )
extremity thin and ovate.
fcabra. 47* B. ovate, rough, flightly carinated on the back,
and marked with decuflated Arise) white with rofy lines)
pillar fcalloped, reflected. Java.
dera, * 48. B. ovate, pellucid, with a truncated channelled
crown) 6 lines long. Norway feas, Banff in Scot¬
land, and near Portimouth.
foluta, 49. B. cylindrical, horny, tranfverfely ftriated, with
a retufe top or crown ) whirls margined, channelled.
cornea. 50. B. ovate, flefh-coloured, gibbous ) lip arched,
thickened and toothed within. Shores of Africa.
potula. * 51. B. fmooth, glofiy, white, pellucid, oblong, invo¬
luted-) aperture large, terminating in a fhort canal,
moft contrafled at the top ) length x inch. Weymouth.
haliolpi, * 52. B. fub-oval, thin, pellucid, white, refembiing a
dea. haliotis; a little wrinkled 5 aperture oval) length 4
inch. Weymouth.
P'UtnuIa. * 53. B. ovate, oblong, depreffed, pellucid, thin )
flrongly wrinkled concentrically ) length 4 inch.
Milton fands, Dcvonfhire. Montagu, Tefi. Brit. p.
2I4*
catena. * 54. B. pellucid, white, finely ftriated tranfverfely )
the ftrise,,magnified, have the appearance of the links
of a chain) one-tenth inch diameter. Devohfliire.
O L O G Y. 42g
* 55. B. oblong, oval, fmooth, white) apex rounded,umbi/tcat<r»
umbilicated ) aperture very narrow ) 4 inch long. Fal¬
mouth.
* 56. B. fub-cylindrical, opaque, white; upper tparttruncata.
longitudinally firiated, lower plain ; apex truncated,
and largely umbilicated. Falmouth.
* 57- B. fmooth, gloffy, pellucid, white, fuboval; \>o-diaphana, .
dy large, ventricofe ) apex pointed ) aperture fub-oval;
4 inch long. Salcomb bay. Rare.
SI
Voluta.
Gen. 23. Voluta, Volute.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax ; the (hell is one-cel-
led, fpiral ; aperture without a beak, and fometimes
effufe ; pillar twilled or plaited, generally without
lips or perforation.
Species.
A. Aperture entire.
1. V. contracted, oval, oblong, with a rugged fpire) mirir-
pillar 2-toothed ; 4 inches long. India. In marfhy midee.
woods and fwamps.
2. V. oval, oblong, with a wide aperture; mAX^rfla;7in.:a.
one-toothed.
3. V. contracted, oblong, oval, grooved ) ’veWtefudcaia,
dotted with yellow ; pillar with two plaits; 4 inch
long-
4. V. thin, tranfverfely ftriated, flefh-colour, with b fafeiata.
two white bands; pillar one-toothed; not one inch
long.
5. V. contracted on the upper part; yellow, withJlava.
a crenulated lip; pillar with two plaits; 44 lines
kmg.
6. V. oval, oblong, banded; pillar with threeminuta.
plaits.
7. V. thin, brown ; whirls of the fpire cancellated ^pujilla.
pillar three-toothed ; very minute.
8. V. oval, oblong, glabrous, with a reflected gxoo\-glabra.,
ed lip ; pillar one-toothed.
9. V. oval, gibbous, umbilicated) pillar with one auris-Ji/enz
thick, flexuous plait; two inches long.
xo. V. contracted, oblong ; fpires fmooth ; pillar y auris-judee
toothed. Fens of India.
11. V. fuftform, granulate, with an ovate aperture /-
pillar cut, fpreading ; three inches long. New Cale-c^f.
donia.
* 1 2. V. oval, pointed at each end, and fpirally fin- tornatilir,
ated ; pillar with a Angle fold : 4 inch long. Europe,
Wales.
* 13. V. thin, brittlej with two fmall fpires ; mouth
rounded, wide. Iftand of Iona, Scotland.
* 14. V. white, opaque, longitudinally itriated. ^nd- alba.
wich. Very minute.
15. V. contracted, oblong, ovate, opaque, flriated ^folidula.
fpire. elevated and a little pointed ; pillar flightly
plaited.
16. V. contracted, ovate, cylindrical) fpire a little livida.
elevated, obtufe ; pillar with five plaits ; one inch long.
Africa.
17. V. contracted, fmooth, with an obtufe fpire )«$Al
aperture toothed on each fide.
B. Subcy/indrical, emarginated.
18. V. fmoath ; fpire obliterated at the bale ) lip m-porphyria,
tufe
43°
oliva.
annulata.
Utriculus.
hiatula.
jafpidea.
nivea.
ifpidula.
carniolus.
da&ylus.
miliaria.
monilis.
exilis.
perjicula.
pallida.
faba.
glabella.
prunum.
reticulata.
tnercaloria
rujlica.
pauperculq
mendicaria
CONGHOLOGY.
tufe In the middle 5 pillar obliquely ftriated; five inches
long. Brazil.
' Chap. IV
fize of a kidney bean. Mediterranean and Indian
feas.
19. V. Imooth ; fpire refiedted at the bafe j pillar ob¬
liquely ftriated. Indian feas.
20. V. fmooth, white, with a keel-fiiaped ring on
the back ; fometimes with reddith waves.
21. V. elongated, fmooth, with a prominent fpire.
Indian and Ethiopic leas.
22. V. thin, with a cinerous fpotted back, callous
beneath ; aperture large j pillar toothed at the bafe,
Shores of Spain.
23. V. white dotted with greenilh brown, or violet j
fpire prominent 5 whirls with a band compofed of fpots
at the bafe ; an inch long. Shores of Spain.
24. V. fnowy, elongated, fmooth, banded. Spanifh
feas.
25. V. fmooth with a prominent fpire and fingle
margin ; pillar obliquely ftriated j from one to two
inches long. India.
26. V. orange with blue bands ; fpire flattened ;
aperture white.
C. Oboval, effufe, emarginated.
27. V. fmooth, with decuflated ftriae, obtufe; pillar
with fix plaits : 4 inch long. India.
28. V. {lightly emarginated, w'hite, with an oblitera¬
ted pale yellow {pire ; pillar obliquely ftriated. Medi¬
terranean.
29. V. entire white with an obliterated white fpire j
pillar obliquely ftriated ; i~ inch long. China ; where
it is employed for making beads and necklaces. A
variety is found in Africa only 24 lines long, with 8 or
10 thin plaits in the pillar.
30. V. obovate, entire, yellowifti, with two brown
bands ; fpire prominent 5 pillar obliquely ftriated.
31. V. fmooth, w ith a retufe umbilicated fpire ; pil¬
lar with feven plaits j lip with a crenated margin : one
inch long. African fea.
* 3 2. V. fliell entire, oblong, ovate, with an elevated
fpire ; pillar with four plaits. African and European
fhores, Britain.
33. V. {lightly emarginated, fmooth, a little plaited ;
fpire prominent 5 pillar with four plaits 5 lip w ith a cre-
nulated margin 3 one inch long. African ocean.
34. V. very entire, fmooth, with a levigated fpire ;
pillar with four plaits 5 lip gibbous •, margin toothed :
from one to two inches long. African and American
feas.
35. V- very entire, fmooth, with a levigated fpire ;
pillar with four plaits j lip without tooth, or margin $
14 inch long. Ifland of Goree.
36. V. with flight decuflated grooves ; lip internally
ftriated •, pillars {lightly perforated ; two inches long.
American ocean and Guinea.
37. V. ftriated, with an obtufe fpire; pillar retufe,
toothed ; lip gibbous, denticulated ; 4 inch long. Me¬
diterranean, American, and Indian feas.
38. V. fmooth with a prominent fpire ; pillar re¬
tufe, toothed ; lip gibbous, denticulated. Mediter¬
ranean and American feas.
39. V. entire, fmooth, with a ftriated bafe; fpire a
little prominent ; pillar with four plaits ; lip obtufe.
Mediterranean and Indian feas.
40. V. {lightly ftriated, with a {lightly granulated
fpire; pillar fxnooth ; lip gibbous and denticulated ;
. f '71" cioiswne reticuiated; pit-cancilki
lar with three plaits, {lightly umbilicated, and a little
produced. African ocean.
42 V fmooth, white, with blue bands and yellow
mouth; lpire nearly obliterated ; pillar fix-toothed •
fcarcely one inch long. ’
u T-' ■ Sreen^ white, with numerous oww
bands ; lip mfleaed ; pillar with four plaits; 2I inches
long. 4
44- Y* ¥re obfolete j fides with thickened margins: mamW
four plaits in the pillar. 5 °m
45; V. fubftriated, glabrous; fpire obtufe, fmooth, rwcee
prominent; five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
46. V. conic, white, with hollow pun&ured grooves conus
at the bafe; whirls crenated ; fix plaits in the pil¬
lar. r
D. Fujiform.
47- V. nearly entire, oblong, fmooth, with a oromi-trinpn
nent excoriated^ fpire ; three plaits in the pillar • lip ’
{lightly toothed inwardly. Mediterranean. ’ ^
48 V nightly emarginated oblong, fmooth; fpire
longilh ; four plaits in the pillar; lip equal and un-
armed. Mediterranean.
49. y. entire, tapering, plaited and tranfverfely ftri-D/yp-c
ated ; three plaits in the pillar, which is perforated *
About a finger’s length, and marked with about twelve
grooves.
jO. V. emarginated, ftriated, and tranfverfely wrink-
led ; foui. plaits in the pillar, which is perforated : lip
notched ; two inches long. India. 1
^ nearly entire, tranfverfely wrinkled; fourrA
plaits in the pillar ; lip crenulated. India.
52. V. nearly entire, fmooth, yellowifh with redrf*.
clouds tranlverfely ftriated ; lip crenulated ; four plaits
in the pillar. Friendly iflands.
Y'. e“a.rgmate4 longitudinally grooved andfanmfm
tranfverfely ftriated ; lips fmooth ; four plaits in the
pillar ; 14 inch long. Mediterranean and Indian
feas.
54. V. emarginated, round, fmooth ; whirls of the
fpire with plaited ftriae ; four plaits in the pillar • 24
inches long. Afiatic fea.
55. y. {lightly emarginated, round, fmooth ; aboutmorio.
three plaits m the pillar.
56. V. tapering, marked with tranfverfe rays of red«m.
dots ; fpire pointed, fmooth : fcarcely an inch long.
57* Y* ^mai'g^nated, fubangular, unarmed, and tranf-wAra/tf.
verlely ftriated ; tour plaits in the pillar ; throat ftri¬
ated ; two inches long. India.
.5^’ V. emarginated, angular, anterior angles a littleplicaria.
fpinous ; four plaits in the pillar ; lip fmooth; two
inches long. Indian ocean.
59. VI cylindrical, glabrous, reddilh, with fublivid^W.
belts ; four plaits in the pillar within ; aperture effufe.
Indian ocean.
60. V. cylindr cal with decuflated ftriae, and impref-mw//<7-
fed dots ; white with yellowifti clouds,; lip and whirls
nodulous ; margin of the whirls crenulated ; eight plaits
in the pillar. Indian ocean.
61. V. tapering, black with white fpots, tranfverfely/2'2//z//tfW*
ftiiated, firft whirl a little ventricofe ; four plaits in the
pillar. Indian ocean.
I
62. V.
Chap.
nigra.
jubdivifa.
cruentata.
exafperata
granofa.
cajla.
IV. CONCH
62. V. tapering, emarginated, blackifh •, whirls flat-
tifhj four plaits in the pillar. Guinea, Greenland.
63. V. tapering, emarginated, longitudinally ribbed,
plaited, and tranfverfely ftriated j three plaits in the
pillar. Indian ocean.
64. V. tapering, emarginated, barred and tranfverfe¬
ly ftriated with longitudinal knotty ribs, fpotted with
red 5 pillar with three plaits. Indian ocean.
65. V. tapering, emarginated, granulous, with de-
cuflated ftriae and longitudinal ribs barred with brown j
five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
66. V. tapering, emarginated, tranfverfely ftriated
and longitudinally grooved, with elevated dots and
reddifti lines; three plaits in the pillar. Indian
O L o G Y.
43«
67. V. tapering, fmooth, brown with white bands-,
fix plaits in the pillar, which is emarginated at the
bafe. Shores of Amboyna.
68. V. tapering, chefnut, with flexuous white bands j
pillar obfoletely plaited : two inches long.
69. V. tapering, white with reticulated and fpotted
brown bands : one inch long.
70. V. tapering, brown, cancellated j angles of the
fe&ion nodulous, and whitifti: four plaits in the pil¬
lar.
71. V. tapering, chefnut with yellow clouds and
fpots} ei^ht whirls in the fpire, which are longitudi¬
nally plaited and tranfverfely ftriated j five plaits in the
pillar.
72. V. tapering, orange j a white band in the four
firft whirls of the fpire j lip denticulated j four plaits
in the pillar.
73. V. tapering, with decuffated ftrise j the longitu-
nal one undulated j about four plaits in the pillar.
74. V. tapering, punftured, whirls longitudinally
ribbed, and finely ftriated tranfverfely j three firft an¬
gular j about five plaits in a flightly umbilicated pil¬
lar.
acuminata. 75. V. tapering, cancellated ; beak ftiort and cancel¬
lated j four plaits in the pillar. Tranquebar.
76. V. tapering, fmooth, white with yellow fpots
and black dots $ pillar doubly plaited.
77. V. tapering, two plaits in the pillar : whirls
turgid, with a band of black dots j firft whirl double.
78. V. tapering, with perpendicular black lines
crofting a white band $ 3 plaits in the pillar.
79- V. tapering j beneath brown dotted with white;
above white, with perpendicular waved yellow ftripes ;
a minute Ihell.
80. V. tapering, finely ftriated tranfverfely ; dulky,
with red dots, and two paler bands ; minute.
81. V. tapering and grooved longitudinally ; brown,
with a tranfverfe white nodulous band ; pillar five¬
toothed.
82. V. tapering, fmooth, brown; fpire with a paler
band; narrow, fntall.
83. V. tapering, chefnut, with white eyes; mi¬
nute.
84. V. tapering, red, with rows of black dots; lip
mar Prominent; beak reflected.
area.' y> tapering, varied with white and brown; lip
infiedted.
86. V. tapering, reddifti, finely ftriated tranfverfely ;
aperture oblong, oval; fpire obtufe ; 1 ^ inch long. A-
iserican fijas.
leucogom-
as.
maculofa.
nodulofa.
fpadicea.
aumtia.
decujjata.
pclygona.
biplicata.
turricula.
lineata,
difcors.
Mata.
fulcata.
migata.
iceliota,
nafuta.
larbadtn.
Jit,
87. V. tapering, cancellated, with an obtufe (piiQ :cJathrata«
lip margined ; beak refle&ed. American pcean.
88. V. tapering, gibbous, yellow; each whirl withtnco/or,
a white band, telfelated with black; 3 plaits in the
pillar.
89. V. tapering, chefnut brown, with undulated tarrfta.
brown lines; aperture ftriated ; 3 plaits in the pillar.
90. V. tapering, fmooth, white, with perpendicular
waved, blackifti yellow ftripes. Syracufe.
91. V. tapering, poliflied, chefnut; within white;miens.
pillar with 4 plaits.
92. V. tapering, citron, with rufous bands; l\citrina.
inches long.
93’ V’ tapering pale brown, and longitudinally mucronata.
ftriated ; fpire perforated ; pillar perforated, and 4-
plaited.
94. V. tapering, a little Ventricofe ; longitudinally rz/fg/Sr.
wrinkled, and tranfverfely ftriated ; whitilh with pice-
ous lines.
95. V. tapering, cinereous, ftriated with red ; fyixejirigofa.
glabrous ; whirls rather tumid.
96. V. tapering, glabrous; 5 plaits in the pillar ;./c^4jv
has been only found in a foflil ftate.
97. V. tapering, thin, glabrous ; brown furrounded/m-o/fr##.
with lines of white dots. Friendly illands,
98. V. tapering, whitilh, cancellated; whirls with c/athrus.
a band of yellow fpots.
99. V. tapering, tranfverfely ribbed, with a txant-virgata.
verfe brown band, and longitudinal waved fpots ; two
inches long.
100. V". tapering, cancellated; varied with tawneyleucq/lotna,
and white, with waved brown fpots ; mouth ochraceous.
101. V. tapering, tranfverfely ftriated; yellow withvariegata,
a brown band and fpots.
102. V. emarginated, tapering, marked with decuf-y£/hm.
fated ftriae, and red threads; pillar 3-plaited.
103. V. cylindrical, whitilh, glabrous ; fpire projeft-w/W.
ing, obtufe, emarginated at the bafe ; pillar 4-plaited;
2 inches long. Shores of Guinea.
104. V. ovate, bay, longitudinally wrinkled; be-%iervoye!n\
neath tranfverfely grooved ; fpire obtufe, and crenated
at the future ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; lip denticulated.
105. V. ovate, triangular, rugged, knotty, txant-rhinoceros.
verfely grooved and umbilicated ; pillar 3-plaited ; lip
toothed ; throat ftriated ; whirls muricated with knobs.
Shores of New Guinea.
r06. V. tapering, white; fpire with fine tranfverfeto.
ftriae, and rounded ribs; firft whirl with 3 brown
bands ; 4 plaits in the pillar.
107. V. ovate, white; fpire fpotted with hxown^fpuria.
6 brown bands in the firft whirl; tail emarginated; '
lip impreffed ; pillar 6-plaited.
108. V. emarginated, ftriated, and marked withperlufa,
hollow pun&ures; lip denticulated; 5 plaits in the
pillar ; 3 inches long. India.
109. V. emarginated, tranfverfely ftriated ; white cardinal is.
with rows of telfelated chefnut fpots; pillars 5-plaited
Indian ocean.
no. V. emarginated, fmooth ; margin of the whixhepifcopalis.
entire; lip denticulated ; 4 plaits in the pillar; 5
inches long. India.—The animal of this {hell is faid
to be poifonous when it is eaten, and has the power of
infiifting a wound on thofe who touch it, with a kind of
pointed trunk. The natives of the ifiand Tanna em¬
ploy the {hell as a hatchet, fixing it in a handle.
JH.V.
4J2
papalis.
patriarch-
ahs.
mujica.
vejpertilio.
arabic a.
hebrcca.
turbinellus
capitellum.
ceramic a.
pijrum,
laponica.
vexiilum.
Jiavefcens.
rupejlris.
najfa.
craticulata
fpiralis.
viagellani-
ca.
filofa.
fufeata.
cethiopica.
C O N C H O L O G Y.
^ III. V. eroarginated, tranfverfely ftriated j margins
of the whirls and lip denticulated ; pillar 4-plaited.
Indian ocean,
1 12. V. obpvate, folid, tranfverfely flriated, mark¬
ed with nodulous plaits j whirls crowned with tubercles.
India.
113. V. margihed, with obtufe fpines in the whirls ;
lip fmooth and very thick 5 pillar 8-plaited. Ameri¬
can ocean. T he plaits in the pillar are from 9 to 12
in fotae varieties.
114. V. emarginated, w'ith acute fpines on the
whirls j lip fmooth ; pillar 4-plaited j from 3 to 6
inches long. Indian feas.
115. V. emarginated 5 whirls tuberculated, and
marked with black characters ; 5 plaits in the pillar.
it6. V. emarginated ; whirls with fubacute fpines j
5 ftronger and 3 obfolete plaits in the pillar 5 6 inches
long. India, Jamaica. Very rare.
117. V. nearly entire, turbinated, with conic fome-
what ereft fpines; upper ones larger 5 pillar 4-piaited \
3 inches long. Indian ocean.
118. V. ovate, rugged, knotty 5 3 plaits in the pil¬
lar ; inches long. Indian and American feas.
119. V. ovate, acute, w ith divergent fpires ; about
5 plaits in the pillar ; fpines on the outer whirls gra¬
dually leflening into tubercles. Coromandel and Ce¬
ram.
120. V. obovate, (lightly tailed, with (Iriated whirls
on the fpire ; tip produced and quite glabrous; pillar
3-plaited •, 7 inches long. Tranquebar and Ceylon.
121. V. obovate, fmooth, with a pointed fpire, and
ventricofe 5 pillar 5-plaited. Indian and American
feas.
122. V. ventricofe, yellowidr-white, with orange
bands firfl: whirl tuberculated and larger than the
reft } pillar 6-plaited. Indian ocean. Very rare.
123. V. pyriform, fmooth, with yellowifh clouds }
fpire varied with chefnut fpots 5 4 plaits in the pillar.
124. V. elongated, ribbed j ribs crolfed w ith fine
tranfverfe lines; lip margined ; fpire papillary at the
tip 5 many plaits in the pillar ; 4 inches long.
125. V. ventricofe 5 fpire ribbed with fine tranfverfe
flriae croffing the ribs •, lip margined, umbilicated 5 3
plaits in the pillar j 1 inch long. Mauritius and
Guinea.
1 26. V. tapering and tranfverfely ftriated 5 white
with longitudinal chefnut ribs; lip denticulated, (Iri¬
ated ; 3 plaits in the pillar j 3 inches long.
127. V. longitudinally ribbed, and finely (Iriated
tranfverfely 5 a row of acute tubercles on the two firfl:
wdiirls 3 plaits on the pillar. Indian feas.
128. V. ventricofe, ochraceous, with white and
brown lines ; lip fubulate j whirls of the fpire convex ;
firfl: larged *, 2 inches long.
129. V. finely reticulated and ftriated, with elevat¬
ed tranfverfe belts*, lip crenatedj 4 plaits in the pillar,
which is a little umbilicated.
130. V. coarfe, brow n, fmooth *, bafe tranfverfely
ftriated ; fpire obtufe; firft w'hirl ventricofe, with 4
narrow bands •, the reft w ith a broad white band j pil¬
lar with 3 plaits and umbilicated.
E. Ventricofe ; the fpire papillary at the tip.
131. V. emarginated j fpire crowned with vaulted
Chap. 1
fpines 5 4 plaits in the pillar j 7 or 8 inches long.
Perfia, Afia, and the Cape of Good Hope.
132. V. emarginated j whirls of the fpjre with cyn&A
grooved margins ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; lip callous.
Spain, Africa, and America.
i3ft*.V' emarginated ; fpire fmooth 5 pillar 3-plait- alia.
ed j 4 inches long. Spain, America, Philippine ides.
134. V. elongated, with a broad aperture 5 lip a-^w/i/a,
cute ; whirls of the fpire fcarcely vifible 3 1 inch long.
rSJ* V* eiriar§inated j covered with a brown cuti- neptun1
cle, under which it is reddifh 3 lip a little prominent 3
4 plaits in the pillar 3 4 whirls in the fpire 3 8 inches
long 3 nearly as broad. Perfian gulf.
136. V. emarginated 3 lip a little prominent 3 pillar warn
4 plaited 3 2 inches long.
I37* V* elongated, yellow, with a long tubercle atpvpilm
the tip, which is fometimes oblique.
138. V. elongated, yellow, with 3 bands of brown indica,
dots 3 4 plaits in the pillar. India.
I39* ^ • coarfe, clouded, with zig-zag brown lines fcapita,
lip fubulate, pillar bluiflr with 4 plaits. Cape of Good
Hope. Very rare.
140. V. ovate, glabrous 3 whitifti with longitudinal^^w.
red lines 3 whirls knotty 3 3 plaits in the pillar 3 2
inches long. Indian ocean.
141. V. fubovate, teftaceous, with reddith bay/’ra/a:
fpots, emarginated at the bafe 3 4 plaits in the pillar.
Coromandel coaft.
142. V. cylindrical, yellowish, emarginated 3 aper-j7tf«j'.
ture effufe, fpreading 3 3 plaits in the pillar. Eaftern
(liores of Africa.
143* V* white, fmooth, reticulated with gold, e-retkul
marginated 3 4 plaits in the pillar 3 fpire conic 3 firft
whirl cylindrical and ventricofe 3 2 inches long. Ja¬
va.
144. V. brownifti yellow', ftriated with brown 3 5fpeclal
plaits in the pillar 3 ?-§- inches long. Straits of Ma-
gellan.
Gtn. 24. Buccinum, Whelk. Buccmi i
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax 3 the (hell uni- 1
valve, fpiral, gibbous 3 aperture ovate, terminating
in a (liort canal, leaning to the right, with a retufe
beak or proje&ion 3 pillar lip expanded.
Species.
A. Inflated, rounded, thin, fubdiaphanous, and brittle.
1. B. roundih, furrounded with obtufe grooves, be-ofearin
tween which is an elevated line 3 aperture without
teeth 3 4 inches long. Indian fea.
2. B. obovate, furrounded by grooves which arega/ed. ;
double on the fore-part 3 aperture without teeth 3 pil¬
lar umbilicated. Mediterranean and Adriatic feas.—
This (hell is nearly as large as a man’s head.
* 3. B. ovate, inflated, (lightly grooved, and undula-peritii,
ted w ith white 3 aperture without teeth 3 6 inches long.
India, America, Weymouth.
4. B. ovate, furrounded with obtufe grooves 3 aper-potnuft
ture toothed : 2-§- inches long. Java, Amboyna, Mex-
ico.
5. B. ovate, furrounded with remote obtufe grooves; */<?/«/$!
beak a little prominent. Sicily, Africa, India.
6. B. ovate, furrounded with rounded ribs 3 beak a cauiti
little prominent 3 inch long. !,
7. B.
4
433
Chap. IV. CONCH
niv-’utn. ?• S- Snowy, ribbed ; outer whirls of the fpire
fcarcely prominent.
clatlra- 8. S. ovate, longitudinally wrinkled and tranfverfe-
lutn. ly plaited j with a ihort recurved beak j pillar lip cre-
nated and grooved within.
lineatum. * 9- B. pyramidal or lharp-pointed at bottom j white,
with dark brown fpiral lines 5 very (mail. Cornwall.
breve- * l0- B. tfhite, with 5 whirls, which are longitudinal¬
ly ribbed, and tranfverfely llriated. Pembrokeihire
coaftj
minimum. * n. B. with 5 fpines, fpirally ftriated, and tranf¬
verfely ribbed ; lefs than a pea. Norway, England.
ebtufulum. * 12. white, opaque, with 3 fpires j aperture oval.
Feverlham creek, England. Minute and rare.
B. IVti/i a Jhprt exferted, refleBed beak; lip outwardly
unarmed.
irmtum, * 13* B. wdiite, opaque, with three whirls, which are
longitudinally ribbed j very minute. Pembrokeihire
coait.
lave. * 14. B. fmooth, with 3 whirls and a long beak 5
very fmall. Pembrokeihire coaft.
cbtujijfi- * 15. B. fmooth, with 3 whirls, and a long beak j
mum. aperture contra&ed ; very minute. Pembrokeihire
coaft.
echinoplis- 16. B. with 4 tuberculated belts and prominent
rum. beak. Adriatic and Mediterranean feas.
plicatum. t’]- B. a little plaited forwards, marked with de-
cuffated ftrise ; aperture toothed ; beak recurved. Ja¬
maica.
cornutum.
rufum.
tubersfum.
Jkmmeum.
tejlmlur.
keujjatum
areola,
tyrinum.
naJulatum
ucatrico-
futn.
tefdatum.
Pnnatum.
Wulofum
13. E. Great fpikedcajket. Turbinated, or crowned
with fpines ; aperture toothed, beak recurved j from 9
to 12 inches long. India.
19. B. Red helmet. With decuflated ftriae, and
knotty belts, between which is a double line •, aperture
toothed 5 beak recurved. America and India.
20. B. Perjian whelk. With two tuberculated belts,
and recurved beak •, xo inches long. American ocean.
21. B. llightly plaited and crowned ; aperture tooth¬
ed ; beak recurved 5 5 inches long. American ocean.
22. B. obovate, with decuflated ftriae, and elevated
longitudinal ones ; aperture toothed j beak recurved j
4 inches long. America and India.
23. B. with decuffated ftriae, and covered with fmall
fquare fcales j aperture toothed 5 beak recurved. A-
frica, Mediterranean.
24. B. Small diced cafket. Subftriated and furround-
ed with four rows of fquare fpots 5 aperture toothed j
beak recurved 5 3 inches long j outer pillar lip with a
toothed inner margin. India, Mediterranean.
25. B. ovate, fmooth, bluilh, with tranfverfe yellow
bands; fpotted with brown, and intermediate browm
charafters. New Zealand.
26. B. with fometimes tranfverfe, ftriated and wa¬
ved fpotsfpire obtufe ; inner lip glabrous.
27. B. ovate, fmooth, and covered with hollow
pun&ures; fpire elongated ; lips toothed; beaks re¬
curved. India.
, B. thin, cinereous, with white bands teffelated
with brown ; whirls with 5 rows of tubercles ; 6 inches
long. South feas. Very rare.
29. B. white, with variegated yellowifti, chefnut,
and white bands j beaks recurved. India.
30. B. with four fpotted bands ; whirls a little pro-
Vol. VI. Part II. 1
O L O G Y.
minent, and longitudinally ribbed ; the firft crowned
with tubercles j 3^- inches long.
* 31. B. tranfverfely ftriated j fpire obtufe j whirlsbdineatum
with a fpotted band and 2 lines. Weymouth.
32. B. coarfe, tranfverfely ftriated and wrave fpot- gibbutn.
ted ; fpire acute, pyramidal; 2 inches long.
33. B. ventricofe, ftriated, pillar lip thin ; beakVjentrico-
fl101*. > fum.
34. B. tranfverfely ftnated j fpire acute; the ifaOtJlrigQfum,
whirls crowned with fpines; outer pillar lip fpotted
within, and emarginated without.
35- B. fmooth, with undulated fpots; fpire rugged rugojum.
and ftriated; beak with 5 plaits; outer pillar lip
ftrong and ftraight.
36. B. coarle, and with a flightly prominent, VLCUtspondero-
fpire; lirft w'hirl croxvned with tubercles; outer piliary^w.
ribbed within.
37* B. fmooth, and marked with a band of rufous recurvi-
fpots; fpire a little prominent; firft whirl infledled ; ro/?r»ztf.
2^- inches long, Barbadoes.
38. B. tranfverfely ftiiated, and fpotted here andtrifafcia-
there, with three equal bands; aperture bluifli within \ tum.
outer pillar lip toothed ; inner with rows of tubercles ;
3 inches long.
39- B. finely ftriated tranfverfely, and with Pureefenegali-
fpotted bands; fecond whirl of the fpire furroundedrw/z.
with a turgid ring ; outer pillar lipcrenated. Senegal.
40. B. ochraceous, tranfverfely ftiiated; firft whirl ochroleit-
crowned with fpines ; outer pillar lip toothed ; inner cum.
repand ; 2^- inches long.
41. B. tranfverfely ftriated; fpire depreffed ; ou\.erJlriatum.
whirl knotted at the margin; aperture toothed ; beak
recurved. America.
42. B. obovate, umbilicated, fulvous, with uurue-cajfis.
rous tranfverfe ftriae ; pillar lip membranaceous ; united
lip of the aperture acute. Mediterranean.
43. B. ovate, tranfverfely grooved, whitilh withJlrigatum.
reddifti bands, varicofe ; fpire conic, with decuflated
ftriae; aperture oblong, toothed; inner pillar lip
plaited, granulated; lip of the aperture fringed, fpot¬
ted. India.
.44- B. globular, yellowifti, grooved and ftriated; tyrrhenum
fpire conic ; aperture white ; lip margined, and llight-
ly toothed within. Seas round Tufcany.
45. B. ovate, white, tranfverfeJy ftriated, vend gree-abbrevia-
ved ; fpire conic ; lip of the aperture doubled, and turn.
toothed within ; pillar lip reftedled and wrinkled ; beak
very Ihort. India and America.
C. Lip prickly outwardly behind.
46. B. Small curled cajhet. A little plaited, and erinaceus.
crowned with papillce. America, India.
47. B. Smooth gray cajket. Smooth, crowned withglaucum.
papillae ; 5 inches long. Indian lea.
48. Smooth fpotted-lipped cajket. Entirely fmooth, vibex,
with yellowilh, waved, brown fpots. America, India.
49. B. ventricofe; whirls of the fpire with a bandtejjelatum.
at the bafe, teflfelated with black.
5°. B. ftightly plaited and crowned with papillae ; noduloju/n.
lip fmooth, with two rows of (harp fpines behind ; 1
inch long.
51. B. grooved, with an acute fpire; whirls withJimbria.
rows of tubercles.
• 3l
52. B.
434 CONCH
papillofutn. 52. B. Small bugle netted whelh. Covered with tuber¬
cles, in rows ; 2^ inches long. Indian lea. Rare.
glans. 53. B. fmooth, inner pillar lip with two teeth j 2
inches long. Indian ocean. Very rare.
D. Pillar lip dilated and thickened.
arcularia, 54. B. plaited and crowned with papillae. Indian
ocean.
pullus. 55. B. Small coffer Jhell. Gibbous, obliquely flriated
and tuberculated j aperture wrinkled j not an inch
long. Mediterranean and European coafts, Britain.
gibbofulum 56. B. gibbous, fmooth, fnowy, tinged or fpotted j
fmall. Mediterranean and Indian Teas.
mutabile. 57. B. fmooth, rugged •, fpire exferted ; inner lip
extended forward, and thickifh. Mediterranean.
neriteum. 58. B. convex, obtufe, fmooth ; inner pillar lip ob-
folete j lize of a pea. Mediterranean.
E. Pillar lip appearing as if worn flat.
harpa. 59. B. Mujical-harp Jhell. With equal, longitudinal,
diftiind mucronate veins \ pillar lip fmooth } from 3 to
5 inches long. Indian fea.
coflatum. 60. B. with equal, longitudinal, crowned mucronate
tfeins; pillar lip fmooth. Falkland iflands. Very
rare.
perjicum. 61. B. flat, with the lip crenulated, and the pillar
flat 5 4 inches long. India, and Perflan gulf.
monodon. 62. B. rou^h with a crenulated lip ; pillar flat, pro¬
truding obliquely a fubulate fpine j gray, white within.
America.
palulum. 63. B. muricated j the lip crenated without; the
pillar falcated ; 4 inches long. America and Ethio¬
pia.
hcemafta- 64. B. flightly muricated ; lip ftriated within ; the
ma. pillar rather flat; throat fulvous ; 2 inches long. Me¬
diterranean and Ethiopic feas.
lapillus. * 65. B. Purple whelk. Ovate, acute, fpirally ftriat¬
ed, without protuberances; pillar flattith ; inch
long. The colour is white, cinereous, or yellowilh ;
the fliell is often tranfverfely bored or grooved ; it is
fometimes thin and without teeth in the aperture, and
fometimes more folid, and the aperture toothed. Shores
of Europe, Britain.—This is one of the fpecies which
yields a fine purple dye.
fmaragdu- 66. B. ovate, aclrte and glabrous ; pillar flattilh and
lus. flightly plaited ; grooved ; fliines with a green glofs,
and like mother-of-pearl.
tuba. 67. B. fufiform, yellowilh browrn ; the fpire can¬
cellated ; firft whirl fmooth, and three times longer
than the reft ; ventricofe above. India.
pyrum. 68. B. turbinated ; aperture red ; pillar fmooth ;
the fpire fhort ; firft whirl ventricofe. India, Red fea.
Very rare.
Jpadiceum. 69. B. oblong, turbinated ; chefnut, with tranfverfe
undulated white lines.
feflile. 70. B. convex, tranfverfely plaited ; fpire fliort;
pillar callous. Found foflil in Germany.
ufnbilica- 71. B. oblong, turbinated and plaited ; fpire knot-
tum. ty ; aperture grooved within ; pillar flightly umbilica-
ted.
candidum. 72., B. oblong, turbinated; folid, fmpoth and
white.
feala. 73. B. oblong ; aperture oval, emarginated, four¬
toothed ; bafe w’hite ; fpire acute ; the whirls di'ftant ;
the fiift with four glabrous ribs.
O L O G Y. Chap. II
74. B. ventricofe, coarfe, gray, glabrous; aperturecr^^ i
oval ; pillar callous; bafe with two callofities ; fpire
fcarcely prominent; has 5 whirls.
75. B. fubglobular, glabrous; aperture oval, mar-margin|
gined on each fide; lip toothed ; pillar a little {xriat-tum,
ed ; fpire fcarcely prominent. Found in a foflil ftate.
76. B. ponderous, convex, glabrous ; whirls &i-labyriA
ftant and margined ; aperture oval, ample ; pillar ob-thus,
liquely plaited. Holland.
77. B. coarfe, ovate, oblong, white with tranfver£e ruflicutX
brown ftrice ; aperture oval ; beak prominent; firft
whirl ventricofe. India, Africa.
78. B. ovate, coarfe, yellow, with elevated knotty,
tranfverfe darker ribs ; aperture oval, without teeth.
79. B. ovate, whitilh, furrounded with red threads jyf/o/aw,1
fpire a little prominent ; aperture oval; lip ftriated
with red ; pillar flightly umbilicated.
80. B. ovate, ftriated, whitifh with chefnut (hades ^coronatl
a white band in the middle, edged with brown fpots on
each fide ; gibbous in the middle.
81. B. fubglobular; whitifh with leek-green andfqualidA
lurid teflelated fpots in row's; 4 whirls in the fpire.
82. B. fubcylindrical, tranfverfely ftriated, reddliQncraffum
with chefnut bands ; lip denticulated. Ceylon.
83. B. ftriated ; brown, fpotted and barred witbfornica-
white; whirls channelled with 4 rows of knots; \\tum.
inch long.
F. Smooth, and not included in the former divifions.
84. B. Diced whelk. Smooth ; whirls 6 or 7 in thafpiratuni
fpire, feparated by a canal; pillar abrupt and perfo¬
rated ; 2 inches long. India and China.
85. B. with tranfverfe plaits and undulated ftrise ’,pyrozon\
the bafe and fpine a little prominent; each of the
whirls with a fulvous band ; the firft double.
86. B. oblong, finely ftriated, pale brown writh Iceviujal
darker bands ; aperture oval, terminating in a canal ; lum.
firft whirl gibbous and large ; whirls 5 or 6. India.
87. B. fmooth, black, with rows of white fpots and ocellatu\
dots ; fpire prominent; firft whirl ventricofe.
88. B. obtufely pyramidal and tranfverfely ftriated -^pijram-
white, with blackiih and brown clouds and ftripes.r/tf/<?.
Tranquebar,
89. B. quite glabrous and minute ; fometimes \vi\hglabern\
a teflellated band on the two firft whirls. mum.
90. B. minute, tranfverfely ftriated; toothed nxflrigojui\
fpotted in the aperture.
91. B. glabrous with 3 broad red bands within 'ytrifafcit
firft whirl of the fpire ventricofe ; I inch long. turn.
92. B. glabrous, and marked with a white band andleucot&o-
chefnut lines. Minute. nias. \j\
93. B. glabrous, with decuffating bands and lines, cancella
94. B. glabrous, ochraceous ; fpire with an obtufe
blue tip ; firft whirl ventricofe ; two inches long.
95. B. glabrous, with obtufe whirls ; the low ad glabrali
flightly channelled and produced at the bafe ; 4 inches
long. America, Africa.
96. B. glabrous ; 5 or 6 whirls diftinft; lip promi-yfro/BW
nent; bafe obliquely ftriated. des.
97. B. ovate, fmooth, black with a carious fpire
pillar glabrous; fize of a bean ; crowned jagged, abrupt.
Southern Europe.
98. B. oblong, fmooth, thin, banded ; aperture o-auflrab:
val, entire; 3 inches long. Rivers of New Zea¬
land,
99. B,
435
,1V. CONCH
99. B. ovate, thick, whitiih, tranfverfely ribbed and
grooved ; aperture oval j lip plaited within 5 pillar lip
dat. Shores of New Zealand.
lumdum. IOO. B. obovate, flightly umbilieated •, yellowiili,
with rows of red fpots 5 lips finuated. New Zealand.
G. Angular, and not enumerated in the former divifons.
Chap
»rbito>
undofuin.
affine.
tranque-
iaricum.
verjicolor.
eruenta-
tum.
fukatum,
rumpfiu
bezoar.
glaciale.
io 1. B. ovate, with tranfverfe, elevated, glabrous
ftrise •, belly obtufely 5-angular 5 lip ilriated within ;
a inches long. Malacca.
102. B. ovate, with tranfverfe, elevated, glabrous
Prise ; belly cylindrical; lip Printed within.
103. B. ovate j fpire with 12 angles and tranfverfe¬
ly Priated •, aperture toothed 5 lip orange j pillar perfo¬
rated. Coromandel coap.
104. B. coarfe, dirty brown, tranfverfely Priated *,
2 rows of black dots in the interPices of the Prise 5 4
channelled whirls in the fpire. India.
105. B. tranfverfely Priated with red parallelogram
fpots.
106. B. ovate j brown with fnowy fpots j whirls of
the fpire grooved ; lip crenulated j throat Priated.
107. B. thin, narrow, ventricofe j fpire conic, de-
preffed j PrP and fecond whirls crowned with fpines.
ic8. B. roundiPi, wrinkled \ whirls lamellated on
the fore-part j pillar perforated. China.
109. B. ovate-oblong fmooth, a little Priated j
lower whirl flightly keeled ; 2 inches long. Northern
feas.
undatum. * no. B. Waved whelk. Oblong, coarfe, with deep,
tranfverfe, undulated Priae; whirls 7, with many curved
angles; 3 to 4 inches long. India, Europe; very com¬
mon on the Ihores of Britain.—The fifliermen, from fup-
pofing that it is depru&ive to the large fcallop) q/lrea
maxima), by infinuating its tail, as they term it, into
the fhell, either ufe it for bait, or deProy it, when they
take it in dredging. The fpawn of this fpecies is often
found in cluflers in many parts of the coap.
Jlriatum. * in. B. ovate-oblong, with tranfverfe elevated Priae,
which are undulated near the tip ; 4 inches long.
CoaPs of Britain.
ciliatum. it2. B. elongated, flightly tailed ; angular ; longi¬
tudinally ciliated ; pillar flightly plaited ; whirls 5 ; 6
inches long, Greenland feas.
viridukm. 113. B. oblong, pointed, glabrous; minutely Pri¬
ated tranfverfely, and longitudinally ribbed ; 4 lines
long. Greenland feas.
tannatum. 114. B. oblong, conic, and tranfverfely Priated;
upper whirls with many oblique and obtufe angles,
lower ones with a Angle ridge. South fea.
folutum. 115. B. ovate with unequally diPant longitudinal
tubercles on the belly ; lip channelled and a little di-
flinft ; ribs 6 ; firp and fecond whirls broadep ; fpire
obtufe. Shell whitilh mixed with yellow.
tenia. ng. B. oblong, glabrous, brown, with a yellow-
ilh band in the middle of the firp whirl.
hneatum. 117. B. cinereous, with longitudical, undulated, and
interrupted tranfverfe brown Priae ; margin white,
fpotted with brown ; aperture white.
maclo'ui. 118. B. oblong, with waved fpots and clouds ;
enfe. fpire Ihort; firp whirl gibbous; tail narrow, promi-
Morum. 119. B. thin, with a fliort, acute, flightly ribbed
fpire; the firP whirl a little globular ; 1 inch long.
O L O G Y.
India, among- the leaves and branches of maritime
7 t>
Pi rubs.
120. B. ventricofe, cancellated; whirls diPant; itextum.
inch long.
12 r. B. oblong ; longitudinally plaited, and irzn{-Jlrigofum.
verfely Priated ; the Priae brown and black, and Pri¬
ated with white ; ventricofe ; aperture ribbed ; pillar
flightly plaited ; 2 inches long.
* 122. B. oblong, with tranfverfe elevated Priae ; 6anglicum.
brown whirls in the fpire; a little ventricofe. Britain.
* 12.3. B. ventricofe, ribbed, brown; the firp -whitlporcatum*
covering the next. Britain. .. .
124. B. glabrous, white; fpire bluifli at the tip, oh-lcevi/J:~
tufe ; firfl whirl largeP, ventricofe. - mum.
I 25. B. oblong, narrow, glabrous; yellowiPi, with, igneum.
red waved fpots and clouds ; outer whirls perpendicu¬
larly Priated. \
126. B. oblong, narrow, cbefnut with darker belts ^plumaium.
throat narrow, black or blue, with Priated teeth ;
lip Priated within ; fpire acute. South American
iflands.
x 27. B. oblong, narrow, horizontally ribbed ; ribs lyratum.
tranfverfely Priated ; pillar fmooth.
128. B. ovate, ventricofe, hoary ; longitudinally r/o/^ra-
ribbed, and tranfverfely plaited ; lip grooved within ; turn.
fpire acute; beak Piort, recurved.
* 129. B. Reticulated whelk. Oblong, ovate, reticula*
verfely Priated, and longitudinally wrinkled ; aperture turn.
toothed, glofly ; fize of a nut. European and Ethiopic
feas, Britain.
* 130. B. with 5 whirls, fpirally Priated and tranf-/wzaataw.
verfely ribbed; lefs than a pea. Norway, Britain.
131. B. ovate, cancellated, white; 5 whirls, firft niveum.
ventricofe ; 1 inch long. Tranquebar.
132. B. yellow, with pale brown bands; fpire withfealare.
6 whirls cancellated ; w hirls flat, diPant, the firp a
little convex ; aperture triangular ; lip toothed ; pillar
plaited, verrucofe, umbilicated. A very rare Prell.
133. B. with decuffated Priae, brown, within white. xWzbzmx.
India.
134. B. white, varied with brown; tranfverfely Pri-woi/h/o/wtz.
ated ; here and there knotty. Shores of American
iflands.
135. B. cancellated and nodulous in the angles oipifeatori*
the fection ; aperture toothed on each Pde, and acute, um.
India.
136. B. white, within yellowiPi ; lip 6-toothed ; mauritii.
whirls crowned with fpines, the flip with 4 rows.
Mauritius. '
137. B. oblong; aperture fimple, and -without teeth ; om/Z/a-
each whirl crowmed with a row of tubercles. turn.
138. B. oblong; perpendicularly plaited, 2Ln&\.x2.x\{-plicatulumt
verfely Priated ; w ith alternate white and brown bands ;
violet within. India.
* 139. B. ventricofe, oblong; with longitudinal plait-vulgatum.
like Priae, croffed with fine undulated tranfverfe ones.
Mediterranean, fiiores of England.
140. B. with party-coloured bands, tranfverfely ftri-folatum,
ated ; fpire horizontally ribbed, part of the firP whirl
glabrous. Tranquebar.
141. B. white, cancellated; fpire acute; minute. nanum.
142. B. narrow, cancellated; aperture large, crena-eArf/e. <
ted and fpotted ; fmall.
143. B. cancellated ; with perpendicular ribs ; thef/fo/fo.
3 I 2 interPices
436
C O N C H O L O G ¥. Chap. I
inLerftices finooth and flat 5 aperture ovate } fpire hardly flightly emarginated, on the back r a very minute
prominent; a minute ftiell. fhelJ.
verruca- 144, B. flriae decuffated, knotted in the angles of
fum. fe£tions; ventricofe 'y pale yellow, with a bluifti band
on each whirl 5 14 inch long.
alalum. 145. B, gibbous, with decuffated ftriae, knotty in the
angles ol flection, the tranfverfe ftriae undulated j lip
winged j 1 inch long.
nigra- 146. B. narrow, rugged j wrinkles tuberculated with
punBaturn. white, and dotted with black j 4 .inc^ long.
nitidulum, J47* H. ovate, oblong, polrfhed j barred and marked
with ^ longitudinal rugged ftriae j lip flightly toothed
within. Mediterranean.
lavigatum, 148, B. ovate, oblong, polilhed, ftriated with brown,
and fmooth j aperture without teeth or pillar lip j fpire
without plaits. Mediterranean.
lamellofum 149. B. flightly plaited, tranfverfely ribbed, grooved,
tuberculated, lamellous j barred with chefnut, brown,
and white. New Zealand.
fcutulatum. 150. B. fmooth, chefnut-brown, veined, with flattilh
whirls, and obtufe beak. New Zealand.
haujiorium 151. B. ovate, ventricofe, black, with a fhort fpire j
pillar depreffed, white *, throat white $ lip ftriated and
crenulated within. New Zealand.
ventrico- 152. B. ovate, oblong j brown ftriated w ith white,
fum. and flightly plaited.
tejludine- 153. B. ovate, fmooth, wdth alternate whitifti and
tim. brownifti fpots in interrupted rows. Shores of New
Zealand.
catdrrhac- 154. B. ovate, rough, with crowded tranfverfe
tv- grooves, and flame-coloured undulations. New Zea¬
land.
tahitenfe. 155. B. tapering ; tranfverfely ribbed and grooved ;
with a nodulous fpiral ftria at the future of the whirls;
aperture ovate > lip llightly plaited. Otaheite.
lamella- 156. B. imperforated, lamellated; white, within
turn. purple; lip white j 14 inch long.
H. Tapering, fubulate, fmooth.
maculaium 157. B. fomew’hat fpindle-fhaped, with fmooth, un¬
divided, entire whirls j fpire with 14 or more whirls.
Alia, Africa.
fubulatum. 158. B. fubulate, fmooth, undivided, very entire} firft
whirl not gibbous } 5 inches long. Indian ocean.
crenula- 159. B. whirls of the fpire bifid, with a crenated mar-
tum. gin ; 5 inches long. Africa and India.
hedlicutn. 160. B. w hirls of the fpire bifid 5 upper margin com-
preffed, tapering •, 4 inches long. Africa.
vitlatum. 161. B. fubftriated, with a double crenated future
on each of the whirls} 2 inches long. Africa and
India.
Jlngilatum 162. B. whirls of the fpire 16 or 20, bifid and ob¬
liquely ftriated} l\ inches long. Southern feas of
• Africa.
dup/icatum 163. B. whirls of the fpire biparted and ftriated} 4
inches long. India.
lanceatum. 164. B. fmooth with entire whirls, and longitudinal
teftaceous lines } thin } fpire acute. India.
dimidia- 165. B. wdiirls of the fpire bifid, fmooth} 4 inches
turn. long. Africa and India.
murinum. 166. B. whirls of the fpire fubangular, with 3 muri-
cated ftrise $ black 5 bafe' gibbous } whirls white at the
bafe. Africa.
tigrinum. 367. B. pellucid, white with reddilh dots} the whirls
168. B. acute, w'hitilh, with undulated horizontal^/,
lines} whirls bifid, crenulated, and wrinkled } pillar
fpirally twifted } 14 inch long.
169. B. fubulate, horizontally ftriated} whirls girt•,fuccinl\
W'hite or ftraw colour. Indian ocean.
170. B. fubulate, varied with yellow' or veddiih comma,
patches} whirls flattifh, tranfverfely ftriated, and far-latum.
rounded with an elevated belt.
171- ventricofe} whirls perpendicularly Hriated hafatiu
wdth alternate brow n and white bands} 14 inch
long.
172. B. white, with brown bands of hollow' dots. acicuk
173. B. whirls of the fpire longitudinally ribbed, \.hephalks\
bafe with a rugged future} lip a little prominent and
emarginated above} 9 whirls in the fpire} ribs a little
curved. India.
174. B whirls of the fpire convex, diftant, tranfverfe-y?mwf,|
ly ftriated } upper ones horizontally ribbed } 34 inches
long. Found in frefti waters.
175. B. w'hirls of the fpire ribbed, and tranfverfely
ftriated, the firft gibbous } beak a little prominent, 14
inch long.
176. B. reticulate, wrinkled, with an incwtvtdmuricin\
fpire } aperture crenated } pillar wrinkled } lip thick¬
ened.
177. B. the whirls furrounded with a row of tuber-tubercu\
cles; minute. (Umt
178. B. fubulate, pun&ured, tranfverfely ftriated
aperture obovate } whirls of the fpire furrounded with turn. 1
a band, the firft ventricofe } 1 inch long.
179. B. fubulate, fmooth, thin, and finely Rrlaledacicula.
tranfverfely } whirls of the fpire contiguous} tapering
to a point. In frefti waters.
180. B. aperture ovate, oblong} whirls ventricofe,
diftant and horizontally ftriated } the ftriae elevated and turn.
feparated by an intermediate band.
181. B. fubulate, fmooth, fnowy, with two bands} niveum,
w hirls of the fpire contiguous.
182. B. a little ventricofe } w hite, with brown undu- mucrono
lations} aperture oval} whirls 5 } 3 inches long. turn.
183. B, coarfe, with a fubincurved obtufe lip } 4 inch digitellust
long. India.
184. B. whirls of the fpire entire, with oblique de-obliquum
cuffated ftriae } a finger’s length, thicknefs of a quill.
India.
185. B. fubangular, grooved} fteel-blue or dottedchalybeut
with white and black} 14 inch long. India.
186. B. thin, with contiguous whirls} beak fafnilyfuviatile.
emarginated } 4 to 5 inches long. Ijidia, in the mouths
of muddy rivers.
187. B. fubulate} whitifti with reddifti rays; whirls1
convex, furrounded with granulated ftriae } firft largeft
and ventricofe.
188. B. whirls of the fpire longitudinally wrinkled,
and marked with tranfverfe granulated ftriae, the firft
twice as large as the next; 1 inch long.
189. B. whirls fpotted} aperture long, without ietih^edentulum
pillar plaited.
190. B. longitudinally ftriated, with pumftured faoi-pugto.
ted bands between the w'hirls. [latum
191. B. fpotted with 17 grooved whirls. canaHcu-
392. B. whirls of the fpire convex, and twice varicofutn
crowned;
437
Chap. IV. . CONCH
crowned j the firft with 3 rows of pundlures ) 3-I inches
long.
cufpidatum 193- B. fubulate, fpotted \ whirls convex, fubre-
mote.
194. B. Tubulate, fmooth, cinereous, with obfolete
bands ; whirls undivided and longitudinally ftriated at
the future ; whirls 14 j 2 inches long.
195. B. greenifh .yellow, with 2 red bands j whirls
of the fpire flattilh ; aperture Jarge, oval. Rivers of
Virginia.
196. B. whirls of the fpire bifid 5 lower one fub-
ftriated, upper one filiform; Tubulate, glofly.
197. B. whirls of the fpire bifid ; upper one groov¬
ed lower one moniliform, Tubulate j yellowifh white.
cingulatum 198. B. with 3 elevated belts grooved above and
beneath ; fize of a cherry. Iceland.
getninum. 199. B. whirls of the fpire bifid ; the lower one
fubftriated, upper one more protuberant j white j fubu-
late.
obtufutum. * 200. B. white, glofly, femipellucid 5 5 whirls, in
the fpire ; aperture oval. Faverlham, England.
Gen. 25. Strombus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax ; the {hell univalve,
fpiral \ aperture much dilated j the lip expanding,
and produced into a groove leaning to the left (c)^
cinereum.
virpneutn.
proximo
turn.
monile.
53
Strorabus.
Species.
A. The lip projecting into linear divi/ions or claws.
fufus. 1. S. tapering, fmooth, w’ith a Tubulate bealc and
toothed lip. Red Tea.
pes-pelica- * 2. S. Corvorant's Foot ; lip with four palmated angu-
ni. lar claws •, mouth fmooth j whirls tuberculated ; 2
inches long. European and American feas, {bores of
Britain.
cliiragra. 3. S. lip with 6 curved claws, and recurved beak ;
lip ftriated ; two hind claws divergent and bent
outwards; beak tuberculated. Indian ocean. Rare
{hell.
fcorpius. 4. S. lip with 4 knotty claws ; hinder one very long -7
4 inches long.
lambis. 5. S. lip with feven ftraightifh claws ; mouth fmooth.
Afia. A large {hell.
mllepeda. 6. S. lip with 10 infle&ed claws ; mouth fubftri¬
ated ; back comprefled ; gibbous. Afia. Rare.
ckvus. 7; Si tapering, fmooth, with a Tubulate beak,, and
Ample lip.
B. Lobed.
lentigmo- 8. S. lip thickened and 3-lobed on the fore-part;
jWj back warty, and crowned with tubercles; beak ob*
tufe ; 34 inches long. Afia, America.
fafeiatus. 9. S. lip entire ; back crowned with 3 rows of pro¬
tuberances, and rofy between them. Africa.
faninus. 10. S. lip thin, rugged, repand above ; back orange,
tranfverfely ftriated, and crowned with tubercles; a-
perture white, polithed.
iadus. 11. S. lip mucronate on the fore-part, and very
O L O G Y.
long ; back crowned with tubercles; beak ftraight;
6 inches long. Afia and America.
12. S. lip projecting into a {harp point: backattr/jw/zb-
muricated; beak ereCt and acute; 3 inches long.
Afia.
13. S. anterior lip prominent, rounded, fmooth \pugilis,
fpire fpinous ; beak 3-lobed, obtufe. South Ameri¬
ca.
14. S. anterior lip rounded, prominent, fmooth ; fpire a/zz/z/j-.
unarmed ; beak 3-lobed, obtufe.
15. S. lip a little prominent j beak entire; back wztfrgf/m-
margined, fmooth. tns.
16. S. lip a little prominent; back fmooth; whirls/zz^z/zzzzzzj'.
rounded, equal; 2-§- inches long. Afia.
17. S. lip a little prominent; beak fmooth ; 'tAAxX'igibberulus*
gibbous, unequal. Afia.
18. S. obovate, with knotty belts, and a fubulatejO^zzr,
fmooth projection ; an inch long. South America.
C. Dilated.
19. S. lip rounded, entire on the fore-part; belly
doubly ftriated; fpire crowned with tubercles ; upper
ones minute. South America.
20. S. lip rounded, and very large ; {hell crowned \gigas.
belly and fpire with conic expanded fpines ; glofly
white; within, a. rich rofe colour ; 10 inches long.
South America,
21. S. lip rounded, very large: belly unarmed;.
fpire a little knotty ; 14 inches long. Afia.
22. S. lip rounded, ftiort; belly fmooth ; fpire a lit- epidromis.
tie knotty ; 3^ inches long. Southern Afia.
23. S. lip retufe, gibbous; belly and fpire wit\\minimus.
knotty plaits; aperture 2-lipped, fmooth; inch
long. India,
24. S. fomewhat heart-ftiaped ; with a round, ft\ort,canarium.
retufe, fmooth lip ; pillar fmooth ; inches long.
Afia.
25. S. lip rounded, ftiort; belly fmooth ; fpire e- vittatusi-
longated ; whirls divided by an elevated future ; 4
inches long,
26. S. lip rounded, retufe; belly fmooth, with ^fuccinBus.
pale, linear, punftured belts. Afia.
27. S. lip tapering, eatire, {lightly. plaited, zn&fpinofus*
crowned with fine fpines; fpire prickly. Hitherto
found in a foflil ftate only.
28. S. lip continued into a longitudinal cleft xi&gQiJi/Jurella,
India. Frequently found fbfiil in Campania.
29. S. lip tapering, retufe, {hort, Itriated ; belly araw,
and fpire with knotty plaits ; aperture 2-lipped, unarm¬
ed ; 2|- inches long. Indian ocean.
30. S. thin, white, with orange fpots and .clouds ;/nir/ffl/rf*
back fmooth, plaited ; whirls grooved ; lip 3-toothed ; tus.
beak violet. Indian ocean.
31. S. lip tapering, ftiort-toothed; belly and {rpnzdentatus.
plaited ; 1-5- inch long..
32. S. very thick; firft whirl crowned with tuber-
cles ; interftices of the tubercles plaited ; the next
whirl tranfverfely ribbed ; the reft tranfverfely ftriated ;
6 inches long.
33- S*
(c) It ought to be obferved, that thefe ftiellsj in their young ftate, want the lip, and then have a thin tur¬
binated appearance; from which circumftance they have been fometimes referred to a different genus.
!
43^
bryonia.
qffinis
lotus.
levis.
ucxillum.
norvoegi-
cus.
G O N G H
33. S. conic, with a mucronate, 8-toothed lip ; fpire
knotty j 7 inches long ; very rare.
34. S. tranfverfely ftriated, gibbous 5 fpire unarmed j
firft whirl crowned with tubercles.
35. S. lip a little prominent, and twice emarginated
beneath ; firft whirl of the fpire fmooth in the middle,
and tranfverfely ftriated on each fide ; the reft crowned
with obtufe knots.
36. S. fmooth, filvery, radiated with brown ; with
obfolete tranfverfe plaits; fpire elongated, with inflated,
rounded whirls, above 2 inches long.
37. S. folid, fubcylindrical, with alternate, reddifh
and oehraceous bands ; lip denticulated within j pillar
flat, glabrous, and emarginated at the bafe. Indian
ocean j very rare.
38. S. oblong, fubulate, white, with round whirls j
aperture fpreading ; ovate ; beak a little afcending.
D. Tapering, with a very long fpire.
tubercula- 39. S. oblong, ovate, tuberculated} lip thicken-
tus. ed.
palujlris. 40. S. fmoothifh ; lip feparated behind. Savannahs
of the Indian ocean.
ater. 41. S. fmooth ; lip feparated before and behind j 26
lines long. Fens of Amboyna.
lineatus. 42. S. lubulate, brown j with 7 fpiral impreffed lines}
aperture ovate } 11 lines long.
punclatus. 43. S. fhell fubulate, yellowifh, with a white band }
ftriated with red near the future } lefier whirls grooved,
6 larger ones fmooth } fpire with 12 or 13.
•vibex. 44. S. fubulate, cinereous, tranfverfely ftriated}
whirls 8 to ix, knotty, and marked with red ftreaks.
Coromandel, Friendly iflands.
auritus. 45. S. barred with brown} whirls 7, muricated }
each with 7 yellow comprefled tubercles } aperture
. e>vate } 10 lines long. Africa.
aculeatus. 46, S. brown, tuberculated } whirls 12, with 5 rows
of tubercles on each } minute } lip depreffed, crenela¬
ted } 18 lines long. Marfhes of Africa.
agnatus. 47. S. fmooth } lip very prominent, and emarginated
behind.
dealbatus. 48. S. with black whirls tranfverfely ftriated } outer
ones fmooth} margin of the lip and pillar white.
fufcus. 49. S. brown, with numerous tubercles and whirls}
lip feparated before and behind } within ftriated with
[tus. brown.
tnargina- 50. S. brown } loweft whirl edged with white.
lividus. 51. S. fubangular, with fpinous knots ; lip feparated
Tin the fore-part} brown, tranfverfely ftriated.
Jlriatus. 52. S. convex, ftriated, white, with a few fulvous
ftreaks } pillar finuated, inflected, thin, pellucid }
inches long.
JiniJler. 53. S. whirls reverfed, thin, longitudinally ftriated 5
l|: inch long, with 10 whirls. Hitherto found in a
foflil ftate only in Helvetia.
54
Murex.
Gen. 26. Murex.
Gen. Char.—The animal a climax } the Ihell univalve,
fpiral, rough, with membranaceous futures ; aperture
oval, terminating in an entire, ftraight, ©r flightly
afcending canal.
Species.
A. Spinous, with a produced beak.
&aujlellum. 1. M. ovate, tilberculated } with a long fubulated
ftraight, muricated beak. Afia, America, Red fea,
1
O L O G Y. Cliap.lv
2. M. Thorny woodcock. Ovate, with a triple rowtribuks,
of fetaceous fpines 5 beak elongated, fubulate, with fimi-
lar fpines. Var. 1. With fpines Ihorter than the beak.
2. With fpines as long as the beak. This laft is rare.
Afia, America, Red fea.
3. M. roundilh, furrounded with fubulate, oblique
fpines } beak long, fubulate, ftraight, with a few ihort
Ipines } 8 inches long } fpines 2 inches. Africa. Very
rare.
4. M. fuborate, furrounded with ftraight fpines} beakbrandm,
fubulate, ftraight, obliquely furrounded with fpines.
Mediterranean, Adriatic.
5. M. ovate, knotty, and furrounded with fpines on trunculus,
the fore part } beak Ihort, perforated, truncated. Me¬
diterranean, Jamaica. ,
6. M. ovate, knotty, with 3 to 7 protuberances
beak broad } coarfe and ponderous. Eafiern fliores of
Africa.
7. M. ovate, tranfverfely grooved, with tranfverfedccujjalv,
ribs crofted by perpendicular knots} beak imperforated}
7 diftinft whirls in the fpire. Africa. ^
8. M. turgid, knotty, tranfverfely ftriated, with atriacan.
triple row of Ipines. Found in a foflil ftate. thus.
9. M. tranfverfely ftriated with 8 rows of hollow/wr/W
black fpines} fpire a little knotty and prickly} be&kmathos, ,
fibula te.
10. M. white with numerous rows of leafy, black, radix,
undulated fpines. A very rare ftiell.
11. M. white, with rows of fpines, and very fhortcwzA. {
beak} fome of the fpines black } 2 inches long.
12. M. inflated with rows of fpines, w hite, barred with fafcim,
brown} 4 diftinft turgid w hirls in the fpire.
B. Suture expanding into crifpedfoliations ; beck abbre- ' 9
viated. Purpura.
5
13. M. a triple row of foliations } fpire contiguous } ramojus, ,
beak truncated. America, Afia, Red fea.
14. M. a triple row' of foliations } aperture I-tootbo&.foliatus, Sl
North America.
15. M. 4 rows of foliations} fpire capitate} hoakfcorpio,
truncated. Afia. Very rare.
16. M. 5 rows of foliations} fpire contiguous} beakfaxatilis.
abbreviated. Mediterranean, Afia.
17. M. white, diaphanous } 6 rows of foliations, diaphmt ,,
which are tipt with black. ^
18. Ochraceous, tranfverfely ftriated, with mxmt-cichorm* «,
rous rows of foliations.
19. M. varied with white and red } with flat acute verficohu
foliations } pointed with black. n
* 20. M. fubangular} whirls crowned with tubular erinacetih
and fubfpinous rays} fcales or points} beak Ihort and
covered } 2 inches long. European feas, Ihores of Bri¬
tain.
21. M. 7 rows of foliations, white, with elevatedJlriatus. ^
tranfverfe, brown Arise } 7 whirls in the fpire. India.
22. M. Ihell elongated, triangular, with membra-/njWfflW'
naceous foliations at the angles } 5 whirls in the fpire.
Found foflil in Campania. \
23. M. umbilicated with muricated ribs} \\\i\x\ifacellw<
flattilh above, with acute margins} lip crenated} beak '4
ftraight, afcending. Nicobar.
24. M. triangular, knotty, tranfverfely grooved, withmot&cM0,
a triple row of tubercles } beak long, fubulate, ftraight;
mouth white. India.
25. M.
439
Chap. IV. C O N C H
muter. 2M. long, Tubulate, triangular j ribs reticulated j
r!Ct beak fcraight, clofed : ipire pyramidal, with 6 whirls.
O L O G Y.
gular ridges 5 aperture femicircular j beak a little re
lie6ted ) 4 inches long. Europe, Britain.
JfOtus.
rana.
gyrinus.
offinis.
lampas.
olearium.
/morale.
cutaceus.
lotorium.
pileare.
bufmius.
pyrum.
caudatus.
rubecu/a.
firobicula-
ta.
reticularis.
kmellofus.
ftodatus,
onus.
miliaris.
h^alctL.
fu.
c°rinatus.
C. With thick, protuberant, roundedfutures.
26. M. protuberances crofted by fmooth belts 5
aperture ovate.
27. M. rough, with- oppofite, imprefled protuber¬
ances, with one or two muricated belts. Afta.
28. M. protuberances oppofite, continued, and bar¬
red with tuberculated dots 5 aperture orbicular. Me¬
diterranean, Atlantic, India.
29. M. turgid, with oppofite continued protuber¬
ances fpire pointed ; whirls furrounded with a crown
of tubercles ; the outermoft glabrous.
30. M. protuberances nearly oppofite, gibbous, with
longitudinal tuberculated protuberances ; from 4 to 14
inches long. Indian ocean.
31. M. protuberances alternate, and numerous tu¬
bercles ; back unarmed and ftriated behind j aperture
toothlefs. Mediterranean and African feas.
32. M. protuberances decuffated, triangular, wrink¬
led and knotty on the fore-part 3 aperture ovate, tooth¬
lefs ; from j to 7 inches long. Afia, Guinea, and A-
meriea.
33. M. with a Angle protuberance ; angular, and
a little wrinkled with knots j pillar perforated ; aper¬
ture toothed 5 3 inches long. Barbary, Guinea, South
America.
34. M. protuberances decuflated, angular, with
longitudinal tuberculous knots ; beak flexuous ; aper¬
ture toothed. Mediterranean.
35. M. protuberances decuffated, and a little wrink¬
led with knots } aperture toothed j beak fubafeending.
Mediterranean.
36. M. fix oppofite, continued, vaulted protuber¬
ances, and knotty belts 5 beak oblique. A rare thell.
37. M. varicofe, ovate, tranfverfely grooved and
knotty beak long, flexuous, Tubulate. Indian ocean.
38. M. thin, tranfverfely ftriated 5 beak fubulate;
fpire a little prominent, tipt with brown ; whirls
grooved ; firft gibbous.
39. M. protuberances decuflated, obtufe, with knotty
wrinkles; belly equal; aperture toothed. Africa,
India, South America. Rare.
40. M. protuberances hollowed, fmooth, nearly op¬
pofite ; aperture toothed. Mediterranean.
41. M. protuberances nearly oppofite, reticulated
with tuberculated fpots ; pillar almoft toothlefs ; beak
afeending ; 6 inches long. Mediterranean, America.
42. M. protuberances membranaceous, continued
through the fpire, and terminated with a fpine. Falk¬
land illands.
43. M. whirls knotty; aperture violet; lip toothed;
beak ftraight. New Holland.
44. M. protuberances and lips membranaceous, di¬
lated ; gibbous and reticulated with tubercles ; aper¬
ture finuous; beak eredt ; 3 inches long. Mediter¬
ranean and Afia.
45. M. varicofe, with tuberculated belts; aperture
a little toothed ; beak elongated ; whirls ventricofe.
46. M. tranfverfely ftriated, with fpinous protuber¬
ances ; the fpines decreafing towards the head; 2f
inches long. Senegal.
* 47. M. ventricofe, with 5 or 6 whirls, forming an-
D. More or lefs fpinous, and without manifejl beak.
48. M. obovate, with Tubulate fpines in rows; a- ricinus.
perture and lip toothed ; inch long. Afiatic ocean.
49. M. obovate with conic fpines ; lip toothed;
pillar fmooth, coloured"; 3^-inches long.
50. M. knots in numerous rows ; lip with pointed nentotdeus
angles ; pillar flattifti. India.
51. M. coarfe, ventricofe, tranfverfely ftriated, with./tfC«J.
4 rows of knots ; pillar imprefled ; outmoft whirls flat¬
tifti.
52. Mi obovate and knotty on the fore part; aper-Zoco.
ture fuborbicular, toothlefs; 4 or 5 inches long. Chi-
nefe fhores. Yields a purple fluid.
53. M. fubovate, with acute fpines in 4rows; aper-hqfrix.
ture toothlefs, repand.
54. M. ovate, with obfolete fpines, which are mancinella
blackilh : aperture toothlefs ; pillar tranfverfely ftriat¬
ed.
55. M. ovate, ftriated, with 3 or 5 rows of ohlufehippocajla-
fpines or tubercles; aperture tranfverfely ftriated. »«w.
Guinea, India.
56. M. Small prickly whelk. Tapering, hmgitudi-yefl/zho/zor.
nally ribbed, and tranfverfely cancellated ; aperture ftri¬
ated; ribs prickly; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.
57. M. obovate, glaucous, with a fubfpinous vAi\x\-,mel<ingera,
fpire fomewhat prominent; aperture fmooth; 54 inches
long. India, America.
58. M. thick, ventricofe, tranfverfely grooved and
knotted ; aperture repand, ovate; lip finuous, inward.-
ly plaited and denticulated. India.
59. M. brown, fubovate, ftightly beaked with lima.
crowded, nodulous, paler belts. George’s bay.
E. With a long, Jlraight, fubulate, clofed beak, and un¬
armed with fpines.
60. M. without beak, flightly plaited, ovate, point- cariofus.
ed ; lip carious. Found in the aquedudl at Seville.
61. M. tapering with acute fpotted belts, and ftraight babyloniuss
tail; lip cleft; 4 inches long. Indian and American
iflands.
62. M. tapering, with immaculate knotty belts; lipjavanus.
with a feparate fcoop. India.
63. M. ventricoie, pointed with a cancellated, xt-jinenjis.
fleeted beak ; aperture oval ; whirls with tranfverfe,
granulated ftriae ; bafe crowned with fpines. Senegal.
64. M. fpire with elevated rings ; interftices h\l-Jlramineus.
ed with fhort, ftraw-like projections ; -whirls crowned
with tubercles at the bafe ; 3 inches long. Southern
ocean.
63. M. ovate, longitudinally ftriated; lip undulated;
whirls channelled; firft turgid, and 4-plaited; the
next 3-plaited ; 2^ inches long. South fea.
66. M. fpire pointed, and tranfverfely ftriated; ^uncinatus,
firft whirls with a callus, armed with hooks in the mid¬
dle, 5 and 6 ribbed* the reft glabrous.
67. M. tapering; whirls crowned with tubercles,turns,
and furrounded with a granulate belt; the firft finely
ftriated tranfverfely.
68. M. beak a little refle&ed, and obliquely ftriated;
3 firft whirls of the fpire ribbed ; other 4 cancellated;
firft;
44°
fit'ft obconic ; pillar with a Angle plait,
in Campania.
ofper. 69. M. longitudinally plaited, and tranfverfely rib¬
bed \ fpire a little prominent; aperture ovate j lip cre-
nulaled.
co/us. 70. M. tapering, ftriated, knotty ; carinated, with a
long ftraight beak j lip crenulated 5 beak 3 inches
long. Indian.ocean.
morio. 71. M. black, with a white band ; beak dilated ^
pillar wrinkled ; whirls knotty ; 6 inches long. A-
frica.
cochKdlum. 72. M. beak dilated j whirls of the fpire flat above.
Indian ocean.
fpirillus. 73. M. beak long, fpire mucr'onated j whirls convex
above. Tranquebar.
canahcula- 74. M. beak dilated ; whirls of the fpire feparated
tus. by a fmall canal. Canada, Frozen fea.
Jicus. 75* bd. beak dilated; whirls feparated by a fmall
canal; firft- crowned with knobs at the bafe.
carica. 76. M. tranfverfely ftriated ; beak dilated; fpire a
little prominent; whirls crowned with fpines at the
’ bafe ; 8 inches long.
rapa. ■ 77. M. folid, umbilicated, with a triple row of
knots tranfverfely ftriated; aperture largely ftriated.
-Tiiveus. *78. M. beak dilated; whirls of the fpire feparated
by a fmall groove ; the firft with tranfverfe carinated
ribs. Brazil.
granum. 79. M. hemifpherical, glabrous, diaphanous; beak
ftraight, fpreading; crown papillary. North Ame¬
rica.
aruanus. 80. M. beak dilated ; fpire crowned with fpines.
New Guinea.
perverfus. 81. M. beak dilated and repand ; fpire recurved
and llightly crowned. American ocean. Exceedingly
rare.
eintiquus. * 82. M. beak dilated ; (bell oblong ; 8 round whirls,
firft ventricofe ; 4 to 6 inches long. European feas,
Scotland.
xlefpe&us. * 83. M. oblong, ftriated, and fomewbat rugged ;
beak dilated ; whirls 8, with two elevated lines ; five
inches long. European feas, fhores of Britain.
fornicatus. 84. M. ovate oblong ; beak dilated ; whirls ven¬
tricofe ; a little angular and longitudinally ftriated ; 7
inches long. Greenland feas.
zncraJJ'atus 85. M. oblong, tranfverfely wrinkled, and longitu¬
dinally ftriated; lip denticulated within, and thicken¬
ed without.
truncatus. * 86. M. oblong, longitudinally ribbed ; beak a lit¬
tle reflefted, emarginated and truncated ; very mi¬
nute ; whirls 6. Coafts of Europe, and Ihores of Bri¬
tain.
acumina- * 87. M. narrow, oblong, ribbed ; fpire pointed.
tus. Shores of England.
argus. 88. M. gibbous, with tranfverfe tuberculated ribs ;'
brown, with darker bands ; within white ; aperture
ovate.
maculofus. 89. M. cancellated, yellow, with alternate white
bands, and chefnut patches; 11 round whirls in the
fpire. India. Very rare.
tnagellani- 90. M. ventricofe, umbilicated, tranfverfely ftria-
cus. ted ; whirls of the fpire with parallel ribs ; the firft
large. Straits of Magellan.
fancellatus 91. M. ovate, folid, opaque, cinereous; whirls of
the fpire cancellated, and feparated by a groove.
4
Chap. IV
92. M. whirls furrcunded with grooves, and tu-fcolopan
bercles above ; tip of the tubercles and aperture
white.
93. M. ventricofe, tapering, Ipotted with black ; literatus,
beak fnort ; pillar with a fingle plait; fpire with 8
prickly whirls.
94. M. fubtriangular, cancellated ; fpire with 7 in-irtgcnm,
flated contiguous whirls ; the firft. with a large diftinct
tubercle ; 2 inches long. Senegal.
95. tM. longitudinally ribbed, and finely ftriatedfemilum.
tranfverfely ; fpire with flattifti diftant whirls, with ris.
rows of tubercles; aperture femilunar ; 1 inch long. .. .
Senegal.
96. M. rounded with annular grooves ; aperture/ioWw,
oval; firft whirl of the fpire turgid; inch long. ,.,rJ
Seregjili , bslghr ylolujdo bnfi Jtevoets- b&Jjj
97. M. ventricofe, oblong, fmooth, with rounded tritonis.
whirls ; aperture toothed ; beak fliort ; 16 inches
long. India and the South feas.—This (hell is ufed by • I
the natives of New Zealand as a mufical inftrument,
and by the Africans and many nations of the Eaft, as
a military horn. ; „ j
98. M. ventricofe, oblong, fraooth ; fpire ftriated/w/zo.
with rounded whirls ; aperture fmooth ; beak ftiort ;
!-§• inch long. Mediten*anean and Africa. Bare.
99. M. ventricofe, oblong, fmooth ; whirls rounded tu/ipa.
■with a double future; pillar with two plaits; beak di¬
lated, ftriated. South America.
100. M. oblong beak, and grooved with longitudi-
nal membranaceous plaits. Iceland.
iox. M. folid, black or pale browm, with a white na/Jh.
fubdiaphanous band; whirls knotty; pillar a little
plaited.
102. M. whirls of the fpire plaited and knotty. plicatus,
103. M. umbilicated with- diftant, wedged, xih-fca/a.
bed, and tranfverfely ftriated whirls; aperture heart-
ftiaped.
104. M. angular, longitudinally plaited, and tx2A\[-fifeellum,
verfely ftriated ; lip toothed ; mouth violet; beak
ftraight, ftiort. China.
105. M. faftigiated with brow-n and yellowilh bands; corona,
beak ftraigbt, entire. Mexico.
106. M. ovate, with a few elevated obtufe belts ondolariutn.
the whirls ; fize of a w'alnut. The ocean.
* 107. M. oblong, flender, white; margins oi the corneus.
whirls complicated ; aperture toothlefs ; 3 inches long.
Britilh and North feas.
108. M. oblong, coarfe, with obtufely knotty whirls ; lignarius,
aperture toothlefs ; beak fhort.
109. M. oblong, obtufely angular, w ith flightly trapeziunt,
knotty whirls ; aperture toothed ; fix inches long. In¬
dian ocean.
no. M. folid, ventricofe, fmooth, with an oblong'vefpertik,}
oval aperture ; beak and crow ned fpire ftriated ; four
inches long. Indian ocean.
in. M. thin, diaphanous, ventricofe, and txzntvexte-fcohjinus,'
ly ftriated ; middle of the beak fmooth ; fpire with ob-
tufe, undulated knots ; pillar 3-plaited.
112. M. ventricofe, longitudinally ribbed; x\hsharpfi’
tranfverfely ftriated ; fpire a little prominent; whirls
diftant.
113. M. fufiform, tranfverfely ftriated ; white, with tuba,
a brown tip to the fpire, which has 8 whirls, diftant,
and crowned at the bafe with knots. China.
114. M. oblong, with ftriated plaited whirls, ee-fyracuja^
vered nus.
CONCHOLOGY
Found Mil
Chap. IV.
vered with tuberculated ridges ; aperture toothlefs j
beak (hort. Mediterranean j rare.
cralicula- 115. M. oblong, vvith rounded, plaited, and tranf-
(UJi verfely reticulated whirls 3 aperture toothed) ftriated
within. Mediterranean.
feriptus, II6. M. nearly without beak 3 fufiform, fmooth,
pale, with longitudinal brown ilrite 3 lip toothed 3 very
Imall. Mediterranean.
ternatanus 117. M. tranfverfely ftriated, with diftant Undulately
tuberculated wdiirls 3 a*perture oblong 3 beak ftraight 3
4 inches long 3 yellow. Ternate ifland.
infundibu- 118. M. umbilicated, undulately knotty 3 ftriae ele-
/«/». vated, brown 3 perforation funnel-ihaped 3 pillar two-
plaitfed j 4 inches long 3 very rare.
polygonus. up* M- ventricoie, undulated with tubercles 3 ftri¬
ated, grooved, and obtufely angled 3 black, with an
oval aperture, and ftiort beak 3 3I- inches long. In¬
dian ocean.
icelandi- 120. M. tranfverfely ftriated 3 fpire papillous at
cut, the tip, w ith round whirls 3 firft: large and ventricofe 3
5 inches long. Iceland.
lavigatus. 121. M. fufiform 3 fpire tranfverfely ftriated ; whirls
diftant, flatlifti 3 the firft; round, fmooth 3 3! inches
long. Found foffil in Campania.
foft/it. 122. M. fufiform, incancellated, with along beak 3
li inch long. Found foflil in Campania.
mdidus. x 23. M. fnowy, tranfverfely ftriated 3 fpire with
diftant whirls 3 keeled in the middle, and crowned with
tubercles 3 lip grooved within, and denticulated at the
margin 3 pi inches long.
anfatus. 124. M. brown, tranfverfely ftriated, fpire mucro-
nated 3 whirls diftant, convex, and knotty at the bafe 5
beak long.
undatus. 125. M. folid, ventricofe, with waved angles 3 and
finely ftriated tranfverfely 3 fpire mucronate 3 whirls
knotty at the bafe ; lip denticulated 3 8^ inches long 3
ponderous. India.
longijjtmus 126. M. thin, ftriated, wfith an obtufe, knotty fpire,
and long ftraight beak 3 9 inches long. India.
lancea, 127. M. narrowed 3 whirls of the fpire tranfverfely
ribbed, and longitudinally crenated 3 aperture ovate 3
ribbed with white within, and toothed at the margin 3
pillar 2-plaited. Amboyna.
ongujlus, 128. M. narrowed 3 firft whirl of the fpire longitu¬
dinally plaited, and tranfverfely ribbed 3 the other
flnooth and round 3 beak tranfverfely ftriated.
vtrficolor, 1 29. M. fubeylindrieal 3 fpire obtufe 3 whirls round
and ftriated 3 lower ones moftly glabrous. India.
Verruco/us 130.-. M. umbilicated and furrounded with belts 3
middle ones more raifed 3 whirls crowned with tuber¬
cles, which are fpotted with brown. Red fea.
finatuius, 131. M. thin, tranfverfely ftriated 3 fpire mucronate 3
whirls round 3 lip crenulated 3 4 inches long.
par da lit, 132. M. rounded, white, with violet fpots,
longitudinally ribbed, and tranfverfely ftriated 5 fpire
obtufe.
133. M. whirls of the fpire turgid, gibbous, nodu¬
lous and annulated 3 lip denticulated beneath 3 21 inches
long.
tignofus. 134. M. whitilh 3 fpire obtufe 3 whirls {lightly crown¬
ed with wrinkled, unequal tubercles, beak tranfverfe¬
ly ftriated ; inch long.
Sl bu/us, t X35* tapering, orange 3 fpire obtufe 3 whirls
diftant, with longitudinal ribs, and ftexuous tranfverfe
{trite.
Vol. VI, Part II.
CONCHOLOGY.
441
136. M. tapering 3 fpire with contiguous whirls,granu/aris
feparated by a flexuous line 3 firft ventricofe 3 Adria¬
tic.
137. M. tapering, tranfverfely ribbed 3 whirls con- vexillum.
vex 3 aperture oval 3 lip denticulated.
138. M. oblong, ventricofe 3 whirls with a firiated^u/^>z/tt/J,.
margin ; aperture glabrous 3 beak Ihort, and bent out¬
wards.
139. M. ovate, tranfverfely ftriated j fpire vvith fat-afer.
tifh whirls 3 crowned with a row of rounded tubercles 3
14 inch long. Senegal.
140. M. ventricofe 3 fpire obtufe, cancellated, with campani*
carinated whirls 3 firft ventricofe and fmooth 3 benkczzr.
long and fmooth j three inches long. Found foftil in
Campania.
141. M. whirls of the fpire with decuftated ribs, rtmio/z/r.
the firft; large, three outermoft fmooth 3 lip toothed
outwardly ; very fmall. Sandy {bores of India.
142. M. narrow, tranfverfely ftriated 3 fpire mwexo-tnciroc*
nated jTwhirls diftant, contrary, round, and longitudi-fzv//?/.
nally ribbed 3 beak prominent 5 inch long. Shores
of Morocco.
143. M. oblong, whitilh, with tranfverfe, reddiflillneatus,
flriae 3 beak Ihort, ftraight. New Zealand.
144. M. a little tapering; whirls carinated above,
margined and flattened 3 beak long and ftraight.
Southern ocean.
145. M. Cylindrical 3 fpire with a crenated callous/brutf.
belt 3 upper whirls with plaited knots, lower ones flat-
tifh 3 beak ftiort, ftraight, emarginated.
146. M. folid, thick, coarfe ; fpire exferted ; whirls neretoide-
tranfverfely ftriated 3 aperture femiorbicular and ftri-wr.
ated.
147. M. oVate, angular, iridefeent 3 longitudinal]y/>n/wz<j/f-
grooved and plaited 3 beak ftiort 3 lip denticulated, cus.
India, and South feas.
148. M. ribs longitudinally plaited, and tranfverfely
grooved 3 angular, fpinous, carinated 3 alternately va- um.
ried with white and brown 3 whirls fuddenly diminilh-
ing 3 beak ftrort, ftraight. Pulo Condor.
149. M. ribbed, varied with brown, yellow znAcifperritnus
white 3 whirls oblique, with a tuberculated margin,
and brown band in the middle 3 beak ftiort, dilated, af-
cending 3 2 inches long.
150. M. white, undulated with bay 3 with grooves undulatus
marked with raifed ftrise ; whirls nodulous at the mar¬
gin 3 beak ftraight; four inches long. Red fea.
F. Tapering, fubulate, with a very Jhort keah.
151. M. whirls of the fpire plaited above; pillar
plaited within 3 beak afeending; three inches long.
India.
152. M.whirls of the fpire tuberculated, w ith a fpi-aAco.
nous ftreak in the middle 3 pillar with a fingle plait 3
beak afeending 3 four inches long. Southern ocean,
Red fea, Atlantic.
153. M. whirls furrounded with belts longitudinally
ftriated 3 firft; whirl tranfverfely ftriated 3 beak afeend-
ing.
154. M. ventricofe ; fpire tranfverfely ftriated ^plicatulus.
whirls longitudinally plaited and knotty 3 aperture
oval.
155. M. ventricofe, tranfverfely ftriated and exovm-fordidus.
ed with black knots 3, lip dilated.
156. M. fpire tranfverfely ftriated and grooved 3 cingulalur.
3 & whirls
442
fufcus.
fafciatus.
Jluviati/is.
alatus.
nodulofus.
terebelUi.
fufcatus.
torulofus.
radula.
ofper.
granulates
decollates.
molucca-
nus.
minimus.
Jlrigilatus.
tubercula-
tus.
gibbofus.
citrates.
ccntrarius,
eburnea.
conditus.
clava.
hexagonus
minutijji-
tnus.
55
Trochus,
C O N C H
wliirls furrounded with three rows of granulations, the
firft a little knotty. Tranquebar.
_ 157' rounded, brown $ firft whirl of the fpire
gibbous; the others varicofe; the laft with numerous
fpines.
158. M. tranfyerfely ftriated j fpjre crowned. Rivers
of America. ’
159. M. brown j firft whirls of the fpire crowned
with Ipines, the others with knots 5 aperture repand.
160. M. reticulated; fpire mucronate 3 firlt w'hirl
grooved and tranfverlely flriated 3 lip winged.
161. IVI. tranlverfely ftriated, and alternately barred
with brown and white 3 fpire mucronate 3 whirls dif-
tant, with undulated knots.
162. M. with a triple moniliform belt on each of the
whirls 3 aperture oval, with curved ftriae within 3 I to
2^ inches long.
163. M. whirls crenulated 3 the upper ftria denticu¬
lated. Mediterranean.
164. M. whirls of the fpire with a flightly knotty
zone above 3 beak fhort.
165. M. whirls of the fpire tuberculated, with a
double row of pundtured ftriae. Africa. .
166. M. whirls of the fpire grooved, tranfverfely
ftriated and muricated. Guinea.
167. M. rough, with decuiTated tubercles 3 beak
acute, afcending 3 2 inches long 3 white. India.
* 168. M. whirls of the fpire with longitudinal plaited
grooves, with the tip feemingly broken off. European
feas. Britain.
169. M. ftriated 3 whirls of the fpire tranfverfely
grooved with undulated, longitudinal "plaits 3 lip dila¬
ted, crenulated. Marlhes of Molucca iflands.
170. M. with tranfverfe, undulated ftriae, croffed by
longitudinal lines 3 aperture orbicular.
1 71. M. longitudinally ftriated 3 whirls undivided,
with a fnowy belt at the future, marked with reddifh
fpots.
172. M. tranfverfely ftriated, and furrounded with
glabrous knots 3 lip thickened.
173. M. whirls of the fpire margined ; belly gib¬
bous 3 lip cleft, denticulated ; beak ihort.
174. M. black 3 whirls tranfverfely ftriated and tu¬
berculated 3 pillar with one plait.
175. M. four contrary whirls marked with double
ftrice 3 beak dilated. European and North feas.
176. M. contrary, hyaline, with 6 finely crenulated
whirls.
177. M. tapering, rough with granulations 3 lip
doubled, emarginated on each fide, and toothed with¬
in 3 aperture oval and ftriated.
178. M. tranfverfely ftriated and fpotted 3 whirls
with plaited knots 3 lip double, dilated. Pulo Con¬
dor.
179. M. yellowifh, hexagonal, with tranfverfe, gra¬
nulated ftriae 3 firft whirl tuberculated. South lea 3
and is often found fulfil.
* 180. M. with five whirls, fpirally ftriated, and re¬
mote ribs 3 pellucid 3 a very minute and elegant Ihell.
Coafts of Wales.*
Gen. 27. Trochus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax ; fnell univalve, fpi-
ral, more or lefs conic 3 aperture feme what angular
O L O G Y* Chap, ly
or rounded 3 the upper fide tranfverfe and con-
tra&ed 3 pillar placed obliquely.
Species.
A. Eret}, with the pillar perforated.
1. T. conic, fmooth, fomewhat umbilicated; a niloticus.
large ponderous (hell, with oblique, red, perpendicular
ftr ite. Indian ocean.
2. lb conic, tuberculated, with an oblique perfora-
tion 3 inner lip twro-lobed. Afia, South America.
_ 3- T. convex, obtufe, margined, the umbilicus ^x-perfptfti.
vious and crenulated, inches long. Afia, Africa, ms. s
This is a very beautiful ftiell.
4. T. convex 3 pillar 2-toothed 3 perforation crenu- hybridus, f
lated. Mediterranean.
5. T. convex, with callo-punclured ftrise 3 pillar 1- cruciatusA
toothed. Mediterranean.
6. T. obovate, ftriated 3 marked with concatenated,
globular dots 3 aperture and pillar toothed 3 umbilicus
crenated. European and Afiatic feas.
* 7. T. convex, obliquely umbilicated 3 ridges of the
whirls rifing into obtufe tubercles. European .and
African coafts, Britain. *
8. T. ftriated, plaited above, and more convex he-modulus, i
neathj aperture ovate and 1-toothed. Red fea.
9. T. fubovate 3 grooves moniliform and alternatelyyfojfor,
larger 3 Ihell black 3 aperture yellowifti.
10. T. obliquely umbilicated 3. convex 5 whirls varius.
fiightly margined. Mediterranean.
* 11. T. ovate, obliquely umbilicated 3 whirls round- cinerark
ed 3 fize of a pea. Shores of Europe. Britain.
12. T. ovate, fubumbilicated 3 perforation nearly divarica-
fhut up 3 loweft whirl more remote. Mediterranean
and Greenland feas.
13. T. conico-convex 3 perforation pervious, exactly umbilka*
cylindrical 3 whirl flightly emarginated. Shores of ris.
Europe.
14. T. convex, conic; whirls fpinous and margined•■>folaris.
aperture femi-heart-ftiaped 3 2 inches diameter. India
and America. ; h
15. T. depreffed, oblique 3 white with brown lines;
fpire tranfverfely ftriated, and longitudinally ribbed 3
firft whirl ventricofe 3 aperture orbicular 3 firft whirl
large 3 pillar brown.
16. T. conic, white fpotted with red 3 whirls round, conus.
with moniliform belts; firft whirl only perforated. India.
17. T. fubequal, mucronate 3 whirls 9, fpinous he-fpinqfus.
neath 3 on each fide a linear band of white and black,
w’ith a triple row of knots. ,
18. T. lateritious, fpotted with wmite 3 thebafe fatjujubinus
with concentric lines of concatenated dots 3. whirls
channelled, teffelated at the lower margin with white
andchefnut. South America. 1
19. T. plaited with knots, tranfverfely ftriated, alveart,
with belts of concatenated dots 3 perforation funnel-
ftiaped 3, pillar erenulated. India.
20. T. bate and continued perforation funnel-fhaped 3 concavus.l
whirls contiguous, undulated and plaited; aperture
denticulated at the margin 3 2 inches broad. India.
21. T. farrounded with granulations and knots, •vernus.
green, and vvhitifh towards the tip ; the tip varied with
black dots.. India.
22. T. covered with white, greenilh, and hxifi-co-confppfa
loured fpots 3 tip with red and black ones 3 bafe white,
fpottedLwV^'"
443
hap. IV. CONCH
fpotted with red ; within pearly j whirls with many
rows of knots $ lower margins glabrous. India.
'itorium. 23. T. wrinkled and plaited *, whirls knotty beneath,
with concatenated dots in the middle ; whirls diftant;
perforation funnel-fhaped. India.
hroleu- 24. T. wrinkled and plaited, obliquely crenated and
j ,x> tranfverfely ftriated ; bafe flat $ white with red dots.
India,
hiatus. 25. T. plaited and wrinkled, fea-green $ whirls
with concatenated dots 5 upper ones with a radiated
fpinous margin. India.
engleri. 26. T. furrounded with rows of ochraceous knots
and granulations, waved with red j one part of the
bafe fmooth. / t
flatus. 27. T. dots elevated, concatenated ; whirls with ob*
v long white knots beneath, and intermediate purple
grooves.
squalls. 28. T. rough, with unequal knots and granulations j
many rows of knots on the whirls j tubercles larger on
the marginal row.
cglus. 29. T. white, with a rofy {hade 5 tranfverfely ftriated,
with many rows of knots $ margin of the whirls pro¬
minent •, perforation funnel-lhaped.
errucofus 30. T. white, radiated with purple j conic } margin
of the whirls knotty j perforation funnel-fhaped.
jlittdricus 31. T. brownifh, cylindrical \ whirls convex, mark¬
ed with tranfverfe ftriae ; perforation crenated. Very
rare.
adiatus. 3 2. T. radiated with red ; pyramidal; whirls with
concatenated dots j perforation furtnel-ftiaped. South
America.
iruHs. 33- T- green j firft whirl with 5 rows of knots, fe-
cond with 4, the reft glabrous.
ujlicus. 34* T. black-brown j obtufely pyramidal. China.
•igerri- 35. T. deep black j whirls flattilh j fpire tranfverfe-
ius. ly ftriated ; pillar I-toothed. China.
'anulum, 36. T. w hirls of the fpire ochraceous, wnth fpotted
tubercles j and with an intermediate, fpotted, wrinkled
groove.
Irigofus. 37-T. ochraceous, varied w'ith black at the tip;
pyramidal and tranfverfely ftriated ; whirls of the fpire
flattifh; margin tumid and fpotted with red ; very
fmall. Shores of Morocco.
'yramis. 38. T. pyramidal, with chefnut fpots and clouds ;
margin of the whirls vaulted and nodulous ; 4 to 2
inches long.
apenjis. 39. T. depreffed, varied w ith white and chefnut;
bafe convex, with a fcarlet ring marked with deeper
fpots. Cape.
zgijptius. 40. T. deprefled, white fpotted with red ; whirls
tranfverfely ftriated and plaited, diftant; pillar I-tooth¬
ed ; -I inch long. Red tea.
deprejjus. 41- T. whitifti, radiated with red, and red at the
tip ; deprefled ; whirls furrounded with a belt of moni-
liform dots.
U'vigatus. 42. T. pale browft ; bafe fub-convex ; whirls fmooth,
obfoletely ftriated tranfverfely ; perforation white, fun-
nel-lhaped.
qrmlandi- 43. T. pellucid, flefti colour ; bafe convex ; whirls
cus. 6 ; convex and finely ftriated tranfverfely.
rofeus. 44. T. convex, rofy, grooved ; perforation very mi¬
nute ; fhell fmall. Cape of Good Hope.
pttholatus. 45. T. depreiTed, brown, with whitifti fpots ; very
minute.
"-'iridulus, 46. T. greenifn, obliquely radiated with white;
O L O G Y.
whirls convex, with a belt of moniliform granulations ;
pillar toothed.
47. T. convex, with numerous rows of granulations ; urbani/s.
perforation denticulated ; aperture crenulated.
48. T. clouded with brown and gray ; rows of gra-guuteenfis.
nulations numerous, with knots; aperture crenated ;
perforation toothed ; 6 lines long. Guinea.
49. T. cinereous, with moniliform belts of granula-«c</«/wx.
lions ; perforation white, toothed ; aperture crenated.
50. T. depreiTed, pale flefti colour, with crowded
moniliform belts of granulations ; perforation large ; 1-
toothed.
51. T. tranfverfely ftriated ; whirls diftant; nurrier-tejfelatus.
ous fquare fpots on the fpire. European feas.
52. T. convex, chefnut; whirls of the fpire convex,
the outer ones faftron-eoloured. Africa.
53. T. deprefted, convex, with oblique violet rxys^obhquatus.
whirls convex. Mediterranean.
54. T. convex, chefnut; whirls with a fillet, varied
with red and white at the upper margin.
35. T. depreiTed, pyramidal; bale concave; vi\i\x\sfchrecten.
tranfverfely ftriated and obliquely ribbed, the firft with
a keeled margin; perforation funnel-ftiaped. Found
fofiil in Campania.
56. T. conic-convex; whirls unarmed; apertureiW/cax,
femi-heart-ftiaped ; perforation fpiral; fcarcely x inch
high. India.
57. T. deprefled, chefnut; whirls tranfverfely ftria-infundibit^
ted and crenated, with rows of granulations ; perfora- liformis.
tion pervious, crenulated.
58. T. ftraw' colour ; whirls convex, with decuflatedJlratnineus
Arise feparated by a groove; perforation pervious.
Tranquebar.
59. T. white, marked with brownifti rays and ctc-variegaius,
nated ftriae ; perforation crenated, pervious.
60. T. convex, tranfverfely ftriated; white, with areola.
fquare reddifti fpots; perforation crenulated, whirls of
the fpire feparated by a white ftreak,
61. T. greenifh yellow, with longitudinal plaited ribs inertnis.
terminated by a fpine; aperture comprefled; perfora¬
tion wrinkled.
62. T. conic, olive, covered with rows of raifed vio- imperialis.
let fcales ; whirls inflated, with a fpiftmfs- radiate mar¬
gin ; fpire with 7 whirls ; large. South feas.
63. T. depreiTed, ftraw’ colour, with darker ribs /zz/j*.
whirls of the fpire plaited ; perforation pervious.
64. T. conic ; white, with oblique brown bands; aibidus.
whirls chanelled near the future.
65. T. conic ; bafe greenilh gray, fpotted withfufeatus.
brown ; wdiirls round, flattilh at the future.
66. T. conic ; red, dotted with white ; {lightly per- corallinus.
forated; whirls round, the firft with 15, the next with
6 rows of tubercles ; 6 whirls in the fpire ; 4 lines long.
Senegal.
67. T. gray, with whitilh fpots ; whirls flattilli, zvAgrifeus.
tranfverfely grooved. Senegal.
68. T. convex ; the whirls reverfed. Found nearferrugi-
Scaphufia, converted into iron ore. neus.
69. T. pyramidal, with contrary round whirls; 3 «otw.
of them with a quadruple trifarious row of tubercles,
the fourth very diftant.
70. T. very thin, and of a wax colour ; firft whirlfragilis.
large, w ith a brown band in the middle.
71. T. obtufely pyramidal; 4 elevated contiguousczz/Z^j-.
whirls, tumid at the margin, in the fpire.
3 K 2 " 72. T.
444 CONCH
nfer. _ 72. T. convex, gray witk whitiih fpots ; whirls flat*
tifli j 6 lines long. Senegal.
neritoideus 73. T. fub-ovate, convex, depreffed j fmooth, red-
difh, glabrous j 2 lines long, Greenland.
ptrlatus. 74. T. reddilh, with elevated dots ; unequally rib¬
bed ; fpire deprefltd ; whirls convex.
terrejlris, * 75. T. conic j livid j minute. Mountains of Cum¬
berland.
fufcus. * 76. T. opaque, brown, margined $ aperture roundifh,
fpircs 5. Sandwich.
33. Imperforated, ercB; umbilicus clofed.
vejliarius. 77. T. conic, convex, with a gibbous callous bafe *,
aperture fomewhat heart-fliaped ) very fmall. Medi¬
terranean and Afia.
labio. 78. T. ovate, fub-ftriated ; pillar I-toothed. Afia,
Africa, New Zealand.
tuber. 79. T. depreffed 5 whirls fomewhat keeled, and knot¬
ted at the upper- and lower margin j 2 inches diameter.
Mediterranean and South America.
friatus. * 80. T. conic j aperture obovate ^ lafl whirl angular j
minute. Mediterranean j Falmouth.
conulus. * 81. T. conic, fmooth -7 whirls feparated by a promi¬
nent line. European fea ‘7 Britain.
%i%iphi- * 82. T. conic, livid, fmooth, tranfverfely ftriated •,
r.us. whirls margined. European and African coafls, Ihores
of Britain.
obelfcus. 83. T. conic ; furrounded with numerous rows of
white or green moniliform granulations 5 pillar 1-tooth¬
ed •, 2 inches high. India.
dijlortus. 84. T. folid, white, polifhed ; ftriated, diftorted, and
obtufe at the tip \ fir ft whirl gibbous j aperture com-
prelfed, ovate.
mrgatus. 85. T. pyramidal, with rofy and white ftripes, and
numerous rows of knots j bafe with concentric white
and red circles. India.
frveolatus. 86. T. cinereous, variegated with greenifh, whitifh,
and reddifh j w'hirls of the fpire tuberculated at the
lower margin. Red fea.
diaphanus. 87. T. thin, pellucid, with alternate chefnut and
white moniliform belts of granulations $ if inch high.
New Zealand.
iris. 88. T. covered with a fmooth coat, under which it
is bluifli and reddifh, finning w ith iridefeent. Southern
ocean.
rojiratus. 89. T. pyramidal, tranfverfely ftriated 5 varied with
white and red j tip green, pellucid ; 1 inch high.
South fea.
notatus. 90. T* ftriae decuffated ; grooved within ; tip deep
red.
elegans. 91. T. pyramidal, ftriated, brownifh purple. South
fea.
melanojio- 92. T. obtufely pyramidal ^ fpotted with greenifh.
ma. South fea.
erythroleu- 93. T. pyramidal j ftriated with white and red.
cus. [tus. Morocco.
punElula- 94. T. red, punftulated ; very minute. Morocco.
imbricatus. 95. T. pyramidal, obliquely grooved, plaited and
ribbed ; whirls a little prominent at the margin. South
American feas. .
america- 96. T. ochraceous 5 longitudinally grooved : whirls
nus. tranfverfely ftriated j lip denticulated. South Ame¬
rica.
calatus. 97. T. fea-green, with protuberances and oblique
fcaly plaits $ whirls of the fpire tranfverfely ftriated
O L O G Y.
and grooved in the middle, concave fpin.es on the Inver
Chap. I1
margin of the firft whirl
98. T. purple, with plaited tuberculated whirls. purpurel
99. T. fea-green, with numerous rows of tubercles cookii,
and oblique undulated plaits 5 4 inches long, as broad,
and covered with a horny lid. Cooke’s bay. v, v. I
100. J?. brownifh, with a convex bafe 3 whirls with noduipiX
a fingle row of tubercles, firft wdth 2. South fea. ... 1
101. T. pyramidal 3 white, varied with reddifh and niauritiX
green 3 whirls fpinous 3 pillar emarginated, plaited, anus.
Bourbon and Mauritius iflands.
102. T. pyramidal 3 white 3 whirls of the fpire hm-faiefrc\
gitudinally ribbed, with tranfverfe moniliform belts of
green granulations: 14 inch wide. Indian and South
feas.
103. T. convex on each fide, folid; fpire fmooth 3 helicinul
2 firft whirls obliquely ribbed. South feas.
104. 1. ovate, with undulated ribs and tranfverfe <7r^yro/?(|
ftriee 3 whirls ventricofe 5 2 inches broad and high., war. i
South fea.
105. F. obtufely pyramidal 3 black, with a purpleyf^^fr.
band at the bafe 3 pillar white. China.
106. 1. black, with a fub-convex granulate bafe 3 lugubris\
minute, with 5 whirls. South feas,
107. T. obtufe 3 whirls round, with many rows esiafper.
tubercles, grooved and tvanfverfely ftriated 3 pillar
toothed.
108. T. conic, convex, tranfverfely flriated, w'rCbteffelalus
oblong fquare fpots difpofed in rows 3 pillar lip fpotted j
with black. Mediterranean, Africa^
109. T. conic, convex 3 citron, with angular bh&k citrinns.
lines. Afia.
no. T. pyramidal, white, variegated with fcarlet
2 firft: whirls very large 3 2 inches high. South feas. , |
ill. T. fmooth, conic, white with a faffron tip. crocaius.1
11 2. 1. whirls round, and obfoletely plaited 3 aper-
ture comprefled, brownifh 3 2 inches high. South//Ww.
America.
113. T. convex 3 white, with green, brown, and ids-pantheri-]
vous fpots 3 2 rows of tubercles on the whirls 3 8 lines «w.
long. Senegal.
114. 1. rough, with concatenated globules 3 hdHegrandina
convex, with concentric, granulated ftrite 3 lip double- tus. \
toothed. Palmerfton illand.
11 5. E. depreffed, with belts dotted with white be- ineequah
neath'3 w'hirls crowned with fpines. Friendly iflands.
116. I. gray, with red ftripes, and tranfverfely Hsxx-tigris.
ated with white. New Zealand.
117. T. conic, brown, obliquely ftriated w ith blzck.pulligo.
George’s bay. .1
118. T. conic, wdiite 3 whirls 4, tuberculated. Ytm-parvus,
brokefhire coaft.
C. Tapering, with an exfrted pillar, and falling on the
fde when placed upon the bafe.
119. T. imperforated, flriated 3 pillars fpiral : ^ielefco-
inches long. Indian ocean. pium.
1 20. T. umbilicated, glabrous 3 pillar with recurved dolabrati
twifted plaits. South America.
x2i. T. glabrous, imperforated 3 whirls reverfed •,per<verjus
fmall. Mediterranean.
122. 1. flat at the bafe 3 finely ftriated tranfverfe-/w/?//W.
ly 3 whirls reverfed 3 4 inch long. Indian feas.
123. i. flat at the bafe 3 longitudinally xibhed. ,utidul(itu
whirls reverfed. Indian fliores.
‘ 124. T.
1
IV.
nineus.
iBatus.
5«
tbo.
iap.iv. CONCH
\\,trico. 124. T. cancellated, glabrous at the bafe^ whirls
reverfedj upper ones ventricofe 5 very fnaalh lc Indian
^ lands.
luldtus. 125. T. aperture nearly fquare 5 whirls reverfed, and
ribbed on each fide j fmall. Indian fands.
126. T. fub-pyramidal, umbilicated, fmooth \ white,
with a reddiih tip 5 whirls feparated by a groove.
127. T. whirls with a triple,row of prominent dots ;
J imperforated j fize of a barleycorn. Southern Europe,
Africa.
inlulus. 128. T. imperforated ^ longitudinally and obliquely
‘ flriated •, fmall. Mediterranean.
■-%ag. 129. T. fubftriated, and marked with darker angu¬
lar lines; whirls 5 or 6. mi |-I Van
uiris. I3°* T. whirls 5, reverfed} convex, fmooth, umbili-
I cated. oshA j bilol ,obA riono no XQVHon .T -.pci t
rtenjls. 131. T. white, with a reddifh band •, pyramidal,
nearly imperforated. In gardens in warmer climates.
Gen. 28. Turbo, the Wreath.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax 5 the fhell univalve,
fpiral, folid j aperture contra&ed, orbicular, entire.
tolunsig >• Species.
A. Pillar margin of the aperture dilated and imperfo¬
rated.
tufatUJ. I. T. roundifh, fmootb, very obtufe j above ventri-
cofe. North feas.
ritoides. 2. T. ovate, glabrous, obtufe 5 minute. Mediterra^
liean, America.
tareus. * 3. T. periwinkle; fubovate, acute, ftriated ; l | inch
high 5 finely ftriated tranfverfely. Shores of Europe j
Britain. The animal of this fpecies is frequently eaten.
’nidus. ■* 4. T. pale red •, 5 diftinft, tumid, ftriated whirls j
firft ventricofe. England, in woods; very rare.
(//*, * 5. T. firiooth ; whirls 5, diftinft, tumid. Weftern
fliores of England.
'eatus. 6. T. fomewhat conic, cinereous’, variegated with
' fine zig-zag black ftreaks. Weftern coafts of Eng¬
land.
meatus. 7. T. umbilicated, fubovate, acute furrounded with
Arise of railed dots $ pillar margin a little obtufe} an
inch high. Europe, America.
uus. 8. T. fubovate, fmooth •, aperture lateral, margined j
umbilicus covered. Pulo Condor.
nciula- 9. T. fubovate, fmooth, brown, with paler, flat,
dotted belts.
B. Solidt imperforated.
* 10. T- oblong ovate y Aria deculfated and railed with
dots’, very minute. Shores of Europe, Britain.
* 11. T. ovate, fmooth; variegated with red and
white j minute, tranfparent, gloify. European feas,.
fliores of Britain. .
* 12. T. oblong, white, marbled, or banded with
black} 6 tumid whirls in the fpire y •§• inch long.
Coafts' of Wales.
13. T. convex, fmooth y aperture fomewhat angular.
India.
14. T. ovate, fmooth, gloffy} whirls fomewhat an¬
gular on the upper part. India, South America.
15. T. ovate, ftriated, with one ftria thicker on the
back. India.
16. T. fubovate,-wrinkled j whirls furrounded with
Hus.
feiatus.
c'Vyy.
fonatus,
tholatus.
Chius.
‘l/o/io-
us.
O L O G Y. 445
two rows of vaulted fpines •, yellowilh, radiated with
brown. India.
17. T. fubovate, wrinkled, Avith obtufe vaulted I'pmzsechinatusr
and whirls *, pillar lip expanded, crenated. South fea,
and Friendly iflands.
18. T. ovate y fpines obtufe, depreffed •, beneath pa- teclutn per*
pillous. India, .feum.
19. T. conic y fpines obtufe, concatenated y ftriae ^-pagodus.
pillous beneath y 3 inches high. India.
20. T. fubconic y variegated with black and gray fulcatus.
and covered with hollow feales. Friendly illands.
21. T. nearly imperforated, depreffed ’, whirls rough y calcar.
Afith compreffed hollow fpines above. India.
2 2. T. fubovate, ftriated j \vliirls rugged abo\re. r^o/wr.
Mediterranean, New Zealand.
23. T. fubovate, fmooth j 3 rows of protuberances/wdr/wortf-
in the whirls y beak dilated behind. South America, t/ss.
24. T. convex, obtufe4 whirls knotty above, and It-farmaUcus
parated by a canal. Aliatic and African feas.
25. T. convex, obtufe, fmooth, angular. India. oleanus.
26. T. whirls and fpire round, with deculfated ftrias y cornutus.
the firft with 3 rows of imbricated fpines ; a large fhell.
China.
27. T. rugged j \vhirls round, diftant, tranfverfely
ftriated, and armed with fmall imbricated fpines. Red
fea.
28. T. glabrous, gloify green y within fnowy •, a per- irnperialis,
ture filvery y pillar lip callous above y whirls of the fpire
very convex.
29. T. wrinkled j white, Avilh greenifh clouds ; tif eorondtus.
orange; whirls crowned Avith fpines and knots; pillar
produced into a beak. Seas of Malacca. Very rare.
30. T. grooved and tranfverfely ftriated; Avhirls 6, cana lie li¬
very convex. India. latus.
31. T. whirls of the fpire cylindrical; grooved andfetofus.
tranfverfely ftriated. India.
32. T. oblong, Avith broad, fmooth ftriae ; yellowifhfparverius.
fpotted with brown. India.
33. T. oblong, tranfverfely ftriated; ftriae fpinous yfpinofus.
aperture ftlvery. India.
34. T. filvery gray, Avith tranfverfe orange and yt\- moltkiamis
loAv bands; Avhirls of moniliform belts of granula¬
tions.
35. T. variegated Avhite and yelloAvifh ; Avhirls round,Jpengleri-
tranfverfely ftriated, and feparated by a canal, Indian
ocean. Very rare..
36. T. tranfverfely ftriated; chefnut broAvn, fpotte'dcaffanea.
with white ; Avhirls 5, furrounded Avith rows of knots.
South America.
37. T. filvery gray, furrounded with many rows otcrenulatur.
knots; aperture milk-white within.
38. T. ponderous, {lightly deprefied ; fmoothifti smdfmaragdus.
obliquely Avrinkled ; 4 whirls in the fpire ; firft round
and larger; 2 inches broad and high. Ncav Zealand.
39. I', pellucid, thin and finely annulatcd; hrlkpapyra-
Av hirl large, the next with a band varied with red and ecus.
white.
40. T. tranfverfely grooved ; firft whirl black, finely wthiopj’.
ftriated ; the reft filvery ; lips bordered with brown.
41. T. brownifh, reticulated; whirls furrotmdednicobari-
with belts; throat golden. Nicobar iflands. Cus.
42. T. fmooth, Avith comprelfc d roundifh whirls ; cider is.
the firft round and very large ; aperture eompreffed,
ftlvery; pillar a little prominent. India, China.
43- T.
%
446 CONCH
nigerrunits 43. T. finer.tli, deep black ; whirls diflant, with a
hollowed margin. Southern ocean.
helicinus. 44. T. fmooth, nearly imperforated j roundifh, with
contiguous convex whirls; pillar thickened.
punElatus. 43. T. ovate, thick, with a mucronate fpire j whirls
fmooth, flattifh j the two firft very large j 6 lines long.
Senegal.
luemajlo- 46. T. ovate, folid, glabrous j whirls 6, ftriated j
tnus. aperture margined, oval.
torquatus. 47. T. ovate, with convex tranfverfe grooves, and
rugged Itrias; whirls with a knotty belt. New' Zea¬
land.
vndulatus. 48. T. ovate, convex, with longitudinal undulated
ftreaks \ fpire obtufe \ mouth filvery. Nenv Zealand.
niveus. 4^. T. fpiral, fnowy, diaphanous, tranfverfely ttri-
ated j whirls often dill or ted. Nicobar iflands.
helicoides. 30. T. horny, fubdiaphanous, fmoothhh ; ribs 3 j
whirls diftant; aperture triangular. Indian ocean.
nitidus. * J1* fm°oth, obtufe j whirls 45 aperture oval.
Pembrokelhire coaft.
Jcriptus. * 52. T. fmooth, opaque j whirls 3, with brown lines
refembling charadters j aperture roundilh | minute.
Pembrokefhire coaft.
coftatus. * 53. T. opaque j 4 whirls deeply ribbed longitudinally,
and finely ftriated tranfverfely. Devonfhire.
fubluteus. * 54. T. opaque j 5 longitudinally ribbed w hirls j a-
perture rounded, margined ; minute. Pembrokethire
coaft.
albulus. * 55. T. opaque 5 whirls 5, longitudinally ribbed j
aperture roundith j not margined. Pembrokelhire
coaft. , . jx i ° f • JL rp *’ ' *
reticulatus * 56. T. white, opaque j whirls 4, reticulated. Pem-
brokeftiire coaft.
ruber. * 37. T. opaque, fmoOth, with 3 whiris. Cornwall.
mterjime- * 38. T. pellucid, fmooth j whirls 3, finely ribbed.
tus. Devonlhire.
jlriatus. * 39. T. pellucid, white ; whirls 3, feparated by a
fine rib. Plymouth.
fubarcua- * 60. T. pellucid, white, curved towards the tip j
tus. whirls 10, longitudinally ribbed. Pembrokelhire
coaft.
aireus. * 61. T. pellucid ; whirls longitudinally ribbed j braf-
fy between the ribs. Pembrokeftiire coaft.
ekgans. * 62. T. pellucid j whirls 6, fpirally ftriated j ribs re¬
mote. Pembrokeftiire coaft.
pellucidus. * 63. T: pellucid, white, with 3 reticulated whirls.
Pembrokeftiire coaft.
canalicula-* 64. T. pellucid, whitifh j whirls 3, longitudinally
tus. grooved. Pembrokeftiire coaft.
divifus. * 63. T. pellucid, white; whirls 4, each divided in¬
to 2 parts; upper one fmooth ; the lower one fpirally
ftriated. Pembrokeftiire fands.
C. Solid, perforated.
pica. 66. T. conic, rounded, fmooth; a fmall tooth near
the umbilicus; 34 inches broad. In moft feas.
Sanguineus. 67. T. umbilicated, conic, convex, ftriated and
fmooth ; whirls flightly grooved; fize of a pea. A-
frica.
crgyrqfto- 68. T. fubovate, writh tranfverfely ftriated lines on
tnus. the back. India.
margari- 69. T. fubovate, with fmooth, elevated, dorfal lines.
taceus. Indian ocean.
verjicolor. 70. T. glabrous ; finely ftriated tranfverfely, and
varied with green and white. South fea,
I
Q L O G s. . Chap. 11
71. T. umbilicus rough; whirls, with branched
fplnes. India.
72. i. depreffed, knotty; an unequally tuberculat-Wa/o/p
ed ridge on the back of the firft whirl.
73; T. fubmucronate; covered with fmooth fpines. di/lorm
74. T. bale convex; whirls radiated with fpines fleUatiA
12 larger ones on the firft ; fmall. South fea.
73. T. Whirls crowned with lacinated fpines; theaculcat•
firft with 9 large ones. Nicobar ifiands.
76. T. bale flattened ; whirls fpinulous at the lowerA//^,
margin.
. 77. T. whirls convex, and feparated by a band, tef-tncfpiiu
felated with brown and white ; colour of a medlar.
South fea.
78. T. furroUnded with knotty rings ; dirty, green,
with a reddiftr tip. Indian and South feas.
79. T. fpire annulated; firft whirl very latge; per-/tf</«r.
foration fpoon-fliaped. South fea.
80. T. black, with double, alternate, black, and atratuA
cinereous moniliform belts of granulations; pillar 1- I
toothed ; fize of a nut. Nicobar iflands.
81. T. depreffed, orbicular ; white, varied with dentatu i
brown ; low er margin of the pillar denticulated.
82. T. dirty green, varied with brown ; whirls 4, diadenA
firft large. New Zealand. A large ftiell.
83. T. fmooth, roundith, cinereous; whirls fubftri-n«fra
ated, ventricofe, flattened at the future. .
84. T. thin, diaphanous, white, round ; 6 keel-carmti
thaped whirls in*the fpife ; perforations fpiral.
83. T. thin, fmooth; whirls flattened ; 2 lines long. 4/rr,
Senegal.
86. T. depreffed, fmooth, opaque, brown ; Mkhlsp/anodi
4 ; i4 line in diameter.
87. T. hyaline, fmooth, fubcarinated; whirls 6,margm
rounded ; lip fringed, refle&ed. /us. 1^
88. T . whirls rounded; perforation deep, wide, and helicoid,
funnel-fliaped.
89. T. pyramidal, with foliaceous wrinkles; ^exio-fsliactik
ration large.
90. T. tranfverfely ftriated ; within margaritace-
ous.
91. T. granulated, ilightly umbilicated ; viitkmporphjr
margaritaceous. New Caledonia. tes.
92. T. white, glabrous, ftriated green. New TLe2.-fmar.ag
land.
D. Cancellated.
93. T. navel flattifti, fpreading ; whirls round, withcrinellu
crenated ftriae.
94. T. umbilicated, fomewhat oblong and obtufe \ thermair.
whirls round, fmooth ; 4 whirls. Minute. Frefti w a¬
ter near the baths in Tufcany. L
93. T. wentle-irap; conic ; whirls diftant, \0x\g\ix1-fcalaru
dinally ribbed. Var. 1. perforated with 8 whirls.
2. Imperforated with 10 whirls; 2 in'ehes long. Bar- , , |;
bary, Coromandel.—The wentle-trap is a very rare
Ihell, and therefore greatly efteemed among collectors. ,, j.
As a proof of this, in the year 1733, four fpecimens
which w'ere difpofed of at the fale of Commodore Lille’s p
flrells in London, bimight 71JI. 12s. Two w;ere fold
at 16 guineas each ; one at 18 guineas, and the fourth j
at 23I. 2s. ' *
* 96. rt. falfe wentle-trap; taper, not umbftieated ;clathru.
fpire with longitudinal ribs; whirls fmooth, ventricofe, ..
and feparated by a deep canal; from 1 to 3 inches
long.
ap»
iv.
CONCH
I, rcula-
“ .
a ''guus.
{ atus.
lt MS.
ft itu/us.
I*
fj tens.
\ina.
I laius.
to.
f Uus.
t ’XUS.
J ius.
i hatus.
i ricatus
\icatus.
tangu-
licatus.
e retus.
%
\bra.
i is.
is.
iegatus
ulirius.
yftalli.
ulus,
'ulaiis.
long. Indian and European Teas, Britain, Falmouth,
South Devon.
* gj. T. duflcy, with 12 finely tuberculated whirls.
Northumberland coaft.
98. T. tapering, perforated j whirls contiguous j
fmooch, ribbed, Mediterranean.
99. T. taper, fubcancellated j whirls 8-ribbed, con¬
tiguous •, crenated above.
100. T. taper ; Arise crowded, longitudinal, railed 5
fize of a barley-corn. Pvlediterranean.
101. T. fubcancellated, taper j whirls contiguous j
belts interrupted, varicofe 5 fize of a barley-corn. Me¬
diterranean.
102. T. ovate, obtufe j whirls contiguous, imbrica¬
ted, and longitudinally ftriated, i-J inch long. South
America.
103. T. umbilicated, rounded, rather acute ; whirls
round, with decuffated ftriae ; aperture refle&ed.
104. T. oblong, obtufe, with wrinkled ftriae j aper¬
ture with a dilated, flat, crenated border j 8 lines long.
Jamaica.
105. T. white, cylindrical, reticulated j aperture re¬
mote.
job. T. oblong, umbilicated, brown, firiated with
convex dots 5 lip white, dilated j 15 lines long. Ja¬
maica.
* 107. T. ovate, imperforated, ventricofe ; finely firi¬
ated fpirally ^ 6 lines long. Woods of Europe, Bri¬
tain.
108. T. umbilicated, convex, a little prominent j
whirls round, fubftriated j aperture refledted. Southern
Europe.
109. T. umbilicated, oblong ; whirls equal j ftrise
decuflated ; aperture dilated.
no. T. fubovate, wrinkled, perforated. Coromandel.
^ ; ■' /
E. Tapering. 4
I it. T. whirls of the fpire imbricated downwards \
4 inches long. American iflands.
112. T. fmooth ; whirls imbricated upwards j 3
inches long. Tranquebar.
113. T. with a Angle prominent, acute, tranfverfe
rib \ 4 inches long. Tranquebar.
* 114. T. whirls with two prominent, acute, tranfverfe
ribs j 5 inches long. Coromandel, fiiores of Britain.
* 115. T. whirls with 2 prominent, obtufe, diftant,
tranfverfe ribs j 2 inches long. Europe, Guinea, fiiores
of Britain.
* 116. T. whirls 6, prominent, acutely firiatedj from
2 to 6 inches long. Shores of Europe, Africa and
China j Britain.
* TT'' T. with 8 fmooth whirls nearly obfolete. Mi-
Shores of Anglefea.
T. white, with 8 whirls tranfverfely ftriated.
T. whirls of the fpire flattiih, with 7 obtufe
2 to 3 inches long. South America, Barbary.
T. whirls of the fpire with 10 obfolete ftriae ;
2 to 44 inches long. European, Mediterranean feas.
121. T. whirls of the fpire ribbed j aperture ovate.
Denmark.
122. T. imperforated, glabrous ; whirls rbunded,
ftriated. Depths of the Greenland feas.
*23. T. whirls with a prominent, margined future j
if- inch Ion".
ny
nute.
118
,H9
ftnae ;
120,
G L O G Y. 447
* 124. T. pellucid ; whirls contrary j futures fubcre-^zVe/zx.
nated 5 aperture 2-toothed behind j i-l inch long.
Europe j roots of trees, Britain.
* 125. T. pellucid j whirls reverfed, not crenated
aperture 3-toothed, ^ inch long. Europe, Britain,
among mofs, and in old walls.
126. T. obtufe j grooves curved; whirls 11; ^fufulus.
lines long.
127. T. obtufe; groove ftraight; whirls 9; a per-fufus.
ture toothed.
128. T. obtufe, white; grooves oblique; apertureyw/ctftax.
nearly fquare ; whirls 8 ; 12 lines long.
129. T. whirls 9, recurved; aperture 4-toothed;
5 lines long. Bombay, Italy.
130. T. whitilh ; whirls 7 ; aperture 3-toothed ; 5 trideas.
lines long. Italy.
* 131. T. ovate, obtufe, pellucid; 4 to 6 \,h.uh \tnufcorum,
aperture toothlefs, oval; 1 line long. Among mofs,
Britain.
* 132. T. deep brown, fpires 4; firft ventricofe ; z-uhee.
perture oval ; fize of a grain of wheat. Britain.
* 133. T. imperforated, fmooth ; whirls 5, nearly ob-trifafeiatu*
folete ; tranfverfely barred. Minute. Pcmbrokelhire
coaft.
* 134. T. fmooth; whirls 5, obliquely barred; membra^
ture fuboval. Minute. Pembrokeftiire coaft, naceus.
* I 235* T. whirls 5, fubobtufe, roundifti; minute, interrupt
Pembrokeftiire coaft, tus.
* 136. T. fmooth; whirls 5, fomewhat angular z-fubrufus.
hove. Pembrokeftiire coaft.
* l3T T. whirls 3 ; the firft with 3 tranfverfe ridges
minute. Seafalter, England.
* 138. T. whirls 7, ridged; aperture oval. Seafal-
ter. Rare.
* I39" T. carinated; whirls 7 ; aperture conixz6itd,carinatu-
margined. Sandwich. Rare. /us.
* 140. 1. whirls 6; aperture oval, margined ; mi- clathratu-*
nute. Sandwich. Very rare. lus.
* 141. T. thick, barred; whirls 5 ; aperture round,craf/us.
margined ; minute. Sandwich. Rare.
* 14 2. . nine whirls, dotted, reverfed : aperture con-ZWAiffa/z/x.
traced ; minute. Sandwich.
* I43- whirls 6, reticulated; apertare oval, {uh-Jheppeia-
margined ; minute. Sheppey iftand. nus.
* 144- whirls 3, elegantly reticulated; zyetluxtfandvicen~
oval, toothed ; minute. Sandwich. Jis.
145. T. whirls 5, diftimfi, tranfverfely ftriated, bar- obtufus.
red with white.
146. T. white, fmooth; aperture with a flattifh,
concave, obtufe, refle&ec^ lip. Mediterranean. pium.
147. T. imperforated, glabrous ; aperture oval ;poltius.
fize of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.
148. T. flattifti; whirls annulated, and ere&ed onda&ylius,
the back ; minute. In ftagnate waters in Europe.
149. T. two obtufe, approximate ridges on theobfo/etus,
whirls of the fpire.
130. T. fubumbilicated, whitilh ; whirls 12; aper- quinque-\
ture 5-toothed. dentatus.
151 • T. pyramidal, ventricofe, horny, pellucid ^pyramida-
aperture compreifed ; above one-fourth of an inch long, &rA
Germany.
* 152. T. conic, fmooth, gloffy ; whirls 5 qr 6 ; a- unident a-
perture fuboval; pillar furnilhed near the middle with tus.
I tooth ; two-tenths of .an inch long. Salcomb bay.
Gen.
44*?
CONCH
. &
Helix.
Gen. 29. Helix, Snai/.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax j fliell univalve, fpi-
ral, fubdiaphanous, brittle 5 aperture contracled, fe-
milunar, or round!ih.
Species.
A. Whirls with a keel-Jhoped acute margin.
fear ah ecus,
lapicida.
viarginata,
cicatriccfa.
cegophthal-
mos.
I. H. ovate, both edges keel-ihaped 5 aperture tooth¬
ed.. Mountains of Alia, and the Friendly ifiands.
* 2. H. umbilicated } convex on each fide •, aperture
tranfverfe, margined, ovate j inch in diameter. Rocks,
woods, and hedges in Europe, Britain.
3. PI. fubumbilicated, a little depreffed; obliquely
flriated ; aperture tranfverfe 5 9 lines in diameter.
4. H. umbilicated, depreffed and wrinked j whirls
r ever fed.
H. umbilicated, deprefied, greenilh, immacu¬
late 5 whirls 7 ; an inch acrofs. India, South Ame-
oculus ca-
pn.
albula.
6. H. fubcarxnated, umbilicated, convex ; aperture
margined. Trees in Alia.
* 7. H. umbilicated, flattifh j gibbous beneath 5 aper¬
ture fomewhat heart-fhaped, Europe, Britain, rocks
and dtv banks.
inaculata.
alhina.
friatula.
algira.
leucas.
Icevipes.
exilis.
vermicula-
ta.
Candida.
fpadicea,.
incarnata.
fericea.
coromdata
planorbis.
complana*
ta.
8. H. perforated, flattilh, fubcarinated ; white, dot¬
ted with brown ; gibbous beneath, with linear bands;
5 lines acrofs.
9. H. perforated, flattilh, white, gibbous beneath}
aperture quadrangular.
10. H. fubcarinated, umbilicated, convex, ftriated}
more gibbous beneath } aperture roundiih, lunated }
minute. Water-falls of Lombardy.
11. H. fubangular, umbilicated, convex, whirls 6;
navel pervious.
1 2. H. fubcarinated, umbilicated, convex, fmooth ;
beneath gibbous} navel very minute} aperture round¬
iih, lunate.
13. H. perforated, fubcarinated, contrary, convex,
pale with a rufous band, united to a white one } d inch
in diameter.
14. H. perforated, deprefled, fubcarinated } pale with
a rufous band joined to a white one } whirls llriated }
10 lines acrofs. Tranquebar.
15. H. fubglobular, depreffed, rough, imperforated }
dotted with white} lip refledled, white. Italy and
Portugal.
16. H. umbilicated, convex on each fide 5 aperture
not margined.
17. PI. perforated, umbilicated, chefnut} whirls 5 5
7 lines high.
18 H. perforated, fubglobular, fubcarinated; whirls
6 ; lip flefh-coloured } 6 lines broad. Woods of Den¬
mark and Germany.
19. H. perforated, fubglobular, convex on each
fide } tomentofe. Denmark, in gardens.
, 20. H- perforated, globular, fubcarinated and ftri¬
ated } white, with a brown band } 3^ lines wide.
Lyons.
* 21. H. fubcarinated, umbilicated, flat} above con¬
cave } aperture oblique } ovate and acute on each fide.
Ponds and rivers of Europe and Barbary, Britain.
22. H. carinated downwards, umbilicated, convex j
Chap. 1
Ponds and
o L o G Y.
flat beneath } aperture femi-heart-lhapcd
rivers of Europe.
23. H. fubcarinated, imperforated, convex, with anra^j-
inverted, ringent aperture} lip 4-plaited behind } ik
inch wide. India.
24. H. imperforated, fubcarinated, reddifh bxo'tiw.finuateu
with a white ridge } aperture tranfverfe } toothed and
3-plaited behind } 9 lines in diameter. America.
25. PI. imperforated, white } flattifti above } beneath lucerna
gibbous} aperture tranfverfe, 2-toothed } 13 lines
broad. . |
26. H. imperforated, flattifti above, beneath gibbous} fow/wj
whirls feared. A rare Ihell.
27. H. imperforated, a little convex on each fi.de,caroco/t
with a white tranfverfe lip. India.
28. H. imperforated, top-fhaped, white, with fulvous lychnuc
bands} aperture tranfverfe, 2-toothed.
29. H. fubglobular, umbilicated, fubcarinated } ye\-cepa,
lowith, with a whitifli band } aperture tranfverfe, 2-tooth¬
ed, and finuated behind.
30. PI. fubcarinated, imperforated, convex } aperturecor/w.ft
with a white margin. India. tare.
31. H. fubcarinated, with flame-coloured, red, andpellis-p
white bands } beneath furrounded with 4 rows of dots } pent is.
aperture fringed. Warm parts of America.
* 32. PI. flat, thin, concave above} aperture oval, vortex. [
flat} 3 lines wide. Ponds and rivers of Europe, Bri¬
tain.
33. PI. fubcarinated, imperforated, ovate, pointed,^<7^. J
and ftriated.
34. H. convex on each fide } horny, with iuhietTU-gothica.y
ginous bands. Woods of Sweden.
35. H. imperforated, deprefled, with decuflated Arise }gualterp
aperture acute on each fide. India. A land fpecies,
very rare.
36. H. top-fliaped, acuminated, with convex fpiraforfom'-l
ftrise, and triple ridge} aperture dilated} 11 lintsnata,
wide.
37- H. brownifh, deprefled 5 firft whirl round } aper- ifogonoA
ture contracled ; nearly triangular } 3-toothed and imx- mofamii
gined. Virginia and Alface.
38. H. deprefled, umbilicated} whirls contiguous} oca/wo'
the firft large } aperture oblong, ovate. munis.
39. H. umbilicated, convex on each fide} variega- aj/inis. ,
ted with white and chefnut} aperture winged and {light¬
ly margined.
40. H. umbilicated, obliquely ftriated; convex a-zWiiffWl
bove ; beneath a little depreiTed } firft whirl carinated }
i-J inch broad.
41. H. fubcarinated, imperforated } convex on tzchfinuofa.
fide, with hollow dots } aperture tranfverfe } 7-toothed }
whirls 6.
42. H. umbilicated, fubcarinated, obliquely fixv&ltd maculcji
and a little deprefled } aperture lunated, with a mar¬
gined lip.
43. H. fubumbilicated, fubcarinated, aperture Ix^nfipunBm
verfe, oblong ; lip margined, 3-toothed.
44. H. ovate, glabrous; whirls 5 } the firft gib- vitrea.
bous, the reft carinated; aperture oblong-ovate} 2
inches high.
45. H. umbilicated, deprefled, white; whirls ^annulai
the firft gibbous and doubly carinated; aperture ovate ;
2 lines in diameter.
46. H. umbilicated, white, deprefled above; whirls rhenan*
carinated
hap. IV. CONCH
carinated and irregularly flriated, the lall brown.
Rhine.
. via. 47- deprehedj umbilieated ; white, with longi¬
tudinal black fpots above, and 5 bands beneath. Santa
Cruz.
, rugata. 48* H. umbilicated, wrinkled, and obliquely llri-
ated ; aperture lunated. Jamaica.
49. H. imperforated, fmooth, faffron with brown
margin, and bafe of the whirls ; aperture blue. Ota-
heite. ta«Jrjqc * snoddi^
50. H. rounded, brown j whirls carinated j aperture
finuous. Newr Zealand.
* 51. H. llriated, carinated j whirls 3 j aperture fub-
oval ; minute. Frefh water near Feverflram, Eng¬
land.
B. Umbilicated; whirls rounded.
* 52. H. above umbilicated, flat, blackilh ; whirls 4.
Frefli waters, Europe, Coromandel, Britain.
53. H. concave on each fide, flat, whitilh ^ whirls
?, rounded j 1^ line diameter. Stagnant waters, France,
Germany.
54. H. flattilh, orbicular 5 aperture oval; lip frin-
ged.
55. H. fubumbilicated, flat on each fide, equal 5 a-
perture linear, arched } I to 2 lines wide. Stagnant
waters of Europe.
56. H. polilhed, yellowifh, above convex, umbili*
cated j flat beneath, perforated j 1 to 3 lines in dia¬
meter. Ditches of Denmark.
57. H. white, umbilicated on each fide; aperture
dilated ; 1 to 2 lines wide. Denmark, aquatic plants.
58. H. pellucid, umbilicated above; ftriated with
dots. Ditches in Denmark and Berlin.
59. H. umbilicated, flattilh ; aperture oval; 12 to
16 lines in diameter. China.
* 60. H. umbilicated, convex, hifpid, diaphanous;
whirls 5 ; aperture roundilh, lunated. Woods of Eu¬
rope. Britain.
61. H. fubumbilicated, fubglobular, glabrous ; whirls
above more ventrxcofe ; aperture large, ovate, oblong;
I to 5 inches wide. Afia and America.
x inalis. 62. H. globular, perforated ; reddilh brown ; w'hirls
four. Filh ponds of Denmark.
klla. 63. H. globular, perforated ; aperture rolled fpiral-
ly inwards. Lakes of Germany.
-rica. 64. K. globular, horny, with an obtufe crown ; 1
. to 2 lines wide. Seas of Denmark.
latia. * 65. H. fubumbilicated, fubovate, obtufe ; aperture
roundilh, femilunar; reddifh brown, with obfolete,
paler bands. Woods of Europe, Britain.—This fpe-
cies was a favourite dilh among the Romans. It is ftill
ufed as an article of food in many parts of Europe, du¬
ring the feafon of Lent. It was introduced into Eng¬
land by Sir Kenelm Digby, as a cure for confump-
tion.
'tea. 66. H. umbilicated, roundilh, pointed ; lip margi¬
ned ; aperture oval.
wa. 67. H. fubumbilicated, convex, obtufe ; yellowilh,
with a brown band ; from 1 2 to 18 lines wide. Woods
of Jamaica and China.
anea. 68. H. perforated, fubglobular., dull chefnut, with
a rufous band united to a white one; whirls 7, ftri¬
ated.
Vol. VI. Part II.
, nata.
1 inata.
, nea.
-or bis.
1 iorta.
; da,
< 2
^ His.
< nu-
Ietis.
nda,
* bulla-
i \
O L O G Y. 441
69. H. perforated, fubglobular, with hollow dotsrvJ/>0.
and a red band ; firlt whirl larger ; 8 lines wide.
70. H. globular, fubumbilicated, white ; lip globulus.
ed ; whirls 5.
71. H. imperforated, depreffed ; gray, with white laSea.
dots ; aperture red brown. Jamaica and Portugal.
72. H. deprelfed, umbilicated, white, with a cutincifa.
mai-gin.
* 73* unibilicated, convex, pointed ; aperture fub-flrZ'///?;?-
orbicular, a little refleifted at the rim, brown, with ^rum.
fingle black Ipiral band ; 9J lines wride. Shrubberies
and hedges, Britain.
74* nearly imperforated, globular, peilucid \fufaa.
fulvous, with a white lip; t to 3 lines wide. Woods
of Denmark.
75. H. lubimperforated, fubglobular, ftriated ; whirls
7 ; 12 lines in diameter.
76. H. fubimperforated ; white, with rufous lip •axi&cinEia.
bands ; whirls 5 ; 18 lines wide.
77. H. fubimperforated, fubglobular; white, withligata.
rufous bands ; whirls 4 ; 14 lines w ide. Italy.
78. H. fubimperforated, lubglobular ; pale yellow,
with 4 rufous bands, interrupted with white fpots;
whirls 4 ; 12 to 18 lines in diameter. Italy.
79. H. fubimperforated, fubglobuiar ; pale, imma- extenfet.
culate ; aperture large ; whirls 4, diftant.
80. H. perforated, globular; white, with {\xhix\tex-pifana.
rupted red bands ; lip rofy ; 5 to 7 J lines wide. Bar¬
bary, Italy.
81. H. perforated, with a deprelfed crowm; while,ftrigata.
with rufous bands, and numerous lines ; lip white on
each fide ; 10 lines w ide.
82. H. perforated, globular, polifhed ^ white, with nemoren*
brown bands ; 15 lines wide. India. Jis.
* 83. H. umbilicated, convex, flightly depreffed ; a-xonaria,
perture rather oblong and margined ; whirls 5 ; firft
ventricofe ; 11 to 13 lines in diameter. Barbary, Eu¬
rope, Britain.
84. H. umbilicated ; fubdeprefled, ftriated, white yjlriata.
6 lines wide. Italy.
* 85. H. umbilicated, depreffed, yellowilh, with aericeto-
brown band or bands ; 4 to 11 lines wide. Europe rum.
Britain.
* 86. H. umbilicated, fubdepreffed, fulvous, homy,nitens.
or yellowifn green ; fubftriated ; aperture large ; whirls
4 or 5; 1 to 4 lines wide. Wet woods of Europe,
Britain.
87. H. umbilicated, cinereous ; whirls4 ; rib trar\{-cojlata,
verfely plaited ; aperture circular ; 1 line wide. High¬
lands of Denmark.
88. H. umbilicated, fubdepreffed ; aperture ewei-pulchella,
nate ; lip white, reflected ; whirls 4 ; 1 line wide.
Moift woods of Denmark.
89. H. umbilicated, fubdepreffed, with elevated, rotundata,
tranfverfe lines, and ferruginous fpots ; 24- lines wide.
Moift places, and rotten wood, in France, Germany,
and Denmark. Common.
90. H. umbilicated, depreffed ; yellowilh, polilhed ; ce/Zjnh.
white beneath ; aperture large ; whirls 5 ; 3-4 lines
wide. Cellars in Germany.
91. H. umbilicated, depreffed on both fides; whirls obyoluta,
obvoluted. Var. 1. Whitilh, glabrous, with a triangu¬
lar aperture. 2. Brown, hifpid, with a linear aper¬
ture ; 4 to 5 lines wide. Italy.
3 L
92. H,
CONCHOLOGY.
45°
Jirigofula, 92. H. perforated, fubdepreffed, ftriated j wbite,
with a rufous band 5 5 lines wide. France.
radial a. 93. B. perforated, - ftriated j convex beneath j ra¬
diated. France and Virginia.
cryjlalima 94. H. perforated, depreffed, gloffy white, diapha¬
nous } 4 to 5 whirls j 1 line w ide. Denmark, among
mofs.
ungulina, 95. H. umbilicated, convex •, aperture margined,
fuborbicular, and elongated above j of the drape of an
apple j 16 lines wide. India.
varied., 96. H. globular, umbilicated, whitiftr yellow j whirls
5, reverfed \ the outermoft divaricated 5 19 lines
wide.
fruticum. 97. H. umbilicated, globular j aperture without pil¬
lar lip j lines wide. ' Hedges of Denmark.
lucena. 98- H. fubglobular, umbilicated •, gibbous beneath j
lip reflected, white j whirls 5, the firft very convex..
vitlata. 99. H. Subglobular, fubumbilicated ; white, with
crow'ded chefnut bands and blue crown j lip reflefled,
white j 9 lines in diameter. Coromandel.
rofacea. 100. H. fubglobular, fubumbilicated j deih colour,
and tranfverfely flriated j whirls 5 j 19 lines wide.
itala. ioi. H. umbilicated, convex, obtufe', whirls 5,
round j navel wide j fize of a nut. Southern Europe.
A land fpecies.
htfitan'ica. 102. H. umbilicated, perforated, convex, obtufe •,
whirls 5, round, and yellowilh white ^ umbilicus fpread-
iieg •, fizc of a fmall apple. Southern Europe. A land
fpecies.
103. H. umbilicated ovate •, whirls 3; ftriatedj a-
perture large, ovate, and united to the tip. Rivers of
Africa.
104. FI. umbilicated, convex j whirls 5, round j
umbilicus thin, perforated 5 aperture luborbicular.
Southern Europe.
105. H. umbilicated, ovate, oblong 5 finely ftriated j
aperture white within.
106. H. perforated, ovate, ventricofe, and {freaked *,
tip ribbed and rofy •, lip of the fame colour; pillar
white j whirls 6 ; 4 inches long.
107. H. perforated, ovate, oblong, ftriated ; lip and
pillar rofy ; whirls 6 ; aperture oval 5 3 inches long.
South America and India.
jc8. H. perforated, oblong *, white, with longitudi¬
nal, rufous bands; pillar reflefled ; flraight; 18 to
20 lines long. Guinea.
109. H. top-lhaped, white with rufous bands;
whirls 6 ; aperture tranfverfe, large ; 15- lines long.
110. H. top-fhaped, umbilicated; convex on both
fides ; brown, with prickly ribs ; lips whitiih ; line
W'ide. Woods of Denmark.
I xx. H. top-ihaped, umbilicated, acuminated ; aper¬
ture cireinated ; 11 to 2 2 lines wide.
112. H. top-fhaped, umbilicated, pointed; white,
with fpira], convex ftriae ; aperture circinate ; 13 lines
wide.
113. FI. glabrous, hardiih, umbilicated; chefnut,
with white bands ; whirls fiat beneath ; aperture ovate,
oblong ; 1 inch long.
* H. umbilicated, rounded, thin ; aperture femi-
lunar. Woods of Europe ; Britain.
II ?. H. umbilicated, a little depreffed, yellow; aper¬
ture compreffed; fir ft whirl fiattifh, round. Olive
groves, Florcr.cs.
Chap. ]:
aperture badia.
■mnmmela-
ris.
Jnfpana.
hit aria,
ova/is.
cbloaga.
Jlauwica.
pileus.
nucleata.
volvulus.
. iuvoivulu.
ncntina.
lurturum
oiivetc-
ram.
116. H. umbilicated, fubglobular, fmootl
linear ; 1 inch high.
117. FI. fubumbilicated, fmooth ; whirls convex ;cretcc
aperture lunated ; 10 lines high.
118. H. fubumbilicated, conic, wBite, with chefnut/f/e^
bands ; aperture femilunar ; tip obtufe.
119. H. rounded, fubumbilicated, thin; aperture/vA’/J
femilunar. Thuringia.
120. H. umbilicated, with an obtufely mucronate/err^
fpire; firft whirl very large, the reft gradually deerea-
fing ; aperture margined, femilunar; whirls 6.
121. H. rounded, umbilicated, thin, glofty white ; men,
aperture femilunar.
122. H. flat on both fides, umbilicated; whirls 6,medial
the firft round ; aperture fuborbicular. Germany.
123. H. umbilicated, very thin, flat, poliftred, and tenilld
convex above ; aperture compreffed, femilunar; whirls
5, contiguous.
124. H. umbilicated, depreffed, white; whirls 6,cref>uJ
round, 3d and 4th brown, the laft reddifti at the tip ; laris,
aperture femilunar, fmooth. Guinea.
125. H. umbilicated, pellucid; beneath hemifphe-/ujalii.
rical, white ; whirls reverfed. Shores of Guinea.
126. FI. umbilicated, obtufely fubtriangular, rough, aW/a
plaited and filvery within ; aperture fmooth, eared ;
firft whirl with an elevated circle ; fize and colour of
a nut; pillar lip white. Southern ocean,
127. H. inflated, fubumbilicated, fragile ; whirls 5 ; rufefc
firft very large ; aperture femilunar; 6 lines wide.
Rivers of Hamburgh.
128. H. umbilicated, obtufely fubpyramidal; whirlspsnib
4, convex; the firft with an elevated circle; the reft
furrounded with a groove ; aperture femilunar ; mi¬
nute.
129. H. umbilieated, oblong; whirls round and/avijj
fmooth ; aperture orbicular.
130. H. umbilicated, pellucid ; whirls 3, divided/rt/t’/i
by a groove ; aperture orbicular and not margined, laris
The' animal, befides the two tentaeula, is furniftved
with a creft. Waters of Strafburg and Paris. Very -
rare.
131. H. umbilicated depreffed; firft whirl villous,We/i
flat; aperture triangular, margined ; whirls 6 ; ^ inch cea.
wide. France and Switzerland.
132. H. thin, fragile, white, umbilicated.; fir ft whirl turf
round, inflated ; whirls 6; inch wide. Waters-of
Hamburgh.
i 33. H. umbilxcated, pellucid, horny, tranfveriely tenu:
ft riated, and convex ; whirls 6, gradually decreafing ;
aperture femilunar; 4 or 5 lines in diameter.
134. H. cartilaginous, horny, pale yellow, fubpellu- corn
cid, gibbous. Kurile iflands.
135. H. depreffed, deeply umbilicated. Leaves
and branches of trees, Senegal. rale
136. H. pyramidal, white, umbilicated; whirls 6,e/eg
acute, flattilh, and margined. Barbary and Southern
Europe. A land- fqail.
137. FL- pyramidal, fmooth, white, obtufe; bafe im- cod
perforated, convex. South fea iflands.
138. H. pyramidal, fubcarinated, very finely ftria-bid(\
ted ; lip reflefled. 2-toothed. Botanic garden at Straf¬
burg.
139. H. pyramidal, fubimperferated, varied with tur
vetlow and rufous. Coromandel.
iTT.
451
pt IV. CONCH
-i ciata. 140. H. conic, ovate, while, with 3 brownifh bands
in the firft whjrl-; aperture fringed ^ lip white, dila¬
ted. Tranquebar. A land fpecies.
Mi. 141. H. conic, ventricofe, perforated, pellucid, with
-a black tip ; firft whirl with 3 yellowilh bands. Ben-
gal.
rC aides. 142. H. top-ihapcd, perforated, polilhed j longitu¬
dinally ftriated j whirls reverfed, the firib keel-fhapcd j
aperture angular.
„ itofa. * 143. H. "umbillcated j whirls 3, briftly j aperture
roundilh ; minute. Boggy ground, Pembrokelhire.
L ’ata. * 144. H. whirls 3, longitudinally ilriated j tube at
the bafe margined •, minute. Coalt of Pembrokelhire.
alia. * 145. H. fubumbilicated, fmooth 5 whirls 3, firft
more ventricofe j aperture dilated j minute. Sandwich
and Tenbigh.
ijjima. * 146. H. umbilicated j whirls 2, tranfverfely ftriated j
minute. Pembrokelliire coaft.
n or. * 147. H. {lightly umbilieated, fmooth 5 whirls 2j
minute. Pembrokelhi-re coaft.
^ fa. * 148. H. fubglobular, umbilicated 5 mouth roundilh j
margin thorny •, minute. Near Feverlham. Rare.
\ ulata. * 149. H. fubumbilicated, reticulated •, mouth round¬
ed, margined ; minute. Reculver. Very rare.
C. Rounded and imperforated.
k< erfa. 150. H. fubumbilicated, ovate, oblong ; whirls 5 to
8, contrary •, 18 to 28 lines long. India.
i ra. 131. H. conic, yellow j lip reflected, white j whirls
6 to 7 ; aperture ovate j 18 to 22 lines long.
r a, 152. H. conic, a little pointed ; w'hitilh wdth a ru¬
fous band and ftreaks j lip refiedbed j whirls 7 j 2^
inches long.
hrfa. 153. PB conic, pointed ; whirls 8, obliquely {freak¬
ed, contrary j 2^ inches long. Mauritius and Bour¬
bon iftands.
\ rrupta. 154. H. conic, pointed, white with fulvous ftreaks j
lip white, refledled j w-hirls 7 j 22 lines long.
: raria. 155. H. conic, pointed j whirls contrary j white,
with undulated, interrupted, brown ftreaks j 15 lines
long *, very rare.
iifl. 156. H. fubcylindrical, glabrous, contrary, barred j
pillar yellow j lip flightly refledbed j 12 to 16 lines
long j very rare.
%'iaria.- 157. H. glofly, whitilh, thin, longitudinally ftria¬
ted j fpire contrary, hemifpherical 5 minute. Arme¬
nian coaft.
| aicen- \ 58. H. globular, chefnut-brown, barred w ith white j
lip fringed, white j crow n obtufe. Jamaica,
t iia. 139. H. fubglobular, depreffed ; bafe concave ; a-
perture lunated. Rhode illand.
^ :°fa. 160. H. oblong, polilhed, w'hite, diaphanous ; whirls
8 ; aperture ovate, toothlefs 5 11 lines long. India.
H'ica. 161. H. oblong, a little wrinkled, rofyj whirls 6j
aperture tootblefs j 20 lines long,
f ’hina. 162. H. nearly imperforated, roundilh, obtufe, dia¬
phanous and very brittle j aperture dilated behind,
with an emarginated lip j 1 inch broad and high. In
moft feas.—The animal which inhabits this Ihell fliines
in the night, and ftains the hand with a violet or pur¬
ple dye.
i intea. 163. H. imperforated, roundilh, folid, with .a de-
preffed fpire •, whirls 6, contiguous.
yPara. * 164. H. imperforated, ventricofe, fubovate, obtufe j
whirls 3 to 6, very convex j aperture nearly orbicu-
O L G G Y.
laf j 14 inch long. Stagnant waters of Europe,
Britain. This fpecies is viviparous.
163. H. ovate, ventricofe j white with 3 {h'mingffciata.
red bands j w hirls 3 j fpire acute j 9 to 13 lines long.
Italy.  
166. H. fubovate, pointed, yellowilh-w'hite, w'ith adfjlmihs,
black lip *, whirls 6. Tranquebar.
* 167. H. perforated, roundilh, thin, pellucid, sa.w&.nemorahs.
marked with varioully coloured tranfverfe bands j
whirls 3, from 9 to 1 x lines wide. Woods of Europe,
Britain.
* 168. H. Garden Snail; imperforated, globular, pale,
with broad, interrupted, brown bands5 lip white ) 7 to.
8 lines wide. Gardens and orchards, Europe, Bri¬
tain.—This fpecies is extremely beftruclive to the ten¬
der leaves of plants, and fruits. It is oviparous y the
eggs are round, and about the fize of fmall peas.
169. H. imperforated roundilh, fmooth $ whitilh,
with rufous ftreaks and bands. Southern parts of Eu-
rope.
17c. H. imperforated, fubovate, obtufe, gray withgrfea.
two pale bands j aperture rather oblong. Woods of
Europe.
171. H. imperforated, roundilh, brown, with a Ion- hremaJlQ.*
gitudinal white band whirls 5, round, firft large: ma.
aperture pure purple j 14-inch broad. Ceylon.
172. H. imperforated, fubovate, brow n ftriped Apulia.
whirls 4 ; aperture oblique, margined, whitilh; 2
inches broad.
173. H. imperforated, fubovate j fulphur with a venufa*
white band margined w ith red j whirls 4 j lip reflected,
margined*, 10 lines broad.
174. H. imperforated, fubglobular, glabrous 5 whnhpicla.
4, round, firft ventricofe, the others deprelTed $ aper¬
ture lunar. Italy.
173. H. imperforated, fubovate, covered with a•varkgatcu
brown cuticle, under which it is barred 5 aperture
white within. Italy.
176. H. imperforated, folid, ovate ; whirls 6, round,
contiguous 5 pillar thickened ; I inch long.
177. H. imperforated, fubglobular, finely ftriated
longitudinally j whirls 3, firft ventricofe j aperture Iut
nar j pillar fpiral.
178. H. imperforated, roundilh, and tranfverfelywr/fro/ar.
ftriated j whirls round, the firft ventricofe $ aperture
ovate.
179. H. imperforated, ovate j whirls 6, flattilh, con-<7/n7.
tiguous j aperture unequal, 3-toothed j 3 lines long.
Senegal.
180. H. imperforated, ovate, tranfverfely ftriated
with black belts \ aperture finuous. Otaheite.
181. H. imperforated, ovate, fmooth, red j aperture
pale yellow. New Zealand.
* 182. H. imperforated, fubpellucid, fmooth, Yiithvariegata.
red lines j whirls 4, the firft more ventricofe j minute.
Welch coaft.
* 183. H. whirls 3 *, aperture rounded, margined ; xai-fulgida,
nute. Welch coaft.
* 184. H. ftriated $ aperture fuboval j whirls refleftedyZrnx/tf.
on the back 5 minute. Sandwich. Very rare.
D. Tapering.
* 383. H. imperforated, tapering.j fpire mutilated,decollatet
truncated*, whirls 4 to 7, firft large j 6 to 13 lines
long.* Europe, Alia, and Africa j Britain.
3 L 2
186. H.
452
fcalaris,
circinata.
fubcijlin-
drtca.
Jiagnorum
cflona.
ten era.
colurnna.
pelia.
plicaria.
undulata.
fufcata.
priapus.
folliculus.
fcpium.
fplendi-
dula.
''mitra.
atra.
cufpidata.
crenata.
carinola.
crocea.
lanfchau-
rka.
oltufata.
purpurea.
CONCH
1S6. H. conic, tapering, imperforated j whirls 5,
ventncoie, remote j ipire obtufe } aperture ovate.
187. II. hyaline, tranfverfely ribbed, perforated, and
a little tapering ; whirls diftant; aperture circular 1 6
lines high.
188. H. imperforated, tapering, fubcylindrical, ob-
tufe ^ whirls 4 5 aperture ovate 5 fize of a grain of rye.
Frelh waters, north of Europe.
189. H. funperforated, and a little tapering j whirls
5 5 aperture ovate ; minute. Frelh waters.
* 190. H. fubperforated, tapering; whirls 8; aper¬
ture roundilh; 4 lines long. America, Europe, Bri¬
tain.
. J91-H. tapering, convex, ftriated ; pillar finuated,
indexed; whirls 7 to 8, with incumbent margins ; a-
perture ovate, oblong ; inches long.
192. H. tapering, white, with a fulvous tip ; whirls
7 or 8, contrary, fpotted ; aperture oblong ; 274 lines
long.
*93* n. imperforated, ovate, pointed, tranfverfely
hriated ; brown, with yellow bands ; band on the firit
whirl double, on the reft lingle. Iceland.
194. H. fubulate, femipellucid, longitudinally plait¬
ed ; whirls 10, round ; aperture ovate.
*95* f^* tabulate, fmooth, finely ftnated tranfverfe¬
ly ; whirls about I 2, round ; aperture ovate ; pillar gla¬
brous. r 6
196. H. fubulate, fmooth, finely ftriated tranfverfe¬
ly; whirls about 10, round; aperture ovate; pillar
fmooth. r
197. H. imperforated, tapering, glabrous; pillar
fomewhat depreffed ; pillar inflected.
198. H. tapering, pellucid, glabrous; whirls 5 or 6,
round, equal; aperture ovate ; pillar flightly plaited ;
fize of an oat. Barbary.
199. H. tapering, milk-white, longitudinally ftri¬
ated; whirls 7,^ contiguous ; aperture ovate; 4. inch
long. Mountains of Southern Europe.
■i®^* thin, glofiy, pellucid ; whirls 6 ; aperture
oblong; 4 inch long. France.
201. H. {hell tapering ; whirls 8 or 9, diftant rib¬
bed ; firft round, the reft flattilh ; aperture ovate ; 1
inch long.
202. H. black, tapering, minutely ftriated ; whirls
7, rather convex; aperture oblong, oval; 2 inches
long.
203. FI. tapering, horny, finely ftriated tranfverfe¬
ly, and longitudinally plaited ; lip acute. Rivers of
India.
204. H. tapering, white, tranfverfely fubftriated,
and furrounded with a crenulated belt near the future.
Rivers of India.
205. H. white, tapering, fomewhat umbilica-
ted ; firft whirl a little keei-lhaped, with a blackifh
band.
2c6. H. cylindrical, glabrous, yellowifh orange:
lip obtufe. ;
207. H. tapering, very glabrous, chefnut-brown with
darker fpots; throat whitilh. Freftr waters, Coroman¬
del.
208. H. white, denfely ftriated, tabcylindrical;
whirls a little convex; lip margined ; 3 inches long.
209. H. ovate, oblong, purplilh, tefielated with pur¬
ple ; within iiidefcent* New Zealand.
O L O G Y.
Chap. \\
E. Ovate, imperforated.
210. H. coarfe, nearly imperforated, ovate, oblong ,pupa.
v. nirls 6 ; aperture oblong, lunated. Mauritania.
2x1. FI. coarfe, oblong, imperforated; whirls 8 ; harbor6
aperture roundifh, lunated ; fize of a barley-corn. Al¬
giers.
212. H. oblong, imperforated ; whirls toothed, ^\n-amanl\
nous ; 10 lines long. Rivers of India.
* 213. H. tranfverfely grooved ; white, ftriated withncevia.
black ; whirls fiattifh, the firft large and round ; fpire
pointed ; an inch long. Southern ocean, Plymouth
dock.
214. H. pointed, cinereous, tranfverfely ftriated;
whirls 7 to 8, toothed, marked with red ftreaks, and
armed with (harp fpines ; 3 to 8 lines long. Coroman¬
del.
* 215. H. imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point ’JaSnali\
fomewhat angular, by feveral longitudinal wrinkles;
whirls 6 to 7, firft ventricofe; aperture oblong, oval;
2* inches long. Still waters of Europe, Britain.
^ 216. FI. imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point jfragilis,
fpire acute ; whirls 5 to 7 ; aperture oblong, oval ; 11
lines long. Still waters of Europe, Britain.
217. H. cylindrical, pointed, horny; aperture o-glabra.
vate; whirls 8 ; 4 lines long. Moift meadows of
Denmark.
* 218. FI. oblong, pointed, brown; aperture ovate ^palujlrk
whirls 3 to 6. Meadows of Europe, Britain.
219. H. ovate, oblong, whirls 3, truncated upwards;/rawff.
aperture ovate ; 2 to 3 lines long. Greece. tula.
* 220. H. fubconic, horny, with a fharp point; wpzx-peregra,
ture ovate; 2 to 8 lines long. Stagnant waters of
Denmark, Britain.
2^21. D. ventricofe, diaphanous, with an obtufe pro-glutintija
je&ion ; 2 to 3 whirls; aperture wide ; 2 to 4 lines
long. Denmark, chiefly on the leaves of nympheea
lutea. Marlhes at Deal.
* 222. FI. imperforated, obtufe, ovate, yellow; whirls/w/m.
3, the firft large, the others minute ; aperture ovate ;
1 to 8 lines long. Ponds in Europe, Britain.
223. FI. conic, pointed, white, with a red band;*™/*,
whirls 7 ; aperture ovate, toothlefs ; 4 lines long. I-
taly.
224. H. conic, perforated ; ftriae rugged ; aperture/^/fZ/tf.
tranfverfe ; whirls 6 ; 10 lines wide.
223. H. fubcylindrical; whirls 3; aperture tooth-minuta.
lefs, oval. Greece. Not a line long.
* 226. H. conic, white, with tranfverfe rufous lines \ detrita.
whirls 6 ; aperture ovate; 8-1 lines long. Saxony,
Britain.
227* H. conic, pale, ftriated ; whirls 7 ; the 4 outer- ventrhofi
moft nearly of equal width ; 84 lines long. Greece.
* 228. H. conic, brown; whirls 6; aperture oval, ob/cura.
toothlefs ; fnail white ; above dulky, eyes only black.
Roots of trees, Europe, Britain.
* 229. H. conic, fulvous, polifhed ; whirls 3 or 6-,lubriea.
aperture toothlefs; 2-§- lines long. Mofs and wet rot¬
ten wood, Britain.
* 230. H. imperforated, fomewhat oblong, pellucid yllmofa,
aperture ovate. Wet meadows of Europe, Sandwich,
river Avon.
231. H. turbinated, cinereous, nearly imperforated;
crown truncated; whirls 3; aperture circinated. plicata,
232. H.
; 'P
n ''arts
?r ?u-
it
•u ti¬
ll •
(f at a.
IV.
CONCH
232. K. imperforated, greenifh \ whirls 5, fpirally
angular j throat wide ; 12 lines long. China.
* 233. H. imperforated, ovate, obtufe, clouded with
brown ; whirls 4 or 5 j aperture fubovate ; 1—4 lines
long. Ponds and Pill waters of Britain.
* 234. H. imperforated, ovate, gibbous, with a de-
preffion in the middle of the lip ; whirls 3—5 5 the
firft ventricofe ) fpire acute, fhort; aperture much
dilated j 2—15 lines long. Ponds of Europe, Bri¬
tain.
* 235. H. whirls 25 firft ventricofe j the other mi¬
nute, and placed laterally : pale red, pellucid. Eu¬
rope, Devonfhire.
•a ica. 236. H. imperforated, ovate, pointed j whirls 4 j
wrinkles elevated j aperture ovate, dilated. Shores of
the Baltic.
u oidea. 237. H. imperforated, convex, longitudinally ftria-
ted j aperture roundifti.
>e icua. 238. H. imperforated, convex, ovate j without lip 5
aperture extending to the tip. Mediterranean.
u 4oidea 239. H. imperforated, deprefled, with waved ftriae j
aperture oval j open all the way down ^ whirls 4, la¬
teral. Mediterranean, Atlantic, Indian and North
feas.
n ilis. 240. H. imperforated, fubdepreffed, white j whirls
6 } 6 lines wide. France.
i, jo. 241. H. cylindrical, glabrous ; whirls 4 or 5 j round,
reverfed •, aperture fquare, 6-toothed j 1 line long.
In decayed u’ood. Denmark.
i chum. 242. H. hyaline, fubconic, glabrous j whirls 5, round j
aperture ovate, with three teeth within.
h igua. 243. H, fubimperforated, convex j grooves remote,
compreffed j aperture femiorbicular. Mediterranean
fea.
■< eus. 244. H. imperforated, ovate, black j aperture ovate.
Waters of Greece.
is m. 245. H. fubcylindrical, with decuffated ftriae ; whirls
7, reverfed j 3 very large, depreffed in the middle.
Guinea.
t mora- 246. H. marbled with white, cinereous and blue j
l whirls 5, round j aperture ovate, \ inch long. Rivers
of. Straftmrg.
J \tina. 247. H. chefnut, pellucid, thin ; whirls 4, narrow j
aperture ovate.
1 bris. 248. H. ovate, pointed, pellucid, tranfve rfely ftria-
ted j whirls 7, firft largeft j aperture oblong, ovate 5 9
lines long.
1 ma.' 249. H. ovate, conic, fubimperforated j 2 laft
whirls in the centre of the firft; j aperture orbicular \
l-J line long.
> ta. 230. H. white, folid, opaque 5 firft whirl twice as
large as the reft j aperture large, margined. River
Unftrut.
* .ariT. 251. H. white, opaque, pointed j aperture oval.
Waters of Hamburg.
'I'nda. 252. H. ovate, pointed, fubimperforated \ firft whirl
ventricofe, large ; aperture femicircular j 6 or 7 lines
long. Stagnant waters.
!|'0. 253. H. ovate, pointed; whirls 5 ; firft large, aper¬
ture ovate, oblong. Aquatic.
i ida. 254. H. obtufe j whirls 4, diftant, inflated in the
middle ; aperture orbicular, margined ; 2 lines long.
ykf- 255. H. bluilh, ovate, pointed j whirls 4, a lit-
I* tie ventricofe 3 apertitre oblong, rounded 3 2 lines
iwrg.
o L O G Y. 453
256. H. inflated 3 whirls 4, ihort 3 two lower ones cir.erea.
diftant j aperture orbicular, not margined 3 2 lines
long. Allace.
257. H. imperforated, oblong, white with longitudi-
nal red undulations 3 whirls 6—7, firft thrice as large
as the next 3 inch long.
258. H. imperforated, oblong, thin, brown 3 whirls teres.
4 3 firft ovate, and thrice as large as the next 3 aper¬
ture ovate.
259. H. fubimperforated, oblong, finely ftriated withyh/^r.’fl/tf.
white 3 whirls 5 3 firft twice as large as the next 3 aper¬
ture oval, margined 3 inch long.
260. H. fmootb, brown 3 aperture triangular, max-trigono-
gined 3 minute. Jloma.
261. H. ventricofe, pointed, cinereous 3 firft whirl
large; aperture oval, large 3 margined on one fide 3
1% inch long.
262. H. oblong, pointed, longitudinally ribbed,cnhw/tf.
and tranfverfely ftriated ; whirls 10, equally decrea-
fing 3 aperture oval 3 £ inch long. Coromandel.
263. H. ovate, imperforated 3 whirls 8—9, round,fleregrina*
diftant, and equally decreafing; aperture oval 3 4- inch
long. American iflands.
264. H. oblong, imperforated 3 whirls diftant, ven- danuhia*
tricofe3 aperture orbicular 3 24 inches long. Da-/zV.
nube.
265. H. oblong, imperforated, fmooth, pointed; turbinata*
whirls inflated j the firft larger, the reft gradually de¬
creafing 3 aperture fuboval, margined 3 34 inches long.
Danube.
266. H. oblong, curved, fubimperforated 3 aper-cwfc'tf/tfo
ture oval, margined 3 24 inches in diameter. Da¬
nube.
267. H. thin, fmooth, white, with chefnut bands 3 farz’/fr.
fpire obtufe 3 Avhirls flattilh 3 8 lines to one inch
long.
• 5®
Gen. 30. Nerita, idente. Nerita.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a Umax 3 the flrell univalve
fpiral, gibbous, flattilh at bottom 3 aperture femi¬
orbicular, or femilunar 3 pillar lip tranfverfely trun¬
cated, flattilh.
Species.
A. Umbilicated.
r. N. fmooth ; fpire llightly pointed 3 umbilicus canrena.
gibbous, and bifid. India, Africa, America.
2. N. with decuflated ftriae, and imprefled dots ; czzzzcf/-
fpire fubclavate 3 umbilicus gibbous, bifid. American lata.
illands.
* 3. N. fmooth, gloffy, faintly wrinkled 3 fpire rnCntxglaucina,
obtufe 3 umbilicus rather clofed by the pillar lip,
which is gibbous and two-coloured 3 2 inches long.
Barbary, Europe, Britain.
4. N. fubglobular , umbilicus perforated, equal. In- vitel/us,
dian ocean.
5. N. convex 3 umbilicus fomewhat heart-liiaped,a/i>z/zz?z’»1
with a flattened lobe. Cape of Good Hope, Barbary,
Indian iflands. Extremely rare.
6. N. ovate, glabrous 3 umbilicus partly covered 5 mammilla*
whirls 4 or five 3 aperture ovate.
7. Ni fubglobular, folid, bay with white bands 3/«zrc<sc=
fpire fomewhat depreffed j whirls 4 or 53 an inchz7zhj.
long.
8, N,
]
454
jpadicea.
rufa*
fulmined.
Jlercus-
mufcarum.
G O N C H
8. M. fubglubular, Mid j tip bluilh 5 lateritious
bands in the throat, and a white one on the beak, Mau¬
ritius illand. Rather large.
g. N. thin, rufous; umbilicus darker, with a white
border ; throat with a reddifh band. Mauritius ifland.
10. N. lubglobular, with angular, tawney lines, and
flattened lobe ; white or yellowilh. Africa. Rare, •
11. N. fmooth, fnowy, with rufous fpots and fpecks •,
umbilicus gibbous, bifid. Mediterranean, American
feas.
G Li G G V. Chap. I1';
whirls 3 ; lip fmooth, 2-toothed ; 6 lines long. Mag¬
dalene illands,
33. N. thin, Avith decuffated ft rim j tuberculated ; margin
black, with ochraceous fpots j fubglobular 5 aperture Aj.
margined outwardly.
34. N. thin, pellucid, ovate, polifhcd •, dull yellow
varied with black; outer lip acute 5 inner glabrous j
croAVn prominent j very rare.
35. N. fmooth, pellucid j whirls 3: very minute.
Pembrokefhire coaft.
orientalis.
cruentata.
rugofa.
marcclii-
enjis.
fulcata.
arachnoi-
dea,
vittata.
melano-
Jlonia.
pnllidula.
papilla.
clathrata.
valvata.
Icelandic a.
affinis.
cor&na.
radula.
cornea.
Jiuviatilis.
littoralis.
lacuflris.
tnagdalencc
12. N. fubglobular, poliihed very fmooth •, bafe
of the fpire a little wrinkled; pillar fnowy, Eaftern
feas.
13. N. fubglobular, Avhite, with red fpots j lip ob-
tufe and bluilh ; umbilicus fpiral.
14. N. Avrinkled} within glabrous j umbilicus bor¬
dered with Avhite. American iflands.
15. N. fubglobular, fmooth, light green, browniih
Avithin 5 livid at the tip j Avrinkled at the angle of the
whirls. Africa.
16. N. fubglobular, obliquely plaited 5 fpire Avith 4
whirls, mucronate j umbilicus bifid.
17. N. Avhite, reticulated Avith reddilh lines, and
blackilh at the tip j umbilicus nearly covered 1 whirls
convex.
18. N. fubglobular, broAvn, with a double Aivhite fil¬
let in the middle j reticulated and denticulated on
each fide. Africa.
19. N. thin, pellucid, fmooth, oblong 5 firft Avhirl
ventricofe, flat and large; umbilicus half clofed 5 2
inches long. Indian fea.
20. N. femitranfparent, horn-colour ; Avhirls promi¬
nent 5 aperture femilunar, and patulous; umbilicus
large ; a fmall {hell. Coafts of Kent and Dorfet.
21. N. pellucid, thin, oblong, with decuffated ftriae •,
dirty yelloAv j whirls 4 j aperture fuboval j pillar white j
umbilicus half clofed. Tranquebar.
22. N. depreffed, ovate, tranfverfely Undulated and
longitudinally ribbed ; ribs flat, oblique, and femilunar j
fpire papillary. Foflil in Campania.
23. N. flattifli, with a circinated aperture. N. feas.
24. N. globular, fubacute, thick j whirls 4, feparated
by deep grooves. North feas.
25. N. globular, thick j fpire fubmucronated j Avhirls
3. New Zealand.
B. Imperforated; lip toothleft.
26. N. whirls of the fpire crowned with fpines j mi¬
nute. India, America.
27. N. grooved, with equal, tuberculated ribs j fize
of a Avalnut. Indian iflands.
28. N. obfoletely ftriated; white or pale violent.
Red fea.
* 29. N. rugged, fpotted, ftreaked, or mottled with
white and purplilh brown or pink ; mouth clofed with
a teftaceous operculum j 4 lines long. In flow rivers
of Barbary and Europe, Britain.
* 30. N. fmooth, Avith a carious crown j whirls 4 or
5, firft large ; fize of a horfe bean. Europe, ftiores of
Britain. Common.
31. N. fmoothifh, horny, or blackilh, ending in a
very fine point. Still waters and warm fprings of
Europe j fuppofed to be only a variety of N.fuvia-
tilis.
32. N. grooves wide and black) within white)
3
*.36. N. fmooth, fomewhat pellucid j whirls 2) veryc!ba.
minute. Pembrokefhire epaft.
C. Imperforated; lips toothed.
37. N. fmooth, coarfe, with an excavated eye likepu!Uger\
fmall fpire: inner lip fmooth, crenulated 5 whirls ?,
one large, terminating in an acute tooth 3 14—16 lines
long. Rivers of India.
38. N. thin, fmooth, undulated, with an oblufeundulatA
crown ) outer lip fubftriated, and toothlefs) inner one
a little denticulated. India.
39. N._ thick, opaque, globular; deep black withaterm\
coloured lines ; outer lip glabrous ; inner lip tubercu¬
lated, wrinkled.
40. N. fmooth, fubglobular; Avhite, with .yellowifti larva.
brown bands ; crown obtufe, lip flightly denticulated ;
middle fized. Amboyna. Rare.
41. N. fmooth, roundifh, milk-white; whirls with/w/tf.
tranfverfe, parallel, black ftriae; lip flat; teethfcarcely
vifihle.
42. N. fmooth; inner lip 2-toothed : fize of a pea. bidens.
.43* fmooth, green; inner lip crenulated in theviridis. I
middle. Minorca and Jamaica.
44. N. fmooth, ovate, inner lip denticulated ; 2 to virgineal
10 lines long. India, South America.
45. N. fmoo;h; crown obliterated; lip toothed onpolita.
each fide ; brown. India, South feas.
46. N. ftriated ; lips toothed ; inner one flattifh andpcloront\
Avrinkled. American iflands.
47. N. ftriated ; lips flightly toothed ; inner one tu-albiciM
berculated. Cape of Good Hope. Indian ocean.
48. N. grooved, tranfverfcly firiated ; inner lip tooth- hiftrio.
ed ; ribs 30, unequal.
49. N. grooved; 17 to 2o tranfverfe ribs; outer plicate.
lip 5 or 6 teethed within ; inner convex, Avrinkled,
Avith three long, ftrong teeth, befide lefler ones. India.
50. N. grooved, lips toothed ; inner lip with a yel-grojfa.
Ioav fpot,. and 3 or 4 teeth; convex and wrinkled.
Molucca iflands.
51. N. with 20 grooves, varied with undulated -eX-chamcC'
ternate black and Avhite rays ; lips toothed ; inner one,lean.
wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian ocean.
52. N._ grooves 30; ribs about 30, flattened; lips undata, i
toothed ; inner one wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian
feas.
53- grooved, with 15 to 19 ribs; lips toothed; exuvia. j
inner one tuberculated. India.
54. N. foil'd, thick, glabrous; undulated with black maxima
and yellowifh rays ; outer lip toothlefs ; inner one con¬
cave, 4-toothed ; a very large fhell.
55. N. angular black lines; with 16 crenated ribstextilis. >
and grooves; outer lip crenated without, and toothed
within; inner lip wrinkled above, and tuberculated
beneath.
56. N. deep black, glabrous, and thinly ftriated
above;
455
\ap.
enfonis,
cata.
rjicohl
lata..
•adri-
lor.
tuaccen-
I'.itla-
IV. C O N C H
above } botk lips white j outer one finely grooved, and
{lightly toothed within. Atlantic and South feas.
^7. N. with 16 while grooves; ribs fpotted with
Avhite; crown a little prominent;; outer lip glabrous
on each fide ; inner one concave, yellowifh and toothed.
Afcenfion ifland ; a large (hell.
;8. N. mouth and lips white; whirls round, fur-
rounded with black, parallel ftriae ; outer lip ftriated
within. Malacca feas.
59» N. with blackifh bluifh, red and white fquare
fpots, and bands, fpotted with red and white; inner lip
{Iriated within, and toothed on each fide. Antilles iflands.
60. N. white, radiated with black without; ftriae
tranfverfe, rounded, fmooth ; inner lip wrinkled and 4-
toothed. Indian feas.
6r. N. yellowhh within, fubglobular, furrounded
with thicker ftriae ; interftices fnowy ; lips white, tooth¬
ed ; outer one crenated without. Nicobar iflands.
62. N. fubviolet svith a yelloivifh tip ; white within,
with-elevated black ftriae-; lips toothed; outer one
grooved within ; inner one wrinkled. Red fea.
63. N. grooved, yellowiftv within ; crown a little
prominent; outer lip unarmed and crenulated outward¬
ly ; inner lip yellowifh, fmooth. Malacca.
64. N. fubglobular, black ; Avhite within ; grooved
and ftriated ; lips Avrinkled and denticulated. Antilles
iflands.
xmmea.
Jgarans.
ijeiata.
fafciata.
;cra!a.
’olacea,
*
nega-
nfu.
"omon-
>nV. -
icolor.
■rverfa.,
’■rrita,
■ulcata.
65. N. fubglobular, with crowded tranfverfe ftriae ;
white, with purplilh undulated rays; outer lip groo\red
Avithin ; inner lip Avrinkled abovre.
66. N. fubglobular, Avith crowded tranfverfe ftrioe ;
deep black with ochraceous rays ; lip flightly denticu¬
lated ; inner one tuberculated in the middle. Ameri
can iflands.
67. - N. obtufe, tranfverfely ftriated ; the ftriae mark¬
ed with nearly fquare black and white fpots ; both
lips denticulated ; outer lip flightly ftriated within,
inner lip with one or two teeth ; concave, glabrous,
and denticulated, beneath. Iflands between Africa and
America.
68. N. blackifh with 2 gray bands; crown white.
India.
69. N. fubglobular, white, Avith various charadters ;
inner lip crenulated, toothed. India.
70. N. ovate, folid, fmooth, violet dotted with white ;
inner lip denticulated beneath.
71. N. ovate, obtufe, deep black; whirls 3, the
firft turgid, with 25—30 grooves; the two others very
minute ; 1 inch broad. Senegal.
72. N, black, ovate, pointed ; whirls 3, with 30
grooves ; left lip wrinkled. Africa.
73.. N. variegated with red, black, and white ; right
lip with 10 teeth ; left lip glabrous, with three large
emarginated teeth ; 9 lines long.
74. N. furrounded with belts ; fpire reverfed; aper¬
ture 8-toothed. Found only in a foflil ftate.
75. N. bands alternately white and black ; Avithin
white ; croAvn much elevated ; outer lip acute ; whirls
4. Frefh Avaters in Antilles iflands.
76. N. blackifn, tranfverfely ftriated ; the ftriae fpi-
nous ; inner lip flattifh, fmooth, and flightly toothed.
India.
, ,.59
’Elions,
Gen. 31. Haliotis, Sea-ear.
Gen. CZ'ar.-—The animal is a Umax ; the fhell is uni-
O L O G Y.
valve, dilated, ear-fiiaped, with a longitudinal row of
orifices along the furface; fpire lateral and nearly
concealed.
Species.
1. H. Midas'1 ear; roundifh, both fides polifhed ;midee,
orifices from 8 to 10 y 7 to 9 inches long. Indian
ocean. Cape of Good Hope.
2. H. fubovate ; outfide tranfverfely grooved, rug- tubercu*-
ged and tuberculated; Avrinkles on the outfide undula-
ted. The inner margin of the (hell has a ridge the whole
length, which terminates in one fpiral turn at the end.
This ridge is befet with tubercles, the laft 6 of which,
or from 6 to 9, are open. The infide is open, con¬
cave, and of a beautiful mother-of-pearl : the length is
from 3 to 4 inches ; breadth from 2 to 3. It is found
on the ftiores in the fouth of England, after violent
ftorms. It is common in the ifland of Guernfey, ad¬
hering to the rocks at the loweft ebb. The fifli is eat¬
en by the inhabitants, and the common people adorn
their houfes, Avith the (hells, by {ticking them on the
outfide with plafter.
3. H. ovate, ferruginous, tranfverfely vrrinkled, andJiriata,
longitudinally ftriated ; 4 or 5 orifices open. Afia,
Barbary.
4. H. ovate, longitudinally ftriated ; larger ftriae varia*
tuberculated ; orifices 20 to 33 ; 4 or 5 open.1 India. -
5. H. oval, longitudinally ftriated, with obfolete tnarma. >
tranfverfe ones ; orifices about 30, 4 or 5 open ; 2 to a, rata.
inches long. Africa, India.
6. H. ajj'es ear; fmoothifli, oblong; margin fome-ajinum.
what falcated ; nerves on the outfide elevated ; orifices
about 30, 5 to 7 open ; 3 inches long. India.
7. FI. ovate, red, Avith an elevated angle on theparva.
belly ; orifices 30, 4 or 5 open. Africa, India.
8. H. ovate, greenifh, fpotted with brown; R-ritebiJlriatai
elevated, double, tranfverfe ; 6 orifices open. Africa.
9. H. varied Avith gray, bluifh, and red ; ovate ^aujlralu,
fpire prominent, inflated ; 7 to 9 orifices open ; 3 inches
long. New Zealand.
10. IT. ovate, fome what convex, folid, with decuf- guineerjb,
fated ftriae ; orifices flattened ; 6 open ; l\ inches long.
Guinea.
11. H. ovate, imperforated, with prickly ribs; {\>ixeunperfo-
exferted ; I inch long. India. Extremely rare. rata.
12. H. oAate, imperforated; margin oblique above,
and tuberculated within ; fpire reverfed ; ^ inch long.
Foflil.
13. H. tranfverfely plaited on the outfide ; margin^Z/ftf/^
broad, thick, and finely iftriatedlongitudinally; ^ inch
long. Foflil near Hildefia.
14. H. ovate, fmoothifh, folid; varied with wlriteglabrct.
and green ; 6 orifices open ; 2-J inches long.
15. H. roundifli, varied with rofy and white ; qvXwpulcher* •
lip crenated ; orifices 30, 6 pervious ; 7 lines long. rima.
South fea iflands..
16. H. ovate, \vith decuffated undulated ftriae ; un-wrgvWtf,
der fide iridefeent; 6 orifices open ; inch long. New
Zealand.
17. FI. fuborbicular, deprefled, wrinkled-; varied
with white, chefnut, and yellowifh; orifices in the
middle pervious.
18. H. oval, rugged, varied with white and red;gigantffi,
fpotted ; ..inner lip with a very broad margin ; 3 to 7
orifices tjpen. s ' ' ‘ ‘ •
19. IT,
1
4s5 CONCH
iris. 19. H. ear ventricofe, falvid brown, with tranf-
verfe wrinkles, and longitudinal, tuberous plaits j under
fide iridefcent j qi- inches long. New Zealand. Ex¬
tremely rare.
60
Patella. Gen. 32. PATELLA, Limpet.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax } the Ihell univalve,
fubconic, lhaped like a bafon; without fpire.
Species.
A. Having an internal lip ; Jhell entire.
equejlris, 1. P. orbicular, perfoliated outwardly 5 lip vaulted,
perpendicular ; x inch wide. Indian and American
feas.
sieritoi- 2. P. ovate *, tip fubfpiral j lip lateral 5 lize of a
elta. cherry j inhabitant red.
JinenJis. * 3. P. fubconic, fmooth *, lip fomewhat lateral. Me¬
diterranean and Indian feas. On oyllers in Salcomb-
bay, Devonihire.
porcellana. 4. P. oval \ tip recurved j lip placed behind and
flattened. India and Goree.
fornicata. 3. P. oval, obliquely recurved behind \ lip placed
behind, and concave. Barbadoes, Mediterranean.
cculeata. 6. P. oval, brown, with prickly Hike ; crown re¬
curved. American illands.
trochifor- 7. P. conic, longitudinally plaited; internal lip
mis. lateral. Tranquebar and Falkland iflands.
auricula. 8. P. roundifh, with radiated grooves, and flriated j
crown recurved 3 internal cavity ear-ftiaped. Borneo,
Santa Cruz.
rugofa. 9. P. ovate, thin, obfoletely wrinkled tranfverfely 3
margin unequal ; lip unequally repand 3 above I inch
long. China. It is generally found on the buccinum
fpiratum.
goreenjts. 10. P. oval, flat, thin, white, gloffy, lamellated on
the outfide 3 5 to 6 lines in diameter. Rocks at Goree.
contorta. n. P. granulated with white, and fine perpendicu¬
lar, oblique ribs ; lip thin, oblique, and covering half
the cavity. Rare.
explanata. 12. P. white, finely ftriated 3 crown inclining down¬
wards and dilated, behind which the fliell is deprefled.
plicata. 13. P. conic, ochraceous, with ferruginous rays
within 3 with longitudinal, tranfverfely flriated plaits.
Jlriata. 14. P. white, conic, ftriated; grooves undulated 3
crown a little lateral.
folea. 15. P. twifted, pellucid, with ferruginous fpots 3
thinly plaited and tranfverfely grooved above 3 lip un¬
dulated, repand ; inch long.
echinata. x 6. P. conic, prickly 3 w ithin glabrous. Found
foflil near Crignon.
B. Margin angular, or irregularly toothed.
trepidula. 17. P. oval, flattilh, fmooth 3 lip femilunar, flat be¬
hind. Mediterranean.
taciniofa. 18. P. rays unequal, elevated 3 thicker and obtufe,
on the outfide. India. /
faccha- 19. P. angular, with 7 keel-lhaped, obtufe ribs. Ja-
rina. va and Barbadoes.
barbara. 20. P. toothed, with 19 elevated, vaulted, and mu-
ricated rays. Falkland iflands.
qranularis 21. P. toothed, with elevated, angular, imbricated
ftrise ; 2 inches long. Southern Europe, and Cape of
Good Hope. ,
O L O G Y. Chap. 11
2 2. P. angular, with numerous muricated ftriee
^ s' to 3 inches long. Jamaica, fouthern Europe.
* 23. P. with about 14 obfolete angles, and A\-vulgaia.\\
lated, acute, erenated margin 3 crown central 3 2
inches high. Marine rocks of Europe and India, Bri¬
tain.
* 24. P. oblong with about 14 angles ; crown lateral,
Rocks of Europe, Britain,
25. P. crenated, fubangular 3 Arise numerous, un cerulea
equal 3 beneath blue 3 blackilh, on the outfide. Me¬
diterranean.
26. P. conic, tubereulated 3 tubercles white, mtubercuX
rows 3 flightiy toothed 3 retufe behind, lata.
27. P. roundifti, pedlinated 3 rays imbricated, Xxa lepas,
berculated, and tranfverfely ftriated 3 crown incurved 3
2\ inches long. Chili, Falkland iflands.
28. P. oval, three-ribbed 3 white 3 ftriated at the tricofiai
. fides 3 internal margin flattilh, a little jagged. Indian
ocean. ^ J|
29. P. carinated, rounded on the fore-part, with mytilinX
undulaied ftrise3 brown and pearly within 3 hinder
margin crenated 3 1 inch long. South America.
30. P. toothed, oval, conic, fomewhat comprefled 3 ozwta.
ribbed 3 brown between the ribs 3 brown within, with
white grooves 3 9 lines long.
31. P. angular, ovate, depreffed 3 rays 10, eYzvaX-JleHatai
ed, with fhort, intermediate ribs 3 8 lines long.
32. P. folid, ovate, gibbous 3 unequally ribbed pcelaniil
glabrous within, with alternate, cinereous, and horny
rays 3 margin crenated 3 14 inch long. Shores of Ice¬
land.
32. P. oval, fubpellucid 3 ribs 16 to 20 3 tubercu-ry/m,
lated and foliaceous on the outfide 3 I to 3 inches long.
Shores of Cyprus.
34. P. ovate, a little gibbous, white 3 ribs 20 tocojlata.
40 3 keel-fhaped, crowded, unequal, tuberculated 5 2
inches long.
35. P. ovate, dufky 3 ribs fmooth, unequal, white,/rn’o/Ze'!
crow ded 3 crown ufually brown 3 1 inch long. ra.
36. P. a little rugged, white, with brown, flexuousy?nh/aZ
ftriae, branching outwards 3 2 brown fpots in the bottom
of the hollow.
37. P. convex 3 ribs II to 163 8 larger, tubercu-oJ?o-
lated 3 14 inch long. American iflands. radiata]
38. P. toothed 3 red under the brow n fkin, with rubra. J
elevated, rounded ftriae, and leffer imbricated ones 3 #
within white 3 x4 inch long.
39. P. ovate, gibbous, thin, toothed 3 liver-colour ;
ftriae elevated, keel-lhaped and obtufely fpined 3 crown
white 3 14 inch l6ng.
40. P. fubconvex, brown, with 12 larger rays,ZW/tf.
each furrounded by a rib, and as many leffer ones :
24 inches long.
41. P. flattilh, brown, with xc elevated ftriae 3 crownftfeefet*
of a dift’erent colour 3 bottom of a pale liver colour 3
fpatulated fpot, edged with glaucous and gold 3 inner
margin brown 3 2 to 3 inches long.
42. P. flattened 3 forepart narrow and rounded 3/wacfl/oj j
yellowilh, fpotted with brown 3 crown white 3 rays 10
or 11 equal, rounded, flat 3 4 to 1 inch long.
43. P. fuboval, flattened, varied wfith brown ; rihsrotundfr
flat, rounded 3 crown and bottom differently coloured ;
I to 2 inches long.
44* P* ovate, obfeurely edged with white 3 rzuhd-peBcn, I
ed.
457
<iap. IV. CONCH
ed, fh-ise dlftant, pectinated outwardly j crown gray ;
1 to 2 inches long. North America.
t ugala. 45. P- ovate, wrinkled, chefnut j crown with a white
circle 5 4- inch long.
K radi- 46. P. oval, brown, radiated with white on each
c fide •, ftrise elevated, pectinated 5 crown white ; bottom
yellowilh j % inch long.
c acea. 47- P- ovate, olive-coloured ; within brown varied
with white, with elevated unequal ftrioe 5 margin with
2 rows of unequal fpines j brown, pale yellow j
inch long.
C ’a. 48- P* ovate, wax-colour on both fides } perpendi¬
cularly ftriated $ ribs 13, flattened j bottom white 5
4- inch long.
i rejfa. 49> P. ovate, with ftrim elevated, tranfverfe, brown-
ilh j fpotted with white, and reaching half way down ;
crown with a white, imprefled circumference j and
3 brovnilh fpots j 4: inch long.
i antia. 50. P. ovate, folid, citron undulated with brown ;
llriae elevated, crowded, wrinkled j bottom white 5 I
inch long.
. \ulutn. 51 P. ovate, denticulated, cinereous, v ith three
black belts; within milk-white, wdth elevated, unequal
ftriae, nodulous on the outfide, and fpinous at the
margin 5 1 inch long 5 crown acute, reddilh or whitifti.
tlata. 52. P. ovate, white j ribs flattened, of unequal
lengths interflices brownilh; crown obtufe, with a
brown belt *, 4- inch l°ng*
r \ellani- 53. P. thin, ovate j margin knotty \ within pearly,
t with elevated chefnut ftriae ; crowm pointed, brown j
4 inch long. Straits of Magellan. .
i roleuca. 54. P. ochraceous, with three yellow bands, and
elevated, acute, unequal ftriae j crown white j 1 inch
high.
i lata. 55. P. white, denticulated *, ftriae unequal, elevated,
acute; crown furrounded with a double row of cinere¬
ous dots, &nd a dufky gray band y 1 inch long.
fi'ofa. 56. P. yellowq radiated with brown j ftriae unequal,
elevated, knotty j crown and bottom white j i-J inch
Jong.
1 irea. 57. P. toothed, cinereous j ftriae unequal, elevated \
interftices brown and rugged j crown pointed j milk-
white or filvery.
. Ibida. 58. P. whitifti, rays brownifti, and ftriae unequal,
elevated, rounded ; interftices rugged 5 crown obtufe,
• white, with a broad, interrupted brown band, and ano¬
ther marginal one ; 4 ^ong*
t 'cellata. 59. P. cinereous and brown, with decuffated ftriae,
and 2 rows of tubercles j crown yellowifti j bottom
with a fpatulated white fpot j 14 inoh long. Jamaica.
; >w. 60. P. rounded, fmooth, yellowifti, with a broad,
citron, marginal band, fpotted with brown, and ano¬
ther narrower one ; margin dilated, acute j crown va¬
ried with bluifti and white; i~ inch long.
\entea. 61. P. fmooth, thick, filvery $ rays 11, brown j
margin filvery : crown pale yellow j' bottom ivory,
with a double white ring •, 2 inches long. Very rare.
{ Wa. 62. P. white, with ftrong, rounded, brown ribs;
pearly within ; crown and bottom copper-coloured ; 2
inches long.
nda. 63. P. pale liver-colour on both fides ; ribs keel-
fliaped, alternately larger and lefs ; crown flat, white ;
inch long.
^rfl* 64. P. brown, glabrous above ; ftrise beneath ele-
Vol. VI. Part II.
O L O G Y.
vated, crowded, white; crown obtufe, white ; border
fulvous ; bottom fulvous ; 14 inch long.
6,5. P. yellowifh, varied with brown ; ribs unequal.y&z-ueo/h.
flattened ; crown obtufe ; bottom varied reddifti and
white ; x inch long.
66. P. denticulated, compreffed on each fide ; round- infundibu-
ed, yellow, perpendicularly ftriated ; ribs keel-ftiaped ; him.
bottom varied, white and cinereous; 14 inch long.
Rare.
67. P. rounded, glabrous,.white ; a fmall fhell. cyathus.
68. P. ovate, entirely yellow, with undulated grooves ^jinicr..
perpendicularly ftriated within ; margin fcalloped here
and there ; 3 inches long. China.
69. P. roundifti, w hite, with many coloured dots ;pun&ata.
radiated at the bafe, and furrounded with 2 brown
rings ; margin flexuous.
70. P. ovate, with annular ftriaj ; black with e\&- lugubris.
vated, unequal ftriae ; margin crenated; crown and
bottom white.
71. P. ovate, toothed, yellowifti, w ith elevated fat- ulyjfipo-
tened ftriae ; crown pointed, orange. Lifbon. naifis.
72. P. oblong, red, with elevated, unequal, white umbella.
ftriae ; margin crenated. Africa.
73. P. thin, pellucid, ftriated, blackilh wuth olive crenata.
rays; within glaucous or cinereous; crown pointed ;
margin crenated, bottom milk-white. Shores of Africa,
Malaga, Lilhon.
74. P. ferruginous, with angular or undulated rufletferruginea,
lines and cinereous belts ; within milk-white, with ele¬
vated, knotty ftriae ; crown pointed ; margin plaited.
75. P. oval, ochraceous, with elevated black fafa\melano-
within filvery, fpotted ; crown pointed, white, fmooth,<7
bottom with a ftraw-coloured fpot.
76. P. ovate, thin ; margin flexuous ; within favery, repanda.
with brownifti rays, and thin, undulated ftriae, with
bay granulations. Seas of Magellan.
77. P. oval, white, thinly ftriated, and vaned with
red fpots and dots ; margin with 8 angles.
78. P. oval, fmooth, poliflied, pellucid, ftriated withtigrina.
7 yellow ifh ribs ; bluifh olive dotted with brown ; mar¬
gin with 7 angles.
79. P. oblong, flattifh ; bay ftriated w ith white; monopis.
w ithin milk-white, with 11 elevated, unequal ftriae ;
crown rounded, white. American iflands.
80. P. ovate, toothed, brown dotted with green •yC/iloroJ}ic~
with 11 elevated, hollow, broader ftriae, and as many ta.
narrower ones ; crown white.
81. P. thin, white, unequally ftriated, within pear-OTflrgvjrz-
ly ; crown with an orange mark, furrounded with atacea.
yellow ring : margin crenated. Iceland.
82. P. oval, thin, ochraceous, with angular tenuijjinm.
nut lines, and 10 to 12 elevated, obtufe, hollow, un¬
equal ftriae.
83. P. folid, fubconic, tranfverfely plaited ; margin milrula.
flexuous. Barbadoes.
84. P. ovate, toothed, with 30 elevated, obtufe,
undulated, and tranfverfely wrinkled ftriae. Shores of
Magellan.
85. P. whitifh, obtufely pentangular ; margin cve-pentagona.
nated, dilated ; crown obtufe ; bottom reddifti.
86. P. ovate, tender, pellucid ; ftriae elevated ; ceneea.
crowm and bottom copper-coloured ; t4 inch long.
Straits of Magellan.
87. P. thin, oblong, ovate, with fine unfafata&conchacea.
3 M ftriae;
458 CONCH
ftriac 5 yellowifh with elevated dark rays j crown re¬
curved. South America.
Jlannea. 88. P. ovate, filvery j ftriae elevated, flattened; crown
obtufe, copper colour ; bottom with an oval bay mark ;
margin flexuous; I inch long.
candidijji- 89. P. fuborbicnl'ar ; ftriated ; white, with a brown-
dia. ifn band ; dotted with brown ; margin tranfverfcly
wrinkled.
C. With the tip or crown pointed and recurved.
hu Agaric a. * 90. P. entire, conic, pointed, ftriated, with a hooked,
revolute crown ; 2 inches high. America, Mediter¬
ranean, and Afiatic feas ; fhores of Britain.
imbricata. 91-, P* entire, oblong, imbricated ; the crown placed
behind.
mammel- * 92. P. entire, conic, ftriated, fubdiaphanous, with a
iaris. fmooth reflefted crown. Shores of the Mediterranean
and Africa, Britain.
tn'earinata 93. P. fubftriated, with 3 ribs on the forepart; Sw¬
indles high.
peBinata* 94. P. entire, ovate, with wrinkled,Hightly branched
ftriae; crown nearly central; 2 inches long. Medi¬
terranean.
lutea. 95. P. entire, oval, convex, ftriated, w ith a fubmar-
ginal, refledled, niucronate crown ; fize of a melon feed.
India.
crijlata. 96. P. crown revolute ; back crefted, keel-fhaped.
lacujlns. 97. p. entire, oval, membranaceous, with a central,
mucronate, refledled crown ; to 2-1 lines long. Frelh
waters of Europe, Britain.
Jluviatilis. 98: P. entire, oval, a little horny, with a marginal,
mucronate crown ; aperture oval; 2? lines long. Ri¬
vers of Europe, Britain.
cecca. 99. P. entire, with elevated dots and ftriated 3 crown
acute, ftraight. Bays of Norway, on ftones.
virginea. 100. P. entire, white, with 18 red bands. Bays of
Norway, on fuci.
teffelata. 101. P. entire, whitifh, teflfelated with red. Nor-
way, on rocks and fuci.
fulva. 102. P. entire, orange, with a mucronate and nearly
vertical crown. Norway.
fubfpiralis. 103. P. ovate, with an obtufe nearly fpiral tip.
Norway.
ambigua. 104. P. ovate; margin {lightly toothed; pointed re-
flefted, fomewhat acute. Norway.
rUbicunda. 105. P. entire, fubconic, fmoothifh, and reddifti;
24- lines long. Deeps of Greenland.
bormana. 106. P. ovate, entire, finely ftriated longitudinally ;
white with red veins; 6 lines long.
cahjptra. 107. P. entire ; ribs fomewhat imbricated ; crown
hooked ; margin finuated. North America.
melanoleu- 108. P. ftriated, entire, alternately black and white;
ca. 1 inch long.
peBuncu- 109. P. oblong, convex, (lightly toothed, within
lus. polifhed ; Arise knotty, elevated ; crown bent forwards;
I inch long.
fafewta. no. P. ovate, white, with a brown band; ftrice
elevated, acute ; margin dilated, crenated, and cinere¬
ous within ; 1 inch long.
etegans. 111. P. with decuflated ftriee, white radiated with
red ; denticulated ; crown gray ; 2 inches long.
fquamofa. 112. P. Arise elevated, and tranfverfely undulated
on the outfide ; brown, filvery towards the” margin ;
crown hooked and bronzed ; 3— inches long.
fqualida. 113. P. entire brown, whitifh within ; margin bluifh,
O L O G Y. Chap. 1
radiated with brown, with elevated, obfolete Arise; |
crown knotty.
114. P. imooth, fubangukr, yellow radiated wither^,
brown ; crown obtufe, white ; T inch long.
115. P. ovate fmooth, white on both Tides, with ^candidX
rofy belt on the outfide; crown lateral ; 4 inch long.
116. P. compreffed, convex in the middle, cancel-
lated, white, with a brownifh band on the outfide, and
margined within; crown marginal, obtufe; 4 inch
iong.
117. P. rounded, convex, thin ; whitifh with red fpots; tninimA
crown obtufe, white, marginal; -- inch long. Ferro
iflands.
118. P. ovate, thin, pellucid, with fine crowded
ftrise ; chefnut with white feales, within milk-white ^barita, 1
with a brown fpot at the bottom, and azure fpot on j
the crown. Tranquebar.
119. P. oblong, horny, very thin, pellucid, glabrous,
with a ferruginous bafe. Africa.
J 20. P. with decuflated grooves; thin, pale flefh-mvzzw, I
colour; aperture oblong. ' > j
121. P. entirely white, flat; point of the crownincumA
twifted.
122. P. oval, deprefled, brownifh, with green dotsJnterruM
difpofed in oblique, interrupted rays; crown with an
obtufe hook ; 1 inch long.
D. Entire, and not pointed at the tip or crown.
123. P. conic, ftriated, greenifh or pale brown;4/07,
■within white ; crown glabrous, white, obtufe; margin
glabrous. Illand of Goree.
124. P. conic, white, with brown rays marked with /uJitaniX
ftrise granulated with black ; crown acute, furrounded
with a chefnut ring ; very final]. Portugal, on the fea ||
rocks.
x 25. P. rounded, convex, gray, with decuftated ftrise I i
crown pointed, centra], and marked with 12 orange, ||
radiated lines ; bottom horny. Jamaica.
126. P. pyramidal reddifti gray, with thin, circn-areolatcY
lar ftrise crofted by longitudinal ones ; crown violet.
127. P. ovate, with fine annulated ftrise, reddiftiJlammeif
gray, with undulated brown rays; crown acute, cen¬
tral ; white in the middle.
128. P. reddifh gray, with radiated ftrise, glabrous, indies. -
narrower on one fide ; crown acute, fmooth, furrounded
with a reddifh ring ; 3^ inches long. India.
1 29. P. thick, fubovate, yellowifh, with black rays,Jurina- j
and longitudinal, unequal ftrise ; and furrounded with menjis. k
knotty belts; crown obtufe, fmooth, white. Suri¬
nam.
130. P. ovate, yellow; bafe unequally ftriated ;■wh?/7//<q
crown whitifh, obtufe.
131. P. ovate, convex, white, folid, with flexuous,yfr/Tfaw
elevated, longitudinal ftrise, intermixed with capillary Ze/z/ff.
ones; crown lateral, furrounded with a broad ring,
dotted with red. Africa.
132. P. ovate, yellow, within bluifh white, with oh- lavigatvi
lique flattened ftrise, alternately thicker and thinner;
crown white, fmooth, polifhed.
133. P. rounded, white, with many-coloured dots,punBuif*
radiated towards the bafe, and furrounded with 2 brown
rings.
* 134. P. entire, obovate, gibbous, pellucid, with a\[>cllucu<
blue rays; fize of a walnut. European and northern
feas, fhores of Britain.
135-
^iap
udina-
udina-
nprejfa.
'Oca.
ca.
ata.
tciata,
iculata.
\urata.
(lifer a.
dians.
'a,
ibeUata.
flulata.
•nmetri-
rina.
henjis,
mala,
ttata.
IV.
C O N C H
yor
is.
'itifortnis
ch/earis,
aticulata
'ueatata.
ipyracea.
(Undrica.
13jj. P. entiie, acute, fmoolb, glabrous. Indian and
North feas.
1^6. P- entire, ovate, ftriated ; crown obtufe, near¬
ly central j 14 lines long. Greenland feas.
137. P. entire, oval, oblong, llriated, fmooth ; com-
prefied on the back 5 14 inches long, India.
138. P. entire, conic, with 50 obtufe (trice ; three
inches long.
139. P. entire, ovate, obtufe, with 39 cinereous, fi¬
liform, elevated (trice.
140. P. entire, (triated, with a fubmucronate, ere&
crown ; within white, with a black, heart-(haped fpot,
white in the middle ) minute. Mediterranean.
141. P. entire, oval, fubconvex ; browm, with a
white crofs •, 1 inch long.
142. P. entire, conic, comprcfied, with reticulated
veins.
143. P. oval, entire, gilded; within iilvery, with
fomewhat imbricated (trite ; margin with plaited teeth.
Straits of Magellan, and Falkland iflands.
144. P. oval, entire, (triated ; black brown radiat¬
ed with white; within (livery. Friendly iflanas and
New Zealand.
145. P. entire, oval, pellucid, depreffed, (triated,
horny, and radiated with black fpots. NewT Zealand.
146. P. round i ih ; the infide 111 very ; the outfide
with reddilh (treaks, and a yellowifh border. Indian
and American feas.
147. P. entire, roundifh, diaphanous ; deprefied
with yellowifh rays within ; crown pale yellow ; mar¬
gin very acute ; 4 inches long. Indian ocean.
148. P. thin, oval, depreffed, radiated, white, dotted
with red ; within fmooth ; 6 lines long.
149. P. ovate, conic, folid ; brown divided into par¬
titions, by perpendicular white lines ; within fmooth,
white ; margin cut archwife ; 6 lines long.
150. P. ovate, convex, with fine decuffated ftrice ;
white, with two broad yellow bands ; within whitilh,
with a milk-white bottom ; crown brownifh ; near 2
inches long.
131. P. oval, with decuffated ftriae, longitudinal ones
alternately brown and white ; within pearly, with a
white bottom ; I \ inch long. Cape of Good Hope.
x ^2. P. coarfe brown, orbicular, with the crown
near the margin. Deeps of.the feas of Norway.
1 43. P. finely (Iriated and varied wuth dots of differ¬
ent colours ; bottom dufky ; 14 inch long.
154. P. glabrous, lead colour, with a white, horfe-
(hoe-fhaped band within ; 4 inch long. Ferro iflands.
135. P. oval, thin, black, with white perpendicular
flattened ftriae ; crowm gray ; bottom with a brownifh
fpot; not an inch long.
1 ^6. P. white, flattifh ; one part narrow-, channel¬
led within, with a bluifh callus, (haped like a horfe-
(lioe *, the other part rounded ; 1 to 2 inches long.
157. P. oval, thin, depreffed, cancellated, radiated ;
I to 14 inch long.
158. P. oval, convex, varied with red, and (lightly
toothed, with elevated, unequal rough ftriae ; 1 to 2
inches long.
1 59. P. depreffed, thin, hyaline, dotted with red,
with chefnut rays outwardly, and crowned thinner, and
granulated thicker ftriae ; an inch long. .
° 160. P. oval, flat, with crowded longitudinal ftrise,
of unequal thicknefs and all granulated ; an inch long.
G -L O G Y. 459
161. P. fomewhat convex ; white, with crowded rtdidecujfata.
dots ; within radiated with red and white, with decuffa¬
ted glabrous ftriae, and a few longitudinal, thicker,
white ones ; inch long.
162. P. thin, deprefled, white, dotted with veA \hefnatoJdic-
within brownilh, ftriated •, crown varied with cinereous/a.
and brovnifh ; near an inch long.
163. P. flattifh, cancellated, cinereous, with a chet-afleroides.
nut ftar, and rays towards the margin ; crown fmoothj
gray, furrounded with brown dots ; an inch long.
164. P. oval, fomewhat convex, thin; ftriae crowd-CTiff/fx.
ed ; gray, with blackifh rays and fpots ; an inch
long.
165. P. a little convex, ftriated, reddifli ; crown rubella.
whitifh, fpotted with red ; bottom whitiih ; i f- inch
long.
166. P. flattifh, a little wrinkled ; ftriated, reddiftifpecialaiis.
white, with a chefnut band towards, the crown, and
another bay one at the margin ; 3 inches long.
167. P. folid, flattifh, ftriated; black, w-ith cmQ-confpurca-
reous dots; within bluilh ; crown dirty yellow; two/tf.
inches long.
168. P. folid, fiattiih, ftriated; whitifh, with cine-^/flff^/h-
reous rays and black dots, difpofed in 5 or 6 belts
crown pointed and whitifh,
169. P. black, ftriated, with a paler crown; hoi-atra.
tom with a brow-nifh mark, furrounded with a white
horfe-fhoe-fhaped band ; inch long.
170. P. oval, convex, folid, glabrous; liver colourfpccularis,
within, and the crown brownifh ; the latter furround¬
ed w'ith a white border, and interrupted, whitifh
band.
171. P. oval, black, within bluifh, ftriated; ihecancftenu
larger ftriae flattened and gray ; crown obtufe, brown¬
ifh, with a whitifh area; 2 inches long.
172. P. oblong, flattifh, dilated on each fide znAvirefcens.
ftriated ; olivaceous, radiated, and fpotted with white;
within blue; if- inch long.
173. P. rounded, convex, longitudinally ftriated ox^Apulla.
tranfverfely wrinkled, brownifh ; within ruffet brown,
with whitifh and brownifh rays, and two milk-white
bands above ; 14 inch long.
174. P. fuboval, crenated, ftriated, ochraceous, withrevoluta.
red fpots and rays, broader on one fide ; margin revo-
lute ; an inch long.
173. P. ovate, convex, ftriated; the ftriae fcaly, vz-fquamata.
tied with white and black; erow-n gray, nearly central;
an inch long.
176. P. ovate, finely ftriated, teftaceous, with ^tejlaceq.
tranfverfe brownifh rings ; within pale yellow, with a
whitifh bottom ; an inch long.
177. P. ovate, thin, brown, with darker bands
and paler ftriae ; within brownifh ; crown and bottom
white ; 4 inch lung.
178. P. ovate, narrow-er on one fide, finely diviat-g/auca.
ed ; bluifh, with a white band towards the margin, and
another bluifh one ; crown and margin white ; 4 inch
lons- • . .
179. P. ovate, flattifh, ftriated; varied with yeh-obfeura.
lowifh and brow n, and dotted with green; within
brow-n ; crow-n bay ; fcateely 4 inch long.
180. P. oval, fubconvex, unequally ftriated; whitifh,
with a few black lines, reaching half way ; near an
inch long.
I 81. P. oval, flattifh, folid, with a few black rays,qffinis,
3 M 2 jcaching
460
CONCH
rotalis,
fufcata.
mellea.
anceps.
guineenfis
rompla-
nata.
virgata.
aivea.
parva.
fjjiira.-
fijjurella.
pujiuia.
gra-ca.
nimbofa.
nubccuia.
pin a.
bavbaden-
reac’ning half way \ bottom with a fpatulated white
fpotinch long.
* 182. P. white, opaque, flat, round j margin regu¬
larly toothed. Sandwich. Rare.
183. P. ovate, convex, finely ftriated and varied
with brown.
184. P. rounded, folid, glabrous, honey-colour;
white within; crown brownifh ; margin fpotted with
brown, and filvery within ; ^ inch long.
185. P. folid, glabrous, pointed, pale chefnut ; pale
flelh-eolour within.
186. P. ovate, convex, fmooth ; one fide broader
and chefnut; the other with the crown pale yellow ;
margin flefh-colour on each fide ; 4 inch long. Guinea.
Rare.
87. P. depreffed, hemifpherical; obfoletely can-
navicula.
cingulata.
faipha. '
cellated, varied with white and brownifh; margin
white on one fide.
188. P. ovate, longitudinally ftriated ; whitilh, with
brown rays and crown ; pearly within,
189. P. fubconic, folid, glabrous, fnowy; with 7
to 8 tranfverfe concentric rings; crown rounded; 4
lines wide. Africa.
190. P. oval, wdth crowded radiated grooves, po-
liihed within ; crown nearly central; an inch long.
Africa.
191. P. narrow, with decuffated ftrice ; rofy, with a
whitifh callous belt on one fide in the middle ; mar¬
gin acute, revolute on each fide ; an inch long.
192. P. fomewhat oval, obfoletely ftriated, ferru¬
ginous, with two elevated, obfcurely barred belts;
crown nearly central.
193. P. clear white, with undulated ftrise, narrow ;
broader fide with an acute callus ; narrower fide re-
pand; crown towards the narrower fide ; inch
long.
* 194. P. fmall, entire, without glofs, whitilh, faint¬
ly radiated with red ; rather larger than a pea. De-
vonfhire coafts. Very rare.
E. With the crown or tip perforated.
* 195. P. oval, conic, with reticulated ftriae ; cleft on
the fore-part; crown recurved ; \ inch long. Euro¬
pean and Barbary coafts, Devonlhire.
* 196. P. grooved and perforated on the fore-part ;
crown recurved ; 3^ lines long. Iceland feas, Falmouth
harbour.
197. P. oval, gibbous, convex, with reticulated ftriae ;
margin crenated; perforation near the pofterior margin.
Mediterranean and Indian feas.
* 198. P. ovate, convex, reticulated; crown not much
elevated ; perforation oblong; margin crenulated ;
length ^ inch. Foreign fpeeimens ij inch. European
feas, Sandwich.
199. P. ovate, ftriated, rugged, brown; perfora¬
tion oblong ; 2 inches long. Mediterranean and At¬
lantic,
200. P. fubovate, rugged, white radiated with red;
perforation ovate. Mediterranean.
201. P. ovate, folid, clouded white and green, with
oblique, undulated, alternate, violet and white rays ;
34 inches long. Sttaits of Magellan.
202. P. oblong, unequally ftriated ; within fmooth ;
milk-white with greenifh bands; margin crenated;
Chap. 1
a chefnut
O L O G Y.
perforation circular, and furrounded with
ring. Barbadoes.
203. P. whitifh, tranfverfely annulated with ^ongi-jatnaict
tudinal ftrise ; covered with foliaceous tubercles; per-yfr.
foration oblong. Jamaica and Barbadoes.
204. P. ovate, compreffed, ftriated ; finely annula-rw^,
ted, and radiated with black ; bottom milk-white;
perforation nearly central.
205. P. A little convex, tranfverfely wrinkled
brownifh, with ftrawr-coloured rays and fpots ; ftrise
longitudinal, and alternately larger and fcaly ; 14
inch long.
20C. P, oblong, comprefled, unequally ftriated \porphm
white, with 5 purple, interrupted belts; greenifh white •zoniat.
within ; perforation minute, furrounded on the infide
with a red circle. North America.
207. P. thinly ftriated with alternate rofy and white ro/ftf,
rays ; perforation oval, and furrounded with a red ring
on the infide. Minute.
2c8. P. repand on each fide, comprefled ; ^txioxz-fcutelk
tion radiated with grooves; from 1 to 14 inch long.
209. P. thin, white, and finely ftriated ; perforation oW/w,
oblong, and divided by a ligament.
210. P. ovate, convex, white ; ftrise elevated, tidcY-fpinofa.
er towards the margin, and marked Avith four rows of
tubercles ; exterior tubercles fpinous ; perforation ob-
long.
211. P. ovate, gibbous; whitifh, radiated withdenticuli
brown; green within ; ftriae elevated, fomewhat rug¬
ged, and alternately larger ; margin denticulated ; cre¬
nated within ; perforation in form of a parallelogram.
212. P. ovate, convex; ftriae elevated, knotty,
crofling thinner tranfverfe ones; within white ; crown
black.
213. P. depreffed, white ; Arise elevated, every t^hangujla,
of which is larger ; perforation narrow, furrounded Avith
a chefnut band on the outfide, and a green one Avithin ;
4 inch long.
214. P. ovate, convex ; ftrise decuflated ; perforation incequal
furrounded Avith an elevated ring and red line; 1 inch
long.
215. P. oval, pyramidal, reddifh, with 12 elevated W/zate.
white ftrise ; bottom white ; perforation oval and near¬
ly central.
216. P. ovate, convex, ftriated; yellowifh, with confpem
red dots and 3 oblique rays ; crowm central; perforation
linear.
217. P. oval, ftriated, reddifh, Avith a white band
in the middle; margin entire; perforation linear ; 1
inch long.
218. P. oval, thin, red; within greenifh 'tihhe',fanguin\
ftrise longitudinal, crofting finer tranfverfe ones, which
are rugged outwardly ; 4 inch long.
219. P. oval, ventricofe, Avith red decuflated ftrise
crowm deprefled ; perforation orbicular ; an inch long.
220. P. oval, flattifh, ftriated ; white, with 3 brown triradia
rays ; crown central ; perforation linear ; 4 iimh long.
221. P. pellucid, oval, a little convex ; longitudinal-
ly ftriated ; white, with 5 half brown rays ; perforation
Avith a cinereous margin ; not 4 inch long.
222. P. convex, rofy, with an interrupted black band, meiano%
and elevated, unequal, white ftrise; crown pointed ; nias,
perforation orbicular, and furrounded within Avith an
elevated gray ring inch long.
223. P.
n
,( ap'
W-
cea.
r tens.
d idiot a.
i so.
p imida-
/
l dor.
e 'hroce-
p la.
ucofa.
s n
< tami-
t 7.
i ita.
dicans.
t 'incla.
/ dla.
iefcens.
* iquata.
eata.
i donate.
IV. CONCH
223. P. convex, rofy, with elevated, knotty, -white,
and alternately larger iirise j perforation round and
large 5 i~ inch long.
224. P. convex, chefnut j ftriae unequal, -crowded,
decuffated j within fmooth, with alternate green and
white band? ; perforation round, furrounded with a
chefnut ring, and an elevated white one within ; above
an inch long.
225. P. convex, white fhaded with red j here and
there ftriated with red j within fmooth, white} perfo¬
ration oval.
226. P. convex, above clear white, and cancellat¬
ed ; longitudinally ftriated towards the margin, with
a rofy band •, perforation orbicular j an inch long.
227. P. convex, white j ftriae glabrous, acute, un¬
equal ; crown rofy j perforation large, orbicular } an
inch long.
228. P. convex, rofy, ftriated-, ribs 12, fmooth j
w ithin fmooth, and greenifh white $ one and one-fourth
of an inch long.
229. P. narrow, alternately radiated with chefnut
and white; ftriae unequally thick, lamellated j margin
inflefted ; perforation oblong 5 l-J inch long.
230. P. convex, w'hite, with red lines outwardly,
and elevated, rugged, contrary ftriae 10 of them
larger j margin repand, infleded j crown reddithj
inch long.
231. P. above brown, ftriated, terminated by a
knotty belt j beneath radiated with red, with acute,
knotty ribs j perforation orbicular j three-fourths of an
inch long.
232. P. convex, with nodulous, unequal ribs-, lar¬
ger ones yellowifti brown, and marked with black dots,
difpofed in interrupted circles 5 crown cinereous ; per¬
foration furrounded udthin with an elevated, grafs-co-
loured ring, and a brown circle.
233. P. a little convex, narrow, white, with red
lines 5 outwardly fpotted with black, with elevated,
convex, unequal ftriae j perforation oblong, with a
chefnut margin within, with a reddilh ring j ^ inch
bng.
234. P. white, chefnut tow-ards the margin, with
20 alternately larger ribs j crown reddilh, w ith an ob¬
long perforation j near an inch long.
235. P. ovate, pointed, white j above fmooth, with
an elevated belt in the middle $ dotted with ferrugi¬
nous towards the margin -, with elevated, unequal,
fmooth ftrias j perforation narrow-, orbicular ; \ iuch
lonS*
236. P. flattilh, white, fuborbicular, with 20 ele¬
vated, alternately lefs and Ihorter ftriae, perforation
round, and furrounded on each fide with a reddilh cir¬
cle j iriC'h long.
237. P. thin, effufe, pointed, finely ftriated, yel-
lowilh, with 6 brown rays ; crown cinereous j perfo¬
ration oblong.
238. P. convex, obfoletely ftriated, and furnilhed
with concentric, imbricated wrinkles 5 perforation oval,
or nearly round } 4 inch diameter.
239. P. folid, ovate, compreffed -, within white j
crown a little recurved, and obtufej perforation linear j
6 lines long.
240. P. convex, with decuffated lines and black
rays. Falkland, i Hands.
O L O G Y. 461
6*
Gen. 33. Dentaliom, Tooth-fhell. Dentolium,
Gen. Char,—The animal a terebella xhell univalve,
tubular, ftraight or (lightly curved, with an undi¬
vided cavity open at both ends.
Species.
1. D. witli 10 ribs, fiightly curved and ftriated; ^elepTianti-
inches long. Indian and European feas. num.
2. D. with 10 ribs, fmooth, and {lightly curved.
Indian feas.
3. D. ribbed, curved, fubulate, of one colour,arcuatum,
greenilh.
4. D. with 8 ribs and 8 ftriae, pointed} green, Ci^-Jlriatulum.
ped with w hite. Sicilian feas. \_lum.
D. ribs 6, ftriated. Found folfil at Loretto. fexangu-
6. D. with 20 ftriae, flightly curved, interrupted ',dentalis*
red, tipt with white. Mediterranean.
7. D. finely ftriated, flightly curved ; gray, vAthfafcialum.
darker bands j thicknefs of a crow quill. Sicily.
8. D. ftraight, doubly or triply ftriated, and annu-reElum.
lated.
9. D. roundilh, fomew hat obtufe j finely and equally/^?/?,
ftriated. Foflil near Lofetto.
10. D. round, obliquely ftriated. Found foflil. annulatutrt.
11. D. flightly curved, fomewhat obtufe j ftriae de- radulc.
cuffated, longitudinal ones granulated j an inch long.
Found foflil in Piedmont.
1 2. D. ftriaa decuffated, all of them fmooth -, looge-interrup-
tudinal Arise with finer interrupted ones. Found foflil/aw.
in Piedmont.
13. D. round, flightly curved, continued, vilddapolitum.
crowded, annular ftriae j 14 inch long. Indian and
European feas.
14. D. white, fmooth, round, flightly curved, \i\,Co.ehurneum,
remote rings. India.
* 15. D. round, flightly curved , fmooth, gloffy, lu-enta/is.
pering to a fmall point 5 pervious 5 I ~ inch long. In¬
dian and European fhores; weftern coafts of Eng¬
land.
16. D. round, curved, continued and fmooth.arietinum.
Scandinavia.
17. D. round, flightly curved, interrupted, opaque;roraraw.
inch long. African ocean.
18. D. curved, very fmooth, white, with iulvomnebu/ofum,
clouds and fpots. Sicily.
19. D. horny, flexile, ftraightifh, round and fmooth ’7pellucidum.
24 inches long. North leas.
20. D. hyaline, glabrous, fiightly curved, and ta-Wf/v*/#,
pering gradually} 4 "‘nc^ l°ng- Found foflil in Pied¬
mont.
21. D round,, ftraightilh, fmooth, minute j not minulurn.
larger than a brittle. Mediterranean.
* 22. D. white, opaque, tranfverfely ftriated and im-f/v/er/o/ j-
perforated } minute. Sandwdch, Falmouth harbour, turn.
* 23. D. lubpellucid, fubarcuated, tapering to a fmallgadus.
point 5 pervious, contl afting a little towards the larger
end j white, gloffy, and fmooth. Britilh channel 3
called by the mariners hake's tooth. It is frequently
brought up with the founding line.
* 24. D. fubcylindrical, arcuated, marked with regu-trachea,
lar, ftrong, tranfverfe Arise j. aperture round, tapering
to
. !
462 C O N C f
to the ulher extremity, vlueh is clofed ; -J inch long,
refenibles the trachea of an animal. Milton, Devou-
Ihire. Rare.
giabrum. * 25. D. cylindric, arcuated, fmooth, gloily, without
ftriae or wrinkles j aperture orbicular ; the other end
clbfed, rounded j length one line. Dej'onlhire coalt.
Montagu, TeJI, Brit. p. 497.
Serpula. Gen. 34. SerPULA.
Gen. Char.—The animal a terebella 5 fliell univalve,
tubular, generally adhering to other fubilanees ; of¬
ten feparated internally by entire divifions at unequal
diftances.
Species.
nautiloideS',* 1. S. flattilh, minute, confluent, verrucofe, fpiral,
with very thin, internal, feniilunar divifions. Seas of
Norway, and on the byflus of the pinna ingens on the
coafl of Devonlhire.
feminulum. 2. S. regular, oval, loofe, glabrous, not larger than
a grain of land. Adriatic and Red feas j and is fome-
times found foflil.
planorbis. 3. S. orbicular, regular, flat, equal \ refembles a
round fcale j adheres to {hells.
fpirillum. * 4. S. regular, fpiral, orbicular j whirls round, gra¬
dually deerealing. Found in the ocean, on zoophytes,
on the corallina officinalis from Milton rocks, Devon-
fhire.
Jpirorbis. * 5. S. regular, fpiral, orbicular; whirls (lightly chan¬
nelled above and inwardly, and diminilhing gradually
towards the centre. Found in molt feas, adhering to
fuci. Shores of Britain.
Iriqueira. * 6. S. ftrong, opaque, irregularly twilled and con¬
torted 5 triangular <, 4 to 1 inch long. Found in the
ocean, adhering to marine fubflances, ftones, and the
bottoms of Ihips. Coafts of Britain.
%Htricata. * 7. S. filiform, rough, and intricately twilled j green-
ilh w’hite, a little rugged and coarfe. European and
Indian feas j fhores of Britain, on {hells.
filograna. 8. S. capillary, fafciculated, unbranched complica¬
tions, and cancellated 5 forms a beautiful kind of net¬
work ; 4 inches long. Mediterranean.
granulata. 9. S. round, fpiral, glomerated 5 3 elevated ribs on
the upper fide ; fize of a coriander feed. North feas,
in malfes adhering to fliells and Hones.
contortu- * 10. S. angular, rugged, and irregularly entwined ;
plicata. tranfverfely ftriated 5 3 to 4 inches long. European
and American feas j Ihores of Britain.
glomerata. 11. S. round, glomerated, with decuiTated wrinkles.
European and Atlantic feas.
himbrica- 12. S. round, flexuous, with a fpiral, acute tip ;
Us. tranfverfely ribbed, and longitudinally wrinkled 5 3 to
5 inches long. Atlantic and Indian feas, in large
malfes.
polythala- 13. S. round, diaphanous, fmooth, ftraightiflr, with
mia. numerous internal divifions. Mediterranean and In¬
dian feas, under the fands.
arenaria* 14. S. jointed, entire, difiinct, flattilh beneath. In¬
dia and Africa.
anguina. 15. S. roundilh, fomewhat fpiral, with a longitudi¬
nal, jointed cleft. Indian ocean.
vermicu- * 16. S. round, tapering, curved, wrinkled 5 2 to 3
larifo inches long. European leas > coafts of Britain.—The
animal which inhabits this (hell is of a bright fcarlet
2
i O L O G Y. Chap. R |
colour, and is furnilhed with elegant feathered tenta-
cula, from the midft of which arites a trumpet-lhaped
tube, and a Idler Ample one.
17. S. Wateririg-pot; round, ftraight, taper, with tspenis
dilated, radiated, larger extremity j the diic is cover¬
ed with cylindrical pores j 3 to 5 inches long. Indian
ocean.
18. S. roundilh, flexuous, rofy, with numerous rowsechinata *■
of prickles, ebtuie at the end j aperture margined; fize
of a crowr quill.
19. S. browm, roundilh, ftriated. Indian ocean, ad-emw,
hering to corals.
20. S. polilhed, fmoothilh, with annulated plaits, a pro ten fa
little tapering towards the end ; fize of a quill. In- ’ k
•dian and American feas.
21. S. round, with decuflated ftrke, llightly vrink- decuJfaiQ k
led, flexuous, red 5 within fmooth, white.
22. S. fmooth, white, the broader part ftraight, vendprobofciA (;
tranfverfely plaited ; 2 to 4 inches long. dea.
23. S. fubftriated, yellowilh brown, round, twilledafra. j
into 3 whirls, with a central tip.
24. S. long, narrow, round, Imooth, yellowilh j many cereolus.
times twilled. America.
25. S. conic, fpirally twilled, yellowilh, with brown cornuco[>,
bands j the middle round and twilled j aperture orbi- ,
cular.
26. S. round, cancellated, yellow, within horny j 8goreenfu.
to 9 inches long. Goree.
27. S. triangular, twilled, tuberculated, with hollow intejim\ ;
dotsy 8 to 9 inches long. Africa.
28. S. round, white, tranfverfely ftriated, and thrice infunUh\|
twilled 5 the firft turn, fcemingly compofed of 5 fun- turn.
nels placed in each other. Indian ocean j fixed to
ftonesi
29. S. cinereous, convex above) beneath flat j pyramids j
midal, and many times twilled ^ an inch long j open its.
at the narrower end. Indian fea.
30 S. white, round, fubulate, ftraight, and XooXhtddenticulat
at the fides 5 with a longitudinal, glabrous rib in the/#,
middle j tip glabrous, a little incurved j | inch long.
Found in the lepas tintinnabulum.
31. S. roundilh, twilled, umbilicated, with decuiTated melitenfi 11
ftrim, and longitudinal, knotty ribs 5 within fmooth,
with numerous divilions. Found foflil in Malta.
32. S. roundj fmooth, incurved j bafe nearly obfo- norwem
lete, undulated j mouth obliquely truncated. Nor¬
way.
33. S. round, fmooth, polilhed, afeending in a dexxs-porrefio* 1
ous manner from the fpire or bafe.
* 34. S. round, regular, fpiral, orbicular, wrinkled, viirea. i
with a thickened aperture. Greenland feas; Ihores
of Britain.
35. S. fpiral, glomerated, with three grooves, Cat cancellat i
lower interrupted by tranfverfe ribs $ aperture 2-tooth- .
ed. Greenland feas.
36. S. fub-orbicular, umbilicated, convex, radiatedy7MW/. I
with wrinkles. Greenland feas.
37. S. fomewhat triangular, and a little flexuous,giganteaX
gradually tapering, violet ; within fmooth and pale
yellow ; aperture white, with undulated ftrias, and arm¬
ed with a conic tooth; a foot high, and as thick as the
little finger. Africa and America.
38. S. filiform, glabrous, conglomerated, perforated. j
Shores of Maffilia.
-39- S.
CHap.
Julcaia.
ovalis-
rejlexii.
cornea.
bicornis.
perforata.
laBea.
lagm.
retorta.
incunata.
IV.
CONG H
*39. S. whirls 2, deeply and fpirally grooved ; green-
ifh \ minute. Coaft of Pembrokdlurej on the roots of
fucus digitalis.
* 40. S. fuboval, with 2 bends, imperforated j minute.
Found at Denbigh, *
* 41. S. regular, rounded j margin reflected at the a-
perture 5 minute. Pembrokefhire fands.
* 42. S. regular, rounded, pellucid, with three whirls j
horny. Pembrokeihire coaft.
* 43. S. femilunar, ventricofe, white, opaque, glolfy y
minute. Sandwich and Reculver.
* 44. S. white, opaquS, gloffy j femilunar and perfo¬
rated ; minute. Sandwich. Rare.
* 45. S. oval, thin, fmooth, pellucid, with milky veins j
minute. Sandwich ; very rare.
* 46. S. round, ftriated, grooved, with a narrow neck,
like an oil llalk minute. Sandwich and Sheppey.
* 47. S. rounded, margined, with a {lender recurved
neck. Sandwich } rare.
* 48. S. ftraight, with 3 clofe whirls at the fmaller
end j minute. Sandwich.
Teredo. Gen- 35- TEREDO.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a terebella, with two cal¬
careous, hemifpherical valves, cut off before, and
two lanceolate ones 3 the {hell tapering, flexuops,
and penetrating wrood.
Species.
1. T. Ship-worm; fliell thin, cylindrical, fniooth 5
more or lefs twifted 3 rather obtufe at the tip 3 4 to 6
inches long.
At the fmaller end the {hell becomes thick and
ftrong, and is furnidied within with plaits or laminae,
which contra61 that part, leaving a very fmall opening.
The anterior valves.attached to the head of the animal,
are of a.hemifpherical form, one half of the front pro-
jefling in a fharp angle, and fomewhat pointed. The
infide of each valve is white, furnifhed with a long,
fiat, curved tooth, projefting inwards, under the hinge,
arnia ihort lateral tooth at the extremity of the hinge,
correfponding in each valve. The margin oppofite the
hinge runs to an acute angle, at the point of which, in
each valve, is a fmall knob, which comes in contact when
the valves are brought together. Near the extremity
ot the tail there are twm valves, one on each fide 3 a
little concave on the infide, and rounded at the end.
Ry their, means the extremity of the tube at the thick¬
ened part is clofed. Thefe are properly to be confider-,
ed as die (hell of the animal, becaufe they are attached
to it. The tube, or teftaceous {heath, which lines the
hole made in the wood, appears only to be formed as an
apartment, in which the animal may move with more
cafe; for it is found that two tubes never come in im¬
mediate contaff with each other, although the fibres
of the wood between them are frequently no thicker
than paper. This tube is feldom fo long as the animal 3
the internal part of the perforation is ufually not lined
‘"’itn it for the fpace of 2 inches, and fometiracs more 3
but the fmaller end is always even with the furface of
the timber which is perforated ; but fo fmall, as not
eafily to be difeovered, yet it is fufficient to admit the
water, which is regulated by the pofterior valves of the
animal.
is found in the fides and bottom of {hips, and even
O L O G Y. 463
the ffrongeft oak, which has been forrte time underwa¬
ter. This teffaceous animal was originally a native of
the warmer climates, and was brought to Europe,
wnere it has been produced, and has proved extremely
dertruflive to the bottoms of {hips, and to works con¬
tinued of wood, which remain for fome time conftant-
ly underwater. It appears, from fome piles of folid
oak which were examined in the dock-yard of Ply¬
mouth, and which had remained under water for about-
four or five years, that the deftruclive effefts of thefe
animals are very great in that time 3 for thefe piles were
found to be greatly perforated, which rendered it ne-
cefliry to remove them, and replace them with others.
I he. bottoms of {hips which frequent warm climates, it.
is well known, are iheathed with copper, to fecure them
irom the effefts of thele defiruftive animals. But the
method which is adopted about the dock-yards to pre-
ferve the timbers which are conftantly under water, is
to cover them with broad-headed nails 3 which, by the
efiefts of the fea water are- foon incrulled with a coat-,
ing of rult, which is found to be impenetrable to the
{hip-worm.
It has been obferved that the teredo navalis cuts a-
crofs the grain of the wood as feldom as poffihle. After
it has penetrated a little way, it turns and continues
with the grain, till it meets with another fiiell, or a
knot in the wood. T he courfe which it then takes is
regulated by the nature of the obftruflion. If this be
confiderable, it makes a fiiort turn back in the form of
a fyphon, rather than continue for any difiance acrofs
the grain.
2. T. folid, cylindrical, undulated 3 7 inches long, utricular.
In wood.
3. T. clavated at one end, incurved at the other \ clava.
narrower, obtufe and perforated in the middle ; 2
inches long. Found in the feed-Veffels of the xylofteum
granatum.
Gen. 36. Sabella. Sabefi.
Gen. Char.—The animal a nereis, with a ringent month,
and two thicker tentacula behind the head 3 {hell tu¬
bular, compofed of particles of fand, broken {hells,,
and vegetable fubftances, united to a membrane by
a glutinous cement.
Species.
1. 'S. folitary, loefe, curved, with Jentiform, glofiy grn-fernpo/a,
nulations; thicknefs of a fwan’s quill. India and A-
merican ifiands.
2. S. folitary, fixed by the bafe, fimple, curved, withfcabra.
radiated, rough granulations. America.
* 3- S- numerous, parallel tubes, communicating by dheolata,
an aperture, forming in the mafs the appearance of
honey combs 3 2 to 3 inches long. European coafis
Britain.
* 4. S. folitary, fubcylindrical, papyraceous, chryfodon,
compofed of fragments of {hells, thicknefs of a quill 3
2 to.6 inches ItfUg. European and Indian feas, (bores
of Britain.
* S' S- ftraight, conic, compofed of minute particles uibelgica.
fand 3 2 to 3 inches long. European eoafts, {hores of
Britain.
6 S. brown, with alternate white and black rings \re3angukt
ftraight, with a reffangulargibbous extremity 3 9 inches
long.
7, S-.
4J.
CONCHOLOG Y.
capenjis.
nigra.
Jlagnalis.
comca.
uncmata.
f 7
nni
'lofa.
vegetabi/is.
ammoniata
helicina.
dimidiata.
Jixa.
clavata.
coriicalis.
arundina-
cea.
aculeata.
marfupia-
lis.
norwegica,
lumbr ica-
iis.
incfica.
arenaria.
fubcylin
drica.
fetiformis.
7. S. cylindrical, conic, open at both ends; membra¬
naceous ; rough, with interrupted, tranfverfe ftriae.
Cape of Good Hope.
8. S. cylindrical, black, fmoothith on the outfide;
compofed of minute particles of fand ; 4 inch long.
Rivulets of i huringia.
9. S. ftraight, tapering, open at both ends; fmooth,
with a margined aperture, compofed of very minute
particles of land. Rivers of Thuringia.
10. S. narrow, conic, fmooth, ftraight, cinereous;
with a blackifh open tip, compofed of very minute par¬
ticles of fand ; not 4 inch long.
11. S. fmooth, round, tapering, with an open hooked
tip ; 4 inch long. Rivers of Thuringia.
12. S. cylindrical, clofed at the tip, fubelavated, per¬
forated, and compofed of larger grains of fand ; not an
inch long. Thuringia and Belgium.
13. S. depreffed, compofed of fragments of twigs,
Rems and bark, and broken pieces of the tellina cor¬
nea ; an inch long. Waters of Thuringia.
14. S. polygono-cylindrical, within fmooth, compo¬
fed of fragments of cornu ammonis. Rivers.
15. S. round, within fmooth, compofed of fragments
of the helix pulilla ; an inch long. Stagnant waters of
Thuringia.
16. S. one part of the {hell compofed of fand or gra¬
vel, the other thicker, clavated, and compofed of frag¬
ments of {hells. Waters of Thuringia.
17. S. compofed of fmall {tones; tapering towards
the tip ; an inch long ; affixed to {tones in the water,
and open at the fide by which it is fixed. Thurin-
gia.
18. S. compofed of fmall {tones; the open end cla¬
vated, and confilting of larger Rones ; folitary. Thu¬
ringia.
19. S. compofed of pieces of bark, towards the end
of broken Items.
20. S. fubconic, open at both ends, compofed of frag¬
ments of the bark of reeds, placed on each other; an
inch long.
* 21. S. compofed of fmall twigs, the points of which
project a little ; an inch long. Thuringia, Bri¬
tain.
22. S. black ; open end cylindrical and narrower, the
other part tinged and ovate ; 2 inches long.
23. S. roundiffi, open at both ends, brittle, membra¬
naceous ; compofed of very minute grains of fand ; 4
inches long. Norway.
24. S. coarfe, creeping, fragile, open at both ends;
the animal not furniihed with tefltacula at the mouth ;
body pricky, jointed. Deeps of the Greenland feas;
fixed to Rones.
25. S. cylindrical, compofed of capillary, fub-
cylindrical, agglutinated cryfials of quartz. Indian
ocean.
* 26. S. extremely fragile, cylindrical, compofed of
pure fand, Rightly cemented together, without any in¬
ternal membrane ; fize of a raven’s quill; from 1 to 2
inches long. Dorfetfliire coaR. Montagu.
* 27. S. long, fubcylindric, Render, fragile, compofed
of fine fand, and minute bits of broken {hells, cemented
together on a fine membrane ; 3 inches long. Salcomb-
bay. Montagu.
* 28. S. long, Render, gradually tapering to the lower
end, compofed of fine fragments of {hells, and minute
Chap. W
flat bits of Rones, cemented together at their edges; 3
to 4 inches long. Salcomb bay.—Some have been ob-
ferved with a lateral branch near the fmaller end, which
is fuppofed to be a young one. Montagu. -
* 29. S. fmall, ffiort, compofed of fand and minute bits curia,
of flat Rones, agglutinated to a tough membrane; fize
of a crow quill; an inch long. Inlet near Kings-bridge.
This fabella is gregarious, covering the whole furface
of the fi»ore, appearing like bits of flraw covered with
mud. Montagu.
* 30. S. fliort, broad, and very flat, compofed of large
fragments of flat, bivalve {hells, placed with the con¬
cave fide inwards ; 14 inch long. Deeps at Torcrofs,
Devonffiire.
Number of Species included under each Genus, in the Emimera
tion of th
fpecies.
preceding Clofjification.
I. Multivalves.
Genera.
1. Chiton,
2. Lepas,
2. Pholas.
II. Bivalves.
4. Mya,
5. Solen,
6. Tellina,
7. Cardium,
8. Ma61ra.
9. Donax,
10. Venus,
11. Spondylus,
1 2. Chama,
13. Area,
14. ORrea,
15. Anomia,
16. Mytilus,
17. Pinna,
III. Univalves.
18. Argonauta,
19. Nautilus,
20. Conus,
21. Cyprea,
22. Bulla,
23. Voluta,
24. Buccinum,
25. Strombus,
26. Murex,
27. Trochus,
28. Turbo,
29. Helix,
30. Nerita,
31. Haliotis,
32. Patella,
33. Dentaliuxn,
34. Serpula,
35. Teredo,
36. Sabella,
Total number of fpecies,
Species.
29
33
12
74
31
24
94
52
27
21
4
25
43
136
5*
65
18
 743
-i8s-
2672
Species
I
Dip
If : Con-
i jent
] tsof
51 s, &c.
■6
•0 Ifoflii.
V.
CONCHOLOGY,
Species of Shells which have been found in the FoJJil
State.
Lepas Anferifera.
Cardium Lithocardium. Only found foflil.
Venus Caflina.
.. . - Mercenaria. Mountains of Sweden.
.. -— Imbricata. France.
Chama Foliacea. Campania.
Arc A Foflilis. Limbourg.
  Nucleus.
Ostrea Diluviana. Sweden.
■ Mytiloides. Alface.
. Torta. Alface.
Anomia Craniolaris.
—— Gryphus.
   Pe£ten.
  Striatula. Exifts only foifil.
   Reticularis.
 —- Plicatella. Only foflil.
- ..-i —■ Crifpa. England and Switzerland.
  Lacunofa. Only foflil.
——— Cufpidata. Derbyftiire.
   ■ Farfta. Switzerland.
- ■ Terebratula.
■  Angulata.
-   — Hyfterita. Germany.
. .■ Biloba. Only foflil.
- Spinofa. England.
 - Dor fat a.
-  Sandalium. Germany.
Nautilus Helicites.
   Lituus.
  Orthocera.
   Belemnita.
Voluta Foflilis. Only foflil.
Buccinum Foflile. Germany.
 Marginatum.
Strombus Spinofus. Only foflil.
   Fiflurella. Campania.
■  Sinifter. Foflil only. Helvetia.
Murex Triacanthus.
. Triptenus. Campania.
 Coftatus. Campania.
■ ■ Laevigatus. Campania.
   Foflilis. Campania.
. — Campanicus. Campania.
Trochus Schrosteri. Campania.
Nerita Clathrata. Campania.
... —. Perverfa. Only foflil.
Haliotis Perverfa.
 Plicata.
Patella Echinata.
Dentalium Sexangulum. Loretto.
   Foflile. Loretto.
■ ■I ■ ■— Annulatum.
 Radula. Piedmont.
  — Interruptum.
 Vitreum. Piedmont.
Serpula Seminulum.
 Melitenfis. Malta.
CHAP. V. OF THE CONSTITUENT PARTS OF SHELLS, &c.
465
Of the Con-
ftiment
Parts of
Shells, &c.
HAVING in the former chapter enumerated, under
each genus, all the fpecies of teftaceous animals which
have been hitherto difcovered 5 and having given the
charafteriftic marks by which each is diftinguilhed,
which marks are derived from the fliell or teftaceous
covering ; we now propofe to inquire what is the na¬
ture of this fubftance 5 in what way it is produced by
the animal, and how it is enlarged as the animal in-
creafes in fize. Thefe topics fhall be the fubjeft of
the prefent chapter, which may be conveniently divid¬
ed into the following feftions. 1. Of the conftituent
parts of fhells. 2. Of their formation. 3. Of the
colours of fhells. 4. Of the formation of the umbilicus
and protuberances, &c. 5. Of the pearl.
SECT. I. Of the ConJHtuent Parts of Shells.
The nature and component parts of teftaceous fub-
ftances have been particularly inveftigated by Mr Hat-
( Tranf chett, from whofe paper we ex trail the following ob-
? ' fervations.
1; i07nsof In his examination of marine fhells, Mr Hatchett
1 from found, from the nature of the fubftance of which they
1 com- are compofed, that they might be arranged in two di-
^ !t vifions. Under the firft are included thofe which have
a porcellaneous appearance and enamelled furface, and
exhibit, when broken, fomething of a fibrous texture.
The other divifion is diftinguifhed, by having a ftrong
epidermis or covering, under which is the fhell, com¬
pofed principally or entirely of mother-of-pearl. To
Vol. VI. Part II.
the firft divifion belong different fpecies of voluta, cy-
prsea, and others. The fecond comprehends the oyf-
ter, the river muflel, and fome fpecies of haliotis and
turbo. 68
Porcellaneous Jhells.—The fhells of this defcription Porcelkne-
which were examined, were different fpecies of volu- ous’
ta and cypraea. When they were expofed to a red
heat for a quarter of an hour, they crackled, and loft
the colours of their enamelled furface. No apparent
fmoke, and no fmell, like that of burnt horn or carti¬
lage, were emitted during the procefs. The figure
remained the fame, excepting a few flaws 5 and they
became of an opaque white, partially tinged with pale
gray. When they were diffolved in acids, after being
burnt, they depofited a fmall quantity of animal coal,
which proves that they contain fome portion of glu¬
ten. Shells which had not been expofed to the fire,
difiblved with great effervefcence in the different acids j
and the folution remained tranfparent and colourlefs j
from -which it appears, that the proportion of gluten
is fmall, fince it could not be traced in the folution of
the unburnt fhells.
In examining the different folutions of (hells, whe¬
ther burnt or unburnt, by chemical tefts, it wras found,
that no trace of phofphate of lime, or of any other
combination of phofphoric acid, exifted in thefe fub-
ftances. And it appeared frorp many experiments, that
the component parts of porcellaneous (hells, are car¬
bonate of lime, cemented with a very fmall portion of
animal gluten.
Some
466
C O N C H 0 L Q G Y.
69
Mother of-
peari.
Of the Con- Some fpecies of patella, which were brought from
Parts of ^adeira, were alfo fubjefted to chemical examination,
Shells, &c. ^7 t1ne ^ame philofopher. When expofed to a red heat in
v—a crucible, they emitted a perceptible fmell of horn or
feathers ; and by farther examination, by folution, the
proportion of carbonic matter depofited appeared to
be greater, and the proportion of carbonate of lime left,
than what was indicated by the refult of the experi¬
ments on porcellaneous fhells. When unburnt Ihells
belonging to the fame fpecies, were immerfed in nitric
acid very much diluted, the epidermis feparated, and
the whole of the carbonate of lime was diffolved. A
gelatinous fubftance, nearly in a liquid date, remain¬
ed, but it did not retain the figure of the Ihell, and ex¬
hibited no appearance of a fibrous flruflure. Thefe
Ihells, therefore, contain a larger portion of gelatinous
matter than the porcellaneous Ihells, but the other com¬
ponent part confifts entirely of carbonate of lime.
Shells compofed of mother-of-pearl,—Shells of this
defeription were fubje&ed to fimilar experiments with
the former. When the common oyller was expofed to
a red heat, the effe&s were the fame as thofe which
were produced by the fame procefs on the fpecies of
patella from Madeira. The folution of the Unburpt
Ihell was alfo fimilar, excepting only that the gelatin¬
ous part was of a greater confiftency. When the river
muffel was burnt in a crucible, it emitted much fmoke,
with a ftrong fmell of burnt horn or cartilage ; the
(hell became of a dark gray colour, and exfoliated. By
folution in the acids,, the proportion of carbonic matter
feparated was greater, and that of carbonate of lime
obtained was lefs, than from the other Ihells on which
experiments were made.
When an unburnt fhell of this defeription was im-
merfed in diluted nitric acid, a rapid folution and effer-
vefcence took place j and at the end of two days, the
whole of the carbonate of lime was nearly diffolved.
A feries of membranes now only remained, of which
the epidermis conftituted the firft. Thefe membranes
ftill retained the figure of the Ihell. The carbonate
of lime was at firft readily diffolved, becaufe the acid
came eafily in contact with it *, but the precefs became
flower, as it was more difficult for the acid to infinuate
itfelf between the different membranes of w'hich the
Ihell is compofed. The haliotis iris, and the turbo
olearius, were found to referable this muffel, except
that the membranaceous parts were more compact and
denfe.
When thefe (hells are deprived by an acid of the
carbonate of lime, which gives them their hardnefs,
they appear to be formed of different membranes, ap¬
plied ftratum fuper ftratum. Each membrane is fur-
nifhed with a correfponding coat or cruft of carbonate
of lime, and it is fo fituated,, that it is always between
every two membranes, beginning with the epidermis,
and ending wuth the internal membrane, which has
been laft formed. The animals which inhabit thefe
ftratified (hells, increafe their habitation, by the addi¬
tion of a ftratum of carbonate of lime, which is fe-
cured by a new membrane. And as every additional
ftratum exceeds in extent that which was previoufiy
formed, the (hell becomes ftronger in proportion as it
is enlarged j and thus the growth and age of the ani¬
mal may be denoted by the number of ftrata of which
the (hell is compofed. Sheailar experiments were made
Chap. Y
on pieces of mother-of-pearl as they are imported from Of the c
China, and with precifely the fame refults. They ap- 1"titu<n;
peared to be compofed of the fame gelatinous matter
and carbonate of lime. In all the (hells of this deferip- - £
lion which w ere immerfed in acids, the membranaceous
parts retained the exa£t figure of the (hell, and they
appeared diftin&ly to be compofed of fibres, arranged
in a parallel direction, correfponding to the configura¬
tion of the fhell. !
Pearl,—The conftituent parts of pearl appear to be Pearl,
fimilar to thofe of mother-of-pearl. They are compofed
of concentric coats of membrane and carbonate of lime,
and referable in ftrufture the globular, calcareous con¬
cretions which are known by the name of pfolithes.
The iridefeence and undulated appearance of pearl and
mother-of pearl, evidently depend on their lamellated
ftrmfture and femitranfparency.
From thefe experiments it appears, that (hells are Compmji
compofed of carbonate of lime and gluten. In fame, asPatts.
in the porcellaneous (hells, the proportion of carbonate
of lime is great, w-hile that of the animal matter is
finall 5 and thefe may be regarded as the beginning of
the feries *, while (hells that come under the defeription
of mother-of-pearl are to be placed at the other extre¬
mity, having a fmaller proportion of carbonate of lime,
and a greater proportion of membranaceous fubftance.
In the firft the carbonate of lime is merely cemented by
the animal matter } in the latter the carbonate of lime
ferves to harden the membranaceous fubftance. But
between thefe two extremes, in the proportion of carbo¬
nate of lime and animal gluten, of which all teftaceous
fubftances are compofed, there are no doubt numerous
intermediate gradations, arifing from the nature of the
animal to which they form a covering, its peculiar ha¬
bits, or mode of life.
Sect. II. Of the Formation of Shells.
The (hell or covering of teftaceous animals, has
been confidered as in feme meafure analogous to the
bones of other animals, although its formation and
growth are very different, iince it ferves as a bafe or
fupport to the mufcles, which arc attached to its inter¬
nal furface. The principal ufe of the (hell, however,
is to ferve as a covering or defence to the animal.
Teftaceous animals are not only extremely different leftactf
in external form, but alfo in the mode of their produc-animalit]
tion. Some are viviparous, as the moft of thofe which ov!Paro|
inhabit bivalve Ihells, multivalves, and even fome oP11 vnf
the univalves ; while the others, which form the far
greater proportion, are oviparous. In one point, how'-
ever, they all agree, that whatever be the mode of
produflion, whether from an egg, or direftly from the
uterus of the mother, the (hell is formed on the body of
the young animal, and is proportioned to its bulk. n
The beft obfervations which have yet been made, and Reauni
the moft elaborate inveftigation which has hitherto ap-inveftii
peared, concerning the formation and developement of11031,
(hells, are thofe of the celebrated Reaumur, which were
publilhed in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
for the year 1 709. The fame fubject has been profecut-
cd by other authors, but their refults have been nearly
the fame as thofe of this diftinguifhed naturalift. Klein
is aimoft the only author who has advanced a different
opinion,. In his differtalion concerning the formation
of
nap. V.
CONCHOLOGY.
467
( he Con-of fliells, he -charges Reaumur with fupporting the opi-
ituent nJon, that teftaceous animals, when they proceed from
( eggs) are not furnifhed with the (hell, but that it is
\ formed after being hatched. This opinion indeed has
been afcribed to Reaumur by the hhtorian of the aca¬
demy, who, in the analyfis of his excellent memoir on
74 the formation of (hells, has obferved, “ that hitherto
opinion curious have been (truck with the prodigious varie-
1 .aken. ^ exa£t regularity of (trufture, the fingular beau¬
ty and fplendour of colour of (hells ; but naturalifts
have been lefs attentive in (tudying and inveltigating
the mode of their formation. They feem to have
thought that although (hells, as well as the covering of
cruftaceous animals, are bones placed externally to the
animals which they cover, it was neceflary to confider
them as part of their bodies, and to include this inex¬
plicable circumftance under that of the general forma¬
tion of animals, which is incomprehenlible to the hu¬
man mind. They have therefore fuppofed that the
animal and its (hell proceeded from the fame egg, and
were developed together 5 and they have refted fatis-
fied in admiring the economy of nature in providing
fo elaborate a covering for fo low an order of animals.
But this fuppofition, although probable, is not founded
in truth. The animal only, not the (hell, is produced
from the egg. The difeovery of this faifl is owing to
Reaumur.”
It mud feem very extraordinary, that fuch an error
(hould have crept into the abftradl of the memoir of
this celebrated philofopher, who in the courfe of it has
clearly expreffed a contrary opinion. “ I have frequent¬
ly,” (ays Reaumur, “ compared the (hells of fnails
which were juft hatched, and even thofe which I
had taken from the eggs before they were hatched,
with other (hells of full grown fnails of the fame fpe-
cies, with which I had left only the fame number of
whirls of the fpire with the fmall (hells, and then they
appeared in all refpecls the fame.” He farther ob-
ferves, “ that what has been faid with regard to the in-
creafe of (hells, renders it unnectffary to enter into the
detail of their original formation 5 for it is eafy to
conceive, that when the body of a fmall embryo which
is one day to fill a large (hell, has arrived at a certain
(late, in which the different teguments in which it is
included have fufficient confidence to fecrete from their
il tdtace-pores the peculiar fluid which is dedined to the for-
is animals mation of the (hell, this fluid may be depofited on the
furfacej may thicken, and at lad become firm and fo-
lid. And thus commences the formation of the (hell,
in the fame way as its increafe is continued. Snails do
not proceed from the egg without being previoufly fur-
nilhed with this (hell, which then has one turn and a
little more of the fpire.
When the eggs of tedaceous animals are hatched,
the young appears with its (hell already formed, and
'according to the obfervation of Reaumur, it has then
one complete turn of the fpire and a little more ; but
at that period the fliell is extremely thin. It feems
probable that the formation of the (hell i^ pofterior to
that of the principal organs of the animal, as the bones
in the foetus of other animals are formed after the brain
and heart.
Reaumur has fufpected that the (hell is the lad
formed, and if proofs are wanting to edablifti this fa£l,
it is certain that at particular periods, if the eggs of
rnifhed
■th the
ell he¬
re being
•tched.
7<5
laft
rmed.
tedaceous animals are opened, the external parts of Of the Con-
the embryo are found already developed, without any
appearance of the (hell. But whatever may be the pc- Sj;ej]s!’
riod of the formation of the (hell, it may be received .../
as an eftablidied fafl, that the animal is furnifhed with
it at the time it leaves the egg. Leeuwenhoek fird
obferved this fa£t with regard to cyders j the fame ob-
fervation was afterwards made by Liber, and extended
to others, both land and river (hells. This obfervation
has been confirmed by other naturalids, and particular¬
ly by Rumphius, Swammerdam, Reaumur, and Adan-
fon. From the invedigations of the latter it appears,
that although there are many of the marine tedaceous
animals which are viviparous, they referable thofe
which are oviparous, in being furnidied with the (hell
when they are feparated from the parent. -7
Since then it appears, that the fliell of tedaceous Two opini.
animals is completely formed previous to the develope-ons °f !he
ment of the animal, and that it may be confidered
an effential part of its organization, let us now inquire
into the mode by which its grow th is effefled. Ac¬
cording to the decifive experiments of Reaumur, the
enlargement of (hells is ow ing to juxta-pofition, or fuc-
ceffive additions of earthy and animal matter, indepen-
pent of any organized brudture. Klein has fupported
a contrary opinion, and fuppofes that the growth of
diells is effefted by intus-fufeeption, or a kind of circu¬
lation. The opinion of Reaumur, however, has mod
generally prevailed. Excepting Bonnet, few natural-
ids have adopted that of Klein •, and it will appear that
this celebrated naturalid wras led to entertain this opi¬
nion concerning the mode of the formation of (hells,
by the experiments of Heriffant on the generation of
bone and (hell. From thefe experiments it was clearly
demondrated, that fnells are compofed of two fubdan-
ces, the one a membranaceous or animal fubdance, and
the other an earthy matter *, but no fuch conclufion
can be drawn from them in fupport of the opinion, that
the (hell is a continuation of the body of the animal,
or that it is fo clofely connected as the bones in the
bodies of other animals 5 or even that this connexion
is formed by means of fibres of the ligament which
attaches the animal to its (hell: for it has been diown,
that thefe mufcular or ligamentous fibres, in all de-
feriptions of tedaceous animals, are fucceflively fepara¬
ted, in proportion to the increafe or enlargement of the
(hell. This could not poffibly take place, if the evolu¬
tion and formation of the (hell, according to the opinion
of Heriffant, depended on an internal circulation, ana-
logous to what happens in the body of the animal. In
this cafe the veffels which proceed from its body, hav¬
ing no longer a communication with thofe which are
fuppofed to exiit in the (hell, it would be deprived of
nourifliment, and confequently could not increafe in
fize. And it is found, that this feparation takes place
in all (hells. It is gradually completed as the grow th
of the (hell advances.
A body may increafe in volume in tw-o different ;
ways. Either the particles of which it is compofed’,onjzccj Qr
pafs through that body by means of circulation, and inorgani-
undergo certain changes by which they are prepared ze(h
to form part of the body ; or the particles of which a
body is compofed, may unite with it by juxta-pofition,
without any previous circulation or preparation within
the body, to the increafe of which they are deftined.
3 N 2 It
468
Of the Con.
ftituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
CONCHO LOGY.
19
Reaumur’s
experi¬
ments.
So
Frocefs of
the forma¬
tion of
the 11s,
81
By fecre-
tion from
the animal
It is in the firft way that the growth of vegetables and
animals is accomplilhed) the fecond is the mode by
which fhells receive new additions of matter, and en¬
large in fize. The firft is the mode of increafe peculiar
to living, organized fubftances 5 by the fecond, inor-
ganized fubftances receive new additions of matter,
and increafe in volume. Thefe indeed afford fufficient
charadteriftic marks for a natural divifion of bodies in¬
to two clafles, namely organized and inorganized fub-
ftances.
The experiments of Reaumur have decifively proved,
that the growth of fhells is owing to the latter mode
of increafe. Thefe experiments were made, not only
on fea fhells, but alfo on land and river fhells $ on uni¬
valves and bivalves; and, in all, the refult was invariably
the fame. In conducing thefe experiments, he inclo-
fed the fhells, on the progrefs of which he made his
obfervations, in boxes pierced with fmall holes, fo as
to admit the water, but fo fmall as to prevent the egrefs
of the animal. Thefe boxes were funk into the fea,
or the river, and in this way he was enabled to watch
the progrefs of the growth of the fhell. He firft obferved,
that when the animal which exadtly filled its fhell began
to increafe its fize, the fhell in a fhort time not being
fufficiently large to cover its whole body, part of it was
naked or unprotedted. This part of the animal muft
always be towards the opening of the fhell, becaufe
the fhell being previoufly completely filled, it cannot
extend in any other diredtion. All animals which inha¬
bit fhells of a fpiral form, fuch as the fnail and volute,
can only extend at the head, or the opening of the
fhell •, whereas the animals in bivalve fhells, fuch as the
muflel and the oyfter, may enlarge in their whole cir¬
cumference. In all the fpecies of teftaceous animals,
it is this part which appears by the increafe of the ani¬
mal when it enlarges the fhell. This increafe takes
place, according to Reaumur, by the following me-
chanifm.
It is a neceffary effedl of the law's of motion, when
liquids run in canals, that the fmall particles of thefe
fluids, or the fmall foreign bodies mixed with them,
which on account of their figure, or their lefs degree
of folxdity in proportion to their furface, move flower
than the others, fly off from the centre of motion, and
approach towards the fides of thefe canals. It even
frequently happens, that thefe fmall particles attach
themfelves to the internal furface of thefe canals or
tubes, and form concretions of different degrees of
thicknefs. It is befides certain, that the fluids which
circulate in thefe tubes, prefs againft their fides on every
point of their interior furface j fo that if they were
pierced with a number of fmall holes of fufficient dia¬
meter to give paffage to the fmall particles of matter
floating in thefe fluids, thefe particles would be depo-
fited on the external furface, where a cruft w'ould be
formed, fimilar to that in the infide j with this differ¬
ence, that it would become thicker and more folid, be¬
ing lefs expofed to the friftion of the fluid, than that
which is depofited in the interior of the tube.
To a fimilar mechanifm Reaumur afcribes the in¬
creafe of fhells. The external furface of that part of
the body of the animat which has extended beyond
the limits of the old fhell, is furnifhed with a great
number of canals, in which circulate the neceffary fluids
for the nutrition of the animal. A great many fmall
Chap.
particles of a vifcid and earthy matter are mixed with Of the (
thefe fluids. Now, as thefe particles are lefs fluid than
thofe of which the liquids themfelves are compofed, g]^ts
they approach the fides of the veflels, which are them-
fefves furnifhed on that fide of the external furface of
the body of the animal, w ith a great number of pores,
which allow them to efcape from the veffels, fo that
they are depofited on the external furface of thefe
tubes, or rather in that of the body of the animal it-
felf, which is uncovered by the fhell.
Thefe particles of earthy and vifcid matter having
reached the furface of the body of the animal, readily
unite with each other, and wdth the extremity of the
old fhell, efpecially when the excefs of moiflure is dif-
fipated •, and thus by their union they compofe a fmall
folid body, which is the firft layer of the new' addition.
Other particles of fimilar matter continuing to efcape
in the fame wray from the excretory veffels of the ani¬
mal, form a fecond layer under the firft ; afterwards a
third, and a fourth, or more, till the new part of the
fhell has acquired fufficient confiftence and thicknefs.
It is, however, obferved to continue thinner for a cer¬
tain time than the former opening, till the increafe of
the animal requires another enlargement of its cover-
mg
When a teftaceous animal is going to enlarge its
fhell, as for inftance the common fnail, the body pro- d
jefts from the opening. It is then feen to attach itfelf
to a wall or fome other folid fubftance, and the portion
of its body which is unprotefted by the fhell, is foon
covered with the fluids which are excreted from its
furface. The pellicle which they produce when the
fluid dries, is at firft thin and elaftic, but gradually af-
fumes more confiftence, and becomes at laft fimilar to
the old part of the fhell. If in this ftage of the pro-
cefs a bit of the ffiell is broken and removed, without
injuring the body of the fnail, the fkin of the animal is
foon covered with a fluid, which gradually thickens, g2
and becomes folid. Twenty-four hours after the opera- ximene
tion, a fine cruft may be obferved, which conftitutesfarytoil
the firft and external layer, for repairing the breach
wdiich was made. At the end of fome days this layer
has become thicker, and in 10 or 12 days, the new
piece of fliell which is formed, has acquired the fame
thicknefs as that which w as removed. In making this
experiment, certain precautions are neceffary, other-
wife there is fome rifk of its failure. If, after the bro¬
ken piece of the fhell has been removed, and particu¬
larly if the frafture is made near the edge of the open¬
ing, the animal is not lupplied wdlh a fufficient quantity
of nourifhment, its volume or bulk is foon diminifhed j
and now finding that what remains of the fhell is a
complete covering to its diminifhed body, no excretion
takes place for the production of a new' portion. In
removing fnails from a wTall to which they had attach¬
ed themfelves, for the purpofe of obferving the progrefs
of the formation of the fhell, fome days will efcape af¬
ter they are placed in the box, before the procefs com¬
mences, becaufe the teftaceous matter which had been
already expended after fixing on the wall, muft be
fully fupplied before any new portion can be again
formed. «
This experiment fhows clearly, that fhells are only
enlarged by receiving new additions of matter, after it
has been excreted from the body of the animal, and
not
Chap. V. CONCH
of the con-not by intus-fufception, or a circulation through the
ftituent body of the fhell itfelf. If this were the cafe, the pro-
Parts of 0f new matter to fill up the breach made in
Shells, &c. (bell, would firft appear all round the edge of the
opening, and forming a kind of callus, fimilar to
what happens in the reprodudlion of bony matter in
other animals, it would gradually extend till the whole
breach is filled up. But, on the contrary, this matter
firlt appears on the body of the animal from which it
has exuded, and the whole extent of the opening is
clofed at once by the fluid which has been direftly fe-
creted from the furface of the body. Nor can it be
fuppofed, that the liquid has infenfibly exuded from
the (hell, and falling on the body of the animal, is
there colledled in fufficient quantity for the formation
of the new piece of fliell. This is fully demonftra-
ted by the two following experiments-of the fame na-
turqlilh
83 Reaumur broke feveral flrells of fnailsq and, hav-
Oth^i expe-jng made a very large hole about the middle of the
Feaumuf ^ie^> anc^ ab°ut an equal diftance between its fummit
and opening, he introduced between the body of the
animal and its {hell, through the hole, a piece of
{kin which was extremely fine, but of a very clofe tex¬
ture. He''glued this {kin to the internal furface of
the {hell, fo that it {hut up accurately the artificial
opening which he had made. It muft then be obvi¬
ous, that if the reproduftion of the piece of {hell which
was removed, depended on the excretion of a fluid
from the fhell itfelf, and not on that which proceeds
from the furface of the animal’s body, the new piece
of {hell would be formed on the external furface of the
piece of {kin which was introduced 3 and it is not pof-
fible that it could be formed between the {kin and the
body of the animal. But the contrary of this has al¬
ways happened. The new teflaceous matter is always
depofited on the internal furface of the (kin 3 that is,
on the fide which is in contaft with the animal’s body 3
and no matter wdratever was depofited on the other
furface. This experiment has been repeated by others,
and has been invariably attended with the fame re-
fult.
The fecond experiment made by Reaumur is not
lefs decifive than the firft. He took a number of
fnails and broke the {hells, fo that he diminifhed the
number of the turns of the fpire ahout \ part. Hav¬
ing in this manner rendered the {hell too fmall to cover
the body entirely, they were nearly in the fame fitua-
tion as when an increafe of the animal’s body requires
an augmentation of the fliell. He then took a bit of
{kin, as in the former experiment, fufficiently large for
the opening of the {hell, and introduced one of its
edges between the body of the animal and the fliell,
to the interior furface of which he glued it 3 after
which having folded back the other extremity of the
Ikin on the external furface of the fhell, he glued it
in like manner, fo that the whole external opening was
completely covered with the {kin. The refults were
exaftly the fame as before. The {hell grew, the {kin
remained in its place, and that part of it which was at¬
tached to the interior furface was fixed between the
new piece and the old fliell, which confequently could
not contribute to its formation.
From thefe experiments, which may be eafily repeated,
-t appears that the increafe of {hells is owing to the fecre-
4
O L O G Y. 4^9
.tion of an earthy and vifeid animal matter, which is pre- the Com¬
pared in the body of the animal, and which is fuccefilvely
formed by layers from the interior part of the ftiell toShejj^
the external furface. This formation is determined J—i '
by the previous enlargement of the animal. The dit- 84
ferent flrata or layers of which {hells are compofed,
can be eafily demonftrated by expofing them to by burning.
a£Hon of fire, and removing them before their ftrue-
ture is entirely deftroyed. By this procefs the animal
matter is confumed, and the earthy fubflance remains,
exhibiting a laminated ftrufture. The fame flru&ure
may be demonflrated, as has been already obferved,
in detailing Mr Hatchett’s experiments, by immerfing
a fliell of the deferiptiem of mother-of-pearl in a dilu¬
ted acid. The earthy matter in this cafe is diffolved
by the acid, and the layers of animal matter which
are interpofed, refilling the adlien of the acid, remain
unchanged, and Hill retain the original figure of the
{hell. _ S5
It is a neceflary confequence of the mode in which Turns of
the {hells of fnails are increafed, that they cannot
enlarge in volume, but by the augmentation of the
turns of the fpire, and that the length of each turn of
the (hell already formed remains always the fame.
This may be eafily put to the left of experiment, by
reducing the ftiell of a fnail which has reached its full
fize to the fame number of turns with thofe of younger
fliells of the fame fpecies. The two {hells do not then
exhibit any other difference than in their thicknefs 3
and it would be the fame, by comparing the youngefl:
{hells, thofe which have been juft feparated from the
egg, with the firft turns of thofe of the fame fpecies
which have been reduced by breaking them to an
equal diameter. The number of turns or whirls of
which the fpire of a {hell is compofed, increafes very
confiderably the fize of the {hell in univalves, and one
turn more or lefs makes a great difference in their vo¬
lume. According to Reaumur, the diameter of each
turn of the fpire is in the fnail nearly double that of
the preceding one, and 4 that which follows 3 but
in many other {hells, both marine and river, the lafi:
whirls of the fpire, compared with the preceding ones,
greatly exceed this proportion. In feme, the external
opening is 1 2 times greater than the preceding one,
and in others, it is not more than eight times. This
depends entirely on the increafe of the animal’s body,
and the proportion of that increafe. The growth of
fume is lengthwife, and in them the increafe of diame¬
ter is proportionally lefs 3 while others increafe more in
thicknefs than in length. Thofe teftaceous animals
which have only a few turns in the fpire of the {hell,
are of this defeription. To the former belong fuch as
have a greater number of turns in the fpire. 8(j
Thofe who have adopted the opinion of Klein with The animal
regard to the formation of fliells, have denied the fe- [s detached
paration of the animal from the {hell, which fucceflive-
ly takes place near the tip in univalves. It is indeed many cafes>
on this circumflance of the connexion of the animal
with the {hell, that the truth of this theory depends.
According to it, the animal is attached to the internal
furface of the tip of the {hell in univalves, and on this
connexion depend the increafe of the (hell and even
the life of the animal. But it is a certain faft, that
the pofterior part of the body of the animal is entirely
detached from the tip of the {hell 3 and this holds,
not
*
47° CONCH
Of the Con nql only witii'regard to all land and fea (hells which
Parts of ^3ve fil'd turns of the fpire, and confequently
Shells, Sec. thofe of the tip j but alfo in a great number of other
—•—Y——' marine teftaeeeus animals. It feems not only cer¬
tain, but even neceffary, that this feparation between
the animal and the (hell (hould alfo take place in bi¬
valve (hells, if we take a diftinft and rational view of
their growth. Whether this feparation is fuddenly ef¬
fected, or by gradual procefs, which is mod probable,
it feems to be fufficiently obvious, by examining the
internal furface of the valves. This is (till more
(trongly confirmed by fawing univalve (hells, particu¬
larly thofe which are confiderably elongated and have a
great number of turns in the fpire, in a direction per¬
pendicular to their axis. In old (hells, feveral of the
firft turns of the fpire will be found completely filled
up with teitaceous matter, fo that the tip of the (hell
has become quite folid, or at lead it will appear to have
been long unoccupied by any part of the body of the
animal. But in tranfparent diells, as in feme fpecies
of helix, it is feen that this attachment does not exid ;
and the H. planorbis can be preferved alive, although
the tip of the fpire is broken off.
Sect, III. Of the Colours of Shells.
Inquiry cu The infinite variety of the colours of (hells is one
rious. of the mod driking parts of their hidory ; and it be¬
comes a curious and intereding objeft of invedigation
to inquire, whether thefe colours are uniform and con-
dant in the fpecies, and from what proceed this regu¬
larity and uniformity. The experiments and obferva-
tions of Reaumur will affid us in this invedigation.
When a hole is made in a (hell, nearly at an equal
didance between its tip and opening, the new piece of
(hell which is formed to (hut up the hole is ufually of
a white colour, and often very different from that of
the red of the (hell. It would appear at fird that the
new piece is of a different nature, and that it is not
formed in the fame way as the red of the (hell. To
meet this difficulty, it will be neceffary to explain
on what depends the regular variety of the colours
of certain (hells : the fame experiments which lead to
the difeovery of the caufe of the one, will ferve to un¬
fold the other.
Colours va This remarkable variety of colour is in no (hell more
ry from par-remarkable than in the he/ix nemoralis. The ground
ticu.’arcir- of this (hell is white, edron or yellow, or a com-
E-umftances pound of different (hades of thefe colours. Different
coloured rays are traced on this ground, turning fpiral-
ly with the (hell •, in fome they are black, in others
brown, and fometimes reddilh. The breadth of each
of thefe rays gradually increafes as they approach to
the opening of the (hell. It even fometimes happens,
that two of thefe bands are fo much extended in
breadth, that they meet together and form one. Some
individuals have five or fix of thefe bands, while others
have three or four, and even two, and fometimes only
one. Others again have none at all, although of the
fame fpecies \ and among the individuals which are
marked with coloured bands, they are not always of
the fame breadth, in the fame parts of the (hell ; from
which it appears, that no certain fpecifie charafters
can be derived from the colour, fince it is fubjefl to
fo much variety. According to Reaumur, the vifeid
3
O L O G Y. Chap, j
and earthy matter of which the (hell is compofedis fecre-Of th{i
ted from the furface of the animal’s body j but in certain ftwuJ
places of the furface, particles which produce a differential
colour are feparated j and whether this depends on a, eijl
peculiar organization of thofe places, or on the form of i
the particles themfelves, it appears that thefe particles,
either of a different nature or of a different figure, by
uniting, form bodies which refleft different rays of light;
that is to fay, form parts of the (hell of different colours.
This feems to be a neceffary confequence of the Si
mode in which the growth of (hells is accompliffied. ^0'0ui H
The whole external layer of the (hell is formed by J
the neck of the animal, becaufe it is that part which the nei
is neared to the head, and confequently as the animal
increafes in fize, this part ceafes to be covered with
the old (hell. It, therefore, depends on this part of
the animal to extend the (hell, and for this purpofe it
is fuffieient that the neck be furniffied with glands for
fecreting the different fluids, to form a (hell of differ¬
ent colours. If, for indance, there are two or three
glandular bodies which (ecrete brown or black parti¬
cles, and that thefe glandular bodies are difpofed in a
parallel direction to each other, while the glands on
the red of the furface only fecrete particles of matter
which refledt the light of a citron colour, the diell
formed by thefe bodies will have a citron ground, with
black or brown bands, nearly parallel, or which gradu¬
ally approach to each other, and become larger in the
fame proportion as the external organs of the animal
increafe in bze.
If no fuch glandular drudlure, or difference in the pr0V(?J
matter fecreted, could be traced on the neck of the experi t
helix nemoralis, this explanation of the caufe of the
variety of colours in diells would appear extremely
probable ; but this probability amounts to certainty,
from the actual obfervation of the exidence of this pe¬
culiarity of drudture and effedt. When the helix ne¬
moralis is deprived of part of its (hell, the body ap¬
pears of a white colour, excepting towards the neck,
where the white inclines to yellow, and where befides
there is a number of black or brown bands, equal to
that of the bands on the (hell, and arranged in the
fame diredtion. It has been obferved, too, that the
individuals which have only one black dripe on the
(hell, have only one (ingle black fpot on the neck;
and thofe having four fpots on the neck, have four
dripes of the fame colour on the (hell. Thefe rays
are placed immediately under thofe of the diell; they
commence at the didance of about a line from the ex¬
tremity of the neck, which is itfelf ufually fpotted
with black all round. The exidence, therefore, of
thefe excretory organs can no longer be doubted.
The difference of colour feems to prove the difference
of drudfure. But to edablilh this beyond the poffibi-
lity of doubt, it is only neceffary to have recourfe to
experiment, by obferving what happens in the new
piece of (hell which is renewed, in place of that portion
which has been removed j and if it appear that that
part of the (hell which is formed oppofite to the black
rays of the animal, is black, and if that which is
formed between the dripes be of a different colour
from lhat of the dripes themfelves on the red of the
body, no farther proof can be required. Now, it has
been obferved, that that part of the new (hell formed
on the neck oppofite to the black or brown dripes on
1?.
r, e Coil'
uent
ts of
s, See.
)i
in2
V.
GONCHOLOGY.
9*
es of *
53
iges ia
Tgans.
i-the animal’s body, is ilfeif black or brown, that form¬
ed between the llripes is white or citron, while the reft
of the body is white, but different from that of the
neck, when it is of this colour.
It fometimes happens, that the part of the fhell
which has been renewed is of a different colour. This
apparent deviation will appear lefs difficult to be re¬
conciled to the explanation of the procefs which has
now been given, if we attend to the circumftance that
the new fhell formed oppolite to the neck of the ani¬
mal is never different from that of the old fhell, ex¬
cepting that the external furface is extremely rough,
and prefents numerous furrows or grooves, in place of
the fmoothnefs and fine palifh of the old fhell. In this
cafe, the inequality of furface is occafioned by the mo¬
tion of the animal retiring within its fhell, before the
new piece has acquired fufficient confiftency and folidi-
ty; and thus the new fhell, having contracted on its
furface wrinkles or furrows, the light is very different¬
ly reflected. But there is another caufe for this dif¬
ference of colour in thefe circumftances. When a
large piece of fhell is removed, the firft layer which is
formed is ufually white. The particles of the fluid
which are neceffary for the formation of the fhell of
this colour, feem to be more eafily excreted from the
furfaee of the body than the particles of fluid which
go to the formation of any other colour. It is ob-
ferved that the body of the animal is covered with this
fluid, long before there is any appearance of fecretion
about the neck. This liquid is extended to the neck,
and there produces a new layer of white fhell ; but
as tnis layer is extremely thin and tranfparent, it does
not prevent the ufual fecretion of the colouring matter
at the neck to appear. In this period of the procefs,
it the animal retire within its fhell, the new layer, ftill
adhering in many points to its body, and not having
acquired fufficient folidity, will be diftorted and wrink¬
led ; and not only exhibit that inequality of furface
which generally appears in fhells thus formed, but the
arrangement of the ftripes or colours will alfo be de¬
ft roved.
It would be a very falfe conclufion from this account
of the mode of the formation of the ftripes which ap¬
pear on certain fpecies of fhell*, that the external fur¬
face of all ffiells fhould be marked with colours, or
fhould be uniformly of the fame colour •, and that
there fhould be no fhells whofe external furfaee is
marked with different fpots, differently arranged, of
an irregular figure, and feparated from each other by
unequal intervals. For if it has been fhown, that
thefe colours are produced on the furface of the fhell,
only by means of the fecretory organs, fituated on the
neck of the animal, it cannot be fuppofed that the
lame effects will follow, unlefs the animal is placed in
the fame circumftances. Thefe fecretory organs, there¬
fore, muft exift during the entire formation of the
ineil, to furnfth tne fatne quantity of colouring matter
during the whole of its progrefs. But if it happen, oft
the contrary, that thefe organs undergo any change }
if the pores through which the liquid is poured out to
form a fhell or part of a fhell of a brown colour, be¬
come too large or too finall, or in other refpefts change
their form, after having poured out a certain quantity
of this Huid •, and that thole which furniffi the fluid of
^hich the white part of the fheil is comptpfed, are alfo
changed
,.471
it rnuft happen that the ihcll which is pro-Of the Con¬
duced is marked with different black and white fpots, p'*!^Y
combined with a degree of irregularity correfponding q eps g/c_
to the change on the fecretory organs. This will ap- w—
pear to be the cafe, by attending to the changes which
take place in the fecretory organs of fnails which pro¬
duce coloured fhells j for in them it may be obferved,
that the colours are diftinft and well marked in fome,
towards the opening, while they are fcareely percepti¬
ble on the firft turn of the fpire towards the tip of the
fhell j and thefe changes of colour cannot be fuppofed
to exift without a correiponding change on the fecretory
organs. _ _ _ .94-
The fluidity of the liquid fecreted for the formation Difference
of the ffiell, has probably alfo fome effe<3: in the regu-°f fluidity
lar diftribution of the colours which appear on fome*nt^e
fpecies. It is eafy to imagine that fome animals may^ ecre '“
fecrete a fluid for the formation of the fhell, of fuch a
degree of fluidity as to flow eafily from one place to
another, and thus produce irregular marks on the fhell.
But befides, if there are fecretory organs fituated on
the neck of the animal, which prepare fluids of differ- ^
ent colours j if the animal moves, or is difturbed by Motion of
any means, when thefe fluids are excreted on the fur-the animat
face, the colours will appear in a different place from during the
their original diftribution, or be mixed and blended t°-of the^mat
gether, and thus occafion that irregularity which is oh-ter.
ferved in thofe parts of fliclls which have been laft pro¬
duced, or renewed. 1 ^
But it will be neceffary to have recourfe to the firft Secretory
of thefe caufes, namely to the change of ftru&ure in organs en-
the fecretory organs of the neck, to explain the regu-^arSe
lar diftribution of the round fpots, or of thofe of a1*12 an^ma^
fquare or reflangular figure, with which certain {hells
are marked, and to fuppofe that thofe veffels which are
arranged in a fquare or reflangular manner, which
furnifh peculiar fluids, are fhut or open at different
periods. It may happen that the developement of a
great part of the animal, occafioned by a more vigor¬
ous growth in certain fpecies than in others, may, in
fome cafes, be the only caufe of thofe regular fpots,
fometimes white on a coloured ground, and fometimes
coloured on a white ground, which the fhell exhibits,
if the glands which fecrete the colouring matter cor-
refpond in their diftribution to that of the divifions on
the fhell, and if they occupy a greater fpace on the
neck than is ufual in other fpecies. In this way may
be accounted for, the regularity of thefe marks, and
the increafe of their fize, which is ufually proportioned
to that of the turns of the fpire, from the confideration
of the fecretory organs of the animal enlarging in the
fame proportion as the other parts of its body, and
their effefts in the formation of the fhell correfponding
to the developement ef thefe parts. Hence it follows,
that the largeft marks are obferved on the external con¬
volutions of the fhell. ^
According to Reaumur, the laft layer of the fhell Laft formei
which is formed from a fluid fecreted from that part oflayer uAl-
the furface of the animal’s body which does not reach aily white'
the neck, fhould be white, and this is moft generally
the cafe. In thofe fhells which are internally colour¬
ed, the fluids fecreted from the body of the animal
are of the fame colour, and they take the place of
thofe which are ufually white, or of a pearly nature, as
is obferved in many others. The nature of thefe in¬
ternal. -
M
93 _
Formation
of ftriaj.
«■ rt,
47- C O N C H
O: the Ccn terns! layers is always obvious j for if they are not
Fur; of w^te’ they exhibit everywhere a uniform colour, and
Shells, &c. never variegated, like what appears externally. By
y—^ removing with a file any part of the external furface
of the {hell, the layers which appear immediately under
the furface, are thofe which have been furnilhed by the
body of the animal •, while thofe on the furface itfelf,
ufually more variegated than the reft, owe their forma¬
tion to the veffels about the neck, and have been formed
in the way already defcribed.
The growth of {hells, being proportioned to that of
the inhabitant, proceeds almoft imperceptibly. In
moft {hells, however, it is eafy to diftinguifti the dif¬
ferent additions which they have received •, for they
are marked on their convex furface with different emi¬
nences which are parallel to each other, fimilar to lines
of different degrees of depth, which give the fhell a
fibrous [ftrufrure. Thefe elevations are called ftrice,
may be traced through the whole of the {hell in bi¬
valves, and in the longitudinal direftion of thofe which
have a fpiral form. From the flighteft obfervation of
the manner in which {hells are formed, it is eafy to fee
that they receive no addition, without leaving, in a
greater or lefs degree, fome traces of thefe inequalities j
for every fmall addition of teftaceous matter which is
made, muft be attached to the old part of the {hell,
which confequently muft be more elevated than the
former, whatever be its thicknefs, when the enlargement
of the animal requires the formation of the latter.
Thus, the {hell will be marked with a great number of
thefe ftrise, parallel to each other, which may be di-
ftinclly feen on many different fpecies.
Every fhell has ufually fome of thefe eminences at
greater diftances, and more elevated than the others.
By thefe the different periods when the {hell ceafed to
increafe, or rather thofe when its growth was inter¬
rupted, are marked ; and they have fome degree of
analogy with the different {hoots from the branch of a
tree. The heat of fummer or the cold of w'inter inter¬
rupting the growth of the animal, at leaft among fuch
as are teftaceous, which live on the land, or inhabit
rivers in temperate regions, the {hell is not enlarged in
extent during thefe feafons. It is otherwife, however,
with regard to its thicknefs, for there is continually
exuded from the body of the animal, fmall quantities
of fluid, which increafe its thicknefs. Hence it is,
when the {hell begins to increafe in extent, the edge
to which the new portion is cemented, is much thicker
than when the growth was gradual and imperceptible,
and confequently the place at which the growth com¬
mences after a long interruption is diftinguilhed by a
more elevated ridge, than in the continued pregreffive
additions which it receives. The numerous inftances
of this interruption in the growth of fhells, will occur
to the attentive conchologift in the progrefs of his
refearches. We have at prefent in our poffeflion, a
fine illuftration of the fame thing, in a fpecimen of
murex ramofus. The animal, it would appear from
the original part of the {hell, had been for fome time in
a fickly or unhealthy ftate •, for it has undergone many
of the changes to which dead {hells are fubjefl. It
has loft its enamel ; it feems to have undergone fome
degree of decompofition, and fome fpecies of ferpula
and other parafitical animals had made it their abode \
but from this fickly ftate it feems to have recovered,
99
•Growth in¬
terrupted.
100
Example
Qi this.
O I. O G Y. ' Chap. ’
and acquired great vigour ; for the next addition which Of the cl
is made to the fhell, is equal to its original bulk. It is touteil
clean, entire, and in perfedl prefervation, forming a fin-
gular contrail with the old ftiell. e
The place at which {hells begin to increafe, after IOi
the growth has been for fome time interrupted, mayDiftingu
be diftinguiftied by a difference of colour in the ftripesby ^
with which the Ihell is ufually marked. In thefe^^7
places, black or brown ftripes exhibit more vivid
colours, and fometimes even little different from thofe
on the reft of the fuperior furface of the {hell. The
caufe of this change is not difficult to trace, if we re-
colledl that the fecretory organs which prepare the co¬
louring matter, at leaft in the helix nemoralis, have
their origin at fome diftance from the extremity of the
neck, from which wre have feen that the firft layer of
{hell which is traced to the extremity itfelf, ftiould be
of a different colour from that of the ftripes j but as
the increafe of the animal occafions the ftripes to be
formed under the firft ftiell, during which it is ftill
very thin, and confequently tranfparent, it does not pre¬
vent the ftiell produced under it, of a black colour, to
appear fo. But when the animal has ceafed to grow
for fome time, it then increafes the thicknefs of the fhell
laft formed, fo that the ftiell which is next produced
from the colouring matter, when the animal begins to
grow, being laid on one part of the old ftiell much
thicker and lefs tranfparent, the colour of thefe ftripes
muft appear lefs bright, and therefore different in thofe
places, from the other parts of the ftiell. Ic2,
In taking a review^ of wrhat has been faid concerning Colours |
the produdtion of the colours of ftiells, it muft appear GW1I1g ^
that thefe rays or coloured lines are owing to glands^6 7
which fecrete the colouring fluid, and which are ar-ne^k"L
ranged on the anterior edge of the neck, while the
pofterior part furnifties only a fluid of a different co¬
lour, and ufually lefs deep than the firft. By means of
this principle it is not difficult to account for the ar¬
rangement of the different colours which are fo fplen-
didly exhibited among this clafs of natural obje£ts.
Thefe colours may be reduced to one or more, which
are more vivid on a lighter ground j to coloured, cir¬
cular bands on a ground of a lefs vivid colour, or pure
white; to longitudinal lines, round or fquare fpots,
and in a regular, or irregular, zig-zag form. All
thefe may be eafily explained, according to the princi¬
ples which have been laid down, the application of
which, from what has been faid, will not, we hope, be
found difficult. J0,
But from this mode, which is the moft general in ^0]0un
the produftion of the colours of {hells, there are cer- porcela
tain deviations. In that divifion of {hells which isflidls-
made by fome naturalifts, and which is diftinguiffied
by the names of porcelain jheils, on account of the fine
enamel with which they are covered, there are two
fets of colours, which are difpofed in a parallel direc¬
tion to each other. The external range of thefe co¬
lours is owing to a peculiarity of ftrufture in the animals
which inhabit them, different from that of other tefta¬
ceous animals, and to an operation which does not
take place in other {hells. In thefe {hells, the colour¬
ing matter feems to be depofited in two different ways,
and at two different periods. In the firft procefs;
when the body of the ffiell is formed, the colouring
matter is excreted from the glands, in the fame way
1 p. V. CONCH
f, Con-as in other teftaceous animals j and it is arranged ac-
fl ent cording to the difpofition of the glands on the body of
I * the animals. At this period of the procefs, the fhell is
^ only of a moderate thicknefs, and much lels than what
it afterwards acquires, when completely formed. On
the external furface of the {hell firft formed, another
layer is depofited, which is more compact than the
firft, in fome places thicker, and ufually variegated
with different colours. The external furface of the (hell
being thus completely covered with this fecond layer,
the original colours are concealed *, and if the lame
{hell were examined at different periods of its forma¬
tion, it would appear like two diltinft fpecies. The
er- organs which are employed by the animal in the pro-
1 er duffion of this fecond layer of {hell, and fet of colours,
rr I. are two foft, membranaceous wings, which being pro¬
truded from the opening of the {hell, completely cover
the whole of its external, convex furface. Thefe two
wings, which are quite diftindl from the glandular
ftruclure above the neck of the animal, which is fitu-
ated a little lower, are alfo provided with glands,
which furnifh colouring matter, ufually different from
that which is furniftied by the glands of the neck ; and
it is the upper furface of the wings, which is alone
provided with this glandular ftrudture. This furface,
when this part of the animal is protruded from the
{hell, and extended over it, comes in contadl with the
external furface of the latter. Hence it is, that thofe
membranaceous organs depofit on the firft formed and
coloured layers of the ftieil, new layers of teftaceous
matter, which is differently coloured, and diverfified
with entire fpots, either circular, or in a waved direc¬
tion, which are fometimes of a more vivid tint than
that of the ground, or white upon a dark ground, or
brown upon a yellow ground ; or are compofed of
llraight lines, or curved, or interlaced with each other,
reddifti, brown, yellow or white, on different coloured
grounds, or in dots or points whofe {hades and arrange¬
ment are not lefs diverfified.
This mode of the formation of the external layer of
15 porcelain {hells, has been proved by the actual obferva-
tion of fome naturalifts. In fome fpecies, a longitudi¬
nal line of a paler colour is obferved on the convex fur¬
face of the {hell. This is afcribed to the junction of
the two w ings of the animal, where a fmaller quantity
of colouring matter has been depofited, or where the
{hell has been lefs completely covered with the protrud¬
ed part of the animal. But the exiftence of this fecond
layer is ftill more diftinftly proved by mechanical
means. The external layer may be removed by means
of a file, and the {hell reftored to its original ftate ; and
then the colours which it firft received are brought in¬
to view. This circumftance is ftill farther demonftra-
ted by an attentive examination of different fpecies of
{hells, and particularly the cxjprcea argus. In examin¬
ing this {hell, there are obferved under the external
layer, which is of a yellow7 colour, fome flight traces of
four tranfverfe bands of a brow'n colour, which furround
the {hell, and which muft have been formed previous to
the more fuperficial yellow layer. By a more minute
examination, it will appear that the circular fpots with
which the external yellow layer is marked, have been
pofteriorly formed to this layer ; and finally, on the four
turns of the fpire forming a flight projedtion at the bafe
of the fhell, there are fome brown, circular fpots, which
Vol. VI. Part II. “  *
O L O G Y.
473
are quite fuperficial, and which fometimes include two Of the Con-
turns of the fpire, which could not happen if the yel- pU”„e”£
low colour had not been prior in its formation to thefe She]js
circular fpots. If the colouring matter of which thefe c. ..v’—i. t
fpots are compofed, had been depoiited at the time that
the different parts of the fpire were formed, one fpot
could not have included two turns of the fpire at the
fame time.
This effedt of communicating a new fet of colours Shell be-
to the external furface of the {hell, is not the only onetoraes
which is produced by the membranaceous ftrudture of^^^e
the animal which inhabits the porcelain and ether {hells, caufe>
T-he form of the {hell is alfo changed in a remarkable
manner, a great quantity of teftaceous matter being de-.
pofited on the furface of the opening, which then af-
fumes a confiderable thicknefs. The turns of the fpire
are incrufted, and fometimes difappear on the outfide
of the {hells j and wrinkles, furrows, and even tuber¬
cles, which exift on the furface of fome fpecies, are alfo
formed. The furface of cyprcea /W/dw/W exhibits circu¬
lar ftriae which did not originally exift, and which ow e
their formation to this caufe. In other fpecies, the
furface is marked with projedting points or tubercles,
which are produced in the fame manner as the circular
ftriae of the former, and which alfo depend on the ftruc-
ture of the membranaceous wings of the animal, and
the teftaceous fubftance which is fecreted and depofited
from their furface. Thus, it appears that porcelain
{hells, and thofe of fome other fpecies, are formed at
two diftindt periods. It is during the fecond period
of the procefs that the colour of the complete {hell is
formed. In farther illuftration of this point, of the for¬
mation of {hells of this defeription at two different pe¬
riods, one or two examples may be given of the differ¬
ence which takes place, when the laft layer formed is
removed. In the cijpr<ea exanthema, the {hell is ferru- External'
ginous, with whitilh round fpots and eyes 5 but when layer re-
the outer coat is worn off, it becomes barred or tefle- moved,
lated with brow n or blue. The cypreea arabica, as itsdlferent
name imports, exhibits charadters on its furface, having ^
fome refemblance to Arabic letters. The ground on
which thefe charadters, which are of a brown colour, are
placed, is whitifli or bluilh ; but when the outer coat
is worn down, the {hell is fometimes bluilh with brown
bands, or pale wdth darker angular fpots and lines,
browm mixed with violet, or reddifli blue. i g
But befides the caufes which have been mentioned Effetfs of
concerning the produdlion and variety of the colours of light on
{hells, arifing from the difference of ftrudburein the or-^118*
gans which fecrete the colouring matter, and the chan¬
ges to which thefe organs are fubjedted in the growth
of the animal, the effedls of light and heat, altogether
independent of the animal itfelf, are probably very con¬
fiderable. Two individuals of the fame fpecies, the
one from the Mediterranean or European feas, and the
other from the tropical regions, exhibit very different
{hades of colour. The colours of the inhabitant of the
torrid zone are always more bright and vivid than
thofe of the native of more temperate climates. The
two {hells, although fimilar in form, lize, and other
charadters, are uniformly different in the intenfity of
their colours. Thefe differences, which have led con-
thologifts to increafe the number of fpecies, obvioufly
depend on the adtion of the climate, and particularly
of light, on nourifhment, and other circumitances which
3 ^ have
474
Of the Con
ftituent
Harts of
Shells, &.c
109
Lower
valve co-
kwriefs,
have hitherto eluded the obfervation of naturalifts, are
uniform and conftant, as long as the caufes which
operate in their produftion, continue to adt. At firlt
fight it might be fuppofed that the difference of tem¬
perature is the caufe of the difference in the intenfity
of colour, in (hells produced in different climates. It
might be fuppofed too, that the different depths at which
(hells are found in the ocean, the medium in which they
live being thus very different, would occafion great di-
verfity in the colour. Near the furfape, where the
heat is greateft, if the operation of this caufe were con-
fiderable, the colours of (hells (hould be expedted to be
mod vivid, and as the depth increafed, at lead to a cer¬
tain extent, the intenfity of colour (hould be diminidi-
ed. But it has been obferved in bivalve diells which
are found at great depths, fuch as fome fpecies of oyf-
ter and fpondylus, that the lower valve which is at¬
tached to the rock, is almod always white or colourlefs,
while the upper valve often exhibits bright and vivid
colours j but this difference cannot be afcribed to the
difference of temperature, for in both valves it mud be
the fame j the matter fecreted for their formation is
prepared by the fame organs, and is depofited in a fi-
milar manner $ and indeed they are altogether placed
in the fame circumdances, and have been expofed in
their production and growth to the operation of the
fame caules, excepting that the upper valve is expofed
to the rays of light, and is therefore coloured, while the
lower valve is removed from the aCtion of this caufe,
and is colourlefs.
The fame difference is obferved in the valves of
other (hells, which are produced in fimilar circumdances.
The different fpecies of pholas which make their abode
in calcareous or coral rocks, and the teredo navalis, or
(hip-worm, which pierces wood, and makes it its habi¬
tation, are ufually colourlefs. Thofe tedaceous ani¬
mals too, which live at great depths in the ocean, and
are thus far removed from the influence of light, are al-
fo didinguilhed by very faint colours, or are entirely
white.
Sect. IV. Of the Formation of the Umbilicus^ Pro-
tuberances^ Idfc.
We have hitherto confidered only the general for¬
mation of (hells. In the prefent (eClion we (hall treat
of fome other circumdances which produce variations
in their external figure. Such, for indance, is the for¬
mation of the umbilicus, of fpines, tubercles, ribs, and
j.j other protuberances.
Four daffes Umbilicus. Univalve diells, which are furnidled with
of fpiral a regular fpire, may be divided with regard to their
flie.ls form, into four claffes; namely, (hells having a dife, cy¬
lindrical (hells, turbinated, and ovoid or egg-(haped
(hells. Thefe four forms are the mod common which
fpiral univalve diells affume, and they depend on the
manner in which the turns of the fpire are applied to
the common axis, and the difference of their arrange¬
ment. They derive their primitive figure from the
fmall (hell while it is yet included in the egg, and pro¬
bably from that of the external organs of the animal
which is contained in it. But although all univalve
(hells may be referred to one or other of thefe four prin¬
cipal forms, they exhibit a great variety of dighter
(hades of difference. Let us now fee in TV'hat way
CONCHOLOGY. Chap, \
it may be conceived that the bodies of the animals Of the 0
which inhabit univalve (hells, give them a fpiral form.
TIO
and fhells
included in
other bo¬
dies.
If we can fuppofe that from the fird production of
thefe animals, when they begin to be developed, the v—
fibres of one part of the body, fuch as thofe of the ex- n2
ternal furface, are longer than thofe of the oppofite 0we the
furface, it is obvious that the body of the animal con- ^Pe t0
tinuing to increafe, according to this original tendency,
will affume a curved form, the concave part of which mal.
will be on that fide where the fibres are (horted j and
if the long fibres on the external furface, and the (hort
fibres on the internal furface, continue to increafe in the
fame proportion, this mud give the body a fpiral form;
but in this cafe, the different convolutions of which the
animal is compofed, will be in the fame plane, and can
only apply to a fmall number of (hells included in the
fird divifion, namely thofe which are charaflerized with
having a dife.
The convolutions of the fpire which are deferibed by
the (hell of univalve tedaceous animals, and the body
which ferves as a mould for thefe, are difpofed in dif¬
ferent planes. Some other caufe, therefore, mud ope¬
rate in producing this deviation. Between the two fur-
faces of the body of the animal, which is fuppofed to
be furniihed w ith fibres of different lengths, it is eafy
to conceive two other furfaces diredly oppofite to each
other, an upper and an under furface, each of which is
included between the two preceding furfaces, but of
fmaller extent ; and it is eafy to conceive farther,
that thefe two latter furfaces are fo formed, that the
fibres of the one are longer than the correfponding and
oppofite fibres of the other. According to this druc-
ture, the body of the animal will tend to that furface
on which the fibres are (horted, and thus deferibe, du¬
ring its developement, a fpiral line in different planes,
in proportion to the difference of tenfion between the
fuperior and inferior furface of the body, as well as be¬
tween the lateral furfaces.
The form of the (hell depending on the external form Umbik
of the body of the animal, the umbilicus, which is a produce!
different cavity from that of the opening of the (hell in
which the animal is contained, and which is feen on
the inferior furface of fome fliells, in the centre of the
convolutions of the fpire, depends entirely on the plane
on which the animal has formed the additions to its
(hell. If the plane of thefe convolutions has been di¬
rected round a conical or elliptical axis, and each con¬
volution of the fpire be more or lefs didant tow ards the
centre of the (hell from this hollow point, a (hell may
be thus formed, whofe umbilicus will be more or lefs
open, according to the greater or lefs degree of repara¬
tion which the animal mud give to the convolutions of
the fpire, correfponding to its druCture. An oppofite
effeCt will be obferved, if the increafe of the convolu¬
tions of the fpire is fuppofed to take place round an
axis which is fo fmall as to permit them to come in
eonta& with each other. In this cafe no cavity will
be formed in the centre, no appearance of umbilicus
will be feen. But if we conceive that the animal, in
enlarging itfelf, turns round a folid of a curved figure,
in place of the conic axis above alluded to, and that
the end of this folid is at the fummit of the (hell, it is
obvious that an opening or an umbilicus of the diape
of this folid, will be formed in the (hell.
Bjbs. The longitudinal elevations which are ob-
ferved
CONCHOLOGY.
ClP-v-
)f ; Con- ferved on univalve fheils, which run in a tranfverfe di-
uent re£lion to the fucceflive growth of the convolutions of
1 ts ot the fpire, have been denominated varices, by Linnaeus,
&cc. in allufion to the dilated veins on the bodies of other
^ v animals. They are compofed of One or more eleVa-
14 tions, ufually arranged in a line parallel to the axis of
F, ution (hell, and fometimes flightly oblique. They con-
jf is ac- Gf j-jjg {^,^0 fubftance as that of the reft of the Ihbll,
'f 'ed but are thicker and always more elevated than the fur-
face of the convolutions of the fpire on which they are
placed. , To explain the manner in which thefe eleva¬
tions are formed, we may examine the opening of land
ftiells which have arrived at the laft ftage of their
growth. This period is marked in thefe ftiells by a
kind of margin of about a line in breadth, which is
fometimes turned outwards, although the reft of the
(hell turns on a regular, fpiral line. This reflefted
margin never appears in land (hells, but when they
have reached the laft period of their growth, and when
it is once formed, the animal of fome fpecies ceafes af¬
terwards to continue the convolutions of its fpire.
Having now arrived at that period of its growth, when
it is fit to perform the act of generation, it protrudes
itfelf more frequently from its ftiell, and each time it
returns, a vifcid fluid which exudes from its neck, is
interrupted and depofited on the external margin of the
(hell. The bulk which the anterior parts of the body
have acquired in confequence of the evolution of the
generative organs which are contained in that part of
the body, caufes it to prefs more ftrongly than former¬
ly on the edges of the opening of the ftiell, every time
it protrudes itfelf, and gradually forces the particles of
teftaceous matter which have been recently depofited,
to the external furface, and in a diredHon quite differ¬
ent from that of the former plane of the fpire. A (hort
time only is requifite for the complete formation of
this elevation j but after it has been formed, if the ani¬
mal has the power of continuing the fpire on the for¬
mer plane, the (hell which had arrived at a larger
fize will exhibit from time to time, if the fame procefs
be repeated, longitudinal proje&ing ribs, convex or
bent, exadlly fimilar to the external fwelling of the
opening of the (hell, and analogous to the varices which
are feen on fome fpecies of marine (hells,
litedto This power of continuing the fpire, after the forma-
ilidls. turn of the eminence at the opening, is peculiar to fea-
fliells. No farther increafe, after it is once formed in
land (hells takes place. The young of fome fea-(hells,
as fome fpecies of murex, alfo poffefs this faculty of
continuing the growth of the (hell after the formation
of fimilar elevations, even from the earlieft period of
their exiftence, and long before it can be fuppofed that
the organs of generation are evolved. This no doubt
depends on fome peculiar ftrudlure or organization of
the animal, and particularly on thofe of the anterior
j ^ parts of the body.
bercles Tubercles. Many (hells are furniftied with tubercles,
xluced which are produced by the fame organs as the reft of
the fame^g flelhy protuberances which are placed
y‘ on the external furface of the neck of the anirhals
which inhabit them, ferve as a mould, and according
as there are more or lefs of thefe tubercles, while the
animal enlarges the turn of the fpire, and increafes its
ftiell fo much, there is the fame number of protuber¬
ances in the convolution. TUefe protuberances^ while
471
they remain on that part of the body of the animal on ftit^en°n"
which they were formed, are hollow, and during the parts 0f
remaining part of its exiftence, as the body enlarges,
they are partly holloWj and partly folid, being filled up ——y——»
with teftaceous matter, excreted from the body of the
animal, and then the internal furface of the ftiell be¬
comes fmooth and even*
Spines, and fringed or irregular protuberances, with
which fome (hells are armed, have, according to. all
appearance, the fame origin as the other inequalities
on the external furface of ftiells. They are ufually
formed at the end of the different fucceflive periods of
the growth of the (hell. This will be fufficiently ob¬
vious, if we trace the whole feries of wrinkles or ftriae
which run parallel to the circumference of the open¬
ing. Thole which arife immediately from the ribs or
Varices, are produced by particular organs which fur-
round the extremity of the neck, and ftretch out from
every part of its circumference, fecreting a teftaceous
matter, which partly forms a (heath around them, gra¬
dually increafes in thicknefs, and fucceflively affumes
the form of that part of the body which in fome mea¬
sure ferves the purpofes of a mould. In all the fpecies
of mUrex, which are furniftied with fpines, the eleva¬
tions called varices or ribs, as well as tne fpines with
which they are armed, are placed on the (hell at equal
diftances $ and the intermediate parts of the ftiell, al- /
though frequently grooved or ftriated, are not furnifti¬
ed with fpines. This uniform obfervation, not only
in (hells belonging to this genus, but alio in almoft all
fpinous (hells, proves, that the fpines, as well as the
ribs, are to be confidered as formed by the margin of
the anterior parts of the body, which is renewed in
the fame proportion as the change in the pofition o(
this part of the body takes place. It proves alfo, that
the formation of (hells is entirely owing to the fuccef-
five and regular enlargement of the animal j and that
it increafes every time it is difplaced from the whole 117
extent in breadth of the anterior part of the body, the Opines pro
margin of which only being furniftied with long deftly
proceffes or fringed appendices, is in reality the onlycefl'eSt
part which produces them on the (hell at each period
of its increafe. In the fame way is formed the beak
or prolongation of the ftiell, which terminates the in¬
ferior extremity in the form of a canal. This canal is
produced in all (hells in which it exifts, by a cylindri¬
cal organ, fufceptible of extenfion and contra&ion, and
which, according to fome naturalifts, is employed by
the animal as a kind of feeler, and occafionally to at¬
tach itfelf to folid bodies. It excretes and depofits a
teftaceoUs layer which ferves it as a kind of (heath, in
a fimilar manner to the produftion of fpines. Ilg
It is eafy to explain the formation of the .grooves or Formation
elevated ribs which are found on the outer furface ofof ribs and
other (hells j while the whole of the internal furface is groove
fmooth and poliftied. In bivalve (hells, which exhibit
this ftru£tur&, the whole anterior furface of the animal
is grooved or channelled in the fame way $ and from
this the (hell derives its (hape and ftrufture. In thefe
ftiells it may be obferved, that it is only the anterior
margin that is grooved on the internal furface $ be-
caufe, in the progrefs of the growth of the animal,
that part of the body which prefents a fmooth equal
furface has advanced, and nearly filled the whole t>f
the (hell j and the teftaceous matter fecreted from this
3 O 2 part
T
476 CONG II
°ilimenth" ^a3rt the being depofited on the grooves, chan-
Parts of *ie^s> or which were formed when the anterior
Shells, See. Part tbe body occupied that part of the (hell, fills
*- v them up completely, and leaves the furface quite fmooth
and polifhed. New additions being made to the fuel!
as the growth of the ariimal requires it, the finooth
furface of the body advances forward, and fills up with
its fecretions what is now grooved j while the new part
of the Oiell, which correfponds to that part of the body
which has an unequal furface, only prefents this ap¬
pearance. It is in this way that the ribs or grooves
are formed in different ipecies of oftrea, cardium, and
up other bivalve fhells.
Formation But there is a peculiarity of ftruflure in a fpecies of
of hollow cockle, the white fluted or ribbed cockle, 1 cardium
cojtatum, which feems more difficult of explanation in
its mode of formation. The ribs of this fpecies are not
only of the ufual ftru&ure of other fpecies of ribbed or
grooved ffiells, but are particularly diftinguiffied by
having them hollow. The whole number of the ribs
amounts to about 18 on each valve, of which the 11 ex¬
terior ones are of a triangular form, of about three lines
high, and hollowed through their whole length, from
the beak to the margin of the valves. To have a di-
ftinft notion of the formation of thefe hollow, triangu¬
lar ribs, it is neceffary to conceive, that the margin of
the anterior part of the animal is deeply channelled or
grooved j and when this part of the body is in contatt
with the recent (hell, the tips or elevations are formed,
and are then open to the internal furface of the (hell j
but the pofterior part of the body being hard and
fmooth, never comes in contaft with the excavated
part of the ribs. On the contrary, as the teftaceous
matter is excreted from this part of the body, it is de-
pofited on that part of the internal furface of the Ihell
which it touches, ftretches acrofs the deep grooves,
and forms the third and interior fide of the triangular
no ribs.
and of Thus it appears, that fpines, tubercles, and all
ftxvs, &c. other protuberances on the furface of bivalve ffiells,
owe the peculiarity of their form and ffiape to the pe¬
culiar ftru&ure of different organs fituated on the ante¬
rior margin of the body of the animal, and are com-
pofed of the teftaceous matter which is excreted by
thefe organs. The nature of the procefs is the fame
as in univalve {hells of a fpiral form. The diverfity
only appears in the difference of the organs and ftruc-
ture of the animals which inhabit different fliells. To
a fimilar procefs may be aferibed the foinnation of ftrice,
Of feales, and of various excavations which fometimes
accompany them.
Sect. V. OJ' the ProduBian of Pearls.
Pearl four.d IN treating of the conftituent-parts of fliells, it was
in mother- obferved, that the compofition of the pearl appears,
of-pearl fre/m analyfis, to be preerfeJy the fame as the mother-
ftidis. of-pearl, or thofe. fhells in which the pearl is ufually
found. From this we muft conclude, that the pearl,
and the mother-of-pearl, are produced by the famefecre-
tion. It appears, from the obfervations of naturalifts,
awd-indeed it fnight have been expected, from tire fi-
•rtiilarity of compofition, that all teftaceous animals,
%hdfe ffiefls'come under the defeription of mother-cf-
jtearl, -oecfitionaily produce pearls.
O L O G Y, Chap. 1
Different opinions have been entertained with regard OftheCcj
to the caufe of the formation of this precious produc- ftih>ent'
tion. According to fome, it is merely a morbid con-<; ^|r:so
cretion, formed within fome part of the body of thc els,&
animal, or at leaft within the (hell, without any ap- |
parent external injury j while others fuppofe that it is
only owing to wounds which the {hell, or the animal, or
both, have received from accidental caufes, or from the
aftioh of infeeb, or fome teftaceous animal, making
perforations in the {hell. It is not improbable that
pearls may be formed in both ways. m
Every day’s experience informs us, that fimilar con-Suppofed j
cretions are formed in different cavities of the bodiest0 be m«
of other animals ; but without any obvious caufe or ex- ^con'
ternal injury. The formation of fuch concretions, as,CrfctKmS’ i
for inftance, biliary and urinary calculi, producing the
moft excruciating diforders in the human body, are too
fatally known. Thefe concretions, no doubt, owe
their origin to the difeafed Or unhealthy aftion of the
veffels feereting the fluids in which they are formed.
By this difeafed aftion producing a fuperabundance of
the matter which enters into the compofition of the
concretion; or this matter in the fluid ftate meeting
with fome folid body, which becomes a nucleus, is at¬
tracted by it, and depofited in concentric layers, till
the concretion acquires a larger or fmaller fize, ac¬
cording to the duration and quantity of the fecretion
and depofition. In the fame way, it feems extremely
probable the pearl may be frequently formed j the
matter of which it is compofed being conftantly fecreted
by the animal for the production of the new part of
the ffiell. If then this matter ffiould at any time be
produced in greater quantity than what is neceffary to
form the inner layers of the {hell, and particularly if it
ffiould meet with a folid particle of any body, it will
be attracted by it, and thus conftitute the rudhneiits of
a pearl, which will receive conftant additions of con¬
centric layers, and increafe in fize in proportion to the
age of the animal and the quantity of matter depofited.
Pearls, it is faid, have been found within the body of
the animal. If this be true, the pearly matter, in its
paffage through the veffels of the body, muft have met
with fome nucleus, around which the concentric lay¬
ers have been formed. In moft cafes, however, the
pearl is found loofe in the ffiell, entirely detached from
the animal. It muft then have been formed of the
matter which was thrown out of the body j but it is
not unlikely that pearls are formed both ways, or that
the fame pearl may be partly formed within the body
of the animal, and be afterwards excluded, and arrive
at its utmoft fize, while it remains loofe in the {hell. I2, I
But, according to others, the pearl owes its forma-or formed i
tion to fome external injury. The following feems to from ex-
be a pretty diftinCl view of this opinion. When Fau-‘enial in' I
jas de. St Fond vifited Loch Tay, he was led to make^ury’
fome inquiries concerning the pearl-filhery, which had
been carried on in feveral parts of the river Tay for
fome years.^ Shells were brought to him ; and in thefe
fhells the fiffiermen pretended to find pearls, which
they expefted to fell at a higher rate, as they were
found in the prefence of the traveller. But he informs
us, that they attempted to impofe on him, by intro¬
ducing a pearl fecretly into the {hells as they opened
them. Obferving this circumftance, he told them that
he could know at once, by examining the outfide of
J the
CP-VL
|ie Ha-the (hell, before opening it, whether it contained any
^ on of pearl. He mentions this to introduce fome fpeeula-
h'l’ ^'tions concerning its formation. When no perforation
“ ' ' J or callolity appeared on the outfide, he concluded that
there was no pearl in the fhell. The pearhfilh, he
fuppofes, is attacked by two clafles of enemies. One
is what lie calls the auger-worm, which penetrates in¬
to the iniide near the edge of the valve, by making a
longitudinal paffage between the layers of the fhell.
The length of the channel is one inch, or one inch
and a half when it doubles back in a line parallel to
the firft. At the inner extremity there is a Imall cir¬
cular portion, formed by the worm in turning round.
Thefe excavations are in the pearly part of the fhell.
The pearly juice, extravafating, forms protuberances
in the fame dire&ion; and the cylindrical bodies which
are thus formed, may be confidered as elongated pearls
adhering to the internal furface. When leveral worms
of this kind unite their labours by penetrating near each
other, the refult is a kind of pearly wen with irregular
protuberances.
Another fea-worm, which he fays belongs to the
multivalves, a fpecies of pholas, alfo attacks the pearl
fhells. The fhell of this fpecies of pholas, has a hinge
in the form of a crooked bill, as he faw in fome fpe-
eies of oyfter, which he examined, from the coaft of
Guinea. The hole was of the fhape of a pear. Pearls
of this fhape have been found, and have been held in
great eflimation. Obferving this circumftance, artifi¬
cial perforations are made in the fhell, and this forces
the animal to produce pearls. In fome fhells brought
from China, this artificial hole has been obferved filled
up with brafs wire, rivetted on the outfide like a nail,
and the inner extremity of the wire was covered with
a well-formed pearl, which feemed as if foldered to its
s iv. extremity *.
r! i* Pearls are alfo produced by another artificial pro-
cefs. The fhell is opened with great care to avoid in¬
juring the animal, and a fmall portion of the internal
furface of the fhell is fcraped off. In its place is infert-
477
ed a fpherical piece of mother-of-pearl, about the fize Of the Hs-
of a fmall grain of lead fhot. This ferves as a nu*
eleus, on which is depofited the pearly fluid, and in “’ .
time forms a pearl. Experiments of this kind have
been made in Finland, and have been repeated in other
countries. I24
A remarkable difcovery has been afcribed to Lin-Difco^ery
nseus refpefting the generation of pearls. This was a of UnMenz.
method which he found out, of putting the pearl-muffel
(mya rnargaritifera) into a Hate of producing pearls at
his pleafure. It was fome years before the final effeft
could take place j but, in five or fix years after the
operation, the pearl, it is faid, had acquired the fize
of a vetch. But it does not feem to be known in what
this operation confifted. Whether it confifted in imi¬
tating the procefs of infefts, by wounding the fhell
from the outfide, or by following the other procefs, by
fcraping away part of the inner layer ; nor is it much
known what have been the effefts of this operation, or
whether it has turned to any account, or indeed is at
all pra&ifed in Sweden or any of the northern ftates,
w^here it muft have been originally known. For this
difcovery, however, the Swedilh naturalift, it is faid,
was railed to the rank of nobility, and otherw ife libe¬
rally rewarded by the ftates of the kingdom.
The value which is put on the pearl depends on its
fize, colour, fhape, and purity. The largeft pearls
are always held in the higheft eflimation, when their
other qualities are in any degree of perfeftion. The
fineft fhape of the pearl muft be quite globular 5 it
muft be of a clear brilliant white, fmooth, and gloffy,
and entirely free from fpot or ftain. Pearls were great¬
ly efteemed and much fought after by the Romans.
Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus, we are inform¬
ed, prefented a pearl to Caefar, which was valued at
50,000!. fterling ; and Cleopatra diffolved one, which
is faid to have been worth 250,000!. fterling, in vine¬
gar, which the drank at a fupper with Mark An¬
tony.
CONCHOLOGY.
CHAP. VI. OF THE HABITATION OF TESTACEOUS ANIMALS, METHODS
OF FISHING, COLLECTING, &c.
TO the detailed account which we have now given
of the natural hiftory of teftaceous animals, and parti¬
cularly of the formation and growth of the fhell, we
have only to add a few obfervations concerning their
habitation, the methods of fifliing, colle£ling, and pre-
ferving them. Thefe topics fhall be the fubje£t of the
following feftions.
Sect. I. Of the Habitation of Tefaceous Animals.
ti'S
id on Testaceous animals are found on every part of the
y part furface of the globe. Some are inhabitants of the land,
while others only frequent rivers and lakes, and a third
and numerous clafs live in the ocean. From this a claf-
fification of fhells has been formed, and they have been
divided into land, frefh-wrater, and fea {hells. But
whatever difference might exift in the habits and eco¬
nomy of teftaceous animals which are produced in
places fo different, it affords few marks of difcrimina-
tion for the purpofe of claflification. .
Land fhells are fpread over the whole furface of ti.e fa.
earth, and although more acceflible, are perhaps lefaverr
known than thofe which inhabit the ocean. From thtryat
fmall number of land fhells which have been collected,
it would appear at firft fight that they are left nume¬
rous than marine fhells. This, however, feems not to
be the cafe with regard to the number of fpecies . ar.d
it is w ell know n, that the number of individuals of land
fhells, in fome inftances, far exceeds that of fea flvfti--
The fea fhells of the Mediterranean have been obferved
by naturalifts, to be nearly the fame from the ftraits of
Gibraltar to the ifland of Sicily; but the land fheils of
Languedoc are different from thofe of Provence, ct
Dauphiny, Piedmont, and different parts of liar. .
Some are found in Spain, in Corfica, in Sardinia and
Sicily, winch are not to be met with in other place- ;
1
GONCHOLOGY.
Of the Ha-and ffom tlie great variety and number of land (hells,
fliehs^&cf ^ ^eems many of them are yet unknown.
Chap.
Sheik mod
beautiful
within the
tropics.
I«8
Shells
found in
Alia.
119
In Ame-
But let us now take a general view of thofe places of
the world where different tellaceous animals are raoft
frequently found.
It has been already obferved, that light and heat have
very confiderable influence in adding to the fplendour of
the colours of fliells. The moft beautiful (hells are found
in countries between the tropics, where they are more
immediately fubjeft tuthe direct rays of the fun, and
a higher temperature. From thefe caufes the (hells
produced in thefe countries have a luftre and brilliancy
whiph thofe of colder climates never pofiefs.
The (hores of Ada furnifli us with the pearl-oyfters
and fcallops in great perfeff ion. About Amboyna are
found the moft beautiful fpecimens of the cabbage-fhell,
the arrofoir, the ducal mantle, and the coral oyfters, or
echinated oyfters. Here alfo are found a great variety
of extremely beautiful muffels, tellinae and volutae j
fome few buccinums, and the (hell called the Ethiopian
crown, in its greateft perfe&ion. The dolia, the mu-
rices, and the caffandrse, are alfo found on thefe coafts
in great beauty. Many elegant fnails and fcrew'-ftiells
are alfo brought from thence j and finally, the fcorpion
and fpider fliells. The Maidive and Philippine iflands,
Bengal, andthecoaft of Malabar, abound with the moft
elegant of all the fpecies of fnails, and furnifti many o-
ther kinds of (hells in great abundance and perfection.
China abounds in the fined fpecies of porcelain (hells,
and has alfo a great variety of beautiful fnails. Japan
furnifties us with all the thicker and larger bivalves j
and the ifle of Cyprus is famous above all other parts
of the world for the beauty and variety of the patella
or limpet found there.
America affords many very elegant (hells, but not
in fo great abundance or beauty as the fhores of Alia.
Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we
have befide, from the fame place, fome good porcelains
and a very fine fpecies of dolium, or concha glohofa, call¬
ed from this place the Panama purple Jbeil. One of the
moft beautiful of the cylinders is alfo known among our
naturalifts under the name of the Panama Jbeil. About
Brafil, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are found mu-
srices and dolia of extreme beauty j and alfo a great va¬
riety of porcelains, purpurae, peftens, neritae, bucardiae
or heart-fhells, and elegant limpets. The ifle of Cay¬
enne affords one of the moft beautiful of the buccinum
kind, and the Midas ear is found principally about this
place. Jamaica and the ifland of Barbadoes have their
(bores covered with porcelains, chamae, and buccina 5
and at St Domingo there are found almoft all the fame
fpecies of (hells that we have from the Eaft Indies 5 only
they are lefs beautiful, and the colours more pale and
dead. The pearl-oyfter is found alfo on this coaft, but
fmaller than in the Perfian gulf. At Martinico there
are found in general the fame (hells as at St Domingo,
but yet lefs beautiful. About Canada are found the
violet chamae j and the lakes of that country abound
with muffels of very elegant pale blue and pale
red colours. Same fpecies of thefe are remarkably
light and thin ; others are very thick and heavy. The
Great Bank of Newfoundland is very barren in (hells $
the principal kind found there are muffels of feveral
fpecies, fome of which are of confiderable beauty. A-
Bout Carthagena there are many mother-of-pearl (hells,
but they are not of fo brilliant colours as thofe of the Of th
Perfian gulf. The ifland of Magellan, at the fouthern bi^
point of America, furnhhes us with a very remarkable Shelli I
fpecies of muffel called by its name j and feveral very'
elegant fpecies of limpets are found there, particularly
the pyramidal. t
In Africa, on the coaft of Guinea, there is a prodi- In At
gious quantity of that fmall fpecies of porcelain which
is ufed there as money; and there is another fpecies of
porcelain on the fame coaft which is all over white : the
women make bracelets of the latter, and the people of
the Levant adorn their hair with them. The coaft of
Zanguebar is very rich in (hells $ we find there a vaft
variety of the large porcelains, many of them of great
beauty $ and the nux mans or fea nut is very frequent
there. Befide thefe, and many other (hells, there are
found on this coaft all the fpecies of nautili, many of
which are very beautiful. The Canary ides abound
with a vaft variety of the murices, and fome other
good (hells j and we have from Madeira great variety
of the echini or fea-eggs, different from thofe of the
European feas. Several (pecies of muffels are alfo com¬
mon there, and the fea-ears are nowhere more abundant.
The Red fea is beyond all other parts of the world
abundant in (hells, fcarcely any kind is wanting there 5
but what we principally have from thence are the pur¬
puras, porcolains, and echini marini. r
The Mediterranean and Northern ocean contain'a in tk
great variety of (hells, and many of very remarkable ele-diterr
gance and beauty j they are upon the whole, however,nean'
greatly inferior to thofe of the Eaft Indies. The Me¬
diterranean abounds much more in (hells than the o-
cean. The gulf of Tarentum affords great variety of
purpuras, of porcelains, nautili, and elegant oyfters ; the
coafts of Naples and Sardinia afford alfo the fame, and
with them a vaft number of the folens of all the known
fpecies. The ifland of Sicily is famous for a very ele¬
gant kind of oyfter which is entirely white ; pinnae ma-
rinae and porcelains are alfo found in great plenty there,
with tellinae and chamae of many fpecies, and a great
variety of other beautiful (hells. Corfica is famous,
beyond all other places, for vaft quantities of the pinnae
marinas; and many other beautiful (hells are found
there. About Syracufe are found the gondola (hell,
the winged murex, and a great variety of elegant fnails,
with fome of the tuns and nerites. The Adriatic fea,
or gulf of Venice, is lefs furniftied with (hells than al-
moft any of the feas thereabout. Muffels and oyfters
of feveral fpecies are however found there, arid fome
of the cordiform or heart (hells j there are alfo fome
tellinae. About Ancona there are vaft numbers of
the pholades buried in done} and the fea-ears are par¬
ticularly frequent about PuzZoli. {Bonani Recreat.
Ment. et Ocull) r
The ports of Marfeilles, Toulon, and Antibes, areontf
full of pinnae marinae, mufcles, tellinae, and chamae. coaft
The coafts of Bretagne afford great numbers of the ^ran<
conchae anatiferae and pouffe-pieds j they are found on
old rotten boards, on fea fubftances, and among clu-
fters of fponges. The other ports of France, as
Rochelle, Dunkirk, Breft, St Maloes, and others, fur-
nilh oyfters excellent for the table, but of the com¬
mon kind, and of no beauty in their (hells j great
numbers of muffels are alfo found there j and the com¬
mon tellinafy the onion-peel oyfters, the folens, and
conch»
Sic
r ip. VI. CONCH
e Ha-conchas anatiferae, are alfo frequent there. At Gran-
b [ion of yille, in Lower Normandy, there are found very fceau-
>h!i> Scc; tiful pe£lens, and feme of the cordiform or heart-
' (hells.
,f tain. Our own Englifh coafts are not the lead fruitful in
{hells, though they do not produce fuch elegantly
painted ones as the Indies. About Plymouth are
found oyilers, muffels, and folens, in great abun¬
dance ; and there, and on mod of our Ihores, are
numbers of the aures marinae and dentalia, with pec-
tens, which are excellent food j and many elegant
fpecies of the chamae and tellinae are fidied up in the
fea about Scarborough and other places. Ireland af¬
fords us great number of muffels, and fome very ele¬
gant fcallop-lhells in great abundance, and the pholades
are frequent on mod of our diores. We have alfo
great variety of the buccina and cochleae, fome volu-
tae •, and, on the Guernfey coad, a peculiarly beautiful
^ fnail, called thence the Guernfey fnail.
oi iain The coads of Spain and Portugal afford much the
Porta- fame fpecies of (hells rviththe Ead Indies, but they are
of much fainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty.
There are, according to Tavernier and others, fome ri¬
vers in Bavaria in which there are found pearls of a fine
water. About Cadiz there are found very large pinnae
marinae, and fome fine buccina. The ides of Majorca
and Minorca afford great variety of extremely elegant
(hells. The pinnae marinae are alfo very numerous
there, and their filk is wrought into gloves, dockings,
and other things. The Baltic affords a great many
beautiful fpecies, but particularly an orange-coloured
peften, or fcallop-diell, which is not found in any other
part of the world.
f h-wa- The frefii-Avater (hells are found much more fre-
t hells, quently, and in much greater plenty than the fea
kinds; there is fcarce a pond, a ditch, or river of
frefli water in any part of the world, in which there
are not found vad numbers of thefe (hells with the
fi(h living in them. All thefe (hells are fmall, and
they are of very little beauty, being ufually of a plain
grayifii or brownidi colour. Our ditches afford us
chamae, buccina, neritae, and fome patellae •, but the
Nile, and fome other rivers, furnilhed the ancients with
a fpecies of tellina which was large and eatable, and fo
much fuperior to the common fea tellina in flavour,
that it is commonly known by the name of tellina regia,
“ the royal tellina.” We have a fmall fpecies of bucci-
num common in our fredi waters, which is very ele¬
gant, and ahvays has its operculum in the manner of
the larger buccina $ a fmall kind of muffel is alfo very
common, which is fo extremely thin and tender, that it
can hardly be handled v/ithout breaking to pieces. The
large fiefh-water muffel, commonly called in England
the ho fe-muffel, nn/a margantifera, is too rvell known
to need a defeription ; and the fize fufficiently didin-
guifhes it from all other fre(h-wrater (hells.
Sect. II. Of the Methods of Fijhing and Collecling
Shells.
id fhe"s. Land (hells are immediately within the reach of the
hand of the eolleftor, as well as many fea and river
(hells, which inhabit (hallow waters, or attach them-
felves to rocks or marine plants on the diores of the
ocean. Thofe (hells which are at moderate depths in
O L O G Y. 479
the fea, are to be collected by dredging. But iff what- Of the Ha’
ever way (hells are found, thofe are always to be pre-
fei red which dill contain the living animal 5 for then,
not onfy fome information may be obtained with regard
to its drufture and natural hiltory, but the diells them-
felves are in all their natural beauty, and the full glow 137
of their colours. Thofe (hells too (hould be preferred, Sea IheLs.
which are procured from the deeper parts of the ocean,
becaufe they have then arrived at the larged fize, and
are in the greated perfe£tion. But thele are beyond
the reach of man, and are only accidentally found on
the (hores:after dorms, or attached to fea-weeds which
have been torn from the rocks by the agitation of the
waves. 138
When (hells are found with the animal alive 5 theMtthcdcf
method recommended to dedroy it and feparate it t^e
tirely from the (hell, is to boil it in water for a very an“1Tl‘w
(hort time, and after allowing it to cool gradually, to
lay it in cold water till it is cleaned. By this procefs,
the attachment between the (hell and animal is de-
droyed, and the latter, which has become hard arid
contradled, is eafily picked out from its covering.
The (hell, after this treatment, is ready to be placed
in the cabinet, or to be poliihed in the way we (hall
prefently deferibe, according to the date in which it
is found, or the views of the collector. ,39
As the pearl has been held in high edimation in all Pearl-ttfi-
ages of the world, and as it is an important objeft ofeO*
commerce in many parts of it, the hidory of the pearl
filhery, or of thofe (hell fi(h which produce the pearl,
cannot fail to be intereding. j^0
In different parts of Britain the pearl-fi(hery hasin Britain-
been carried on to a confiderable extent} and in fome
places it has been reckoned of fuch value, that go¬
vernment has granted the right of fidiing to indivi¬
duals by patent. By a grant of this kind, Sir John
Hawkins obtained the privilege of fidiing for pearls in
the river Irt in Cumberland 5 and Buchan of Auch-
macoy feems to have held, by a fimilar right, the foie
privilege of the pearl-fifliery near the mouth of the ri¬
ver Ythan in Abevdeenihire ; for it appears that this
grant was refumed by government in 1633, in the fird
parliament of Charles I. In the fame river, at the
didance of 10 miles from the fea, a fuccefsful fidiery
of pearls has been frequently carried on } and a
few years ago, in the river Cluny in the fame county,
a Jew' employed a number of people to colledl the muf-
fds which contained them, and fome large and valu¬
able pearls were found. Some years ago, in the river
Teath in Perthdiire, the pearls which were got brought
about 1 col. derling to thofe employed in fearching for
them, in the couife of one (eafon. It was obferved,
that thofe muffels only which were crooked and didoxt-
ed, yielded pearls. The method which has been prac-
tifed in this river for fidiing the pearl muffel, is the
following. The fiftierman provides himfelf ivith an
indrument formed of two iron plates or fipoons, having
fomething of the (hape of the mufiel. Each of thefe
is attached to an eladic handle of the fame metal, ter¬
minating in an open tube, which is fixed to the end of
a long wooden handle. The concave (ides of the plates
approach other, and are kept in clofe contaft by the
eladicity of the handles. With this indrument the fifh-
erman enters the water, and direfts his eourfe to thofe
places which he fuppofes are reforted to by the muf¬
fels.
1
480 C O N C II
Of the Ha-fels. Thefe he difcoven tvitli his feet, and having
•firm rv A
Shells, &c.
bitatien of foun(j one? j^g pre{fes the inftrument upon it, the plates
141
In Ceylon.
or valves of which, in confequence ot the eiafticity of
the handles, feparate, and then grafp it firmly. In
this way he can detach it from the place to which it
adheres, and bring it to the furface of the water. The
pearl-muffel is a native of many other of the rivers of
Scotland, as of the Elk in Forfarlhire, where a pearl
was found of the fize of a- piftol bullet, and fold for 4I.
fterling 5 of the Devon in Clackmannanlhire, the
Clyde, and of Loch Ken in Galloway, where it is faid
great numbers of pearls are filhed in dry fummers, ma¬
ny of which fell from one (hilling to one guinea. But
the greateft pearl-filhery which has ever been eftablilh-
ed in Scotland, of which there is any record, is that
of the river Tay, about 30 years ago. The pearl-
muffel is found in every part of this river, from its
fource in Loch Tay, to its jundtion with the fea. In
different parts of the river, but particularly in the vi¬
cinity of Perth, we are informed, that not lefs than
li,oool. worth of pearls were fent to London between
the years 1761 and 1764. They were fold from ics.
to il. 16s. per ounce. About this time one pearl was
found which weighed 33 grs. This filhery, hov'ever,
as well as the pearl-fiihery in the other rivers of Scot¬
land, feems to be greatly exhaufted, and very proba¬
bly, as it has been fuppofed, from the improvident
avarice of the undertakers, not allowing the animal to
arrive at that age which feems to be neceffary for the
produftion of pearl.
But the pearl-filhery of the warmer climates, in dif¬
ferent places of the Eall Indies, in the gulf of Perfia,
and the Red fea, and particularly that which is annual¬
ly carried on in the bay of Condatchy, in the illand of
Ceylon, is by far the mod: extenfive and moll import¬
ant of any in the world. The latter, of which we have
given a detailed account in the defcription of Ceylon,
and to which we refer our readers, has been under the
infpeftion of government fince it fell into the hands of
the Britilh, as it was under that of the Portuguefe and
Dutch, its former mailers. To the Dutch, it is faid,
while they were in poffeffion of the illand, this filhery
brought an annual tribute of 2o,oool. To the account
which has been already given of this filhery, we may
add the following, from the Afiatic Annual Regilter
for the year 1800.
“ The perfon who farmed the pearl-filhery at Cey¬
lon, lalt year, was a Tamu merchant, who for the
privilege of filhing with more than the ufual number
of donies or boats, paid between two and three hun¬
dred thoufand Porto Novo pagodas (d), a fum nearly
double the ufual rent; His excellency the honourable
Mr North, by the lall Ihijrs from Ceylon, has tranf-
mkted a very minute detail of the filhery in all its
Rages, fome of which are truly lingular and remarka¬
ble. It appears that the fear of (harks is the caufe of
a great deal of interruption to the filhery, the divers
being extremely timid and fuperfiitious ; every one of
them, even the moR expert, entertain a dread of fliarks,
and will not on any account defcend until the conjuror
has performed his ceremonies. This prejudice is fo
O L O G Y. Chap. V
deeply rooted in their minds, that the government was Of the h
obliged to keep two fuch conjurors in their pay, to re- Nation
move the fears of the divers. The manner of en-Shells’&
chanting confifls of a number of prayers learned by L ' ^
heart, that nobody, probably not even the conjuror .
himfelf, underRands, which he, flanding on the fhore,
continues muttering and grumbling from funrife until
the boats retain. During this period, they are obli¬
ged to abRain from food and fleep, otherwife their
prayers would be of no avail ; they are, however, al¬
lowed to drink, which privilege they indulge in a high
degree, and are frequently fo giddy as to be rendered
very unfit for devotion. Some of thefe conjurors ac¬
company the divers in their boats, which pleafes them
very much, as they have their protestors near at hand.
Neverthelefs, I was told, faid Mr North, that in one
of the preceding filheries, a diver lofl his leg by a
lhark ; and when the head conjuror was called to an
account for the accident, he replied, that an old witch
had juR come from the coafl, who, from envy and
malice, had caufed this difafter by a counter-conjura¬
tion, which made fruitlefs his (kill, and which he was
informed of too late 5 but he afterwards (hewed his
fuperiority, by enchanting the fharks fo effeSlually,
that, though they appeared to moR of the divers, they
were unable to open their mouths. During my flay,
continues Mr North, at Condatchy, no accident of
this kind happened. If a lhark is feen, the divers in-
flantly make a fignal, which on perceiving all the
boats return immediately. A diver who trod upon a
hammer oyfler, and was fomewhat wounded, thought
he was bit by a {hark j confequently made the uiual
fignal, which caufed all the boats to return ; for which
miflake he was afterwards punilhed. The largefl and
moR perfeSl pearl taken lafl feafon, was about the fize
of a Imall piflol bullet.”
Sect. III. Of the Methods of Poli/hing Shells.
The art of polilhing (hells has but lately reached its
prefent Rate of perfection 5 and as the admiration of
fea (hells has become fo general, it may be expected
that we Ihould give fome inflrutions in the means of
adding to their natural beauty.
Among the immenfe variety of Ihellswith which we^^,
are acquainted, fome are taken up out of the fea, or employed!
found on its Ihores, in all their perfection and beauty j
their colours being all difpofed by nature upon the fur-
face, and their natural polilh fuperior to any thing that
art could give. Where nature is in herfelf thus per-
fetj it were madnefs to attempt to add any thing to
her charms : but in others, where the beauties are la¬
tent and covered with a coarfer outer Ikin, art is to be
called in ; and the outer veil being taken off, all the
internal beauties appear.
Among the Ihells which are found naturally polilhed
are the porcelains, or cowries ; the caffanders ; the do-
lia, or concha; globofae, or tuns; fome buccina; the vo¬
lutes and the cylinders, or olives, or, as they are gene¬
rally though improperly called, the rhotnbi; excepting
only two or three, as the tiara, the plumb, and the
butter-tub
(d) Perhaps near 1.00,cool, flerling. The pagoda is from 7s. to 8s. 6d. flerling
p. VI. CONCH
Ha- butter-tub rhombus, where there is an unpromifing
film on the furface, hiding a very great fhare of beau-
C* ty within. Though the generality of the fhells of
thefe genera are taken out of the fea in all their beau¬
ty, and in their utmoft natural polilh, there are feve-
ral other genera, in which all or moft of the fpecies
are taken up naturally rough and foul, and covered
with an epidermis, or coarfe outer Ikin, which is in
many rough and downy or hairy. The tellinae, the
muffels, the cochleae, and many others, are of this
kind. The more nice collectors, as naturalifts, inlilt
upon having all their Ihells in their native and genuine
appearance, as they are found when living at fea but
others who make collections, hate the difagreeable
outfides, and will have all fuch poliihed. It would be
very advifable, however, for both kinds of collectors to
have the fame Ihells in different fpeeimens both rough
and polifhed : the naturalift would by this means, be-
fides knowing the outfide of the Ihell, be better ac¬
quainted with its internal characters than he otherwife
could be ; while thofe who with to have them poliihed,
mignt compare the beauties of the Ihell, in its wrought
Hate, to its coarfe appearance as nature gives it. How
many elegancies in this part of the creation mult be
wholly loft to us, if it were not for the alliltance of an
art of this kind ! Many Ihells in their native Hate are
like rough diamonds ; and we can form no juft idea of
their beauties till they have been polilhed and wrought
into form.
Though the art of polifhing fhells is a very valuable
one, yet it is very dangerous to the Ihells ; for without
the utmoft care, the means ufed to polilh and beautify
a Ihell often w'holly deftroy it. When a Ihell is to be
polilhed, the firft thing to be examined, is w hether it
have naturally a fmooth furface, or be covered w ith tu¬
bercles and prominences.
fea- A which has a fmooth furface, and a natural
dull polilh, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with
a piece of chamoy leather, with fome tripoli, or fine
rotten ftone, and it will become of a perfectly bright and
fine polilh. Emery is not to be ufed on this occafion,
becaufe it wears away too much of the Ihell. This
operation requires the hand of an experienced perfon,
that knows how fuperficial the work muft be, and where
he is to flop ; for in many of thefe Ihells the lines are
only on the furface, and the wearing away ever fo little
of the Ihell defaces them. A fhell that is rough, foul,
and crufty, or covered with a tartareous coat, muft be
left a whole day fteeping in hot water: wEen it has im¬
bibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed with
rough emery on a ftick, or with the blade of a knife,
m order to get off the coat. After this, it may be
dipped in diluted aquafortis, fpirit of fait, or any other
acid ; and after remaining a feu’ moments in it, be again
plunged into common water. This will add greatly to
the fpeed of the work. After this it is to be well
rubbed with linen cloths, impregnated with common
f'ap • and when by thefe feveral means it is made per-
fe&ly clean, the poliihing is to be finilhed with fine
emery and a hair-brufh. If after this the {hell when
ory appears not to have fo good a polifh as was defired,
it muft be rubbed over with a folution of gum arabic j
snd this will add greatly to its glofs, without doing it
the fmalleft injury. T he gum-water muft not be too
‘--nek, and then it gives no fenfible coat, only heigEten-
Ve>L. VI. Part II. 6
O L O G Y. 481
ing the colours. The white of an egg anfwers this pur- Of die Ha-
poie alio very well ; but it is fubject to turn yellow. r'^
If the Ihell has an epidermis, which will by no means .
admit the polifhing ot it, it is to be dipped feveral times
in diluted aquafortis, that this may be eaten oft' j and
then the Ihell is to be polifhed in the ufual way with
putty, fine emery, or tripoli, on the hair of a fine brufh.
When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours, the
{hell muft: be fteeped in hot water, and after that the
{kin worked oft’ by degrees with an old file. This is
the cafe with feveral o{ the cylinders, which have net
the natural polilh of the reft.
When a Ihell is covered with a thick and fatty epi¬
dermis, as is the cafe with leveral of the muffels and
tellinse } in this cafe aquafortis will do no ferviee, as it
will not touch the {kin : then a rough brufh and coarfe
emery are to be ufed 5 and if this does not fucceed, .T'!4
feal-fkin, or, as the workmen call it, Jijh-Jkin and pu- mice-ftone.
mice-Jlone, are to be employed.
W hen a {hell has a thick cruft, which will not give
way to any of thefe means, the only way left is to
plunge it leveral times into ftrong aquafortis, till the
itubborn cruft is wholly eroded. The limpets, auris
marina, the helmet-lhells, and feveral other fpecies of
this kind, muft have this fort of management $ blit as
the defign is to {how the hidden beauties under the
cruft, and not to deftroy the natural beauty and polifti
of the infide of the {hell, the aquafortis muft be uled in
this manner : A long piece of wax muft be provided,
and one end of it made perfedlly to cover the whole
mouth of the {hell ; the other end wdll then ferve as a
handle, and the mouth being {topped by the w ax, the
liquor cannot get into the infide to fpoil it j then there
muft be placed on a table a veffel full of aquafortis, and
another full of common water.
The {hell is to be plunged into the aquafortis j and With acids,
after remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken
out, and plunged into the common water. The pro-
grels the aquafortis makes in eroding the furface is
thus to be carefully obferved every time it is taken
out: the point of the {hell, and any other tender parts,
are to be covered with wax, to prevent the aquafortis
from eating them awray} and if there be any worm-
holes, they alfo muft be flopped up with wax, other-
wife the aquafortis would i’oon eat through in thofe
places. When the repeated dippings into the aqua¬
fortis {how that the coat is fufticiently eaten away,
then the {hell is to be wrought carefully with fine
emery and a brufh ; and when it is polifhed as high as
can be by this means, it muft be wiped clean, and
rubbed over with-gum-water or the white of an egg.
In this fort of wrork the operator muff always have the
caution to wear gloves ; otherwife the leaft touch of
the aquafortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yel¬
low ; and often, if it be not regarded, will eat off the
{kin and the nails.
Thefe are the methods to be ufed w'ith {hells which
require but a moderate quantity of the furface to be
taken off; but there are others which require to have a
larger quantity removed, and to be uncovered deeper :
this is called entirely fealing a {hell. This is done by
means of- a horizontal wheel of lead or tin, impreg¬
nated with rough emery ; and the {hell is-vrough! down
in the fame manner in which ftones are w rought by the
lapidary. Nothing is more -difficult, however, than the
3 P performing
48 2
Of the Ha¬
bitation of
Shells, Stc.
146
Some (hells
ate dif-
guifed by
pol ifhing,
fuch as
M7
the onyx-
fheil.
148
Violet
(hells.
CONCH
perforiTiiitg tliis work with nicety : very often {hells are
cut down too far by it, and wholly {polled ; and to
; avoid this, a coarfe vein muft be often left Handing in
forne place, and taken down afterwards with the file,
when the cutting it down at the v'heel would have
fpoiled the adjacent parts.
After the {hell is thus cut down to a proper degree,
it is to be polilhed with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten
Hone, with a wooden wheel turned by the fame machine
as a leaden one, or by the common method of working
with the hand with the fame ingredients. When a
/hell is full of tubercles or protuberances which muft
be preferved, it is then impoffible to ufe the wheel :
and if the common way of dipping into aquafortis be
attempted, the tubercles being harder than the reft of
the fhell, will be corroded before the reft is fufReiently
fcaled, and the (hell will be fpoiled. In this cafe, in-
duftry and patience are the only means of effe&ing a
poliih. A camels-hair pencil muft be dipped in aqua¬
fortis j and with this the intermediate parts of the {hell
muft be w etted, leaving the protuberances dry : this is
to be often repeated ; and after a few moments the {hell
is always to be plunged into water to flop the erofion
of the acid, which would otherwife eat too deep, and
deftroy the beauty of the {hell. When this has fuffici-
ently taken off the foulnefs of the {hell, it is to be po¬
lilhed with emery of the fineft kind, or with tripoli, by
means of a fmall ftick ; or the common poliftung-ftone
ufed by the goldfmiths may be ufed.
. 'I'his is a very tedious and troublefome thing, efpe-
cially when the echinated oyfters and murices, and
fome other fuch {hells, are to be wrought : and what is
worft of all is, that when all this labour has been em¬
ployed, the bufinefs is not well done ; for there ftill
remain feveral places which could not be reached by
any inftrument, fo that the {hell muft neceffarily be
rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg
artenvards, in order to bring out the colours and give
a glofs j in fome cafes it is even neceffary to give a
coat of varnifh.
Thefe are the means ufed by artifts to brighten the
colours and add to the beauty of {hells; and the
changes produced by polithing in this manner are fo
great, that the fhell can fcarcely be knowm afterwards
to be the fame it was; and hence we hear of new {hells
in the cabinets of collectors, which have no real exif-
tence^ as feparate fpecies, but are {hells w'ell known,
difguifed by polilhing. To caution the reader againft
errors of this kind, it may be proper to add the moft re¬
markable fpecies thus ufually altered.
_ The onyx-fhell or volute, called the purple or violet-
tip, which in its natural ftate is of a fimple pale brown,
vdien it is wrought {lightly, or polilhed with juft the
fuperfices taken off, is of a fine bright yellow' ; and
when it is eaten away deeper, it appears of a fine milk-
white, with the lower part bluifti : it is in this ftate
that it is called the onyx-Jhell; and it is preferved in
many cabinets in its rough ftate, and in its yellow ap¬
pearance, as different fpecies of {hells.
The violet fhell, fo common among the curious, is
a fpecies of porcelain, or common cowry, which does
not appear in that elegance till it has been polilh-
ed } and the common fea-ear ftiows itfelf in two or
three different forms, as it is more or lefs deeply
wrought. In its rough ftau it is dv#y and coaife; of
OLOGY. Chap, \
a pale brown on the outfide, and pearly within ; when Of the
it is eaten down a little way below the furface, it {hows bitatio,
variegations of black and green j and w'hen ftill farther ShellV
eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within and
without.
The nautilus, w'hen it is polilhed down, appears allNautfJ
over of a fine pearly colour ; but rvhen it is eaten
away but to a fmall depth, it appears of a fine yellowifh
colour with dufky hairs. The burgau, when entirely
cleared of its coat, is of the moft beautiful pearl co¬
lour : but when {lightly eroded, it appears of a va¬
riegated mixture of green and red j whence it has
been called the parroquet Jhell. The common helmet-
Ihell, when wrought, is of the colour of the fineft
agate j and the muffels, in general, though very plain
{hells in their common appearance, become very beau¬
tiful when poliftied, and ftiow large veins of the moft
elegant colours. The Perfian {hell, in its natural ftate,
is all over white, and covered with tubercles j but when
it has been ground down on a wheel, and poliftied, it
appears of a gray colour, with fpots and veins of a
very bright and highly poliflied white. The limpets, in
general, become very different when poliftied, moft of
them {bowing very elegant colours 5 among thefe the
tortoife-ftiell limpet is the principal 5 it does not appear
at all of that colour or tranfparence till it has been
wrought.
That elegant fpecies of {hell called the jorquil-cha- Jq^i.
ma, which has deceived fo many judges of thefe thingschama.
into an opinion of its being a new fpecies, is only a
white chama with a reticulated furface; but when this
is poliftied, it lofes at once its reticular work and its
colour, and becomes perfedtly fmooth, and of a fine
bright yellow'. The violet-coloured chama of New
England, when worked down and poliftied, is of a fine
milk-white, with a great number of blue veins, difpo-
fed like the variegations in agates.
The affes-ear Jhell, when poliftied after working it^Affi
down with the file, becomes extremely gloffy, and ob-earlheUj
tains a fine rofe-colour all about the mouth. Thefe, are
fome of the moft frequent among an endlefs variety of
changes wrought on (hells by poli filing •, and we find
there are many of the very greateft beauties of this part
of the creation which muft have been loft but for this
method of Parching deep in the fubftance of the fliell
for them.-
The Dutch are very fond of ftiells, and are veryDuAfj
nice in their manner of working them ; they are under thod oiT
no reftraint, how ever, in their w orks j but ufe the moft lifting
violent methods' fo as often to deftroy all the beauty of^1^'
the {hell. They file them down on all fides, and often
take them to the wheel, when it muft deftroy the very
characters of the fpecies. Nor do they flop here :
but determined to have beauty at any rate, they are
for improving upon nature, and frequently add fome
lines and colours with a pencil, afterwards covering
them with a fine coat of varnifti, fo that they feem the
natural lineations of the (hell: the Dutch cabinets are
by thefe means made very beautiful, but they are by
no means to be regarded as inftruCtors in natural hif-
tory. There are fome artificers of this nation who have
a w'ay of covering {hells all over with a different tinge
from that which nature gives them j and the curious
are often enticed by thefe tricks to purchafe them for
new fpecies.
There
>. VI.
ia- There is another kind of work bellowed on certain
!°f fpecies of fhells, particularly the nautilus j namely, the
'*c\ engraving on it lines and circles, and figures of ftars,
and other things. This is too obvious a work of art
to fuffer any one to fuppofe it natural. Buonani has
figured feveral of thefe wrought Ihells at the end of his
work } but this was applying his labour to very lit¬
tle purpofe ; the (hells are fpoiled as objefts of natural
hiftory by it.—They are principally done in the Eafc
Indies.
c- Shells are fubject to feveral imperfections j fome of
which are natural and others accidental. The natural
a" defeCls ai‘e the effeCt of age, or fickneis in the fifn. The
td greate^ nrifchief happens to (hells by the fiih dying in
them. The curious in thefe things pretend to be al¬
ways able to diftinguifia a (hell taken up with the filh
alive from one found on the (hores : they call the firll
a living, the fecond a dead (hell } and fay that the co¬
lours are always much fainter in the dead (hells. When
the (hells have lain long dead on the (hores, they
are fubjeCl to many injuries, of which the being eaten
by fea-worms is not the lead ; age renders the fined
(hells livid or dead in their colours.
483
Befides the imperfeftions auifing from age and fick-Cfi the Ha-
nefs in the filh, (hells are fubjeCl to other deformities,
fueh as morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts , ^ ‘ J '
where there diould be none. When the (hell is va¬
luable, thefe faults may be hid, and much added to the
beauty of the fpecitnen, without at all injuring it as
an objeft of natural hidory, which (hould always be the
great end of collecling thefe things. The cavities may
be filled up with madic, diffolved in fpirit of wine, or
with ifinglafs : thefe fubdances mud be either coloured
to the tinge of the diell, or elfe a pencil dipped in wa¬
ter-colours mud finifh them up to the refemblance of
the red ; and then the whole (hell being rubbed over
with gum-water, or with the white of an egg, fcarce
any eye can perceive the artifice : the fame fubdances
may alfo be ufed to repair the battered edge of a (hell,
provided the pieces chipped oft' be not too large. And
when the exerefcences of a (hell are faulty, they are to
betaken down with a fine file. If the lip of a (hell be
fo battered that it will not admit of repairing by any
cement, the whole mud be filed down or ground on the
wheel till it become even.
CONCHOLOGY.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate CLII. Animals inhabiting Shells.
Fig. 1. Chiton acuieatus. Under part diewing the
bridly fringe.
Fig. 2. Animal inhabiting Lepas tintinnabuium.
Fig. 3. Lepas balanus.
Fig. 4. Lepas anatfera.
Fig. 5. Animal inhabiting the genus Pholas.
Fig. 6. Animal inhabiting the Mya.
Fig. 7. Animal inhabiting the So fen.
Fig. 8. Animal of the Teiluia.
Fig. 9. Animal of the Cardiutn.
Fig. ic. Animal of \h.Q MaElra.
Fig. 11. Animal inhabiting the Donax.
Fig. 1 2. Animal inhabiting the Venus.
Fig. 13. Animal of the OJirea.
Fig. 14. Chiton acuieatus. Shell with 8 valves •, a,
a, the valves longitudinally arranged, and incumbent
on the back •, b, b, the rounded (ides.
Fig. 15. Lepas anatifera. Shell having 5 valves j
a, the larger valves nearly quadrangular j b, the leffer
valves nearly triangular, at the apex of the (hell ; r,
the folitary valve, rounded, acute.
Fig. 16. Pholas daBylus. The (hell is bivalve, with
0, a, a, three fubfidiary valves; b, b, the upper extre¬
mity dotted like net-work j c, c, the fuperior tranfverfe-
ly driated.
Plate CLIII.
Fig. 17. Mya margaritifera, the pearl-bearing
muffel.
Fig. 18. Solen radiatus, radiated folen.
Fig. 19. Teliina radiala, radiated tellina.
Fig. 20. Cardium cardiffa, Venus heart cockle j a,
a, beaks approaching to each other.
Fig. 21. Ma&raJlultorum, fimple maclra.
Fig. 22. Danax denticuiata, denticulated donax.
Fig. 23. Venus jimbriata, bordered Venus (hell.
Fig. 24. Spondyius gctdaropus, ftilt fpondylus.
Fig. 25. Chama gigas, giant chama, or gapmg
cockle.—This is the larged (hell known.
Plate CLIV.
Fig. 26. Area Noce, Noah’s ark.
Fig. 27. OJirea pallium, the ducal-mantle pe£len.
Fig. 28. Anomia ephippium.
Fig. 29. Mytilus ?nargaritiferus, pearl-bearing muf¬
fel, or pearl-oyder of the Ead Indies.
Fig. 3c. Pinna muricata, muricated fea-wing.
Fig. 31. Argonauta argo, paper nautilus j a, a, the
(hell ; b, b, b, b, b, the animal protruded from the (hell,
as it moves on the furface of the water.
Plate CLV.
Fig. 32. Nautilus beccarii, chambered nautilus. A
feftion of the diell j a, a, a, the genicula ) b, b. b, the
articulations j d, d, the lateral fyphon.
Fig. 33. Cypraa lynx \ a, a, the lips turned in and
toothed ) b, the linear aperture.
Fig. 34. Cyprcea moneta, cowrie; a, a, knobbed
margin 5 b, back gibbous j e, e, prominences indead
of a fpire.
Fig. 35. Bulla ampullacea i a, back without fpire ;
b, vertex umbilicated.
Fig. 36. Valuta tnujica.; a, venter, marked with in¬
terrupted lines ; b, bafe emarginated ; c, c, wreaths
crowned at the futures with obtufe (pines j d, d, colu¬
mella or pillar, plaited j e, e, outer lip, fmooth.
Fig. 37. Buccinum liar pa, mufical-harp diell ; c,
dilated venter ; b, b, b, longitudinal varices, crowned
with c, c, c, (harp fpines.
Fig. 38. Buccinum undatum.
Fig. 39. Strombus fcorpio, fcorpion drombus j a, a,
a, back with knobby cingula and waved driae j b, fpire
conical; c, c, elevated futures; d, d, waved margin of
the lip ; e, <?, caudal digitus; f,f lateral digiti.
3 P 2 Fig, 40.
484
Explana¬
tion of the
Plates.
CONCH
Fig. 40. Murex tribulus, thorny woodcock.
Fig. 41. Trochus telefcopium, telefcope-top fhe,]] ; <7,
the bafe; b, pillar projecting, fpiral j c, outer lip di¬
lated.
Fig. 42. Turbo fcalariS) wen tie-trap •, a, cancel¬
lated wreaths j Z>, membranaceous cingula •, c, fpire
acute, papillary ; </, aperture circular j e, e, lip re¬
flexed.
Fig. 43. Helix lujitanica; a, umbilicus ; b, b, b,
round venter j c, clofed, femilunar aperture.
Fig. 44. Helix decollata.
Fig. 45. Neriia canrena; a, umbilicus gibbous,
O L O G Y.
deep j b, b, outer lip dilated, arched, entire} lip of
the pillar tranfverfe, truncated.
Fig. ^6. Haliotis varia ; 0, 0, ribs acute, and ftri-
ated crofswife j b, lateral fpire, with its margin den-
tated.
Fig. 47. Patella faccharina ; a, a, feven ridged acute
ribs j b, obtufe vertex.
Fig. 48. Dentalium arcuatum, arched tooth- (hell.
Fig. 49. Serbu/a.g/omerata,
Fig. 50. Teredo nava/is, {hip-worm.
Fig. 51. Sabella alveolate.
Ind
Exp!;
ticn o1 i
Plat'
INDEX of the Genera , Jhewing the page on which the ClaJJifcation of each Genus begins.
A. D.
Anomia, P- 4j9 Dentalium, p. 461
Area, 413 Donax, 408
Argonauta, 422
* . . H‘
B. Haliotis, 455
Buccinum, 402 Helix, 448
Bulla, 428 L;
C. Lepas, 402
Cardium, 406 M.
Chama, 412 Maftra, 407
Chiton, 401 Murex, 438
Conus, 424 Mya, 403
Cypraea, 425 Mytilus, 420
N. Solen, p. 404
Nautilus, p. 423 Spondylus, 412
Nerita, 433 Strombus, 437
O. T.
Oftrea, 414 Tellina, 404
Teredo, 463
P. Trochus, 442
Patella, 456 Turbo, 445
Pholas, 453
Pinna, 422 V.
S. Venus, 408
Sabella, 463 Voluta, 429
Serpula, 462
INDEX.
ACOR'N-Jhell, fpecies of, N0 25
jidanfon, his fyftem of {hells, II
Aniphitrite, generic charafter of, 13
Ancients profecute the ftudy of {hells, 3
Animal gives form to the {hell, 112
method of killing, 139
Anomia, fpecies of, 43
Area, fpecies of, 36
Argonauia, 46
Arh-fhell, fee Area, 36
Afcidia, generic charafter of, J 5
B.
Bivalves, terms of, defined,
generic charaClers of,
Breynius, his fyflem of {hells,
Buccinum, fpecies of,
Bulla, fpecies of,
18
22
7
Cardium, fpecies of, 30
Chama, fpecies of, 35
Charadlers, generic, of teftaceous ani¬
mals, J 5
Chiton, fpecies of, 24
Clarification of {hells, 20
Clio, generic charafter of, 15
Cockle, kz Cardium, 30
Colours of {hells vary, N° 88
Colouring matter fecreted from the
neck, 89
proved, 90
feeming exceptions, 91
caufes of thefe, 92
changes in the or-
gans of, _ 93
difference of fluidi¬
ty in the matter, 94
motion of the ani¬
mal, 93
of porcelain {hells, 103
affetffed by light, 108
Conchology introduction, 1
importance of, 2
cultivated by the ancients, 3
moderns, 4
Concretions, pearls fuppofed to be
morbid, 122
Cone-Jhell, fee Conus, 48
Conus, fpecies of, ib.
Cowrie, fee Cyprcea, 49
Cyprcea, fpecies of ib.
Dentalium, fpecies of,
Dipper, fee Bulla,
Donax, fpecies of,
Doris, generic character of,
Dutch method of polilhing {hells,
Fifhery, pearl.
F.
in Britain,
in Ceylon,
G.
Gaping cockle, fee Chama,
Geoffroy, his fyftem of {hells,
Grooves, formation of,
Growth of {hells,
interrupted,
Haliotis, fpecies of,
Helix, fpecies of,
H
K.
Mi
D.
Klein, his fyftem of {hells,
opinion of the formation
of {hells,
Da Cofa, his fyftem of {hells,
D^Argenville, his fyftejn of {hells,
14
9
L.
Land {hells very numerous,
mjm
kmm
Fig. 23.
Fix/. 17.
COJ^CIIOLOOX.
Fix/. IS.
PLATE CL1H.
Fig 20.
,
■hi.Frrhihx/.;
V
CONCH OHO GY.
PLATE CL1V.
Fuj 27.
Fin
WArchibald Scutyt
K 'sltchiialtlSotlp. t
Index.
ZW{hells, method of colleaing, N° 137
r V»t<3 fvfteTn of ihells. f)
lanf us, his fyftem of Ihells,
Layer of {hells, laft formed, white,
Lepas, fpecies of,
Light, eife&s of, on (hells,
Limax, generic charaaer of,
Limpet, fee Patella,
Lifter, his fyftem of ftiells,
M.
Maflra, fpecies of,
Moderns, progrefs of, in conchology,
Muller, his fyftem of (hells,
Multivalves, terms of, defined,
Murex, fpecies or,
Mujfel, fee Mytilus,
Mya, fpeeies of,
margaritifera yields pearl and
mother-of-pearl,
Mytilus, fpecies of,
6
91
25
108
15
60
31
4
54
44
27
ib.
44
margaritiferus produces pearls, ib.
N.
Nautilus, fpecies of,
Nereis, generic charaaer of,
Nerita, (pecies of,
47
15
58
0.
Organs fecreting colouring matter,
enlarge,
Oftrea, fpecies of,
Oyfter, fee OJlrea edulis,
employed as food,
of different kinds,
grows on trees in warm cli¬
mates,
in Jamaica,
the Britifh noted among the
Romans,
retains its fuperi-
ority,
management of,
liquid of, feen by the micro-
fcope,
96
37
ib.
38
39
40
in
ib.
40
41
42
P.
"Patella, fpecies of, 60
Pearl, component parts of, 70
found in mother-of-pearl (hells, 121
fuppofed to be a morbid con¬
cretion, 122
from external injury, 123
difcovery of its formation by
Linnaeus, 124
fiihery, j 40
in Britain, 141
in Ceylon, 142
CONCHOLOGY.
Pkolas, fpecies of, N° 26
ftriata perforates wood acrofs
the fibre, .111
Pilgrims vifiting the Holy Land, wear
the fcallop, 37
Pinna, fpecies of, 45
Polijhing (hells, 143
with leather, 144
pumice-ftone, 145
Dutch method, 153
Porcelain (hells, colours of, 103
have an external layer
formed, 104
proved, 105
become thicker, 106
R.
Pa%or-Jl)eath, fee Solen, 26
Reaumur's inveftigation of the forma¬
tion of (hells, >7 3
opinion miftaken, 74
controverted, 77
experiments, 79
Ribs of (hells, formation of, 114
only on fea-fhells, 115
hollow, j 19
S.
Sabella, fpecies of, 64
Scallop, fee OJlrea maxima, 37
w orn by pilgrims, 311
Sea-ear, fee Ha/iotis, 39
Sea-wing, fee Pinna, 43
Sepia, generic charafter of, 13
Serpula, fpecies of, 62
Shells, conftituent parts of, 71
porcellaneous, 68
mother-of-pearl, 69
formed in the egg, 73
laft formed, 76
procefs of their formation, 80
formed by fecretion from the
animal, 81
time neceffary, 82
layers feen by burning, 84
growth of, interrupted, 99
diftinguilhed by co¬
lour, 101
lower valve colourlefs, 109
fpiral, four claffes, 111
derive their form from the
animal, 112
found on every part of the
globe, 123
land numerous, j 26
tropical, mod beautiful, 127
fea, methods of fiftiing, 138
Skip-worm, natural hiftory of 63
Snails, fee Helix,
Solen, fpecies of,
Species of (hells enumerated,
found foflil,
Spines produced,
Spio, generic character of,
Spires of the (hell, turns increafed,
Spondylus, fpecies of,
Sprat's, BKhop, hiftory of the oyfter,
Strice, formation of,
Strombus, fpecies of,
Syjlems of conchology,
Lifters,
Langius’s,
Breynius’s,
Tournefort’s,
D’Argenville’s,
Klein’s,
Adanfon’s,.
Geoffrey’s,
Muller’s,
Da Coda’s.
48s
N° 66
26
65
66
117
15
85
34
41
98
53
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
T>
Tellina, fpecies of, 29
Teredo, fpecies of, 63
Terebella, generic charafter of, 13
Terms explained, j 6
in multivalves, 37
bivalves, 3 8
univalves, 39
Tejlaceous animals both oviparous
and viviparous, 72
detached from
the (hell, 86
Tetkys, generic charafter of, 33
Tooth-Jhe/l, fee Denta/ium, 61
Tournefort's fyftem of (hells, 8
Triton, generic charafter of, 13
. Trockus, fpecies of, 33
Tropical (hells moft beautiful, 127
Tubercles on (bells, formation of, 116
Turbo, fpecies of, 36-»
IL
Umbilicus, formation of, 11 j
Univalves, terms of, defined, 19
generic charadler of, 23
V.
Valve, lower, of (hells, colourlefs,
Venus, fpecies of, 33
Valuta, fpecies of, 31
Volute, fee Valuta, ib.
W.
Wedge-Jhell, fee Donax, 32
Whelk, fee Buccinum, 32
Wreath, fee Turbo, 56
CONCHYLIA,
1
CON [486] CON
ConchyILa CONCHYLIA, a general name for all petrified
Co- lunon ^ne^s> as lirapet;3j cochlea?, nautili, conchae, lepades,
CONCIATOR, in the glafs art, is, for the cryftal-
glafs, what the founder is at the green-glafs houfes.
He is the perfon that weighs and proportions the fait
on afhes and fand ; and works them with a ftrong fire
till they run into lumps and become 'white 5 and if
the metal be too hard, and confequently brittle, he
adds fait or alhes, and if too foft, fand j flill mixing
them to a fit temper, which is only known by the
working.
CONCINNOUS INTERVALS, in Mujic, are fuch as
are fit for muiic, next to, and in combination with,
concords •, being neither very agreeable nor difagree-
able in themfelves j but having a good effedl, as by
their oppofition they heighten the more effential prin¬
ciples of pleafure : or as, by their mixture and combi¬
nation with them, they produce a variety necelfary
to our being better pleafed.
CONCINNOUS Syjiem, in Mujlc. A fyftem is faid
to be concinnous, or divided concinnouily, when its
parts, confidered as fimple intervals, are concinnous j
and are befides placed in fuch an order between the
extremes, as that the fucceflion of founds, from one ex¬
treme to the other, may have an agreeable effeft.
CONCLxAMATIO, in antiquity, a fhout raifed
by thofe prefent at burning the dead, before they fet
fire to the funeral pile. See Shout. The word was
alfo applied to the fignal given to the Roman foldiers
to decamp, whence the expreffion conc/amare vafa;
conclamare arma, was a fignal for battle. It was
likewife ufed for a pra£lice of calling to a perfon de-
ceafed three times by his name ; and when no reply
was returned, they thus expreffed his deceafe, concla-
matum ejl. Whence the fame term was afterwards ap¬
plied to the ceffation of the Roman empire.
CONCLAVE, the place in which the cardinals of
the Romilh church meet, and are Ihut up, for the elec¬
tion of a pope.
The conclave is a range of fmall cells, 10 feet fquare,
made of wainfcot: thefe are numbered, and drawn
for by lot. They Rand in a line along the galleries
and hall of the Vatican, with a fmall fpace between
each. Every cell has the arms of the cardinal over it.
The conclave is not fixed to any one determinate place,
for the conftitutions of the church allow the cardinals
to make choice of fuch a place for the conclave as
they think moft convenient j yet it is generally held in
the Vatican.
The conclave is very ftriclly guarded by troops j
neither the cardinals, nor any perfon (hut up in the
conclave, are fpoken to, but at the hours allowed of,
and then in Italian or Latin : even the provifions for
the conclave are examined, that no letters be convey¬
ed by that means from the minifters of foreign powers,
or other perfons who may have an intereft in the elec¬
tion of the pontiff.
Conclave is alfo ufed for the affembly, or meeting,
of the cardinals (hut up for the eleftion of a pope.
CONCLUSION, in Logic, the confequences or
judgment drawn from what was afferted in the pre-
mifes j or the previous judgments in reafoning, gain¬
ed from combining the extreme ideas between them¬
felves.
CONCOCTION, in Medicine, the change which ^ncoclioij
the food undergoes in the ftomach, See. to become !l
chyle. See'Chyle. Comord.;;
CONCOMITANT, fomething that accompanies or 1 ^
goes along with another.
CONCORD, in Grammar, that part of conftruc-
tion called fyntax, in w'hich the words of a fentence
agree 5 that is, in which nouns are put in the fame
gender, number, and cafe •, and verbs in the fame
number and perfon with nouns and pronouns. See
Grammar.
Concord, in Mujic, the relation of two founds that
are always agreeable to the ear, whether applied in
fucceffion or eonfonance.
Form of CONCORD, in ecclefiaftical hifiory, a ftan-
dard book among the Lutherans, compofed at Torgaw,
in 1576, and thence called the book of Torgaw, and
reviewed at Berg by fix Lutheran doftors of Germany,
the principal of whom was James Andreae. This
book contains, in two parts, a fyftem of dodlrine, the
fubfeription of which was a condition of communion,
and a formal and very fevere condemnation of all who
differed from the compilers of it, particularly with re-
fpedl to the majefty and omniprefence of Chrill’s body,
and the real manducation of his flefh and blood in the
eucharift. It was firft impofed on the Saxons by Au-
guffus, and occafioned great oppofition and difturbance.
The difpute about it was revived in Switzerland in
1718, when the magiftrates of Berne publifhed an order
for adopting it as the rule of faith; the confequence
of which was a conteff, that reduced its credit and au¬
thority.
CONCORDANCE, a dictionary or index to the
Bible, wherein all the leading words, ufed in the courfe
of the infpired writings, are ranged alphabetically ;
and the various places where they occur referred to 5
to ailift in finding out paflages, and comparing the fe¬
ver al fignifications of the fame word.
Cardinal Hugo de St Charo, is faid to have employ¬
ed 500 monks at the fame time in compiling a Latin
concordance 5 befides which,, we have feveral other
concordances in the fame language j one, in particu¬
lar, called the concordance of England, compiled by J.
Darlington, of the order of Predicants j another more
accurate one, by the Jefuit de Zamora.
R. Mordecai Nathan has furniflied us with a He¬
brew concordance, firft printed at Venice in 1523,
containing all the Hebrew roots branched into their
various fignifications, and under each fignification all
the places in feripture where it occurs : but the beft
and moft ufeful Hebrew concordance is that of Bux-
torf, printed at Bafil in 163 2.
Dr Taylor publifhed, in 1754, a Hebrew concord¬
ance in two volumes folio, adapted to the Englifli
Bible, and difpofed after the manner of Buxtorf.
The Greek concordances are only for the New
Teftament : indeed we have one of Conr. Kircher’s on
the Old ; but this is rather a concordantial dictionary
than a concordance •, containing all the Hebrew words
in an alphabetical order 5 and underneath all the inter¬
pretations or fenfes the LXX. give them ; and in each
interpretation all the places where they occur in that
verfion.
In 1718, Trommius publithed his Greek concord¬
ance for the Septuagint at Amfterdam, in two volumes
folioj
4
r o
CON
icor- folio} and Schmidius improving on a fimilar work of
nce H. Stephen, has given an excellent Greek concordance
II .. for the New Teftament, the bcft edition of which is
ordia. , r t • r'
^ j tliat of Leiphc, an. 1717.
Calafius, an Italian Cordelier, has given us concord¬
ances of the Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, in two co¬
lumns j the firft, which is Hebrew, is that of R. Mor-
decai Nathan, word for word, and according to the
order of the books and chapters : in the other column
is a Latin interpretation of each paffage of Scripture
quoted by R. Mordecai j this interpretation is Cala-
fius’s own •, but in the margin he adds that of the
LXX. and the Vulgate, when different from his. The
work is in 4 vols folio, printed at Rome in 1621.
We have feveral very copious concordances in Eng-
liih, as Newmann’s, &c. but the laft and beft efteemed
is that in 410 by Alexander Cruden.
CONCORDANT VERSES, fuch as have feveral
words in common j but which, by the addition of other
words, convey an oppofite, at leail a different meaning.
Such are thofe.
r C cam's 1 . r, t vvnatur 7 , • C fervat.
CONCORDAT, in the canon law, denotes a
covenant or agreement concerning k me beneficiary
matter, as a refignation, permutation, promotion, or
the like.
The council of Trent, felf. vi. de reform, cap. 4.
fpeaking of concordats made without the authority
and approbation of the pope, calls them concordias qua;
tantum fuos obligant auBores, novrfuccejfores. And the
congregation of cardinals, who have explained this
decree, declares alfo that a concordat cannot be va¬
lid fo as to bind fucceffors, unlefs confirmed by the
pope.
Concordat is alfo ufed, abfoiutely, among the
French, for an agreement concluded at Bologna in
1516, between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. of France,
for regulating the manner of nominating to benefices.
The concordat ferves in lieu of the pragmatic fanc-
tian, which has been abrogated \ or rather, it is the
pragmatic fanftion foftened and reformed. The con ¬
cordat between the pope and the republic of Venice
refembles the former.
There is alfo a German concordat, made between
the emperor Frederic III. and the princes of Germa¬
ny, in 1448, relating to beneficiary matters, confirmed
by Pope Nicholas V.
CONCORDIA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Mirandola j featcd on the river Sechia, 5 miles weft of
Mirandola, and 15 miles fouth-eaft of Mantua; fubjedt
to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long. 11. 13. N. Lat.
44- 52.
Concordia, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Ve-
neti, fituated at the confluence of the rivers Romatinus
Major and Minor, 31 miles to the weft of Aquileia,
(Pliny, Ptolemy, Antonine); a colony furnamed Julia.
Its ruins ftill go by the name of Concordia.—Another
Concordia (Ptolemy), of Lufitania, to the north-weft
of Trajan’s bridge, on the Tagus.—A third of the
Nemetes, in Belgica, on the weft fide of the Rhine; a
Roman fortrefs, fituated between Brocomagus and No-
viomagus. Now Drufenheim, in Alface, E, Long.
8. N. Lat, 48. 40.
CON
Concordia, a Pagan divinity of the Romans. She Concordia
had a temple on the declivity of the Capitol; another
in the Portico of Livia; and a third on Mount Pala-
tine, built of brafs by Cn. Flavius, on account ofu——
a vow made for reconciling the fenate and people. She
was pidlured with a cup in her right hand ; in her
left was fometimes a feeptre, and fometimes a cornu¬
copia. Her fymbols were two hands joined, as is feen
in a coin of Aurelius Verus, and another of Nero; alfo
two ferpents twilling about a caduceus. She was ad-
drefled to promote the peace and muon of families and
citizens.
CONCOU, in Botany, a name given by the people
of Guinea to an herb, which is in great efteem among
them for killing that troublefome fort of worm called
the Guinea-worm, that breeds in their flelh. They
bruife the leaves, and mixing them with oil apply
them in form of a cataplafm.
CONCRETE, in the fchool-philofophy, an aflem-
blage or compound.
Concrete, in Natural Bhilofophy and Chemijiry,
fignifies a body made up of different principles, or any
mixed body : thus, foap is a factitious concrete, mix¬
ed together by art ; and antimony is a natural con¬
crete, or a mixed body compounded in the bowels of
the earth.
CONCRETION, the uniting feveral fmall particles
of a natural body into fenfible maffes or concretes,
whereby it becomes fo and fo figured and determined,
and is endued with fuch and fuch properties.
Concretion is alfo the aft whereby foft bodies are
rendered hard ; or an infenfible motion of the particles
of a fluid or foft body, whereby they come to a con-
fiftence. It is indifferently ufed for induration, conden-
fation, congelation, and coagulation.
CONCUBINAGE fometimes expreffes a criminal
or prohibited commerce between the two fexes ; in
which fenfe it comprehends adultery, inceft, and fimple
fornication.
In its more reftrained fenfe, ebneubinage is ufed for
a man’s and a woman’s cohabiting together in the way
of marriage, without having paffed the ceremony
thereof.
Concubinage was anciently tolerated : the Roman
law calls it an allowed cuftom, licila confuetudo. When
this expreflion occurs in the conftitutions of the
Chriftian emperors, it fignifies what we now call a
marriage in confcience.
The concubinage tolerated among the Romans in
the time of the republic, and of the heathen emperor's,
was that between perfons not capable of contrafting
marriage together; nor did they even refufe to let in¬
heritances defeend to children which fprung from fuch
a tolerated cohabitance. Concubinage between fuch
perfons they looked on as a kind of marriage, and even
allowed it feveral privileges ; but then this concubinage
was confined to a fingle perfon, and was of perpetual
obligation as much as marriage itfelf. Hottoman ob-
ferves, that the Roman laws had allowed of concubi¬
nage long before Julius Csefar made that law whereby
every one was allowed to marry as many wives as he
pleafed. The emperor Valentinian, Socrates tells us,
allowed every man two.
Concubinage is alfo ufed for a marriage performed
with kfs folemnity than the formal marriage : or a
marriage
[ 487 1
CON [ 488 ] .CO N
Goiivubi’ marriage with a woman of inferior condition, and to
Concubine 'v^om t^ie hufband does not convey his rank or qua-
  t i- ‘ lily. Cujas obferves, that the ancient laws allowed a
man to efpoufe, under the title of concubinei certain
perfons, fuch as were efteemed unequal to him, on ac¬
count of the want of fome qualities requifite to fuflain
the full honour of marriage. He adds, that though
concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity
and civil effe&s; yet was concubine a reputable title,
very different from that of miflrefs among us. The
commerce was efteemed fo lawful, that the concubine
might be accufed of adultery in the fame manner as a
wife.
This kind of concubinage is ftill in ufe in fome
countries, particularly in Germany, under the title of
a half marriage, morgetigabic marriage, or marriage with
the left-hand; alluding to the manner of its being con-
trafted, viz. by the man’s giving the woman his left
hand inftead of the right. This is a real marriage, though
without folemnity : the parties are both bound for
ever j though the woman be thus excluded from the
common rights of a wife for want of quality or for¬
tune.
The children of concubines were not reputed either
leg'timate or baftards, but natural children, and were
capable only of donations. They were deemed to
retain the low rank of the mother 5 and -were on this
ground unqualified for inheriting the effects of the
father.
Concubinage, in a legal fenfe, is ufed as an excep¬
tion againft her-that fueth for dower, alleging there¬
by, that Ihe was not a wife lawfully married to the
party, in whofe lands Ihe feeks to be endowed, but his
concubine.
CONCUBINE, a wroman whom a perfon takes to
cohabit with him, in -the manner, and under the cha-
ra&er, of a wife, without being authorized thereto by
a legal marriage.
Concubine is alfo ufed for a real, legitimate, and
only wife, diftinguiftied by no other circumftance but
a difparity of birth or condition between her and the
hulband. Du Cange obferves, that one may gather
from feveral paffages in the epifiles of the popes, that
they anciently allowed of fuch concubines. The feven-
teenth canon of the firfl council of Toledo declares,
that he who, with a faithful wife, keeps a concubine,
is excommunicated ; but that if the concubine ferved
him as a wife, fo that he had only one woman, under
the title of concubine, he ftiould not be reje&ed from
communion : which ftiows that there were legitimate
wives under the title of concubines.
In effedl, the Roman laws did not allow a man to
efpoufe whom he pleafed *, there ivas required a kind
of parity, or proportion, between the conditions of the
contradling parties : but a woman of inferior condi¬
tion, who could not be efpoufed as a wife, might be
kept as a concubine •, and the laws allowed of it, pro¬
vided the man had no other wife.
It is certain the patriarchs had a great number of
w ives, and That thefe did not all hold the fame rank ;
fome being fubaltern to the principal wife; which
were what we call concubines or half-wives. The Ro¬
mans prohibited a plurality of concubines, and only
had regard to the children ifiuing from a fingle con¬
cubine, becaufe fire might become a legitimate wife.
1
Solomon had 'yoo wives and 300 concubines; the Coneutir
emperor of China has fometimes two or three thoufand II
concubines in his palace. Curtius obferves, that
Darius was followed in his army by 365 concubines, ^
all in the equipage of queens.
CONCUPISCENCE, according to divines, an ir¬
regular appetite, or lull after carnal things, inherent in
the nature of man ever fince the fall.
COND, Con, or Conn, in fea-language, fignifies to
guide or condud a fliip in her right courfe. He that
cons her, ftands aloft with a compafs before him, and
gives the word of direction to the man at the helm
how he is to fteer. If the ftiip go before the wind,
or, as they call it, betwixt the (beets, the word is either
Starboard, or Port the helm ; according as the conder
would have the helm put to the right or left fide of
the ftiip, upon which the (hip always goes the contrary
way. If he fays, Helm a midftiip, he would have the
(hip to go right before the wind, or diredly between
her two (beets. If the (hip fail by a wind, or on a
quarter wind, the wmrd is, Aloof, keep your luff, fall
not off, veer no more, keep her to, touch the wind,
have a care of the lee-latch : all which expreftions are
of the fame import, and imply that the fteerfman
(hould keep the (hip near the Avind. On the contrary,
if he would have her fail more large, or more before
the wind, the wrord is, Eafe the helm, no near, bear
up. If he cries Steady, it means, keep her from go¬
ing in and out, or making yaws (as they call it), how-
foever (he fails, whether large or before a wind : and
when he w ould have her go juft as (he does, he cries,
Keep her thus, thus, &c.
COND ATE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar¬
morica in Gaul: called Civitas Rhedonum, in the No-
titia ; afterwards Redona ; Redonica Regio, the diftrift.
Hence the modern mme Rennes, in Britanny. W. Long.
1. 45. Lat. 48. 5. Another Condate of Britain (Anto-
nine) •, now thought to be Congleton in Yorkftiire j
others fay in Lancaftiire.
CONDE, Lewis de Bourbon, Prince of, was born
at Paris Sept. 7. 1621. He was ftyled Duke d’En-
guien, till he fucceeded to the title of Prince of Conde
by his father’s death in 1646. As he was of a tender
and delicate conftitution, the prince fent him to the
caftle of Montrond in Berry, that he might breathe a
more pure and falutary air. Here he was educated in
his infancy by fome experienced and prudent citi¬
zens wives. When he was of a proper age, the
prince took upon himfelf the talk of governor, and
appointed for his afliftant M. de la Bouflieres, a pri¬
vate gentleman, a man of honour, fidelity, and good
nature, and who made it a rule to obferve inviolably
the orders that w'ere given him. Two Jefuits difiin-
guiftied for their genius and knowledge were alfo gi¬
ven him for preceptors. He formed him a houfehold
of 15 or 20 officers, all men of the greateft virtue and
diferetion.
With thefe attendants the duke d’Enguien went to
fettle at Bourges, where he frequented the college of
Jefuits. Here, befides the ordinary ftudies, he was
taught ancient and modern hiftory, mathematics, geo¬
graphy, declamation *, alfo riding and dancing, in
which laft he foon excelled. He made fuch a furpri-
fing progrefs., that before the age of 13 he defended
in public fome queftions in philofopby with incredible
applaufe.
le.
CON 1' 489 ] CON
apylaufe. At his return from Mon trend, he had-fur
'his tutor M. de Merille ; a man deeply verfed in the
knowledge of common law, of ancient and modem
laws, of the holy feriptures, and of the mathematics.
Under his diredlion the duke went through that new
courfe with prodigious fuccefs. He acquired a criti¬
cal tafte in the arts and fciences, which he retained all
his life ; he never fuffered a day to pafs without de¬
dicating two or three hours at lead; to reading j his
third for knowledge was univerfal, and he endeavour¬
ed to fearch every thing to the bottom. His chief in¬
clination, however, lay towards the military art *, and
at the age of 18 he obtained permidion to make his
fird campaign as a volunteer in the army commanded
by M. de la Meilleraye. This campaign was unfortu¬
nate ; and the duke d’Enguien was only a witnefs of
the mardial’s imprudence and difgrace. Neverthelefs,
in this campaign he laid the foundation of that renown
which made him afterwards confidered as the greated
general of his age.
On his return to Paris, the duke waited upon Car¬
dinal Richelieu at Ruel. That minider was fo pleafed
with his converfation, that he foon after made pro-
pofals of an alliance with the prince of Condej by
marrying the duke d’Enguien to Claire Clemence
de Maille Breza, the cardinal’s niece. The duke
confented to this match out of obedience to his fa¬
ther ; but the force he put upon himfelf by yield¬
ing to it was fo great, that he fell dangeroudy ill. It
was long before he got the better of his didemper ‘
but at length he not only recovered, but became fo
drong as afterwards to bear the greated fatigues with
eafe.
The duke made two more campaigns as a volun¬
teer the one under the marfhal de la Meilleraye, the
other in the army of Louis XIII. which conquered
Rouflillon. In 1643, at t^le age 2-2> obtained
from tire king, at the perfuafion of Cardinal Mazarin,
the command of the army dedined to cover Cham¬
pagne and Picardy; which command was confirmed
to him after the king’s death by the queen regent,
Anne of Audria, to whofe intered he was drongly
devoted. In this dation, though he never had been
prefent at any battle, he foon gave fuch a fpecimen of
his abilities as crowned him with glory. The Spa¬
niards, who threatened France with an invafion, were
defeated by him at Rocroi *, and this fignal viffory
made him from that time confidered as the guardian
genius of his country. He next formed the projefl
of befieging Thionville, and propofed it to the coun¬
cil of regency. They confented with fear and dif-
trud -y but the duke carried it into execution with
fuch Ikill, aftivity, and'courage, that he became judly
the fubjeft of general admiration. In two months
time Thionville furrendered. At length, having co¬
vered Alface and Lorrain from the enterprifes of the
Imperialids, the duke returned to Paris, where he ob¬
tained the government of Champagne, and of the city
of Stenai.
The three following-years were little more than a
feries of military operations. The three battles of
Fribourg, in which the duke d’Enguien triumphed
over Veit Marlhal Count de Mercy, the greated gene¬
ral in all Germany *, the taking of Philipfbourg, and a
great number of other plaees, which rendered him
Vol, VI. Part IL
mader of the palatinate, and of the whole courie of
the Rhine j the viftory of Nortlingue, by which he re- '
venged the vifeount du Turenne’s defeat at Mariendal j
the fiegjrand conqued of Dunkirk j the good and bad
fuccefs of Ms arms in Catalonia, where, though he was
forced to raife the fiege of Lerida, he kept the Spa¬
niards in awe, anckcut to pieces their rear-guard; thefe
are the principal events which didinguidi the campaigns
of 1644, 1^45> and 1646.
The viftories of the duke d’Enguien, his great re ¬
putation and edeem with the people, began now to
give umbrage to Mazarin. The ’cardinal’s dillike to'
him appeared on the death of the duke de Breze, ad¬
miral of France. The prince of Conde earnedly de¬
manded for his fon the duke de Breze’s places. But
Mazarin, afraid of increafing the wealth and power
of a prince, whom his viftories and the love and con¬
fidence of the people and the army had already ren¬
dered too formidable to him, evaded his requeit, by
perfuading the queen to take the admiralty to herfelf.
On the death of his father, the minifter’s difiike to the
young prince of Conde became ftill more apparent.
By the minifter’s perfuafion he had accepted of the
command of the army in Catalonia ) but, on his arrival
at Barcelona, he found neither troops, money, artille-
ry, provifions, nor ammunition. Enraged at this de¬
ception, he vented his refentment in bitter complaints
and fevere threats: but by the refources that he found
in this dilemma, the prince added new luftre to his
glory.
The campaign of 1648 was as glorious to Conde as
thofe which preceded it had been. To difconcert at
once the projefts of the archduke Leopold, the prince
refolved to attack him even' in the heart of the Low
Countries; and notwithftanding the confiderable dif¬
ficulties which he had to furmount, .he befieged the
important city of Ypres, and took it in fight of all the
enemy’s forces.
Notwithftanding this fuccefs, Conde faw himfelf at
the point of experiencing the greateft reverfe of for¬
tune. His army was a prey to fcarcity, to naked-
nefs, contagious diftempers, and defertion. For eight
months it received no fupply from the minifter, but half
a mufter. Every thing was fupplied by the prince
himfelf *, he laviihed his money, and borrowed more
to fupply his troops. When it was reprefented to
him that he was in danger of ruining himfelf by fuefi
an enormous expence, he replied, that “ fince he every
day ventured his life for the fervice of his country, he
could very well facrifice his fortune to it. Let but the
government exift (added he), and I (hall want for no¬
thing.”
The French army having been reinforced by 4000
of the troops of Weimar, Conde attacked the Spa¬
niards advantageoufly encamped near Lens, and gained'
a complete viftory over them, which difabled them
from attempting any thing more, and even from fup-
porting themfelves. Afterwards he befieged Furnes,
the garrifon of which,.500 men, furrendered themfelves
prifoners of war. But the prince was wounded there
in the trenches by a mulket-ftiot above the right hip j
and the contufion was fo great, that he was forced to
fubmit to feveral incifions.
The French court, animated with the viftory at
Lens, thought this a proper time to take vengeance
a Q.
Conde.
CON f 4,
on the factions which for fome time had violently
agitated the kingdom $ and accordingly imprifoned
Brouflel and Blancmenil, two of the principal leaders
of the country party. This vigorous proceeding, how¬
ever, occalioned a general reVolt. Two hundred thou-
fand men took arms in Paris, barricaded the ftreets,
invefted the palais-royal, and demanded the prifoners.
It was neceffary to releafe them y but from that time
the regal authority was annihilated *, the queen was
expofed to a thoufand infults, and Marariti dared no
longer venture out of the palais-royal. In this em-
barraffment the queen recalled the prince of Conde,
as the only one from whom (lie could hope for fup-
port. He retired to Ruel, whither the regent had
gone with the young king and Mazarin. Anne of
Auftria propofed to him the reducing of Paris by force
of arms : but he calmed the refentments of that prin-
cefs j and inftead of being acceffory to her vengeance,
he diredled all his views to pacify the kingdom, and
at length brought about an accommodation between
the parties, who delired it with equal ardour. But
new incidents foon rekindled the combuftion. The
treachery of Mazarin, and the artifices of the leaders
of the country party, occafioned new cabals and frelh
troubles. Conde was carefled by the leaders of both
parties j but at laft, enraged at the arrogance of the
malecontents, who every day formed new pretenfions,
he took part openly with the court, though he thought
it ungrateful, and protedted the minifter, though he
did not efteem him.
The royal family, the duke of Orleans, Conde, and
Mazarin, left Paris privately in the night between the
5th and 6th of January 1646, and went to St Ger¬
mains. The parliament fent deputies to learn from
the queen herfelf the reafons of her departure, and
to beg her to name the citizens whom (lie fufpefted,
that they might be tried. Mazarin had the impru¬
dence to difmifs them without any anfwer. Exafpe-
• rated at this, the people again took up arms in order
to defend themfelves againft the enterprifes of the
court, -who had determined to block up and to ftarve
the capital, in order to fupprefs the party of malecon-
• tents. With 7000 or 8000 men, the broken relics of
the laft campaign, the prince of Conde formed a defign
of reducing above 500,000 intrenched behind walls.
He had neither money nor magazines} he faw himfelf
in the depth of a moft fevere w inter j neverthelefs he
triumphed over Paris, and this great fuccefs completed
his glory. It did-him fo much the more honour,
as during the fiege he conftantly defeated the troops
of the malecontents •, he prevailed on the army that
marched to their aftiftance under Turenne, to aban¬
don that general } he flopped the progrefs of the duke
de Longueville, who had caufed an infurredtion in
Normandy j and got the ftart of the Spaniards, who
were advancing to give him battle.
Condi de Retz, coadjutor of Paris, and afterwards
cardinal, was the life and foul of the revolters, and
diredled all their motions. He had taken Catiline
for his model •, and w as equally intrepid and capable
of the greateft aftions ; of an exalted genius, but go¬
verned by his ambition. He diftinguiftied his hatred
to Mazarin by arming the malecontents; and he him¬
felf raifed at his own expence a regiment which hp
galled the regiment of Corinth} as foon as this corps
o } CON
took the field during the blockade of Paris, it was de- Cond *
feated and difperfed. This check was called the JirJi^ '
to the Corinthians. The peace was figned at St Ger¬
mains j but neither party carried its point, and fcarce
any one but Conde acquired glory by this war. After
the conclufion of the treaty, the prince repaired to the
capital, and traverfed all the ftreets in his coach alone.
All perfons of any confequence paid their compli¬
ments to him, and the parliament fent a folenin depu¬
tation to thank him for the peace to which he had fo
powerfully contributed. The people, however, made
loud complaints on account of the king’s abfence (for
the court was not yet returned to Paris), and the
malecontents gave reafon to apprehend a new' infurrec-
tion. Conde encouraged the king and queen to re¬
turn 5 and at length brought them to Paris, amidft the
acclamations and bleflings of the public.
The important fervice which Conde had juft done
the court entitled him to the acknowledgments of the
queen, and efpecially of Mazarin j but the dark foul
of that cardinal only remembered it to punifti a too
fortunate and too powerful protettor. He privately
fwore the prince’s deftruftion 5 at leaft that he ftiould
give the whole kingdom a pattern of fubmiflion and
dependence on his will. However, not to excite the
public indignation, he ftill kept up appearances with
the prince, while he fecretly fpread about him difgufts,
fufpicions, lhares of every kind, and the moft heinous
calumnies. The ungrateful minifter deceived the
prince by making him the moft flattering propofals y
and with the moft alluring promifes, which he always
found means to avoid fulfilling. The enraged prince
defpifed the minifter, and treated him with flifdain.
After this they were reconciled again only to be again
at variance. Each of them in their turn courted the
country party, in order to make it fubfervient to their
defigns. At haft Mazarin thought of an expedient,
which but too effeftually anfwered his purpofe, of ma¬
king an irreconcileable quarrel between that party
and the prince. Among the malecontents, the mar¬
quis de la Boulaie, a man of an infamous charafter,
had obtained the confidence of the party by falfe ap¬
pearances of hatred to the cardinal, but fecretly kept
up a correfpondence wfith him. It is pretended that
he made him an offer of privately killing Conde.
Mazarin w'as charmed with the propofal j yet he only
required Boulaie to exhibit all the proofs of an affafft.
nation, and to aft in fuch a manner that every thing
might concur to render the country party fufpefted of
that crime. He was punftually obeyed j the coach
was flopped •, fome piftols were fired at it, by which
two of the footmen were dangeroufly wounded 5 and,
after that fhameful exploit, la Boulaie took refuge in
the hotel of the duke of Beaufort, who was the hero
of the party, in order no doubt to countenance the
prince’s fufpieion of the malecontents. Luckily Conde
was not in his coach when it was flopped j the car¬
dinal haft fpread the report of his intended affaflina-
tion; and in concert with the queen and the prince
he had prevailed to have the coach fent away empty,
to prove the reality of the attempt. Mazarin counter¬
feited a zeal for the prince’s life 5 he furioufty declaim¬
ed againft the malecontents, who, he pretended, had
made an attempt on a life fo precious to the ftate j and
he inflamed Confte’s refcntment againft the duke of
Beaufort
CON
Beaufort and the coadjutor, whom he fuppoied to
be the authors of this heinous outrage. The prince
was fo ftrongly prejudiced, that he refufed to hear
them when they appeared before him to juftify them-
felves. He demanded juftice againtl them of the king :
he formally accufed them before the parliament, and
remained inflexible in fpite of the pains which the
leaders of the party took to demonftrate to him that
he had been impofed upon. However, the affair was
brought before the parliament 5 the accufed defended
themfelves, and the coadjutor, who had difcovered
the cardinal’s fecret, unmalked him lb well, that the
prince agreed to a private negociation with the male-
contents ; he required nothing more than the coad¬
jutor’s leaving Paris, but with the rank of ambaffador
to Rome or Vienna. That prelate would have con-
fented to it, to fatisfy Conde, if Mazarin, fome days
after, had not given him the choice of any recom-
penfe, in order to engage his concurrence in the
prince’s deftru£iion. Affairs were now in fuch a dan¬
gerous fituation, that the cardinal faw clearly it was
neceffary to haften to the winding up of the plot.
Mafter of the queen’s mind, which he guided as he
pleafed j and fure of having inflamed againft ' Conde
all the refentment of the malecontents j he fought and
obtained, by means of the duchefs Chevreufe, the fup-
port of that powerful faftion, which connedted itfelf
the more readily with him, in hopes that the prince’s
fall would foon enable it to crufh without difficulty the
cardinal himfelf. The coadjutor had private confer¬
ences with the queen and the minifter. Conde had
notice of it j and in order to dilcover if it were true,
he endeavoured to furprife it from Mazarin’s own
mouth. “ Cardinal (faid he, one day), it is publicly
reported that you have nightly meetings with the co¬
adjutor, difguifed like a trooper.” He accompanied
this fpeech with a quick and penetrating look : but
the cardinal, who was a perfeft matter of diflimulation,
anfwered him in fuch a free, artlefs-like manner, that
he entirely removed Conde’s appreheniions; and he
flighted the information he had received, of the plot
forming againft him.
Mazarin wanted nothing but the fupport of the duke
of Orleans ; and at laft found means, by the duchefs of
Chevreufe, to inflame the jealoufy of that fickle and
inconftant prince, and to engage him to confent to the
imprifonment of Conde. Having thus united all par¬
ties, and fearing no other obftacle, this ungrateful and
perfidious miniffer made preparations for privately ar-
refting the prince } the order for it was figned January
18. 1650. Conde having that day repaired as ufual
to the palais-royal, to aflift at council with the prince
of Conti and the duke of Longuevilie, the queen gave
orders to arreft them all three, and to convey them with¬
out any noife to the caitle of Vincennes. She was in-
flantly obeyed, and the princes were flrittly guarded
in that prifon.
In this unexpefled reverfe of fortune, the fortitude
and greatnefs of Conde’s mind appeared only the more
remarkable. Confined with the other two princes in
the tower of Vincennes, where neither lupper, furni¬
ture, nor beds, were provided, he contented himfelf
with two new laid eggs, and threw himfelf in his
clothes, on a trufs of ftraw, where he flept 1 2 hours
without waking. He ftill retained his cheerfulnefs,
CON
and dedicated the greateft part of his time to reading ”, Ceftrla.
the reft to conversation, playing at battle-door and v’~~
fhuttle-cock, to bodily exercifes, and the cultivation
of flowers.
Mazarin triumphed at the difgrace of the princes,
pitoferibed all thofe who rvere attached to Conde, and
behaved in the molt infolent and arbitrary manner.
The prince’s friends, however, notwithftanding their
being ilri&ly watched, found means to keep up a punc¬
tual correfpondence with him. They made various at¬
tempts to releafe him : they raifed troops, in particu¬
lar, the dukes of Bouillon and Rochefoucault, and the
vifeount de Turerine. The princefs of Conde engaged
the province of Guienne to declare in his favour j flie
made war, in order to force the court to releafe him j
at length the partizans of the prince figned a treaty
with the Spaniards, to labour in concert for his en¬
largement. But all thefe efforts would, perhaps, have
been iaefteftual, if other more powerful refources had
not been employed.
In that gallant and warlike age, every thing was
managed by the paflions and intrigues of five or fix
women, who poffeffed the confidence of the leaders of
the Rate, and of the various parties. The princefs of
Mantua, wife to one of the fons of the eledtor Pala¬
tine, king of Bohemia, principally diredted the coun-
fels in the party of the princes. She found means to
reconcile the duke of Orleans, the coadjutor, and the
malecontents, with the friends of the prince, and united
their efforts againft the cardinal. The parliament, on
the other fide, loudly demanded the releafe of the pri-
foners. All the orders of the ftate united in foliciting.
it, infomuch that the queen was at laft prevailed on to
give her confent. At this news, Mazarin was fo con¬
founded, that he fled in the difguife of a trooper, and
arrived at the gates of Richlieu, where a body of horfe
waited for him. The parliament, informed by the
queen of his flight, thundered forth an arret, by which
he was obliged to leave the kingdom, with his family
and foreign fervants, in the fpace of 15 days, under
the nenalty of being expofed to a criminal profecu-
tion. The queen defired to follow him with the king }
but the nobles and burghers inverted the palais-royal,,
and prevented the execution of this project, which
would have kindled a civil war. Mazarin, therefore,
perceiving that it was impoflible for the queen to j«in
him, determined to go himfelf to retlore the princes
to their liberty, and to get the ftart of the deputies
who were coming to acquaint them with it. On his
arrival at Plavre, he informed the princes that they
were free ; he entreated Conde’s friendlhip} and was
fo abjeft as to proftrate himfelf at the feet of him
whom, he had fo bafely oppreffed. Conde gave him
a polite reception, and fpoke to him in a free and
cheerful tone 5 but tired w ith the mean fubmiflions
which the cardinal laviftied upon him, he left hirq
without making any promife, and fet out in his re¬
turn to Paris, wTich he entered as it were in triumph,
aroidft the acclamations of all orders of men, and the
demonftrations of a moft lincere and general joy.
After this a civil war enfued, in which the prince
of Conde ftded with the malecontents. Being prefled
by the king’s army, he retired into the fuburbs of
St Anthony, where he behaved with the utmoft bra¬
very j when the citizens opened their gates and re-
3 3 ceived
[ 491 J
CON [ 492 T CON
Conde
II
Ccmdenfer.
ccived him in j and a peace enfued Toon after. His
hatred of the cardinal, however, made him quit Pa¬
ris, and take refuge among the Spaniards, who made
him generaliffimo of their forces j and he took Ro-
croi. The peace of the 'Pyrenees reft or ed him to
his country; and he again ftgnalized himfdf at the
head of the king’s armies. Eeing afflifled with the
gout, he refufed the command of the army in 1676,
and retired to Chantilly, where lie was as much
efteemed for the virtues of peace, as he had been be¬
fore for his military talents. He died in 1686, at Fon-
tainbleau.
Conde, a town of the French Netherlands, in the
province of Hainault, with the title of a principality,
and a caftle. It is one of the ftrongeft towns in this
country, and feated near the confluence of the rivers
Haifne and Scheldt. It was taken by the allies in
1793, and retaken by the French in 1794. Its name
by the convention was changed to Nord Libre. E.
Long- 3- 39- N- Lat- 50* 27-
Conde, a town of France, in the department of
Calvados, which carries on a confiderable trade ; feat¬
ed on the river'Nereau, 15 miles weft of Paris. W.
Long. o. 37. N. Lat. 4'S. 50.
CONDEMNATION, the a£t of giving judgment,
pafling or pronouncing fentence againft a perfon, who
is thus fubjefted to fome penalty or punifhment, either
in refpeft of life, reputation, or fortune.
CONDENSATION, the aft whereby a body is
rendered more denfe, compaft, and heavy. The word
is commonly applied to the converfion of vapour into
water, by diftillation, or naturally in the clouds. The
way in which vapour commonly condenfes, is by the
application of fome cold fubftance. On touching it,
the vapour parts with its heat which it had before ab-
forbed j and on doing fo, it immediately lofes the pro¬
per charafteriftics of vapour, and becomes water. But
though this is the molt common and ufual way in which
we obferve vapour to be condenfed, nature certainly pro¬
ceeds after another method : fince we often obferve the
vapours moft plentifully condenfed when the weather
is really warmer than at other times. See the articles
Cloud, Evaporation, &c.
CONDENSER, a ^pneumatic engine, or fyringe,
with which a greater quantity of air may be crowded
into a given fpace ; fo that fometimes ten atmofpheres,
or ten times as much air as there is at the fame time in
the fame fpace, under the ufual preflure, may be thrown
in by means of it, and its egrefs prevented by valves
properly difpofed.
It confifts of a brafs cylinder, wherein is a moveable
pifton 5 which being drawn out, the air rufties into the
cylinder s through a hole provided on purpofe ; and
when the pifton is again forced into the cylinder, the
air is driven into the receiver through an orifice, fur-
niftied with a valve to hinder its getting out.
The receiver or Veflel containing the condenfed air,
ftiould be made very ftrong, to bear the force of the
air’s fpring thus increased •, for which reafon they are
generally made of brafs $ its orifice is fitted with a fe¬
male fcrew to'receive the male-fcrew at the end of the
condenfer.
CONDENSER of E/eElricity, an apparatus for collec¬
ting fmall quantities of the eleftric fluid. Thisinftru-
ment was invented by Volta, and is defcribed in the'7 2d Canfoife-
vol. of the Phil. Tranf. See Electricity. ||
CONDITION, in the civil law, a claufe of obliga- Condcrce;,
tion ftipulated as an article of a treaty or a contraft ;' Y"-
or in a donation of a teftament, legacy,- &c. in which
laft cale a donee does not lofe his donative ifit be char¬
ged with any diftioneft or impoftible conditions.
CONDITIONAL, fomething not abfolute, but
fubjeft to conditions.
CONDITIONAL Conjunctions, in Grammar, are thofe
which ferve to make propofitions conditional j as
nnltfs, provided, &c.
CONDITIONAL Proportions, in Logic, fuch as confift
of two parts connefted together by a conditional par¬
ticle.
CONDITIONAL Syllogifm, a fyllogifm where the ma¬
jor is a conditional propofition. Thus,
If there is a God, he ought to be worfhipped.
But there is a God j
Therefore he ought to be worftiipped.
’ CONDIVICNUM, in Ancient Geography, the ca¬
pital of the Namnetes, in Armorica. Now Nantes in
Brittany, on the Loire, from its name Civitas Nanwe-
tum. W. Long. 1. 30. Lat. 47. 15.
CONDOM, a town of Gafcony in France,' capital
of the Condomois, with a bifhop’s fee. It is but a
poor place, and the trade is very fmall. It is feat¬
ed on the river Gelifle, in E. Long. o. 22. N. Lat.
44-
CONDOR, or Contor. See Vulture, Ornitho--
logy Index.
CONDORCET, John-Antony Nicholas Cari-
Tat, marquis of, a French writer, and -political cha-
rafter of confiderable eminence, defcended from an an¬
cient family from the principality of-Orange, and born
at Ribemont in Picardy, in 1743. He received his
education at the college of Navarre, where he was
diftinguiihed at an early period of life for his -ftrong
attachment to the ftudy of phyfies and mathematics.
On his entrance into publiclife, heeftabliftieda friend¬
ly intercourfe with Voltaire, D’Alembert, and other
literary charafters, who profeffed opinions analogous to
his own, and formed a very powerful party among the
French literati, whofe united efforts to propagate their
ideas of religion and politics, have been applauded or
condemned, according to the principles of their dif¬
ferent judges. Condorcet firft attrafted the attention
of the public as a mathematician, obtaining their ap¬
probation for his treatife on integral calculations,
which he compofed at the age of 22. In the year
1767, his folution of the problem of the Three Bodies
made its appearance, and in the follow ing year the
firft part of his “ Effays on Analyfis.” In the year
1769 hewas received a member of the Academy of Sci¬
ences, the memoirs of which were greatly enriched by
him with different papers on the moft abftrufe branches
of mathematical fcience. His juftly merited reputation
pointed him out as a fit perfon to co-operate with
D’Alembert and Boffut, in aflifting M. Turgot, that
celebrated minifter and able financier, with arithmeti¬
cal calculations. In the mean time he laboured inde-
fatigably in the ftudy of politics and metaphyfics, and
defended, in an anonymous publication, the feft of
philofophers to W'hich he had attached himfelf, from
an
CON [ 493 ] CON
■cet. an attack made upon them in the Trois Siecles j and
—' replied to M. Necker’s elTay on Corn Laws. He was
appointed fecretary to the Academy of Sciences in the
year 1773, when he employed much of his time in
writing eulogies on fuch of its deceafed members as
Fontenelle had paffed over in filence. Like D’Alem¬
bert and fome others, Condorcet having united in him-
felf the charafters of an elegant writer and a man of
profound rcfearch, was admitted into the French aca¬
demy in 1703, when he pronounced an oration on the
influence of philofophy, which was ordered to be print¬
ed. From the time of D’Alembert’s death, which
happened this year, he filled the ftation of fecretary to
that academy, rendering his name confpicuous by the
publication of eulogies on different eminent charafters.
His panegyric on D’Alembert, to whom he was moft
fmcerely attached, is a very elaborate performance, not-
withftanding of which it is efteemed by judges as a
candid account of the genuine merits of that great phi-
lofopher. His encomium beftowed on that very able ma¬
thematician Euler, furniflied him with a favourable op¬
portunity of giving a circumftantial account of the fpe-
cific improvements and inventions conferred on a pe¬
culiar branch of fcience by the labours of an indivi¬
dual } a talent in a biographical v/riter which Condor¬
cet appears to have poffelfed in an eminent degree.
His eulogy on the minifter Turgot was read with avi¬
dity, and admired by all thofe who approved of Tur¬
got’s plans of government and fyftem of finance. In
the year 1787 he gave the public his “ Life of Vol¬
taire,” which was highly elaborate, and replete with
lofty panegyric, on the merits of which mankind were
confequently much divided, according to their fenti-
ments of that author’s philofophy. The laft of his bio¬
graphical works was an eulogy on the celebrated
Dr Franklin, publiflied in 1790, all of which will be
read with fome degree of prejudice by thofe who
are inimical to the fchool of philo'fophy to which he
belonged.
The memorable event of the French revolution,
which the writings of Condorcet and his aflbeiates un-
queflionably accelerated, naturally interefted his feel¬
ings, and called forth his exertions. But the conduct
of the political parties and their leaders, during this
tumultuous period, is painted in colours fo diametrical¬
ly oppofite to each other, that a proper eftimate of it
is fcarcely poflible. In this part of Condorcet’s life,
therefore, we muft confine ourfelves to fuch fads as are
univerfally acknowledged, leaving it to our readers to
draw inferences for themfelves.
At an early period he employed his talents to pro¬
mote thofe reforms, (for fuch they appeared in his
judgment) which were to pave the way to a new
order of things. A work entitled La Bibliotheque
tie /''Homme Public, to contain an analyfis of the
Writings of the moft eminent politicians, was chiefly
eonduded by him, as was alfo a newfpaper called
La Chronique de Paris, filled w ith declamation againft
royalty. He had likewfife a fhare in the Journal de
Paris, a paper conduded on fimilar principles. About
the time when the unfortunate king fled to Varennes
he propofed a paper called Le Republicam, the ob¬
vious intention of w'hich is clearly deducible from its
title. He was an indefatigable member of the Jaco¬
bin club, and fpoke frequently, though not forcibly,
in it. He was chofen a reprefentative for Paris when Condo
the conftitucnt affembly was diffolved, and followed the ^
general political courfe of the Briflotine parly. A
plan for public inftrudion wras now to exercife his abi¬
lities, which he finilhed in two elaborate memoirs, al¬
lowed to contain fome exalted and enlarged ideas, but
perhaps rather extenfive to be reduced to pradice.
He -was likewife author of the manifefto addrefled to
the European powers by the people of France, on the
approach of a w ar. He wrote a letter of expoftulation
to the king while he was prefident of the aficmbly,
w'hich fome have confidered as by far too fevere, and
deftitute of that ceremony to which the fovereign w as
entitled. When the king was infulted by the popu¬
lace at the Thuilleries, in being offered the red cap, it
is faid that he vindicated their proceedings. We are
alfo informed, that while he was degrading royalty in
this manner, he was fecretly foliciting the office of tutor
to the dauphin j a propofition which the king utterly
rejeded, on account of his avowed infidelity. Attempts
have been made to fix upon his charader the moff.
abominable ingratitude, by making him accefiory to
the murder of the duke de la Rochefoucault, to whom
he -was under the ftrongeft obligations, and from whole
family he had received a moft accomplifhed wife with
a fortune j but we fincerely hope that this calumiry
entirely originated from the malevolence of party
fpirit. When the trial of the king came to be agitated,
Condorcet gave it as his opinion that he could not be
brought to judgment in a legal manner *, yet it mull
be confeffed that his condud in regard to the fentence.
wws rather of an ambiguous nature, and betrayed that
timidity and want of refolution which formed the moft
prominent features of his political career. The judg¬
ment of Madame Roland concerning the moral confti-
tution of this wonderful man has all the air of impar¬
tiality. “ The genius of Condorcet,” fays that lady,
<4 is equal to the comprehenfion of the greateft truths 5
but he has no other charaderiftic befides fear. It may
be faid of his underftanding, combined with his perfon,
that it is a fine effence abforbed in cotton. The timi¬
dity which forms the bafis of his charader, and which
he difplays even in company, does not refult from
his frame alone, but feems to be inherent in his foul*
and his talents furnifh him with no means of fubduing
it. Thus, after having deduced a principle or demon-
ftrated a fad in the affembly, he wrould give a vote
decidedly oppofite, overaw'ed by the thunder of the tri¬
bunes, armed w'ith infults, and lavifli of menaces. The
propereft place for him was the fecretaryftiip of the
academy. Such men Ihould be employed to write,
but never permitted to ad.” The Gironde party,
after the execution of the king, employed him to frame
a newr conftitution, the plan of which was prefented to
the convention, and obtained their approbation. It
was not thus efteemed by the people at large ; and it
has, perhaps not without reafon, been confidered as
“ a mafs of metaphyfical abfurdities.” During the
violent ftruggle between the Gironde and Mountain
parties, Condorcet took no decided part with either,
which feems to have been owing to the native timidity
of his mind, and his abhorrence of the ftate of public
affairs. He was not comprehended among the number
of thofe who were facrificed with their leader Briffot j
but having employed his pen sgainft the vidorious par-
ty,
CON L 494 1 CON
Condorcet. ty, he fell under the invincible difpleafure of that in-
blood-thirfty tyrant Robefpierre, who iffued
a decree of accufation againft him in July, 1793. He
found means to effedl his efcape from the arreft, and
during nine months concealed himfelf in Paris. Dread¬
ing at length that the tyrant would order a domiciliary
vifit for the purpofe of difcovering the place of his re¬
treat, he palled through the barriers without being ta¬
ken notice of, and went to the houfe of a perfon in
whom he could confide, on the plain of Mont-Rouge,
who unfortunately for Condorcet was at that time in
the metropolis. He was of confequence under the ne-
ceffity of paffing two dreary nights in the open fields,
a melancholy prey to hunger and cold. On the third
day he obtained an interview with his friend, who un¬
happily durft not venture to afford him Ihelter under
his roof, fo that he was once more compelled to wander
in the fields. Worn out at length by hunger and fa¬
tigue, and life bding no longer fupportable without
fuftenance, he applied at a public houfe for an ome¬
lette, which he devoured with greedinefs. His cada¬
verous appearance and uncommonly keen appetite,
roufed the fufpicion of a municipal officer who happen¬
ed to be prefent, and by whom he was interrogated.
The ambiguity and hefitation which characterized his
anfwers, made the officer conclude that it would be
proper to apprehend him. He was accordingly con-
figned to a dungeon, to be next day conduced to
Paris, but his melancholy fate rendered fuch a meafure
unneceffary. He was found dead in the morning j and
as it was generally underltood that he conftantly car¬
ried with him a dofe of poifon, to this caufe his melan¬
choly exit was very properly afcribed. Thus termina¬
ted the career of Condorcet on the 28th of March,
1794, who for many years fuftained a brilliant and
honourable reputation in the republic of letters. His
manners were replete with urbanity, and as well quali¬
fied to pleafe in company as could be expeCled in a
man who was conceived as deftitute of a heart. He
was certainly bleffed with domeflic felicity, and had one
daughter by his wife. Soon after his death appeared his
“ Sketch of a Hiftorical Draught of the Progrefs of the
Human mind,” a methodical performance, and evincing
the profoundeft refearch, in which he ftrongly recom¬
mends his favourite idea of gradually bringing human
nature to a ftate of perfection, by confidering what
man has been, now is, and may be. This treatife will
no doubt be viewed by fome as rather fanciful; but it
is clearly the effort of a very fuperior genius, and muft
be peculiarly interefting to the feeling man, when it is
known that it was compofed while its author was in
circumftances of danger and diftrefs. The idea of
man’s progreffive advancement towards perfection and
happinefs, infpired him with confolation under his com¬
plicated misfortunes. Befides the works which we
have enumerated in this &etch of his life, he publiffied
“ Letters to the King of Pruffia,” with whom he kept
up a correfpondence, as well as with Catharine em-
prefs of Ruffia. A treatife on calculation, and an ele¬
mentary treatife on arithmetic, wTere left behind him
in manufeript. Although he was an enemy to reveal¬
ed religion, he was certainly a man of virtue and inte¬
grity ; yet all his philofophy could never infpire him
with that heroic fortitude and contempt of death in a
juft caufe, for which the fincere votaries of Chriftianity Coinl.r
have ever been confpicuous. h C
C ONDORMIEN1 ES, in church hiftory, religious C°ne'
feftaries, who take their name from lying all together,
men and women, young and old. They arofe in the
13th century, near Cologne, where they are faid to
have worffiipped an image of Lucifer, and to have re¬
ceived anfwers and oracles from him.
CONDRIEU, a town of Lyonnois in France, re¬
markable for its excellent wines. It is feated at the
foot of a hill near the river Rhone. E. Long. 4. 33.
N. Lat. 45. 28.
CONDRUSII, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Belgica, originally Germans, dwelling about the
Maefe. Their country is now called CoTidvot%, in
the bifhopric of Liege, between Luxemburgh and the
Maefe.
CONDUCTOR, in Surgery, an infirument which
ferves to conduft the knife in the operation of cut¬
ting for the ftone, and in laying up linufes and fiftu-
las.
Conductors, in eleftrical experiments, as thofe
bodies that receive and communicate ele&ricity ; and
thofe that repel it are called non-conduBors. See E-
LECTRICITY.
CONDUIT, a canal or pipe fer the conveyance cf
water, or other fluid.
There are feveral fubterraneous conduits through
which the waters pafs that form fprings. Artificial
conduits for water are made of lead, ftone, caft-irona
potter’s earth, timber, &c.
CONDYLOID and Coronoid proceffes. See
Anatomy Index,
CONDYLONA, in a tubercle, or cal¬
lous eminence, which arifes in the folds of the anus ; or
rather a fwelling or hardening of the wrinkles of that
part.
CONDYLUS, a name given by anatomifts to a
knot in any of the joints, formed by the epiphyfis of a
bone.
CONE, in Geometry, a folid figure, having a circle
for its bafe, and its top terminated in a point or ver¬
tex. See Conic Sections.
Melting CONE, in Chemijfry, is a hollow cone form¬
ed of copper or brafs, Avith a handle, and with a flat
bottom adjoining to the apex of the cone, upon which
it is intended to reft. Its ufe is to receive a mafs of
one or more metals melted together, and call into it.
This mafs, when cold, may be eafily fhaken out of the
veffel, from its figure. Alfo, if a melted mafs confift-
ing of two or more metals, or other fubftances not
combined together, be poured into this veffel, the co¬
nical figure facilitates the feparation of thefe fubftances
according to their refpe&ive denfifcies. The cone ought
to be well heated before the melted mafs is thrown
into it ) that it may not contain any moifture, Avhieh
would occafion a dangerous explofion. It ought alfn
to be greafed internally with tallow', to prevent the ad-
hefion of the fluid matter.
CONE of Rays, in Optics, includes all the feveral rays
which fall from any radiant point upon the furfaee of
a glafs.
Cone. See Conus, Botany Index.
CONE-Shell. See Conus, Concholcgy Index.
CONESSI,
CON-' I 49
effi CONESSI, a fort of bark of a tree, which grows on
I the Coromandel coaft in the Eaft Indies. It is recom-
^10r1, i mended in a letter to Dr Monro, in the Medical El-
fays, as a fpecific in diarrhoeas. It is to be finely pul¬
verized, and made into an eleftuary with fyrup of
oranges. The bark Ihould be frelh, and the ele&uary
new made every day, or fecond day, otherwife it lofes
its auftere and grateful bitteimefs on the palate, and its
proper effefts on the inteilines.
CONFARREATION, a ceremony among the an¬
cient Romans, ufed in the marriage of perfons whofe
children were deftined for the honour of the prieft-
hood.
Confarreation was the moll facred of the three
modes of contrafting marriage among that people.’,
and confifted, according to Servius, in this, that the
pontifex maximus and ft. a men diaiis joined and contract¬
ed the man and woman, by making them eat of the
fame cake of faked bread } whence the termer, figni-
fying meal or four.
Ulpian fays, it confifted in the offering up of fome
pure wheaten bread j rehearfing withal a certain
formula, in prefence of ten witneffes. Dionyfius
Halicarnaffeus adds, that the hulband and wife did
eat of the fame wheaten bread, and threw part on the
victims.
CONFECTION, in Pharmacy, fignifies, in gene¬
ral, any thing prepared with fugar 5 in particular it
imports fomething preferved, efpecially dry fubftances.
It alfo fignifies a liquid or foft eleftuary, of which
there are various forts direCted in difpenfatories. See
Pharmacy.
CONFECTOR, among the ancient Romans, a fort
of gladiator, hired to fight in the amphitheatre againft
beafts ; thence alfo denominated befianus.
The confeBores were thus called a confciendis be/liis,
from their defpatching and killing beafts.
The Greeks called them froc^xZo^ot, q. d. daring, rajh,
defperate ; whence the Latins borrowed the appellations
parabolam and parabolarii. The Chriftians were fome-
times condemned to this fort of combat.
CONFECTS, a denomination given to fruits, flow¬
ers, herbs, roots, &c. when boiled or prepared with
fugar or honey, to difpofe them to keep, and render
them more agreeable to the tafte.
CONFEDERACY, in Law, is when two or more
perfons combine to do any damage to another, or to
commit any unlawful a£t. Confederacy is punifliable,
though nothing be put in execution : but then it muft
have thefe four incidents*, x. That it be declared by
dome matter of profecution, as by making of bonds or
promifes to one another; 2. That it be malicious, as
for unjuft revenge j 3. That it be falfe, i. e. againft
the innocent; and, laftly, That it be out of court vo-
duntary.
CONFERVA. See Botany Index.
CONFESSION, in a civil fenfe, a declaration or
acknowledgment of fome truth, though againft the
intereft of the party who makes it j whether it be in
a court of juftice or out of it. It is a maxim, that
in civil matters, the confeffion is never to be divided,
but always taken entire. A criminal is never condemned
on his Ample confeflion, without other collateral proofs j
nor is a voluntary extrajudicial confeflion admitted as
any proof. A perfon is not admitted to accufe him-
5 ] CON
felf, according to that rule in law, Non auditur perire Confefficn
volens. See Arraignment. Confirma-
Confession, among divines, the verbal acknow- tion
ledgment which a Chriftian makes of his fins. u-—^——J
Among the Jews it was the cuftom, on the annual
feaft of expiation, for the high-prieft to make confel-
fion of fins to God in the name of the whole people ;
befides this general confeflion, the Jews were enjoined,
if their fins were a breach of the firft table of the law,
to make confeflion of them to God *, but violations of
the fecond table were to be acknowledged to their bre¬
thren. The confeflions of the primitive Chriftians
were all voluntary, and not impofed on them by any
laws of the church j yet private confeflion w as not only
allowed, but encouraged.
The Romifla churcdx requires confeflion not only as a
duty, but has advanced it to the dignity of a facra-
ment : this confeflion is made to the prieft, and is pri¬
vate and auricular ; and the prieft is not to reveal
them under pain of the higheft puniftiment.
Confession of Faith, a lift of the feveral articles
of belief in any church.
CONFESSIONAL, or Confessionary, a place
in churches under the great altar, where the bodies of
deceafed faints, martyrs, and confeffors, were depo-
fited.
This word is alfo ufed by the Romanifts for a defk in
the church where the confeffor takes the confeflions oi
the penitents.
CONFESSOR, a Chriftian who has made a folemn
and refolute profeflion of the faith, and has endured tor¬
ments in its defence. A mere faint is called a confef¬
for, to diftinguifh him from the roll of dignified faints}
fuch as apoftles, martyrs, &c. In ecclefiaftical hiftory,
we fr«quently find the word confeffors ufed for mar¬
tyrs : in after-times it was confined to thofe who, after
having been tormented by the tyrants, were permitted
to live and die in peace. And at laft it was alfo ufed
for thofe who, after having lived a good life, died
under an opinion of famftity. According to St Cy¬
prian, he who prefented himfelf to torture, or even to
martyrdom, without being called to it, was not called
a confeffor but aprofeffor : and if any out of a want of
courage abandoned his country, and became a volun¬
tary exile for the fake of the faith, he was called ex¬
tern's.
Confessor is alfo a prieft in the Romifli church,
who has a power to hear finners in the facrament of
penance, and to give them abfolution. The church
calls him in Latin confejfarius, to diftinguiih him from
confeffor, which is a name confecrated to faints. The
confeffors of the kings of France, from the time of
Henry IV. have been conftantly Jefuits : before him
the Dominicans and Cordeliers ftiared the office be¬
tween them. The confeffors of the houfe of Auftria
have alfo, ordinarily, been Dominicans and Cordeliers \
but the later emperors have all taken Jefuits.
CONFIGURATION, the outward figure which
bounds bodies, and gives them their external appear¬
ance ; being that which, in a great meafure conftitutes
the fpecific difference between bodies.
. CONFIRMATION, in a general fenfe, the a£l of
ratifying or rendering a title, claim, report, or the like,
more fure and indifputable.
Confirmation, in Law, a conveyance of an eftate,
? ’ or
CON [ 496 ] CON
Confirm a- or riglii in effe, from one man to another, whereby a
tl0jj* voidable eftate is made fure and unavoidable, or a par-
Confl.igra- t‘cular eftate is inereafed, or a poflefiion made perfect,
tion. Confirmation, in Theology, the ceremony of lay-
ing on of hands, for the conveyance of the Holy
Ghoft.
The antiquity of this ceremony is, by all ancient
writers, carried as high as the apoftles, and founded
upon their example and practice. In the primitive
church, it uled to be given the Chriftians immediately
after baptifra, if the biftiop happened to be prefent at
the folemnity. Among the Greeks, and throughout
the Eaft, it ftill accompanies baptifm 5 but the Koma-
nifts make it a diftinft independent facrament. Seven
years is the ftated time for confirmation ; however,
they are iometimes confirmed before, and foraetimes
after, that age. The perfon to be confirmed has a
godfather and godmother appointed him, as in baptifm.
The order of confirmation in the church of England
does not determine the precife age of the perfons fo be
confirmed.
CONFISCATION, in Law, the adjudication of
goods or eflbfts to the public treafury ; as the bodies
and effefts of criminals, traitors, Sac..
CONFLAGRATION, the general burning of a
city or other confiderable place.
This word is commonly applied to that grand pe¬
riod or cataftrophe of our world, when the face of na¬
ture is to be changed by fire, as formerly it was by
water. The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonifts, Epi¬
cureans, and Stoics, appear to have had a notion of
the conflagration y though whence they fhould derive
it, unlefs from the facred books, is difficult to con¬
ceive ; except, perhaps, from the Phoenicians, whp
themfelves had it from the Jews. Seneca fays ex-
prefsly, Tempus advenerit quo Jidera Jideribus incurrent,
st omm flagrante materia uno igne, quicquid nunc ex
depojito lucet, ardebit. This general diflblution the
Stoics call iKnvqatrH;, ecpyrojis. Mention of the con¬
flagration is alfo made in the books of the Sibyls, So¬
phocles, Hyftafpes, Ovid, Lucan, &c. Dr Burnet,
after F. Tachard and others, relates that the Siamefe
believe that the earth will at laft be parched up with
heat j the mountains melted down 5 the earth’s whole
furface reduced to a level, and then confumed with
fire. And the Bramins of Siam do not only hold
that the world fhall be deftroyed by fire, but alfo
that a new earth fhall be made out of the cinders of
the old.
Various are the fentiments of authors on the fubjeft
of the conflagration j the caufe whence it is to arife,
and the effecfts it is to produce. Divines ordinarily
account for it metaphyfically \ and will have it take
its rife from a miracle, as a fire from heaven. Phi-
lofophers contend for its being produced from natural
caufes •, and will have it effected according to the laws
of mechanics. Some think an eruption of the central
fire fufficient for the purpofe, and add, that this may
be occafioned feveral ways, viz. either by having its
intenfity increafed j which again may be effefted ei¬
ther by being driven into lefs fpace by the encroach¬
ments of the fuperficial cold, or by an increafe of the
kiflammability of the fuel whereon it is fed j or by
having the refiftance of the imprifoning earth weak-
•ned, which may happen either from the diminu¬
tion of its matter, by the confumption of its central ConiIag: *
parts, or by weakening the cohefien of the conftitu- tier <
ent part of the mafs by the excefs or the defeft of f Jl,
moifture. Others lock for the caufe of the conflagra- CZZ
tion in the atmofphere, and fuppofe, that feme of the
meteors there engendered in unufual quantities, and
exploded with unufual vehemence, from the concur¬
rence of various circunaftances, may e&tft it, with¬
out feeking any further. The aftrologers account for
it from a conjunction of all the planets in the fign
Cancer j as the deluge, fay they, was occafioned by
their conjunction in Capricorn. Laftly, others have
recourfe to a ftill more etfeClual and flaming machine,
and conclude the world is to undergo its conflagration
from the near approach of a comet in its return from
the fun.
CONFLUENT, among phyficians, &c. an appella¬
tion given to that kind of Small-pox wherein the-
puftules run into each other.
CONFLUENTES, \x\ Ancient Geography, a place
at the confluence of the Rhine and Mofelle, fuppofed
to be one of the 50 forts ereCted by Drufus on the
Rhine, in Gallia Belgica 1 Now Coblent%, a town of
Triers. E. Long. 7. 15. N. Lat. 50. 30.
CONFORMATION, the particular confiftence and'
texture of the parts of any body, and their difpofition
to compofe a whole.
Conformation, in Medicine, that make and con-
ftruCtion of the human body which is peculiar to
every individual. Hence a mala conformatio fignifies
fome fault in the firft rudiments j whereby a perfon
comes into the world crooked, or with fome of the
vifeera or cavities unduly framed or proportioned.
Many are fubjeft to incurable afthmas, from a too
fmall capacity of the thorax, and the like vicious con¬
formations.
CONFORMITY, in the fchools, is the congruency
or relation of agreement between one thing and ano¬
ther j as between the meafure and the thing meafured,.
-the objedl and the underftanding, the thing and the
divifion thereof, &c. •
CONFRONTATION, the a£t of bringing two
perfons in prefence of each other, to difeover the truth
of fome faft, which they relate differently.
The word is chiefly ufed in criminal matters, where
the witneffes are confronted with the accufed, the
accufed with one another, or the witneffes with one
another.
CONFUCIUS, or Cong-fu-tse, the moft eminent,
and moft juftly venerated of all the philofophers of
China, a defeendant of the imperial family of the dy-
nafty of Chang, was born in the kingdom of Lu, now
called the province of Chang-tong, about 550 years
before the commencement of the Chriftian aera. This
makes him to have been cotemporary with Pythagoras
and Solon, and prior to the days of Socrates. He gave
ftriking proofs of very uncommon talents at an early
period of life, which were cultivated and improved
with great afliduity under the tuition of the ableft
mailers. Scarcely had he attained to the years of
maturity, when he evinced himfelf acquainted with all
the literature of that period, poffelfing, in particular, a
comprehenfive knowledge of the canonical and claflical
books, aferibed to the legiflators Yao and Chun, which
the Chinefe emphatically denominate the five volumes,
3 a3-
CON [ 457 ] CON
s. as containing the effence of all their feience and mora-
lily. Nature had bellowed upon him a moft amiable
temper, and his moral deportment was altogether un¬
exceptionable. He acquired a diftinguidied reputation
for humility, fincerity, the government of his appetites,
a difmterefted .heart, and a fovereign contempt of
. wealth. Thefe rare qualities pointed him out as a pro¬
per perfon to fill offices of importance and trull in the
government of his country, which he did with honour
to himfelf and advantage to the empire. Thefe public
ftations afforded him excellent opportunities of eftima-
'ting with accuracy the true ftate of morals among his
countrymen, which at this time were diffolute and vi¬
cious in the extreme. He conceived the godlike idea
of attempting a general reformation both in morals and
in politics, and his efforts for forae time were attended
with fuch remarkable effedls, that he infpired his coun¬
trymen with a juft veneration for his excellent charac¬
ter, and gratitude for his exertions, being raifed to a
ftation of the laft importance in the kingdom of Lu.
Here his counfels and advice were productive of the
moft beneficial confequences, in eftablilhing good or¬
der, the due exercife of juftice, concord, and decorum
through the whole kingdom. As it thus very natural¬
ly became an objeft of admiration, fo, likewife, neigh¬
bouring princes beheld with envy its growing happi-
nefs and profperity •, to deftroy which they contrived
a fatal and effeClual expedient, The king of Tfi being
apprehenfive, that if the king of Lu continued to be
direCled by the wifdom and found policy of Confucius,
he would foon become by far too powerful, fent him
and his nobility a prefent of the moft beautiful young
women, trained up from their infancy in all the ai^ts of
feduCtion, who were but too fuccefsful in plunging the
whole court into voluptuoufnefs and diffipation. I his
demoliflied in a fhort time, the whole of that beautiful
fabric which had been ereCted by Confucius. Finding
it a hopelefs attempt to Item the univerfal torrent of
corruption and depravity, he refolved to exert his ta¬
lents in fome diftant kingdom, in the philanthropic
caufe of moral reformation, in hopes of better fuccefs.
But he had the mortification to difeover, that vice was
everywhere triumphant, while virtue, that darling of
his foul, was compelled to hide her head. This in¬
duced him to adopt the more humble, although
not the lefs interefting employment, of a teacher of
youth, in which he made great and rapid progrels.
About 600 of his fcholars w'ere fent into different
parts of the empire, to carry on his favourite work of
moral reformation. Among his difciples, 72 were re¬
markably diftinguiffied above the reft for their mental
acquifitions, and 10 others were deemed fuperior, even
to thefe, as having a thorough comprehenfion of their
mailer’s whole fyftem. Thefe were divided by him in¬
to four claffes : the firft being deftined to the ftudy of
the moral virtues j the fecond to the arts of logic and
public fpeaking ; the third clafs ftudied jurifprudence
.and the duties of the civil magiftrate ; and public fpeak¬
ing, or the delivery of popular difeourfes on moral
topics. Indefatigable, however, as his labours w'ere,
the talk was too mighty to be accompliffied by human
exertions. During his laft illnefs, he declared to his
pupils, that the grief of his mind occafioned by the
profligacy of human nature wras become infupportable ;
and with a melancholy voice, he exclaimed “ Immenfe
VsOL. VI. Part II.
mountain, how art thou fallen ! The grand ms June is Ccnfucius
demolilhed, and the wdfe and the virtuous are no more.
The kings will not follow my maxims j I am no long¬
er ufeful on earth ; it is, therefore, time that I fhould
quit it.” On uttering thefe words he was feized with
a lethargy, which brought him to the grave. He fi-
niftitd his honourable career in the 72d year of his age,
in his native kingdom, to which he had returned in
company with his difciples. It is frequently the fate
of iliuftrious characters, never to be properly valued
till they are cut oft" by death ; which was the cafe with
Confucius. The whole empire of China bewailed the
lofs of him, and ereCled innumerable edifices to per¬
petuate his memory, adorned with fuch honourable in-
feriptions as the following : “ To the great mafter 5”
“ To the chief doCtor j” “ To the faint .j” “ To the
wife king of literature “ To the inftruCtor of em¬
perors and kings.” All his defeendants, even to
the prefent day, enjoy the honourable title and of¬
fice of mandarins, and are exempted from the pay -
ment of taxes to the emperor, as well as the princes of
the blood. The man w ho applies for the title of doCtor,
muft previoufly have made a prefent to a mandarin de
feended in a direCt line from Confucius. The writings
of this great man are efteemed by the Chinefe as of the
higheft authority, next to the five volumes, to which
he modeftly acknowledges himfelf to have been much
indebted. His works are, i.The Tay-h'io; “The Grand
Science, or School of Adults,” chiefly intended for the
information of princes and magiftrates, recommending
the duties of felf-government, and uniform obedience
to the laws of right reafon. 2. The Choug-yong, or
“ Immutable Medium,” in which he ftiew's its impor¬
tance in the government of the paffions by a variety of
examples, and points out the method of arriving at per¬
fection in virtue. 3. Lung-yu, or moral and fententious
difeourfes, w hich exhibit a lively picture of the opinions,
conduCt, and maxims of Confucius and his followers,
4. Meng-tfe, the book of Mencius, which derived its
name from one of that great philofopher’s difciples.
Thefe are all defervedly efteemed by the Chinefe, be¬
ing held next in importance to the five volumes. 5.
The Hyau-king, or differtation on the duty and refpeCt
w hich children owe their parents •, and, 6. The Syan-hyo,
or fcience for children, being a judicious collection of
moral fentences from ancient and modern writers.
If a fair and impartial eftimate of the religion of
Confucius^be made, it cannot be viewed in any other
light than as uncorrupted deifm, although he has fome-
times been accufed of befriending and ficretiy propa¬
gating atheiftical fentiments 5 but fuch an accufation is
as cruel as it is unjuft, fince the purity of bis moral pre¬
cepts, and the acknowledged reCtitude of his whole de¬
portment, are utterly incompatible w ith fuch a fuppofi-
tion. He confidered the Tyen or Deity as the pureft
and moft perfeCl effence, principle and fource of all
things in the boundlefs univerfe j who is abfolutely in¬
dependent, omnipotent, the governor and guardian of
every thing } poffeffed of infinite wifdom wdiich nothing
can deceive 4 holy, without partiality, of unlimited
goodnefs and juftice. We are at a lofs to form any
adequate opinion of his fentimenls relative to the foul
of man and the doflrine of futurity, having no well au-
- thenticated data, on which to proceed. His morality is
in many inftances fuperior to that of Greece and Rome,
3 R and
O O N [ 49« ] CON
0 r.^icius, and } »Ms to none upon earth, except t© that of divine
Oohfuhon. revelation. The religion of Confucius, notwithftand-
v 'lL" ing the eflimation in which he is held, is adopted as a
model by none of his countrymen, the literati except¬
ed. Their prevailing fyftem is a medley of pagan
idolatry and the fabulous fuperftition of the Indians,
introduced into China by Fo, in the firft century of the
Chriitian era.
CONFUSION, in a general fenfe, is oppofed to or¬
der, in a perturbation whereof confufion conlifts : e. gr.
when things prior in nature do not precede, cr pofterior
do not follow, &c.
In a logical fenfe, confufion is oppofed to diftin&nefs
or perfpicuity : and may happen either in words, as
when mifcontrived or mifapplied j or in ideas, as when
the idea of any thing prefents fomething along with it,
which does not properly belong to that thing. See
Idea and Notion.
In a phyfical fenfe, confufion is a fort of union or
mixture by mere contiguity. Such is that between
fluids of contrary nature, as oil and vinegar, &c.
Confusion, in Scots Law, is a method of fufpending
and extinguifhing obligations. For the illuftration of
this, fee Law Index.
CONFUSION of Tongues, in the hiftory of mankind, is
a memorable event, which happened in the one hundred
and firft year according to the Hebrew chronology,
and the four hundred and firft year by the Samaritan,
after the flood, at the overthrow of Babel j and which
was providentially brought about in order to facilitate
the difperfion of mankind and the population of the
earth. Until this period there had been one common
language, which formed a bond of union that prevented
the feparation of mankind into diftindt nations j and
fome have fuppofed, that the tower of Babel was erect¬
ed as a kind of fortrefs, by which the people intended
to defend themfelves againft that feparation which Noah
had projefted.
There has been, a confiderable difference of opinion
as to the nature of this confufion, and the manner in
which it was effe&ed. Some learned men, prepoffeffed
with the notion that all the different idioms now in the
world did at firft arife from one original language to
which they may be reduced, and that the variety
among them is no more than muft naturally have hap¬
pened in a long courfe of time by the mere feparation
of the builders of Babel, have maintained, that there
were no new languages formed at the confufion } but,
that this event was accomplifhed by creating a mifun-
derftanding and variance among the builders, without
any immediate influence on their language. But this
opinion, advanced by Le Clerc, &c. feems to be di-
reftly contrary to the obvious meaning of the word
ns^, fljapha, “ lip,” ufed by the facred hiftorian.—
Others have imagined, that this was brought about by
a temporary confufion of their fpeech, or rather of their
apprehenfions, caufing them, whilft they continued to¬
gether and fpoke the fame language, to underftand the
words differently. Scaliger is of this opinion. Others,,
again, account for this event by the privation of all
language, and by fuppofing that mankind were under a
neceflity of affociating- together, and of impofing new
names on things by common confent. Another opi¬
nion aferibes the confufion to fuch an indiftindt remem¬
brance of the original language which they fpoke be¬
fore, as made them ipeak it very differently j fo that
by the various inflexions, terminations, and pronun¬
ciations of divers dialedls, they could no more under.,
ftand one another, than they who underftand Latin
can unclerftand thofe who fpeak French, Italian, or
Spanilh, though all thefe languages arife out of it.
Ibis opinion is adopted by Cafaubon, and by Bifhop
Patrick in his Commentary in loc. and is certainly much
more probable than either of the former. And Mr
Shuckford maintains, that the confufion arofe from
fmall beginnings, by the invention of new words in ei¬
ther of the three families of Shem, Ham, and Japhet,
which might contribute to feparate them from one ano¬
ther : and that in each family new differences of fpeech
might gradually arife, fo that each of thefe families
went on to divide and fubdivide among themfelves.
Others, again, as Mr Jof. Mede and Dr Wotton, Sec.
not fatisfied with either of the foregoing methods of
accounting for the diverfity of languages among man¬
kind, have recourfe to an extraordinary interpofition
of divine power, by which new languages ivere framed
and communicated to different families by a fuperna-
tural infufion or infpiration *, which languages have been
the roots and originals from which the feveral dialefls
that are, or have been, or will be fpoken, as long as
this earth thall laft, have arifen, and to which they
may with eafe be reduced. As to the number of lan¬
guages thus introduced, many opinions have been
adopted. If there were no more than there w ere na¬
tions or heads of nations, then the number would be
feven for Japhet, four for Ham, and five for Shem j
but if there were as many as there ivere families, which
is the more probable opinion, their number cannot be
certainly afiigned. HoAcever, the Hebrews fancy they
were 70, becaufe the defeendants frem the fons of
Noah, enumeraled Genefis x. were juft fo manv. Al¬
lowing, then, the languages of the chief families to,
have been fundamentally different from each other, the
fub-languages and dialecls within each branch would
probably have had a mutual affinity, greater or lefs as
they fettled nearer cr farther from each other. But
whichfoever of thefe hypothefes is adopted, the pri¬
mary objeft of the confufion st Babel was the fepara¬
tion and difperfion of mankind.
Dr Bryant, in the third volume of his Analyfis of
Ancient Mythology, has advanced a Angular hypothe-
fis, both with refpefi to the confufion of tongues and
the difperfion. He fuppofes that the confufion of lan¬
guage w as local and partial, and limited to Babel only.
By snxnba., Gen. xi. 1. and 8. which our tranflators
render the whole earth, he understands every region; and
by the fame words in \rer. the whole region or pro¬
vince. This confufion avss eccafioned, as he fuppofes,
by a labial failure 5 fo that the people could not arti¬
culate. Thus their fpeech was confounded, but not.
altered ; for as foon as they feparated, they recovered
their true tenor of pronunciation, and the language of
the earth continued for fome ages nearly the fame.
The intervieAvs bet\Areen the Hebrews and other na¬
tions, recorded in Scripture, Avere conduced Avithout
an interpreter j and he farther obferves, that the vari¬
ous languages Avhxch fubfift at this day retain fufficient
relation to fhow, that they were once dialefts from the
fame matrix, and that their variety Avas the effeft of
time. See Dispersion.
CONFUTATION,
Cor,;
C O N
iition CONFUTATION, in Rhetoric, &.c.
oration, wherein the orator feconds his own arguments
Co ;la- ail(l ftrengthens his caufe, by refelling and deftroying
II] v , the oppoiite arguments of the antagonilt. This is done
by denying what is apparently falfe, by detefting fome
flaw in the reafoning of the adverfe party, by granting
their argument, and (bowing its invalidity, or retorting
it upon the adverfary.
CONGE, in the French law, a licence or permif-
fion, granted by a fuperior to an inferior, which gives
him a difpenfation from fome duty to which he vras
before obliged. A woman cannot obligate herfelf
without the conge or licenfe of her hufband \ a monk
cannot go out of his convent, without the conge' of his
fuperiors.
Conge1 iRelire, in eccleliaftical policy, the king’s
permifiion royal to a dean and chapter in the time of
a vacancy, to choofe a bilhop; or to an abbey, or priory,
of his own foundation, to choofe their abbot or prior.
The king of England, as fovereign patron of all
archbifhoprics, biflioprics, and other ecclefiaftical be¬
nefices, had of ancient time free appointment of all
ccclefiaftical dignities, whenfoever they chanced to be
void ; invefting them firfl; per bacculum et anmrfum,
and afterwards by his letters patent j and in courfe of
time he made the election over to others, under certain
forms and limitations, as that they (hould at eve¬
ry vacation, before they choofe, demand the king’s
conge d’elire, and after the eleftion crave his royal af-
fent, &e.
Conge', in Architefture, a mould in form of a
quarter round, or a caVetto, which ferves to feparate
two members from one another; fuch as that which
joins the (haft of the column to the cin&ure, called alfo
apophyge.
Conges are alfo rings or ferrels formerly ufed in the
extremities of wooden pillars, to keep them from fplit-
ting, afterwards imitated in ftone-work.
CONGELATION, fignifies the paffing of any
body from a fluid to a folid (fate : fo that the term is
thus applicable to metals when they relume their folid
form after being heated, to water when it freezes, to
wax, fpermaceti, &c. when they become folid after
having been rendered fluid by heat $ and in general
to all procefles, where the whole fubftance of the fluid
is converted into a folid : but it differs from cryftalli-
zation •, becaufe in the latter procefs, though the fait
paffes from a fluid to a folid date, a confiderable quan¬
tity of liquid is always left, fothat the term congelation
is never applied in this cafe.
The procefs of congelation in all cafes depends upon,
or at lead is accompanied with, the emidion of heat, as
has been evinced by experiments made not only on wa-
T ter, but on fpermaceti, wax, &c.: for in all of thefe,
though the thermometer immerfed in them while fluid
continued to defeend gradually till a certain period,
yet it was as condantly obferved to remain dationary,
or even to afeend while the congelation went on. See
Chemistry.
It is not known whether all kinds of fluids are natu¬
rally capable of congelation or not though we are
certain that there are very great differences among
them in this refpeft. The mod difficult of all thofe of
which the congelation has been actually afeertained is
't ilver. quickfilver. This was long thought capable of refid-
[ 499 1 CON
a part of an ing any degree of cold whatever 5 and it is only within C°ngeia
Ts ways
al ided
''■an
e! ion of
h'
C rela
ti of
a few years that its congelation by artificial means was
known, and dill more lately that fome climates were
found to be fo fevere as to congeal this fluid by the cold
of the atmofphere. 3
The congelation of quickfilver v'as fird afeertained Expen-^
by M. Jofeph Adam Braun, profeffor of philofophy at AC"F
Peterfburg. He had been employed in making ther- ‘
mometrical experiments, not with a view to make the
difeovery he attually did, but to fee how many degrees
of cold he could produce. An excellent opportunity
for this occurred on the 14th of December 1759, when
the mercury dood naturally at —34, which is now
known to be only five or fix degrees above its point of
congelation. M. Braun, having determined to avail
himfelf of this great degree of natural cold, prepared a
freezing mixture of nitric acid and pounded ice, by
means of which his thermometer was reduced to —69.
Part of the quickfilver had now really congealed ; yet
fo far was M. Braun from entertaining any fufpicion of
the truth, that he had almod defided from farther at¬
tempts, being fatisfied with having fo far exceeded all
the philofophers who went before him. Animated,
however, by the hopes of producing a dill greater de¬
gree of cold, he renewed the experiment ; but having
expended all his pounded ice, he was obliged to fub-
ditute fnow in its place. With this frefli mixture the
mercury funk to —100, 240, and 35!°. He then fup-
pofed that the thermometer was broken j but on
taking it out to obferve whether it was fo or not, he
found the quickfilver fixed, and continuing fo for 12
minutes. On repeating the fame experiment with an¬
other thermometer which had been graduated no lower
than—120, all the mercury funk into the ball, and
became folid as before, not beginning to reafeend till
after a dill longer interval of time. Hence the pro¬
feffor concluded that the quickfilver was really frozen,
and prepared for making a decifive experiment. This
was accompliflied on the 23th of the fame month, and
the bulb of the thermometer broken as fcon as the
metal was congealed. The mercury was now convert¬
ed into a folid and fliining metallic mafs, which extend¬
ed under the drokes of a pedle, in hardnefs rather in¬
ferior to lead, and yielding a dull found like that me¬
tal. Profeffor Aipinus made fimilar experiments at
the fame time, employing both thermometers and tubes
of a larger bore : in Which lad he remarked, that the
quickfilver fell fenfibly on being frozen, affuming a
concave furface, and likewife that the congealed pieces
funk in fluid mercury.
The fa£t being thus eflablifhed, ahd fluidity no
longer to be confidered as an effential property of
quickfilver, M. Braun communicated an account of
his experiments to the Peteriburgh Academy, ofethe
6th of September 1760 ; of which a large extrafl was
inferted in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, vol. lii.
p. 156. Five years afterwards he publiihed another
treatife on the fame fubje£t, under the title of Supple¬
ment to his former differtation. In this he declared,
that, fince his former publication, he had never differ¬
ed any winter to elapfe without repeating the experi¬
ment of congealing quickfilver, and never failed of
fuccefs when the natural, cold Was of a diffident
drength for the pufpofe.. This degree of natural cold
he fuppofes to be —10 of Fahrenheit, though fomfc
3 R 2 commencement
»
CON
menbach.
commencemeRt of the congelation might he- perceived
when the temperature of the air was as high as -j- 2.
Ihe refults of all his experiments were, that with the
above-mentioned frigorific mixtures, and once with
reft shed fpirits and fnow, when the natural cold was at
2.8”, he congealed the cjuickfilver, and difcovered that
it is a real metal which melts with a very fmall de¬
gree of heat. Not perceiving, however, the neceffary
confequence of its great contraftion in freezing, he, in
this work, as well as in the former, confounded its
point of congelation wdth that of its greatelf contrac¬
tion in freezing, and thus marked the former a great
deal too low j though the point of congelation was very
uncertain according to him, various difficulties having
occurred to his attempts of finding the greateif point
4 of contraftion while freezing.
Oi Mr BIu- The experiments of M. Braun were not repeated
by any perfon till the year 1774, when Mr John Fre¬
deric Blumenbach, then a ftudent of phyfic at Got¬
tingen, performed them to more advantage than it ap¬
pears 1V1. Braun had ever done. He was encouraged
to make the attempt by the exceffive cold of the win¬
ter that year. “ I put (fays he), at five in the even¬
ing of January nth, three drachms of quickfilver into
a fmall fugar-glafs, and covered it wdth a mixture of
fnow and Egyptian fal-ammoniac. This mixture was
put loofe into the glafs, fo that the quickfilver lay per-
feftly free, being only covered with it as by pieces
of ice 5 the whole, together with the glafs, weighed
fomewhat above an ounce. It was hung out at a
"window in fuch a pofitition as to expofe it freely to
the north-weft $ and two drachms more of fal-ammo¬
niac mixed with the fnow on which it flood. The
fnow and fal-ammoniac, in the open air, foon froze
into a mafs like ice; no fenfible change, however, ap¬
peared in the quickfilver that evening j but at one in
the morning it was found frozen folid. It had divided
.mto two large and four fmaller pieces j one of the
rormer was hemifpherical, the other cylindrical, each
feemingly rather above a drachm in weight •, the four
fmall bits might amount to half a fcruple. They were
all with their flat fide frozen hard to the glafs, and no¬
where immediately touched by the mixture; their co¬
lour was a dull pale white with a bluiffi call, like zinc,
very different from the natural appearance of quickfil¬
ver. Next morning, about eleven o’clock, I found that
the larger hemifphere began to melt, perhaps becaufe
it was moft expofed to the air, and not fo near as the
others to the fal-ammoniac mixture which lay be¬
neath. In this ftate it refembled an amalgapi, finking
on that fide to which the glafs was inclined •, but with¬
out quitting the furface of the glafs, to which it was
yet firmly congealed : the five other pieces had not
yet undergone any alteration, but remained frozen hard.
Toward eight o’clock the cylindrical piece began to
foften in the fame manner, and the other four foon
followed. About eight they fell from the furface of
the glafs, and divided into many fluid fhining globuks,
which were foon loft in the interftices of the frozen
mixture, and reunited in part at the bottom, being
now exaftly like common quickfilver.” At the time
this experiment was made, the thermometer flood at
-«?-1 o° in the open air.
The circumftances attending this experiment are'ftill
[ 5co ]
CON
unaccountable; for, in the firft place, the natural cold
was fcarcely Sufficient, along with that of the artificial
mixture, which produces 32° more, to have concealed
the quickfilver ; which yet appears to have been very
effectually done, by the length of time it continued
folid. 2.. It is not eafy to account for the length of
time required for congealing the quickfilver in this ex¬
periment, fince other frigorific mixtures begin to aft
almoft immediately j and, 3. There was not at lafl
even the appearance of action, which confifts in a fo-
lution of the fnow, and not in its freezing into a mafs.
“ The whole experiment (fays Dr Blagden*) remains* Phil.
involved in fuch obfeurity, that fome perfons have fup-Trartf.
pofed the quickfilver itfelf was not frozen, but onlyvo1 iii'
covered over with ice j to which opinion, however,
there are great objeftions. It is worthy of remark,
that Gottingen, though lituated in the fame latitude as
London, and enjoying a temperate climate in general,
becomes fubjeft at times to a great feverity of cold.
This of 1 ith of January 1774 is one inftance : I find
others there where the thermometer funk to  12°,
— 16°, or — 19” 3 and at Cattlenburg, a fmall town about
two German miles diftant, to —30°. By watching fuch
extraordinary occafions, experiments on the freezing
of quickfilver might eafily be performed in many
places, where the poffibility of them is at prefent lit¬
tle fufpefted. The cold obferved at Glafgow in 1780
would have been fully fufficient for that purpofe.”
In confequence of the publication of M. Braun’s
Experiments, the Royal Society defired their late fe-
cretary Dr Maty to make the neeeffary application to
the Hudfon’s Bay Company, in order to repeat the
experiment in that country. Mr Hutchins, who was
then at London, and going out with a commiffion as
governor of Albany fort, offered to undertake the ex¬
periments, and executed them very completely, freezing
quickfilver twice in the months of January and Fe¬
bruary 1775. The account of his fuccefs was read
before the Royal Society at the commencement of the
fevereft winter that had been known for many years in
Europe 3 and at this time the experiment was repeated
by two gentlemen of different countries. One was
Dr Lambert Bicker, fecretary to the Batavian fociety
at Rotterdam 3 who, on the 28th of January 1776, at
eight in the morning, made an experiment to try how
low he could bring the thermometer by artificial cold,
the temperature of the atmofphere being then -f.20.
He could not, however, bring it lower than —940, at
whicli point it flood immoveable ; and on breaking
the thermometer, part of the quickfilver was found to
have loll its fluidity, and was thickened to the con¬
fluence of an amalgam. It fell out of the tube in
little bits, which bore to be flattened by preffure, with¬
out running into globules like the inner fluid part.
The experiment was repeated next day, when the
thermometer flood at -f-8°, but the mercury would not
then defeend below —8o° $ and as the thermometer
was not broken, it could not be known whether the
mercury had congealed or not. All that could be in¬
ferred from thefe experiments therefore was, that the
congealing point of mercury was not below —94° of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. The other who attempt¬
ed the congelation of this fluid the late Dr An
tbony FcthergiM 3 but it could not
he determined
whether
C< ela
m*
5 ,
5 !iacks
CON [
whetlier he facceeded or not. An account of his ex¬
periments is inferled in the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
vol. Ixvi.
No other attempts were made to congeal quickfilver
until the year 1781, when Mr Hutchins refumed the
fubjeft with great fuccefs, infomuch that from his ex¬
periments the freezing point of mercury is now almoft
as well fettled as that of water. Preceding philofe-
phers, indeed, had not been altogether inattentive to
this fubject. Profefibr Eraun himfelf had taken great
pains to inveftigate it-, but for want of paying the re-
quilite attention to the difference betwixt the contrac¬
tion of the fluid mercury by cold, and that of the
congealing metal by freezing, he could determine no¬
thing certain concerning it. Others declared it as
their opinion, that nothing certain could be determi¬
ned by merely freezing mercury in a thermometer
filled with that fluid. Mr Cavendifh and Dr Black
firft fuggefted the proper method of obviating the dif¬
ficulties on this fubjedt. Dr Black, in a letter to Mr
di lions Hutchins, dated Oftober 5, 1779, gave.the following
fo taking dire&ions for making the experiment with accuracy :
th xpen- « provide a few wide and ihort tubes of thin glafs,
m ' fealed at one end and open at the other ; the widenefs
of thefe tubes may be from half to three quarters of
an inch, and the length of them about three inches
Put an inch or an.inch and a half depth of mercury
into one of thefe tubes, and plunging the bulb of the
thermometer into the mercury, fet the tube with the
mercury and the thermometer in it into a freezing mix¬
ture, which fhould be made for this purpofe in a com¬
mon tumbler or water glafs : and, N. B. in making a
freezing mixture with fnow and nitric acid, the quantity
■of the acid fhould never be fo great as to diflblve
.the whole of the fnow, and only enough to reduce
it to the confidence of panada. When the mer¬
cury in the wide tube is thus fet in the freezing
mixture, it muft be ftirred gently and frequently with
the bulb of the thermometer j and if the cold be fuf-
ficiently ftrong, it will congeal by becoming thick
like an amalgam. As foon as this is obferved, the
thermometer Ihould be examined without lifting it out
of the congealing mercury ; and I have no doubt that
in every experiment thus made, with the fame mer¬
cury, the inftrument will always point to the fame
degree, provided it has been made and graduated with
accuracy.”
The apparatus recommended by Mr Cavendifh, and
, m_ which Mr Hutchins made ufe of, confided of a fmall
r .ded by mercurial thermometer, the bulb of which reaches
J Caven- about 2-§- inches below the fcale, and w'as inclofed in
a glafs cylinder fwelled at the bottom into a ball, which
when ufed was filled with quickfilver, fo that the bulb
of the thermometer was entirely covered with it. If
this cylinder be immerfed in a freezing mixture till
great part of the quickfilver in it is frozen, it is evi¬
dent that the degree diown at that time by the inclo¬
fed thermometer is the precife point at which mercury
freezes ; for as in this cafe the ball of the thermome¬
ter mud be furrounded for fome time with quickfilver,
part of which is aftually frozen, it feems impodible
that the thermometer fhould be fenfibly above that
point; and while any of the quickfilver in the cylin¬
der remains fluid, it is impofllble that it fhould fink
6
l iaratus
501 ] CON
fenfibly below it. The diameter of the bulb of the
thermometer was rather lefs than a quarter of an inch,
that of the fwelled part of the cylinder two-thirds j
and as it was eafy to keep the thermometer condantly
in the middle of the cylinder, the thicknels of quick¬
filver betwixt it and the glafs could never be much lefs
than the fixth part of an inch. The bulb of the ther¬
mometer was purpofely made as fmall as it conveniently
could, in order to leave a fuflicient fpace between it and
the cylinder, without making the fwelled part larger
than neceffary, which would have caufed more difficulty
in freezing the mercury in it.
The fird experiment with this apparatus was made
on the 13th of December 1781 ; the thermometer had
dood the evening before at —180. A bottle of fpin
tus nitri fortis was put on the houfe-top, in order to
cool it to the fame temperature. The thermome¬
ters made ufe of had been hung up in the open air for
three weeks to compare their fcales.. On the morn¬
ing of the experiment they were about 230 below
o.———In making it, the thermometer of the appa¬
ratus was fufpended in the bulb of the cylinder by
means of fome red worded wound about the upper-
part of its dem, to a fufficient thicknefs to fill the up¬
per part of its orifice j and a fpace of near half an
inch was left empty between the quickfilver and word¬
ed.
The apparatus was placed in the open air, on the
top of the fort, with only a few deer fkins fewed to¬
gether for a ffielter j the fnow lay 18 inches deep on.
the works, and the apparatus was duck into the fnow,
in order to bring it the fooner to the temperature of
the air. The indruments were afterwards placed in
three fredi freezing mixtures, in hopes of being able
by their means to produce a greater degree of cold,
but without effeft j nor was any greater cold produced
by adding more nitric acid. The mercury, how-ever,
was very completely frozen, that in the thermometer
defcending to 448°. On plunging the mercury into
the freezing mixture, it defcended in lefs than one mi¬
nute to 40° below o.
The fecond experiment was made the day follow¬
ing j and the fame quantity of quickfilver employed
that had been ufed in the former. As too fmall a
quantity of the freezing mixture, however, had been
originally made, it was neceffary to add more during
the operation of congelation j by w hich means the
fpirit of nitre, in pouring it upon the fnow', fometimes
touched the bulb of the thermometer, and inftantly
raifed it much higher; nor did the mercury ever de-
fcend below 206°, which was not half as far as it had
done the day before, though the temperature of the
atmofphere had been this day at —340 before the
commencement of the operation. That in the appa¬
ratus, however, funk to —950. The apparatus w-as
taken out of the mixture for half a minute, in order
to examine whether the mercury was perfectly congeal¬
ed or not, and, during that time, it (bowed no lign of
liquefa£lk>n.
The third experiment was made the fame day, and
with the freezing mixture ufed in the laft. By it the
point of congelation was determined to be not below
40°.
The fourth experiment was made January 7th 1782.’,
and
Congela.
tion.
CON
and in it lie obferved, that the mercury in the appara-
tus thermometer, after ftanding at 42 and 414- for a
confiderable time, fell to 77, not gradually, but at once
as a-weight falls.
In the fifth experiment the weather was exceflively
fevere, fo that it ought to have frozen the metal in the
open air ; but this did not then happen.
At the time of making the fixth experiment, the
quickfilver in the open air Hood at 44 below o 5 and
Mr Hutchins refolved to make ufe of this opportunity
to obferve how far it was poflible to make it defeend
by means of cold, obferving the degrees at the fame
time with a fpirit thermometer made by Nairne and
Blount, with which he had been furnithed by the
Royal Society in 1774- this, however, he did not
fucceed ; for the mercury never fell below 438, nor
the ftandard 48. It Hood at 274- at the beginning
of the experiment. The reafon of this was fuppofed
to be, that the atmofphere was too cold for making
this kind of experiment, by reafon of its freezing the
thread of quickfilver in the Hem of the thermometer,
fo that it became incapable of contraftion along with
that in the bulb. In other experiments, though the
metal in the bulb became folid, yet that in the Hem
always remained fluid 5 and thus was enabled to fub-
fide to a great degree by the diminution of bulk in
the folid mercury. That this was really the cafe, ap¬
peared from the quickfilver falling at once from —86
to —434, when the cold of the freezing mixture di-
miniihed, and the temperature of the air becoming
about the fame time fomewhat milder, melted the con¬
gealed part in the Hem, which thus had liberty to de¬
scend to that point.
In this experiment, alfo, the mixtures were made in
double quantity to thofe of the former-, thefe being
only in common tumblers, but the mixtures for this
experiment in pint bafons. It was obferved that they
liquefied falter than in other experiments. He had
ufually made them of the confiftence of pap j but
though he added fnow at different times, it had very
little effect in augmenting the cold, but rather decreaf-
ed it. The congealed piece of the metal fell to the
bottom, as might naturally have been expected from its
great contraction in becoming folid.
From this experiment Mr Hutchins concluded, that
the nearer the temperature of the atmofphere ap¬
proached to the congealing point of mercury (fo that
a great degree of cold might be communicated to the
bulb of a thermometer, and yet the quickfilver in the
tube remain fluid), he might make the experiment of
afeertaining the greateft contraction of mercury to
more advantage. With this view he made another ex¬
periment, when the temperature of fome of his ther¬
mometers flood as low as —3 70 : and after an hour’s
attendance, he perceived the mercury had fallen to
1367 ; but the thermometer unluckily was broken,
and its bulb thrown away with the mixture. Profef-
for Braun had likewife obferved, that his thermometers
were always broken when the mercury defeended be¬
low 600.
The eighth experiment was made with a view to
try whether quickfilver would congeal when in con-
ta£l with the freezing mixture. For this purpofe, he
did not ufe the apparatus provided for other experi¬
4
[ 502 ]
C O N
ments, but filled a gallipot made of flint Hone (as be- Cos
mg thinner than the common fort), containing about
an ounce, half full of quickfilver,1 into which he in-
leri-cd a mercurial thermometer, employing another
as an index. Thus he honed to determine exactly
when the quickfilver was congealed, as he had free
accefs to it at all times, which was not the cafe when
it was inclofed in the cylindrical glafs, the worfted
wound round the tube of the thermometer to exclude
the air being equally effectual in excluding any in-
ffrument from being introduced to touch the quickfil¬
ver. Fie then made a kind of fkewer, with a flat
blunt point, of dried cedar-wood, on account of its
lightnefs, which he found would remain in the gela-
tinous freezing mixture at any depth he chofe; but,
when inferted into the quickfilver, the great difference
betwixt the Specific gravity of it and that ponderous
fluid, made it always rebound upward 5 and by the
degree of refiftance, he could always know whether
it proceeded from fluid or folid metal. At this time,
however, the experiment did not fucceed j but, at
another trial, haying employed about ^ths of a pound
of metal, and let it remain a confiderable time immerfed
in the fame mixture which had juft now been fuppofed
to fail, he found that part of it was congealed j and,
on pouring off the fluid part, no lefs than two-thirds
remained fixed at the bottom.
The laft experiment which has been publifhed con- Mr cL
cerning the congelation of quickfilver by means of Gift’s ex.
fnow, is that of Mr Cavendilh, and of which he gives Per*m£nts'
an account in the Phil. Tianfad. vol. Ixxiii. p, 325.
Here, fpeaking of the cold of freezing mixtures, he
fays, ‘‘There is the utmoft reafon to think that Mr
Hutchins would have obtained a greater degree of cold
by ufing a weaker nitrous acid than he did. I found
(fays he) by adding fnow gradually to fome of this
acid, that the addition of a fmall quantity produced
heat inftead of cold } and it was not until fo much was
added as to increafe the heat from 28 to 510, that
the addition of more fnow began to produce cold ; the
quantity of fnow required for this purpofe being pret¬
ty exaftly one quarter of the weight of the fpirit of
nitre j and the heat of the fnow, and air of the room,
as well as of the acid, being 28°. The reafon of this
is, that a great deal of heat is produced by mixing wa¬
ter with fpirit of nitre; and the ftronger the fpirit is,
the greater is the heat produced. Now it appears,
from this experiment, that before the acid was di¬
luted, the heat produced by its union with the wa¬
ter formed from the melting fnow, was greater than
the cold produced by the fame; and it was not un¬
til it was diluted by the addition of one quarter of
its weight of that fubftance, that the cold, generated
by the latter caufe, began to exceed the heat generated
by the former. From what has been faid, it is evi¬
dent, that a freezing mixture made with undiluted
acid will not begin to generate cold until fo much
fnow is diffolved as to inereafe its heat from 28 to 51*;
fo that no greater cold will be produced than would
be obtained by mixing the diluted acid heated to 51°
with fnow of the heat of 28°. This method of add¬
ing fnow gradually is much the beft way I know of
finding what ftrength it ought to be of, in order to
produce the greateft effedft poflible. By means of this
acid
Cc ^a'
i i-
!
Coi la-
tioi f
ijui Ilver
ty tural
co!
CON [ 503 ] CON
acid diluted in the above-mentioned proportion, I froze
quickfilver in the thermometer called G (a) by Mr
Hutchins, on the 26th of February 1782. I did not
indeed break the thermometer to examine the flate of
the quickfilver therein 5 for, as it funk to—iio°, it
certainly muft have been in part frozen •, but immedi¬
ately took it out, and put the fpirit thermometer in
its room, in order to find the cold of the mixture. It
funk only to—30° 5 but by making allowance of the
fjfirifc in the tube being not fo cold as that in the
ball, it appears, that if it had not been for this caufe, it
would have funk to -—3.5° (b) } which is 6° below
the point of freezing, and is within one degree of as
great a cold as that produced by Mr Hutchins.
“ In this experiment the thermometer G funk very
rapidly •, and, as far as I could perceive, without Hop¬
ping at any intermediate point till it came to the above-
mentioned degree of—no0, where it ftuck. The
materials ufed in making the mixture were previoufly
cooled, by means of fait and fnow, to near o 5 and
the temperature of the air was bfctween 20° and 250;
the quantity of acid ufed was 4^ oz.; and the glafs in
■which the mixture was made, was furrounded with
wool, and placed in a wooden box, to prevent its lofing
its cold fo fait as it would otherwife have done. Some
weeks before this I made a freezing mixture with fome
fpirit of nitre much fironger than that ufed in the fore¬
going experiment, though not quite fo ftrong as the un¬
diluted acid, in which the cold waslefs intenfe by 4^-°.
It is true the temper of the air was much lefs cold,
namely 350, but the fpirit of nitre was at leaft as cold,
and the fnow not much lefs fo.
“ The cold produced by mixing fulphuric acid, pro¬
perly diluted with fnow, is not fo great as that produ¬
ced by fpirit of nitre, though it does not differ from it
by fo much as 8° for a freezing mixture, prepared
with diluted fulphuric acid, whofe fpecific gravity, at
6o° of heat, was 1,5642, funk in the thermometer G
to —3 7,,, the experiment being tried at the fame time,
and with the fame precautions, as the foregoing. It
was previoufly found, by adding fnow gradually to fome
of this acid, as was done by the nitrous acid, that it was
a little, but not much ftronger, than it ought to be, in
order to produce the greateft effe£l:.,,
The experiment made by Mr Walker, in which he
congealed quickfilver by means of nitric acid and
Glauber’s fait, without any fnow, concludes the hifto-
ry of the artificial congelation of mercury. It now
remains that we fay fomething of the congelation of it
by the natural cold of the atmorpherd.
Dr Blagden, from whofe paper in the PhiJofophical
Tranfatiions, vol. Ixxiii. this account is taken, obferves,
that it was not till near the year 1730 that thermo¬
meters were made with any degree of accuracy 5 and
in four or five years after this, the firft obfervations
were made which prove the freezing of quickfilver.
On the acceffion of the emprefs Anne Ivanouna to the
throne cf Ruffia, three profeffors of the Imperial
academy were chofen to explore and deferibe the dif¬
ferent parts of her Afiatic dominions, and to inquire Congela-
into the communication betwixt Afia and America. 110X1' ,
Thefe were Dr John George Gmelin, in the depart- ' v
ment of natural hiftory and chemiftry j M. Gerard
Frederic Muller, as general hiftoriographer 5 and M„
Louis de 1’Iile de la Croyere, for the department of
aftronomy; draughtfmen and other proper afliftants
being appointed to attend them. They departed from
Peterfburgh in 1733 and fuch as furvived did not re¬
turn till ten years after. The thermometrical obferva¬
tions were communicated by Profeffor Gmelin, who
firft publifhed them in his Flora Sibirica, and after¬
wards more fully in the Journal of his Travels. An
abftraft of them was likewife inferted in the Petertburg’n
Commentaries for the years 1756 and 1765, taken,
after the profeffor’s death, from his original difpatches
in poffeflion of the Imperial academy.*
In the winter of 1734 and 1735, Mr Gmelin being
at Yenefeifk in 58^° N. Lat. and 920 E. Long, from
Greenwich, firft obferved fuch a defeent of the mercu¬
ry, as we know muft have been attended with conge- 9
lation. “Here (fays he) we firft experienced theExceflrve
truth of what various travellers have related with re-cokl°fSi*
fpe£l to the extreme cold of Siberia j for, about the^e‘ia'
middle of December, fuch fevere weather fet in, as we
were fure had never been known in our time at Pe¬
terfburgh. The air feemed as if it were frozen, with
the appearance of a fog, which did not fuffer the fmoke
to afeend as it iffued from the chimneys. Birds
fell down out of the air as dead, and froze immediate¬
ly, unlefs they were brought into a warm room.
Whenever the door was opened, a fog fuddenly form¬
ed round it. During the day, fhert as it was, parhe¬
lia and haloes round the fun were frequently feen ; and
in the night mock-moons, and haloes abeut the moon.
Finally, cur thermometer, not fubjeft to the fame de¬
ception as the fenfes, left us no doubt of the exceffive
cold ; for the quickfilver in it was reduced on the 15th
of January O. S. to —1 20° of Fahrenheit’s fcale, low¬
er than it had ever hitherto been obferved in na¬
ture.”
The next inftance of congelation happened at Ya-
kutfk, in N. Lat. 62. and E. Long. 130. The wea¬
ther here was unufually mild for the climate, yet the
thermometer fell to—72°5 an£^ one perfon informed
the profeffor by a note, that the mercury in his baro¬
meter was frozen. He haftened immediately to his
houfe to behold fuch a furprifing phenomenon •, but
though he was witnefs to the fa<ft, the prejudice he en¬
tertained againft the poffibility of the congelation,
would not allow him to believe it. “ Not feeling
(fays he), by the way, the fame effe£b of cold as I
had experienced at other times in lefs diftances, I be¬
gan, before my arrival, to entertain fufpicions about
the congelation of his quickfilver. In faff, I faw that
it did not continue in one column, but was divided in
different places as into little cylinders, which ap¬
peared frozen 5 and, in fome of thefe divifions between
the quickfilver, I perceived like the appearance of frozen
moifture.
(a) This was a fmall mercurial thermometer, made by Nairne and Blount, ©n an ivory fcale, divided ai
every five degrees, and reaching from 215° above to 250° below the cipher.
,(b) This is to be underftood of a fpirit thermometer, whofe —290—40° of Fahrenheit’s mercurial.
/
CON [ 504 ] CON
Congela¬
tion.
moifture. It immediately occurred to me, that the
mercury might have been cleaned with vinegar and
fait, and not fufficiently dried. The perfon acknow¬
ledged, it had been purified in that manner. This fame
quickfilver, taken out of the barometer, and well
dried, would not freeze again, though expofed to a
much greater degree of cold, as fhown by the thermo¬
meter.”
Another fet pf obfervations, in the courfe of which
the mercury frequently congealed, were made by Pro-
feffor Gmelin at Kirenga fort in 57% N. Lat. 108.
E. Long. } his thermometer, at different times, {land¬
ing at -!—108°, —86°, —ioo°, —1130, and many o-
ther intermediate degrees. This happened in the win¬
ter of 1737 and 1738. On the 27th of November,
after the thermometer had been Handing for two days
at —-46°, he found it funk at noon to 108°. Sufpeft-
ing fome miftake, after he had noted down the obfer-
vation, he inftantly ran back, and found it at I02°j
but afcending with fueh rapidity, that in the fpace of
half an hour it had rifen to—190. This phenome¬
non, which appeared fo furprifing, undoubtedly de¬
pended on the expanfion of the mercury frozen in the
bulb of the thermometer, and which now melting,
forced upwards the fmall thread in the Hem.
A fimilar appearance was obferved at the fame fort
a few days after j and on the 29th of December, O. S.
he found the mercury, which had been Handing at
—40° in the morning, funk to—ioo° at four in the
afternoon. At this time, he fays, he “ faw' fome air
in the thermometer feparating the quickfilver for the
fpace of about fix degrees.” He had taken notice of
a fimilar appearance the preceding evening, excepting
that the air, as he fuppofed it to be, was not then col-
lefted into one place, but lay fcattered in fev^ral.
Thefe appearances undoubtedly proceeded from a
congelation of the mercury, though the prejudice en¬
tertained againfi the poflibility of this phenomenon
would not allow the profeffor even to inquire into it at
all. Several other obfervations were made *, fome of
which were lofi, and the refl contain no farther infor¬
mation.
The fecond inHance where a natural congelation of
mercury has certainly been obferved, is recorded in the
Tranfadlions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm. The weather, in January 1760, was re¬
markably cold in Lapland j fo that on the 5th of that
month, the thermometers fell tp —76°, —128°, or
lower •, on the 23 d and following days they fell to
—58°, —790,—92°, and below—238° entirely into
the ball. This was obferved at Tornea, Sombio, Ja-
kafierf, and Utfioki, four places in Lapland, fituated
between the 65th and 78th degrees of N. Lat. and the
2lfl and 28th of E. Long. The perfon who obferved
them was M. Andrew Hellant, who makes the fol¬
lowing remarks, of themfelves fufficient to fliow
that the quickfilver wras frozen. ‘‘ During the cold
weather at Sombio (fays he), as it was clear funfhine,
though fcarcely the whole body of the fun appeared
above the low woods that covered our horizon, I took
a thermometer which was hanging before in the fliade
and expofed it to the riling fun about eleven in the
forenoon, to fee whether when that luminary was fo
low, it would have any effect upon the inffrqment.
Rut to my great furprife, upon looking at it about
1
noonHI found that the mercury had entirely fubfided Cqng^
into the ball, though it was Handing as high as—6i° tion,*
at 11 o’clock, and the fcale reached down to 238° be-^
low/ o.” On bringing the inflrument near a fire, it
prefently rofe to its ufual height ; and the reafon of its
fubfiding before was its being fomewhat warmed by
the rays of the fun j which, feeble as they were, had
yet fufficient power to melt the fmall thread of con¬
gealed mercury in the Hem of the thermometer, and
allow it to fubfide along with the reff. Mr Hellant,
however, fo little underHood the nature of this pheno¬
menon, that he frequently attempted to repeat it by
bringing the thermometer near a fire,*nvhen the cold
was only a few degrees below' the freezing point of
water, but could never fucceed until it fell to—58?,
or lower, that is, until the cold was fufficiently intenfe
to congeal the metal. The only feeming difficulty in
his w hole account is, that when the mercury had fub- , |
fided entirely into the ball of the thermometer, a va- ‘ ^
cuum or empty fpot appeared, which run round the
cavity like an air bubble, on turning the inflrument j
but this proceeded from a partial liquefaftion of the
mercury, which mufl neceffarily melt firfl on the out-
fide, and thus exhibit the appearance jufl mentioned.
The mofl remarkable congelation of mercury, which Remark,
has ever yet been obferved, w'as that related by Drableexper:.
Peter Simon Pallas, who had been fent by the emprefsments°f
of Ruffia, with fome other gentlemen, on an expeditionDl Palla5,
fimilar to that of Dr Gmelin. He did not, however,
fpend the winters in which he was in Siberia in the
coldefl parts of that country •, that is, about the middle
of the northern part. Twice indeed he refided at
Krafnoyarfk, in N. Lat. 564-0, E. Long. 930 j where,
in the year 1772, he had an opportunity of obferving
the phenomenon we fpeak of. “ The winter (fays
he) fet in early this year, and was felt with uncommon
feverity in December. On the 6th and 7th of that
month happened the greatefl cold I have ever experi¬
enced in Siberia j the air was calm at the time, and
feemingly thickened j fo that, though the Iky w as in
other refpe&s clear, the fun appeared as through a
fog. I had only one fmall thermometer left, in which
the fcale went no lower than —70 \ and on the 6th in
the morning, I remarked that the quickfilver in it
funk into the ball, except fome fmall columns which
fluck fafl in the tube. When the ball of the thermo¬
meter, as it hung in the open air, was warmed by
being touched w ith the finger, the quickfilver rofe j
and it could plainly be feen that the folid columns
Huck and refifled a good while, and were at length
puflred upward wdth a fort of violence. In the mean
time I placed upon the gallery, on the north fide of 4
my houfe, about a quarter of a pound of clean and dry fctoi
quickfilver in an open bowl. Within an hour I found iciii
the edges and furface of it frozen folid, and fome mi¬
nutes afterwards the whole was condenfed by the natu¬
ral cold into a foft mafs yery much like tin. While
the inner part wras Hill fluid, the frozen furface exhi¬
bited a great variety of branched wrinkles ; but in ge¬
neral it remained pretty fmooth in freezing, as did al-
fo a larger quantity which I afterwards expofed to the
cold. The congealed mercury was more flexible than
lead j but on being bent ffiort, it was found more
brittle than tin •, and when hammered out thin, it
feemed fomewhat granulated. If the hammer had not
been
CON [ 505 ] CON
Cot la- been perfectly cooled, the quickfilver melted away un-
„ 1 • der it in drops $ and the lame thing happened when
ll-the metal was touched with the finger, by which alfo
the finger was immediately benumbed. In our warm
room it thawed on its furface gradually, by drops, like
wax on the fire, and did not melt all at once. When
the frozen mafs was broken to pieces in the cold, the
fragments adhered to each other and to the bowl on
which they lay. Although the froft feemed to abate
a little towards night, yet the congealed quicklilver
remained unaltered, and the experiment with the ther¬
mometer could flill be repeated. On the 7th of De¬
cember, I had an opportunity of making the fame ob-
fervations all day j but fome hours after funfet, a north-
weft wind fprung up, which raifed the thermometer to
—46°, when the mafs of quickfilver began to melt.”
■j, In the beginning of the year 1780 M. Von Elter-
Vor ;lter-lein, of Vytegra, a town of Ruflia, in N. Lat. 61. E.
lein'* xpe- J_,0ng. 36. froze quickfilver by natural cold j of which
r"* ' he gives the following account. “ On the 4th of Ja¬
nuary 1780, the cold having increafed to—340 that
evening at Vytegra, I expofed to the open air three
ounces of very pure quicklilver in a china tea-cup, co¬
vered with paper pierced full of holes. Next day, at
eight in the morning, I found it folid, and looking
like a piece of call lead, with a confiderable depreflion
in the middle. On attempting to loofen it in the cup,
my knife raifed (havings from it as if it had been lead,
which remained flicking up ; and at length the metal
feparated from the bottom of the cup in one mafs. I
then took it in my hand to try if it would bend : it
was ftiff like glue, and broke into two pieces j but my
fingers immediately loft all feeling, and could fcarcely
be reftored in an hour and a half by rubbing with-
fnow. At eight o’clock a thermometer, made by Mr
Lexmann of the academy, flood at —570 j by half
after nine it was rifen to —40° j and then the two
pieces of mercury which lay in the cup had loft fo
much of their hardnefs, that they could no longer be
broken, or cut into fhavings, but refembled a thick
amalgam, which, though it became fluid when prefTed
by the fingers, immediately afterwards refumed the
confiftence of pap. With the thermometer at —390,
the quickfilver became fluid. The cold was never lefs
on the 5th than —28°, and by nine in the evening it
had increafed again to —SS0-”
An inflance of the natural congelation of quickfilver
alfo occurred in Jemtland, one of the provinces of
Sweden, on the xfl of January 17825 and laftly, on
the 26th of the fame month, Mr Hutchins obferved
0 the fame effeft of the cold at Hudfon’s bay. “ The
. £*l|i- fubjefl of this curious phenomenon (fays he), was
j of Mr quickfilver put into a common two-ounce phial, and
U Ins' corked. The phial was about a third part full, and
had conftantly been (landing by the thermometer for a
month pail. At eight o’clock this morning I obferv¬
ed it was frozen rather more than a quarter of an inch
thick round the fides and bottom of the phial, the
middle part continuing fluid. As this was a certain
method of finding the point of congelation, I intro¬
duced a mercurial and a fpirit thermometer into the
fluid part, after breaking off the top of the phial, and
they rofe diredtly and became ftationary 5 the former
at 40° or 404°, the latter at 29^°, both belo>v the ci¬
pher. Having taken thefe out, I put in two others,
Vol. VI. Part II.
G a mercurial one formerly deferibed, and a fpirit Cottgels*
thermometer ; the former of which became ftationary t^n~ ,
at 40° and the latter at 30°. I then decanted the fluid
quickfilver, to examine the internal furface of the fro¬
zen metal, which proved very uneven, with many ra¬
dii going acrofs, fome of which refembled pin-heads.
Urgent bufinefs called me away an hour. On my re¬
turn I found a fmall portion only had liquefied in my
abfence, I then broke the phial entirely, and with a ■
hammer repeatedly ftruck the quickfilver. It beat out
flat, yielded a deadifh found, and became fluid in lefs
than a minute afterwards. It may be worth remark¬
ing, that the quickfilver in one of the thermometers,
which had funk to very near 500, and was then at
444, very readily run up and down the tube by eleva¬
ting either end of the inftrument.”
Thefe are all the well authenticated accounts of the
congelation of mercury by the natural cold of the at-
mofphere. Some others have been publifhed 5 but be¬
ing either lefs important, or not fo well authenticated,
we forbear to mention them. A very confiderable con¬
firmation is obtained from the above hiftery, of the
theory of congelation delivered by Dr Black, and
which is fully explained under the article Chemistry.
On Mr Hutchins’s experiments, and on congelation
in general, Mr Cavendifh makes many valuable re¬
marks 5 the fubftance of which is as follows : 21
“ If a veffel of water, with a thermometer in it, be Mr Caven-
expofed to the cold, the thermometer will fink feveral ^
degrees below the freezing point, efpecially if the wa- congeia_
ter be covered up fo as to be defended from the wind, tion.
and care taken not to agitate it 5 and then on drop¬
ping in a bit of ice, or on mere agitation, fpiculse of
ice (hoot fuddenly through the water, and the inclo-
fed thermometer rifes quickly to the freezing point,
where it remains ftationary.” In a note he fays, that
though in conformity to the common opinion he has
allowed that “ mere agitation may fet the water a
freezing, yet fome experiments lately made by Dr
Blagden feem to {how, that it has not much, if any,
effeft of that kind, otherwife than by bringing the
water in contact with fome fubftance colder than it-
felf. Though in general alfo the ice (hoots rapidly,
and the inclofed thermometer rifes very quick ; yet
he once obferved it to rife very (lowly, taking up not
lefs than half a minute, before it afeended to the
freezing point j but in this experiment the water was
cooled not more than one or two degrees below freez¬
ing, and it fhould feem. that the more the water is
cooled below the freezing point, the more rapidly the
ice {hoots and the inclofed thermometer rifes.”
Mr Cavendifh then obferves, that from the fore¬
going experiments we learn that water is capable of be¬
ing cooled confiderably below the freezing point, with¬
out any congelation taking place ; and that, as foon as
by any means a fmall part of it is made to freeze, the
ice fpreads rapidly through the whole of the wa¬
ter. The caufe of this rife of the thermometer is,
that all, or almoft all bodies by changing from a fluid
to a folid (late, or from the ftate of an elaftic to that
of an unelaftic fluid, generate heat 5 and that cold is
produced by the contrary procefs. Thus all the cir-
cumflances of the phenomenon may befperfeflly well
explained 5 for, as foon as any part of the water free¬
zes, heat will be generated thereby in confequence of
3 S the
Congela¬
tion.
22
©n metals
when be-
€ Of N [
tlie aboye-inentibned lav:, fo that the new fomjed ice
and remaining water will be warmed, and mud con¬
tinue to receive heat by the freezing of frelh portions
of water, till it rs heated exaftly to the freezing point,
unlels the water could become quite folid before a fuf-
ficient quantity of heat was generated to raife it to
that point, which is not the cafe : and it is evident,
that it cannot be heated above the freezing point: for
as foon as it comes thereto, no more water will freeze,
and confequently no more heat will be generated.—
The reafon why the ice fpreads all over the water, in-
ftead of forming a folid lump in one part, is, that, as
loon as any fmall portion of ice is formed, the water
in contacl w ith it will be fo much w'armed as to be pre¬
vented from freezing, but the water at a little diftance
from it will dill be below the freezing point, and will
confequently begin to freeze.
“ Were it not for this generation of heat, the whole
of any quantity of water would freeze as foon as the
procefs of congelation began ; and in like manner the
cold is generated by the melting of ice j which is the
caufe of the long time required to thaw ice and fnow.
It was formerly found that, by adding fnow to warm
water, and ftirring it about until all was melted, the
water was as much cooled as it would have been by
the addition of the fame quantity of water rather more
than t 50° degrees colder than the fnow' j or, in other
words, fomewhat more than 150° of cold are genera¬
ted by the thawing of the fnow j and there is great
reafon to believe that juft as much heat is produced by
the freezing of water. The cold generated in the ex¬
periment juft mentioned was the fame whether ice or
fnow was ufed.
“ A thermometer kept m melted tin or lead till
they become folid, remains perfectly ftationary from
o5 ]
CON
ginning to j.]^ me(_al
begins to harden round the Tides of
turn loud, - - - - °
the pot till it is entirely folid 5 but it cannot be per¬
ceived, at all to fink below that point, and rife up to
it when the metal begins to harden. It is not unlike¬
ly, however, that the great difference of heat between
the air and melted metal might prevent this effect from
taking place j fo that though it was not perceived in
thefe experiments, it is not unlikely that thofe metals,
as well as water and quiekfilver, may bear being cool¬
ed a little below the freezing or hardening point (for
the hardening of melted metals, and freezing of water,
feems exadftly the fame procefs), without beginning to
lofe their fluidity.
“ The experiments of Mr Hutchins prove, that
qnickfilver contrails or diminilh.es in bulk by freezing,
and that the very low degrees to which the thermo¬
meters have been made to fink, is owing to this con-
traflion, and not to the cold having been in any de¬
gree equal to that ftiown by the thermometer. In the
fourth experiment, one of the thermometers funk to
450°, though it appeared, by the fpirit thermome¬
ters, that the cold of the mixture was not more than.
five or fix degrees below the point of freezing quick- Con;
filver. In the firft
at a time when
firft experiment alfo, it funk to 448°
the cold of the mixture was only 24°
e-J. §'
below that point ; fo that it appears that the contrac¬
tion of quickfilver by freezing muft be at leaft equal
to its expapfion by 404 degrees of heat (c). This
how ever, is not the whole contraftion that it fuffers;
for it appears by an extradft from a meteorological
journal kept by Mr Hutchins at Albany fort, that his
thermometer once funk to 490° below o 5 though
it was known by a fpirit thermometer that the cold
fcarcely exceeded the point of freezing quickfilver.
There are two experiments alfo of Profeffor Braun,
in which the thermometer funk to 544 and 556° be¬
low o j which is the greateft defeent he ever ob-
ferved without the ball being cracked. It is not
indeed known how cold his mixtures were 5 but from
Mr Hutchins’s experiments, there is great reafon to
think they could not be many degrees below 40°. If
fo, the contra&ibn which quickfilver fuffers in freezing,
is not much Ids than its expanfion by 503° or 510° of
heat, that is, a] molt of its whole bulk ; and in aft
probability is never much more than that,, though it
is probable that this contraction is not always deter¬
minate 5 for a eonfiderable variation may frequently
be obferved in the fpecific gravity of the lame piece of
metal call different times over j and almoft all eaft me¬
tals become heavier by hammering. Mr Cavendilh ob-variation
ferved, that on calling the fame piece of tin three of the den-
times over, its denfity varied from 7.252 to 7.294,lnyof®-
though there w as great reafon to think that no hoi-‘al¬
lows were left in it, and that only a finall part of this^™ntaft*
difference could proceed from the error of the experi- ^
ment. This variation of denfity is as much as is pro¬
duced in quickfilver by an alteration of 66° of heat :
and it is not unlikely, that the defeent of a thermome¬
ter, on. account of the contraction of the quickfilver in
its ball by freezing, may vary as much indifferent trials,
though the whole mafs of quickfilver is frozen w ithout
any vacuities. ^
“ The cold produced by mixing fpirit of nitre Of freezing
with fnow is entirely owing to the melting of theraixtuies.
fnow'. Nowq in all probability, there is a certain de¬
gree of cold, in which the fpirit of nitre, fo far from
diffolving fnow’,. will yield part of its own water, and
fuffer that to freeze, as is the cafe with folutions of
common fait ^ fo that if the cold of the materials be¬
fore mixing is equal to this, no additional cold can be
produced. If the cold of the materials is lefs, force
increafe of cold will be produced -7 but the total cold
will be lefs than in the former cafe, fince the additional
cold cannot be generated without fome of the Inow
being diffolved, and thereby weakening the acid, and
making it lefs able to diffolve more Inow j but yet the
lefs the cold of the materials is, the greater will be the
additional cold produced. This is conformable to Mr
Hutchins’s experiments j for in the fifth experiment,
(c) T.he numbers here given are thofe ftiown by the thermometer without any correction ; but if a proper
Ihort of that by obfervation.
CON [ 5
ft, la- in \vhich the cold of the materials was —40°, the ad-
ti ditional cold produced was only 50. In the firft expe-
^ riment, in which the cold of the materials was only
 23°, an addition of at leaft 190 of cold was obtained j
and by mixing fome of the fame fpirit of nitre with
fnow in this climate, when the heat of the materials
was -[- 26°, Mr Cavendilh was able to fink the thermo¬
meter to—290, fo that an addition of 55 degrees of
cold was produced.
“ It is remarkable that in none, of Mr Hutchins’s
experiments the cold of the mixture was more than 6°
of the fpirit thermometer below the freezing point of
quickfilver; which is fo little, that it might incline
one to think that the fpirit of nitre ufed by him was
weak. This, however, was not the cafe $ as its fpe-
cific gravity at 58° of heat was 1,4923. It was able
to diflblve —^— its weight of marble, and contained
1.4 2
very little mixture of fulphuric or muriatic acid ; as
well as could be judged from an examination of it, it
was as little phlogifticated as acid of that ftrength
ufually is.”
■"onj Acids, efpecially thofe of the mineral kind, power-
u;it>nlful- fully refill congelation. There is, however, a peculi-
l?hui acid arity with regard to that of vitriol. M. Chaptal, a
foreign chemift, obferved,„ that it condenfed by the
cold of the atmofphere, and the cryftals began to melt
only at -b70° of his thermometer-, which, if Reau¬
mur’s, correfponds to about 470 of Fahrenheit. Ihe
cryflals were unftuous from the melting acid, and they
felt warmer than the neighbouring bodies : the form
was that of a prifm of fix lides, flatted and terminated
by a pyramid of fix fides -, but the pyramid appeared
on one end only j on the other, the cryfial was loll in
the general mafs. The pyramid refulted from an af-
femblage of fix ifofceles triangles 5 the oil, when the
cryflal was melted was of a yellowifh black j on re-
dillilling it in a proper apparatus, no peculiar gas came
over. M. Chaptal repeated his experiments with the
highly concentrated acid, but found that it did not
freeze : that the denfity of the acid which he thought
froze molt eafily was to the oil, of the ufual flrength
for fale, as from 63 and 65 to 66 ", and the neceflary
degree of cold about 190 of Fahrenheit. Sulphuric
acid once melted will not cryflallize again with the
fame degree of cold.
In the experiments which had been made on the
freezing of lulphuric acid, Mr Cavendifh found fome
uncertainty in determining the point at which it
freezes mofl readily ; neither could he determine
whether the cold neceffary for congelation does not
increafe without any limitation in proportion to the
, flrength of the acid. A new fet of experiments
;p( ‘rS were therefore made by Mr Keir to determine this
Ben point. He had obferved, after a fevere frofl at the
end of the year 1784 and beginning of 1785, that
fome fulphuric acid, contained in a corked phial, had
congealed, while other bottles containing the fame,
fome ilronger and fome weaker, retained their fluidity.
As the congelation was naturally imputed to the ex¬
tremity of the cold, he was afterwards furprifed to
find, when the frofl ceafed, that the acid remained
congealed for many days, when the temperature of the
atmofphere was fometimes above 40° of Fahrenheit j
and when the congealed acid was brought into a w’&rm
7 ] CON
room on purpofe to thaw it, a thermometer placed in Cdngela-
contadl with it during its thawing continued ilationary tl°n’
at 450. Hence he concluded, that the freezing and
thawing point of this acid was nearly at 450 } and ac ¬
cordingly, on expofing the liquor which had been thaw¬
ed to the air at the temperature of 30°, the congelation
again took place in a few hours. From the circum-
flance of other parcels of the fame acid, but of different
llrengths, remaining fluid, though they had been ex~
pofed to a much greater degree of cold, he was led to
believe that there mull be fome certain flrength at w hich
the acid is more difpofed to congeal than at any other.
The fpeeific gravity of the acid which had frozen was
to that of water nearly as 1800 to icoo, and that of
the flronger acid which had not frozen was as 1846
to 1000, which is the common denfity of that ufually
fold in England j and there wras not the leaf! differ¬
ence, excepting in point of ftrength, between the acid
which had frozen and that which had not $ Mr Keir
having taken the acid fome weeks before with his own
hands from the bottle which contained the latter, and
diluted it with water, till it became of the fpecific gra¬
vity of 1800.
To render the experiment complete, Mr Keir im-
merfed feveral acids of different flrengths in melting
fnow, inflead of expofing them to the air j the tem¬
perature of which was variable, whereas that of melt¬
ing fnow was certain and invariable. Thofe which
would not freeze in melting fnow were afterwards im-
merfed in a mixture of common fait, fnow, and wa¬
ter ; the temperature of which, though not fo con-
flant and determinate as that of melting fnow, gene¬
rally remained for feveral hours at 180, and was fome¬
times feveral degrees lower. The intention of adding
water to the fnowr and fait was to leffen the intenfity
of the cold of this mixture, and to render it more
permanent than if the fnow and fait alone were mixed.
The acids which had frozen in melting fnow were five
in number 5 which being thawed and brought to the
temperature of 6o°, were found on examination lo
have the following fpecific gravities, viz. 1786, 17^4*
1780, 1778, 1775. Thofe which had not congealed
wdth the melting fnow, but which did fo with the mix¬
ture of fnow, fait, and water, were found, when
brought to the temperature of 6o°, to be of the fol¬
lowing fpecific gravities, viz. 1814, 181c, 1804, I794>
1790, 1770, 1759, I75°- Thofe which remained,
and would freeze neither in melting fnow nor in the
mixture of fnow, fait, and water, were of the gra¬
vities 1864, 1839, 1815, 1745, 1720, 17CO, 1610,
15 51. From the firft of thefe it appears, that the
medium denfity of the acids which froze with the na¬
tural cold was 1780 j and from the fecond, that at the
denfities of 1796 ard 1770 the acid had been inca¬
pable of freezing with that degree of cold. Hence it
follows, that 1780 is nearly the degree of ftrength of
eafieft freezing, and that an increafe or diminution of
that denfity equal to -r^th of the whole, renders the
acid incapable of freezing with the cold of melting
fnow, though this cold is fomething above the freezing
point of the moft congealahle acid. From the fecond
it appears, that by applying a more intenfe cold, viz.
that produced by a mixture of fnow, fait, and water,
the limits of the denfities of acids capable of congela¬
tion were extended to about T-TTth above or below the
3 S 2 point
Congela¬
tion,
CON [ 508 ] C
point of eafieft freezing : and there feems little reafon cryftal may be fuppofed
to doubt, that, by greater augmentations of cold, thefe
limits may be further extended j butin what ratio thefe
augmentations and extenfions proceed, cannot be deter¬
mined, without many obfervations made in different
temperatures.
“ But (fays Mr Keir) though it is probable that
the moft concentrated acids may be frozen, provided
the cold be fufficiently intehfe, yet there feems reafon
to believe, that fome of the congelations which have
been obferved in highly concentrated acids, have been
effe&ed in confequence of the denfity of thefe acids
being reduced nearly to the point of eafy freezing by
their having abforbed moifture from the air : for the
Duke d’Ayen and M. de Morveau expofed their acids
to the air in cups or open velfels ; and the latter even
acquaints us, that on examining the fpecific gravity
of the acid which had frozen, he found it to that of
water as 129 to 7^; which denfity being lefs than
that of eafieit freezing, proves that the acid he em¬
ployed, and which he had previoufly concentrated,
had been aftually weakened during the experiment.
I have feveral timesexpofedconcentratedfulphuric acid
in open velfels in frolty weather j and I have fome-
times, but not always, obferved a congelation to take
place. Upon feparating the congealed part, and on
examining the fpecific gravity of the latter after it
had thawed, I found that it had been reduced to the
point of eafieft freezing. When the congealed acid
was kept longer expofed it gradually thawed, even
when the cold of the air increaled ; the reafon of which
is not to be imputed to the heat produced by the
moifture of the air mixing with the acid, but principal¬
ly to the diminution below the point of eafieft freez¬
ing, which was occafioned by the continued abforption
of moifture from the air, and which rendered the acid
incapable of continuing frozen without a great increafe
Q.f cold.
“ It appears, then, that the concentration of M. de
Morveau’s acid, at the time of its congelation, from
which eircumftance Mr Cavendifh infers generally that
fulphuric acid freezes more eafily as it is more denfe,
is not a true premife : and that therefore the inference,
though juftly deduced, is invalid. On the contrary,
there feems every reafon to believe, that as the denfity
of the acids increafes beyond the point of eafieft freez¬
ing, the facility of the congelation diminifhes ; at
leaft to os great denfity as we have ever been able to
obtain lulphuric acid : for if it were poflible to diveft:
it entirely of water, it would probably afeume a folid
form in any temperature of the air.
“ The cryftaliization of fulphuric acid is more or
lefs diftinft, according to the flownefs of the forma¬
tion of the cryftals and other favourable circumftances.
Sometimes they are very large, diftinfily ftiaped, and
hard. Their fhape is like thofe of the common mi¬
neral alkali and felenite fpar, but with angles different
in dimenfions from either of thefe. They are folid,
confiding of ten faces j of which the two largeft are
equal, parallel, and oppofite t© each other j and are
oblique-angled parallelograms or rhomboids, whofe
angles are, as near as could be meafured, of 105 and
75 degrees. Between thefe rhomboidal faces are
placed eight of the form, of trapeziums j and thus each
O N
to be compounded of two
equal and fimilar fruftums of pyramids joined together
by their rhomboidal bafes. They always funk in the'
fluid acid to the bottom of the veffel, which fhowed
that their denfity was increafed by congelation. It
was attempted to determine their fpecific gravity by
adding to this fluid fome concentrated acid, which
fhould make them float in the liquor, the examination
of whofe fpecific gravity fhould afcertain that of the
floating cryftals 5 but they were found to fink even in
the moft; concentrated acid, and were confequently den-
fer. Some of the congealable acid previoully brought
to the freezing temperature was then poured into a
graduated narrow cylindrical glafs, up to a certain
mark, which indicated a Ipace equal to that occupied
by 2co grains of water. The glafs was placed in a
mixture of fnow, fait, and water ; and when the acid
was frozen, a mark was made on the part of the glafs
to which it had funk. Having thawed the acid and
emptied the glafs, it was filled with water to the mark
to which it had funk by freezing*, and it was then found
that 15 grains more of water were required to raife it
to the mark expreffing 200 grains j which ftiows, that
the diminution of bulk fuftained by the acid in freezing
had been equal to-^- of the whole. Computing from
this datum, we fhould eftimate the fpecific gravity of
the congealed acid to have been 1924 ; but as it evi¬
dently contained a great number of bubbles, its real
fpecific gravity muft have been confiderably greater
than the above calculation, and cannot eafily be deter¬
mined on account of thefe bubbles. By way of com-
parifon, Mr Keir obferved the alteration of bulk which
water contained in the fame cylindrical veffel would
fufler by freezings and found that its expanfion was
equal to about -j^th of its bulk. The water had been
previoufly boiled, but neverthelefs contained a great
number of air bubbles j fo that in this refpeft there is
a confiderabie difference between the congelations of
water and fulphuric acid j though perhaps it may
arife principally from the bubbles of elaftic fluid
being in greater proportion in the one than the
other.
“ Greater cold is produced by mixing fnow or
pounded ice with the congealed lhan with the fluid
lulphuric acid, though the quantity is not yet deter¬
mined. The greateft cold produced by Mr M‘Nab at
Hudfon’s Bay, was effe&ed by mixing fnow with a
fulphuric acid which had been previoufly congealed j
and to this circumilance Mr Cavendifh imputes the in-
tenfity of the cold, as the liquefaction both of the
acid and the fnow had concurred in producing the
fame effeCl 5 while in mixing fluid acids with fnow,
the thawing of the fnow is probably the only produc¬
tive caufe..
“ To compare the times requifite for the liquefac¬
tions of ice and of congealed fulphuric acid, two equal
and fimilar glaffes were filled, one with the congealable
fulphuric acid, the other with water j and after having
immerfed them in a freezing mixture, till both were
congealed and reduced to the temperature of 28°, the
glaffes Avere Avithdrawn, wiped dry, and placed in a
room Avhere the thermometer flood at 62°. The ice
thawed in 40 minutes, and the acid in 95 j at the
end
Ccngelsi
tion,
2
WT
CON [ 509 J CON
J jyn end of which time the thermometer, which flood near
"°ti the glaffes, had rifen to 64°. Hence it appears that
congealed acid requires more than twice the time
for its liquefaction that ice does, though it cannot
thence be fairly inferred, that the cold generated by
the liquefaction of the ice and of congealed acid are in
the above proportions of the times, from the following
confiderations, viz. that as, during Uie liquefaCtion of
the ice, its temperature remains ftationary at 320, and
during the liquefaCtion of the acid, its temperature re¬
mains about 44 or 450, it appears, that the ice being
confiderably colder than the acid, will take the heat
from the contiguous air much fafter. By this experi¬
ment, however, we know that a confiderable quantity
of cold is generated by the liquefa&ion of the acid;
and hence it appears probable, that in producing cold
artificially, by mixing fnow with acids in very cold
temperatures, it would probably be ufeful to employ a
fulphuric acid of the proper denfity for congelation, and
to freeze it previoufly to its mixture with fnow. It
muft not, however, be imagined, that the cold gene¬
rated by the mixture of thefe two frozen fubftances is
nearly equal to the fums of the colds generated by the
feparate liquefaCtions of the congealed acid and ice,
when fingly expofed to a thawing temperature j for the
mixture refulting from the liquefaCtion, confiding of
fulphuric acid and the water of the fnow, appears from
the generation of heat which occurs from the mixture
of thefe ingredients in a fluid ftate, to be fubjeCt to dif¬
ferent laws than thofe which rule either of the ingre¬
dients feparately.
“ The fulphuric acid, like water and other fluids, is
capable of retaining its fluidity when cooled confider¬
ably below its freezing point. A phial containing
feme congealable fulphuric acid being placed in a mix¬
ture of fait, fnow, and water, a thermometer was foon
afterwards immerfed in it while the acid was yet fluid,
on which it quickly- funk from 50 to 29°. On moving
the thermometer in the fluid, to make it acquire the
exaft temperature, the mercury was obferved fuddenly
to rife •, and on looking at the acid, numberlefs finall
cryftals were obferved floating in it, which had been
fuddenly formed. The degree to which the mercury
then rofe was 464° j and at another time, while the acid
was freezing, it flood at 450•,,
From thefe experiments our author infers, “ 1. That
fulphuric acid has a point of eafieft freezing, and
that this is when the fpeciiic gravity is to that of water
as 1780 to 1000. 2. That the greater or lefs difpo-
fition to congelation does not depend on any other
circumftance than the ftrength of the acid. 3. Ihat
the freezing and thawing degree of the moft congeal¬
able acid is about 450 of Fahrenheit’s feale.. It is,
however, to be* obferved, that this degree is inferred
from the temperature indicated by the thermometers
immerfed in the freezing and thawing acids j but the
congelation of the fluid acid could never be accom-
plifned without ex poling it to a greater degree, of cold,
either by expofing it to the air in frofty weather or to
the cold of melting fnow. 4. Like water, this acid
pofleftes the property of retaining its fluidity when
cooled feveral degrees below the freezing point 5 and
of riling fuddenly to it when its congelation is pro¬
moted by agitation, or by contact even with a warmer
thermometer. 5. That, like water and other congeal- Con^cla-
able fluids, fulphuric acid generates cold by its lique- tl^n
faftion, and heat during its congelation, though the'Conaeft;0rii
quantity of this heat and cold remains to be deter- -y~..J
mined by future experiments. 6. That the acid, by
congelation, when the circumftances for diftindt cry-
ftallization are favourable, aflumes a regular cry-
ftalline form, a conliderable folidity and hardnefs,
and a denfity much greater than it poflefied in its fluid
ftate.”
Befides this fpecies of congelation, fulphuric acid
is fubjedt to another, probably the fame deferibed by
Balil Valentine and fome of the older chemifts. This
is effedfed in the ordinary temperature of the air, even
in fummer ; and according to Mr Keir *, is peculiar * Phil.
to that fpecies of fulphuric acid which is diftilled from ^
green vitriol, and which is poflelTed of a fmoking qua-^°i6^
lity in a high degree *, “ for not only the authors1
(fays Mr Keir) by whom this congelation has been
obferved, have given this defeription of the acid em¬
ployed, but alfo the late experiments of Mr Dolfufs,
feem to Ihow that this fmoking quality is effential to
the phenomenon : for neither the acid obtained from
vitriol, when deprived by redlification of its fmeking
quality, nor the Englifli fulphuric acid, which is known
to be obtained by burning fulphur, and which does
not fmeke, were found by his trials to be fufceptible of
this fpecies of congelation. It may, however, be
worth the attention of thofe chemifts who have an op¬
portunity of feeing this icy fu/phuric acid, as it is called,
to obferve more accurately than has yet been done, the
freezing temperature and the denfity of the congealable
acids ^ and to examine whether the denfity of this
fmoking acid alfo is connefted with the glacial pro¬
perty. It feems alfo further defervlng of inveftiga-
tion, whether there be not fome analogy between the
congelation of the fmoking fulphuric acid and the very
curious cryftallization which Dr Prieftley obferved in
a concentrated fulphuric acid faturated with nitrous acid
vapours j and whether this fmoking quality does not
proceed from fome marine or other volatile acid, which
may be contained in the martial vitriol whence the ful¬
phuric acid is obtained.”
Mr Keir alfo obferves, that M. Cornatter has ef¬
fected the cryftallization of fulphuric acid, by diftilling
it with nitrous acid and charcoal \ and we can add
from our own experience, that a cryftallization in-
ftantly takes place on allowing the fumes of the ni¬
trous and fulphuric acids to mix together j and this,
whether the former be procured from martial vitriol or
fulphur, and whether it be in a phlogifticated ftate or
not, concentration in both acids is here the only re-
quifite.
CONGER, ill Zoology. See Muiuena, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
CONGERIES, a Latin word, fometimes ufed in
our language for a collection or heap of feveral par¬
ticles of bodies united into one mafs or aggregate.
CONGESTION, in Medicine, a .mafs or collection
of humours, crowded together and hardened in any
part of the body, and there forming a preternatural
tumour.
Congeftion is effected by little and little j in which
it differs from, dejiuclion, which is more fudden.
CONGIARIUM,
CON [51
Conglanum • CONGIARIUM, Congiary, among medalifts, a
H gift or donative reprefented on a medal. The word
. ‘ . comes from the Latin congius; becaufe the firfl: pre¬
sents made to, the people of Rome conlifted in wine
and oil, which were meafured out to them in congii.
The congiary was properly a prefent made by the em¬
perors to the people of Rome. Thofe made to the
foldiers were not called congiaries, but donatives. The
legend on medals reprefenting congiaries., is, Congiariurn
or Liberalitas. Tiberius gave a congiary of three hun¬
dred pieces of money,to each citizen : Caligula twice
gave three hundred fefterces a head : Nero, whofe con¬
giaries are the firft that we find reprefented on medals,
gave four hundred.
CONGIUS, a liquid meafure of the ancient Romans,
containing the eighth part of the amphora, or the fourth
of the urna, or fix fextarii. The congius in Englilh
meafure contains 2,070,676 folid indies $ that is, Seven
pints, 4,942 folid inches.
CONGLOBATE gland. See Anatomy Index.
CONGLOMERATE gland. "See Anatomy
Index.
CONGLOMERATE. Flowers, are thofe growing on a
branching foot-ftalk, to which they are irregularly
but clofely conne&ed. This mode of inflorefcence, as
Linnaeus terms it, is oppofed to that in which the
flowers are irregularly and loofely Supported on their
*See P<j«/-f0ot-ftalks, hence termed a diffufe panicle*. The
term is exemplified in feveral of the graffes, particu¬
larly in fome fpecies of the poa, fefcue grafs, and
agroflis.
CONGLUTINATION, the glueing or fattening
any tw o bodies together by the intromiflion of a third,
whofe parts are unduous and tenacious, in the nature
of.glue. See Glue.
CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
north by the river Zair, or Zarah, which divides it
from Loanga 3 on the fouth by the river Danda, which
Separates it from Angola-3 on the eaft by the king¬
doms of Fungono and Metamba, and the burnt moun-
• 1 tains of the fun, thofe of cryftal or falt-petre, and fil-
Extent, ver> or ^according to Anthony Cavazzi, a travel¬
ler into thofe parts) by the mountains of Coanza, Ber-
bela, and the great mountains of Chilandria or Aqui-
londa 3 and on the wreft by that part of the Atlantic
ocean called the Ethiopia fea, or the fea of Congo. Ac¬
cording to thefe limits, Congo Proper extends about
three degrees from north to fouth 3 lying between the
line and 180 S. Lat. 3 but widens in its breadth inland,
by the courfe of the river Zair, which runs winding
above two degrees more to the north. Its length from
eaft to weft is very uncertain, as no observations have
been taken of the exadl fituation of thofe mountains
2 which bound it.
Hiftory un- The hiftory of this kingdom affords but few inte-
certain and refting particulars. Before its difcovery by the Portu-
fabulous. guefe, the hiftory is altogether uncertain and fabulous,
as the inhabitants were totally unacquainted with letters
and learning. So little were they acquainted with
chronology, that it is faid they did not even diftinguifti
between day and night 3 much lefs could they compute
their time by moons or years 3 and therefore could re¬
member paft tranfa&ions only by faying they happened
in fuch a king’s reign.
The country was difcovered by the Portuguefe in
o ] CON
1484. The difcoverer was named Diego Cam, an ex- Coin
pert and bold foldier. He was very well received by '~“Vn
the natives, and fent fome of his men wdth prefents ^5 '
to the king 3 but they being detained by unexpe£tedtr)r ^
accidents beyond the promifed time of their return,vered by
Cam was obliged to fail away without them, and took^ Potts,
with him four young Congoefe, as hoftages for the §ue^'
fafety of his countrymen. Thefe he taught the Por¬
tuguefe language, in which they made fuch progrefs
that King John w as highly pleafed, and fent them back
next year to Congo with rich prefents 3 charging them
to exhort their monarch, in his name, to become a con¬
vert to the Chriftian religion, and to permit it to ho
propagated through his dominions. A firm alliance
was concluded between the two monarchs, which con¬
tinues to this day, though not without fome interrup¬
tions, to which the Portuguefe themfelves have given
occafion more than the natives. ^
Any particular account we have of this kingdom, Cavaza’s
refts almoft entirely on the credit of Anthony Cavaz-a roui>tof
zi, the traveller above mentioned. He was a capu-^onS0,
chin friar, a native of the duchy of Modena, and was
font miflionary into thofe de propaganda fde, in
the year 1654, and arrived at Congo the fame year.
During his ftay there, his zeal to make converts made
him travel through all thefe different kingdoms 3 and
the credit he gained, as well as the great employments
he w'as entrufted with, gave him an opportunity of in¬
forming himfelf of every thing relating to them with
great exadlnefs. The extent and fituation, however,
he could not poffibly afeertain, for want of inftruments 3 5
nor hath this defeft been fince fupplied. According Extent lei-
to him the dominions of Congo extended a great
further eaftward and fouthv’ards before the introduc-^^-
tion of Chriftianity than afterw ards 3 a great number chriftiani.
of the ftates that were under the Congoefe monarchs,ty. I
either as fubjefts, or tributary, having withdrawn
their allegiance out of diflike to them on that account. 1
Not content with oppofing the officers and troops
that came annually to raife the tribute impofed by
the king, they made fuch frequent and powerful iu-
curfions into his dominions, that they obliged him to
draw his forces nearer the centre of Congo to pre¬
vent an invafion 3 by which means the kingdom, from
an extent of 600 leagues, w as reduced to lefs than one
ha!f. . . 6 .
Congo Proper being fituated within the torrid zone, Account of
is liable to exceffive heats : as it lies on the fouthernffi^c.1'”^
fide of the equino£tial, the feafons are of courfe oppo-an £
fite to ours. They reckon only two principal feafsns,
the fummer and winter 3 the former begins in Oftober,
and continues till February or March 3 during which
time the fun’s rays dart with fuch force, that the at-
mofphere appears to an European to be in a flame.
The exceffive heat, however, is mitigated by the equal
length of the days and nights, as well as by the w inds,
breezes, rains, and dews. The winter takes up the
other part of the year 3 and is faid by the natives to
be proportionally cold, though to an European it would
appear hot. Thefe two feafons they divide into fix
leffer ones, viz. Maffanza, Neafu, Ecundi, Quitombo,
Quibifo, and Ouibangala.
Maffanza begins with the month of O&ober, which
is the beginning of their fpring. The rains begin, to
fall at that time, and continue during the next two,
and
CON [ S
and fometimes three, months. When this happens, the
■“ low lands are commonly overflowed with extraordinary
floods, and all their corn carried off. A difafter of
this kind is commonly followed by a famine ; for the
lazy inhabitants take no care to lay up any provifions,
although fuch misfortunes happen very frequently.
This firft feafon they reckon commences at the time
the plants begin to fpring.
The fecond feafon, Neafu, begins about the end of
January, when the produce of their lands has arrived at
its full height, and wants but a few days of being ri¬
pened for harveft. This firft; crop is no fooner gather¬
ed in, than they fow their fields afrefh, their land com¬
monly yielding them two harvefts.
The third and fourth feafons, called Ecundi and
^uitombo, are frequently blended together towards
the middle of March, when the more gentle rains
begin to fall, and continue till the month of
May. Thefe two feafons are diftinguiftied by the
greater or lefler quantity of rain that falls during that
interval. During the reft of the time, the air is
either very clear, hot, and dry ; or the clouds being
overcharged with eledlric matter, burft out into the
moft terrible thunders and lightnings, without yield¬
ing the leaft drop of rain, , though they feem loaded
with it.
The two laft, viz. the Quibifo and Ouibangala,
make up their ftiort winter, which confifts not in froft
or fnow, but in dry, blafting winds, which ftrip the
earth of all its verdure, till the next Maflanza begins to
reftore them to their former bloom.
They now divide their year into twelve lunar
months, and begin it in September. They have alfo
weeks confiding.of four days only, the laft of w'hich
is their fabbath ; and on it they religioufly abftain from
ex-every kind of work. This practice, the compilers of
n'the Univerfal Hiftory conje&ure to have ariien from
the extreme lazinefs for which this people, and in¬
deed all the African nations, are fo remarkable. To
this ihameful indolence alfo is to ke aferibed the little
produce they reap from their lands* while the Portu-
guefe fettled among them, who are at more pains in
the cultivation of theirs, enjoy all manner of plenty.
Th e natives, however, had rather run the rifle of the
moft terrible famines, than be at the tenth part of the
labour they fee the Portuguefe take. They feem to
think it below them to ufe any other exercifes than
thofe of dancing, leaping, hunting, {hooting, &c. j the
reft of their time they fpend in fmoking, and down¬
right idlenefs, committing the laborious part of their
houfohold affairs to their (laves, or, in want of them,
to their wives. Nothing is more common than to fee
thefe poor creatures toiling in the fields and woods
with a child tied to their backs, and fainting under
their exceffive labour and heavy burdens, or (which
is {till worfe) hunger and thirft. What is yet more
furpriiingly (hameful is, that though they have plenty
of domeftic animals which they might eafily make ufe
of for cultivating their grounds, and for other laborious
fervices, and though they fee the Portuguefe do it every
day to great advantage •, yet they will rather fee their
tender females fink under their toil and labour, than
be at the trouble of breeding-up any of thefe ufeful
creatures to their afliftance.
The ground produces variety of grain, but no corn
3
i ] CON
or rice except what is cultivated by the Portuguefe. Congo/
T heir maize, or Indian wheat, grows very ftrong, and ^
is well laden. This being well ground, they make Vegetables
into bread, or boil with water into a kind of pap. Of produced m
this they have four kinds j one of which, refembling Congo. ■
what we call French wheat, is produced in plenty,
and makes fome amends for the want of induftry inf
the people. They cultivate alfo a variety of the peafe
and bean kind ; but what they chiefly live upon, as -
moft fuitable to their lazy difpofition, is a kind of nut.
like our filberts, which fall to the ground of them^
felves, and are to be found everywhere j every nut
that falls to the ground producing a new flirub next
year. They have fcarcely any fruit-trees but what
have been brought hither by the Portuguefe. They
have various forts of palm-trees, ufeful both by their
fruit, leaves, and their juice, which is eafily converted
into wine ; alfo by affording a kind of oil with which
they drefs their viftuals, though the Europeans ufe it
only to burn in their lamps. They have alfo a vaft.
number of plants and flirubs, which it w ould be impof
fible to deicribe or enumerate. Wheat is the only
thing that the ground will not produce. It puflies
forth, indeed, the ftraw and the ear 5 the former of
which grows high enough, we are told, to hide a man
on horfeback, but the latter is empty, without one
grain fit for ufe. Father Labat, however, who had
lived a confiderable time in fome of the American
i(lands, where he had obferved the fame thing, tells us,
that he had the curiofity to examine thofe ears more
carefully, and had found fome few grains 5 and that,
having fowed them afrelh, they produced very long
ears full of large heavy grain. Whence he conjeftures,
that if the Portuguele had tried the fame experiment
in their African fettlements, it might perhaps have
been attended wfith the fame fuccefs.
In the low lands the grafs grows fo high, rank, Hazardous
and thick, that it becomes one of the moft dangerous travelling,
receptacles for wild beads, ferpents, and other venom¬
ous infefts ; on this account travelling is exceeding¬
ly hazardous, as there are few beaten roads in the
whole country, and travellers are obliged to march
over it, through vaft plains, in continual danger of be¬
ing devoured or ftung to death ; to fay nothing of
the manifold difeafes produced by the unwholefome
dews with which the grafs is covered during fome part
of the day. The only method of guarding againft
all thefe evils effeftually, is by fetting fire to the grafs
in the hot weather, -when it is quite parched by the -
heat of the fun : but even this cannot be done with¬
out the greateft danger ; beeaufe both the wild beaftfe
and venomous reptiles, being roufed out of their
places of retirement, will fly furioufly at thofe who
happen to be in the way. In this cafe there is no
poflibility of efcaping, but by climbing up the.higheft
trees, or defending one’s felf with fire arms or other
weapons. In fuch emergencies, the natives have a
much better chance than the Europeans y the former
being able to climb trees with furprifing fw-iftnefs j
while the latter muft be aflifted with rope-ladders,
which they commonly caufe their blacks to carry about
with them, and to go up and faften to one of the
branches.
The flowers are here exceedingly beautiful and mu-
merous. Almoft every field and grove yields a much riety of
nobler. floweis.
CON f s
'CSstgo. nobler profpe£l than the European gardens can boafi:
' of, notwithftandirvg- the pains bellowed on their culti¬
vation. The flowers are remarkable, not only for
the prodigious variety of their colours, but the vail
quantity of heads which grow upon one ftalk. In
the day-time, indeed, they feem to have loft their na¬
tural fragrancy •, that being in fome meafure exhaled
by the heat of the fun : but this is amply compenfated
after its fetting, and more efpecially a little before its
riling, when their fweetnefs is again condenfed, and
revived by the coldnefs and dews of the night, after
which they exhale their various refrelhing fcents in a
much higher degree than ours. The lilies, which there
grow naturally in the fields, valleys, and woods, excel
thofe of our gardens, not only in their extreme white-
nefs, but much more in a delightful fragrancy, without
offending the head, as the European lilies do by their
faintilh fweetnefs. The tulips which there grow wild,
though generally called Perfic, have fomething fo fur-
prilingly charming in the variety and cambination of
their colours, that they dazzle the eyes of an intenfe
beholder : neither do their flowers grow fingly as
with us, but ten or twelve upon one ftalk ; and with
this double advantage, that they diffufe a very revi¬
ving and agreeable fweetnefs, and continue much long¬
er in their full bloom. Of the fame nature are their
tuberofes, hyacinths, and other native flowers; which
fpring up in vaft groups of 100 and 200 from one
root, though fome what fmaller than ours j fome of
- them finely variegated, and all of them yielding an
. agreeable fmell. The rofes, jeffamines, and other
exotics brought hither from Europe or America, come
up likewife in great perfedHon, but require a con-
fiant fupply of water, and diligent attendance, to
prevent them from degenerating. The American
ieflamine, in particular, inftead of Angle flowers, will
grow up by dozens in a bunch; fome of them of an
exquinte white, and others of the colour of the moft
ir vivid fire.
Animals of A vaft variety of animals of different kinds are
different found in the kingdom of Congo j the chief of which
is the elephant. This creature is moftly found in the
province of Bamba, which abounds with woods, paf-
ture, and plenty of water; the elephants delighting
much to bathe themfelves during the heat of the day.
They commonly go in troops of an hundred or more ;
and fome of them are of fuch a monftrous fize, that
we are told the print of their hoof hath meafured
four, nay feven, fpans in diameter. From the hair of
their tails, and that of fome other animals, the na¬
tives, efpecially the women, weave themfelves col¬
lars, bracelets, girdles, &c. with variety of devices
and figures, which denote their quality ; and are in
fuch efteem, that the hair of two elephants tails is
fufficient to buy a flave. The reafon of this is, that
the natives have not the art of taming them, but are
obliged to fend fome of the braveft and ftouteft men
to hunt them in the woods j which is not done with¬
out great labour and danger, they being here ex¬
ceedingly fierce. The moft common way of hunting
them is by digging deep holes in the ground, the top
of which they cover with branches and leaves, as is
praftifed in moft parts of Afia.
Lions, leopards, tigers, wolves, and other beafts of
prey, abound here in great plenty, and do much da-
2 ] CON
mage. Here are alfo a vaft variety of monkeys of all Cong, 't
fizes and fhapes. The zebra, well known for its ex- ,T ^
treme beauty and fwiftnefs, is alfo met vfith in this coun¬
try. They have alfo a variety of buffaloes and wild
affes j but the eiante feems to be an animal peculiar to
this kingdom. It is fliaped and coloured much like an
ox, though not fo large. Its Ikin is commonly bought
by the Portuguefe, and fent into Germany to be tan¬
ned and made into targets, which are then called dantes.
The natives make ufe of their raw hides dried to
make their Ihields •, which are fo tough that no arrow
or dart can pierce them j and they are alfo large enough
to cover the whole body. The creature is vaftly fwift ^
and when wounded, will follow the fcent or fmoke of
the gunpowder with fuch fury, that the hunter is ob¬
liged to climb up a tree with all poflible fpeed j and
this retreat he always takes care to fecure before he
ventures to fire. The wounded beaft finding its enemy
out of its reach, flays for him at the foot of the tree,
and will not ftir from it •, of which the hunter taking
the advantage, difpatches it with repeated (hots. The
forefts of Congo alfo fwarm with wild dogs, who, like
the wolves, prey upon the tame cattle, and are fo
fierce that they will attack armed men. Their teeth
are exceeding keen and Iharp 5 they never bark, but
make a dreadful howling when famiftied or in purfuit
of their prey. I}
This country alfo abounds with all the different Birds,
kinds of birds that are to be found in other warm cli¬
mates. Qne fort, which they call birds of mufic, is
greatly e^fteemed, infomueh that perfons of the higheft
rank have from time immemorial taken the greateft
delight in keeping them in cages and aviaries for the
fake of their furpriling melody. On the other hand, as
the Congoefe are fuperftitious to the laft degree, there
are feveral kinds of birds which they look upon as
ominous, and are fo terrified at the fight or hearing of
them, that if they were going to enter upon ever fo
momentous an expedition, if they were met in coun¬
cil, or going to engage an enemy with ever fo great
an advantage, the flight or cry of fuch birds would
throw them into a general panic, and difperfe them in
the utmoft hafte and confuiion. The moft dreadful of
the ominous kind are the crows, ravens, bats, and owls.
The great owl is the moft terrible of all, and to him they
give the name of hariam fiemba, by which words they
likewife denote the devil.
Fifti of different kinds abound on the coafts of Con¬
go in great numbers; but the inland parts are infefted
with fuch numbers of ferpents, fcorpions, and other
venomous infedls, as are perhaps fufficient to overba¬
lance every natural advantage we have yet mentioned. 13
The moft pernicious and dangerous kind are the ants} Ants v
of which they reckon no lefs than fix feveral fpecies of^anSct
different colours and fizes 3 all of them formidable on
account of their prodigious numbers, and the mifchief
they do not only to the fruits of fche earth, but to men
and beafts ; whom they will furround in the night-time,
and devour even to the very bone. It is a common
pra&ice, we are told, to condemn perfons guilty of
fome atrocious crimes to be ftripped naked, tied hand
and foot, and thrown into a hole where thefe infe£ls
fwarm; where they are fure to be devoured by them
in lefs than 24 hours to the very bones. But crimi¬
nals are not the only perfons who are in danger from
the
CON [5i
Cor. the jaws of thefe little devouring infects. People may
be attacked by them, as we have already hinted, in the
night-time, and while they are fleeping in their beds.
This obliges the natives to be careful where they
lie down, and to kindle a fmall fire, or at leaf! to have
a circle of burning hot embers round their beds. This
caution is Hill more neceffary in the country villages
and hamlets, where perfons are otherwife in danger of
being attacked by millions of them in the dead of the
night. In fuch a cafe the only expedient to fave one’s
felf is to jump up as foon as one feels the bite, to brufh
them off with all pofiible fpeed, and then at once to fet
the houfe on fire. The danger is ftill greater in tra¬
velling through the country, where a perfon is often
obliged to take up his lodging on the bare ground ;
and may be overtaken during the heat of the day with
fuch profound deep, as not to be awakened by thefe di¬
minutive animals till they have made their way through
the Ikin ; and in fuch a cafe nothing will prevent their
devouring a man alive, though there were ever fo
many hands to affift him : in fuch incredible quantities
do thefe creatures abound, 'notwithftanding the great
numbers of monkeys who are continually ferreting the
ants out of their retreats, and feed upon them with
the utmoft avidity. This can only be afcribed to the
natural lazinefs and indolence of the inhabitants y,
which is fuch, that they not only negleft to rid their
land of them by proper cultivation, but will fuffer their
houfes, nay, even their very'churches, to be undermin¬
ed by them. Another kind of thefe deftrutffive vermin
lie fo thick upon the paths and higlfcvays, that, a perfon
cannot walk without treading upon, and having his
legs and thighs almoft’devoured by them. A third fort
of a white and red colour, but very fmall, will gnaw
their wray through the hardeft wood, penetrate into a
ftrong cheft, and in a little while devour all the
clothes, linen, and every thing that is in it. A fourth
fort, fmall and black, leave a molt intolerable flench
upon every thing they touch or crawl over, whe¬
ther clothes or houfehold-ftuff, which are not eafily
fweetened again j or if they pafs over vidluals, they
are entirely {polled. A fifth fort harbour chiefly on
the leaves and branches of trees and if a man chance
to climb up thither to fave himfelf from a wold beaft,
he is fo tormented by them, that nothing but the fear
of the jaws of the one could make him endure the
flings of the other. A lixth fort is of the flying
kind 5 and is probably one of the former kinds, that
live wholly under ground, till nature furnifhes them with
wings. After this, they rife in fuch fwarrns as darken
the air, and would make terrible havock among all
kinds of vegetables, did not the natives come out againfl
them in whole companies, and by dint of flaps, and
other flat weapons, knock them down by myriads, and
then laying them in heaps, fet fire to their wing?, which
half broils them for food. Amidft all this variety of
pernicious infefts, however, they have one fpecies of a
more friendly and profitable kind, viz. the induftrious
bee, which furnifhes the inhabitants with honey and wax
in fuch plenty, that there is fcarce a hollow tree, cleft
of a rock, or chop of the earth, in which their combs are
not found in great quantities.
Con very With refpefl to the populoufnefs of the kingdom of
P0? us. Congo, fome authors, writing either from mere conjec¬
ture, or at belt precarious inferences, have reprefented
Vol. VI. Part II.
3 ] CON
it as thinly peopled. The accounts of the miflionaiieS , t
and Portuguefe, however, are directly oppofite to “"~v7
thefe. They found the country for the molt part co¬
vered with towns and villages, and thefe fwarming with
inhabitants ; the cities well filled with people, parti¬
cularly the metropolis, which is faid to contain above
50,000 fouls. The provinces, though not equally
populous, yet in the whole make up fuch an amount
as plainly proves, that what is wanting in the one is
amply made up by the other. We are told that the
duchy of Bamba is flill able to raife 200,000 fighting
men, and was formerly in a condition to raife double
that number •, and that the army of the king of Congo,
in the year 166;;, confifted of 900,000 fighting men,
who were attended by an infinite number of women,
children, and flaves. The numbers of the Congoefe
will appear the more credible, when we confider the
extreme fecundity of their women, the hardinefs with <
which they bring up their children, and the ftoutnefs
and healthinefs of their men. In fome villages, if the
miflionaries are to be credited, the number of children
is fo great, that a father will part with one or two, for
any commodity he wants, or even for fome trifling bau¬
ble he fancies 5 fo that the number of llaves they fell
abroad feldom amounts, communibus annis, to leh, than
15,000 or 16,000. > 15
There is fcarcely a nation on earth that have a higher Congoefe
opinion of themfelves or their country than the Con-have a high
goefe, or that is more hardened againft all conviftion
to the contrary, from reafon, experience, or the molt
impartial comparifon with other countries in Europe
or Alia. Indeed it is impoffible they Ihould think
otherwife, when it is one of the fundamentals of their
belief, that the reft of the world was the work of an¬
gels, but that the kingdom of Congo, in its full and
ancient extent, was the handywork of the Supreme
Architect j and muft of courfe have vaft prerogatives
and advantages over all others. When told of the
magnificence of the European and Afiatic courts, their
immenfe revenues, the grandeur of their palaces and
edifices, the richnefs and happinefs of their fubje£ts, the
great progrefs they have made in the arts and fciences
to which their, country is wholly a ftranger, they cool¬
ly anfwer, that all this comes vaftly ftiort of the dig¬
nity and fplendor of the kings and kingdom of Congo j
and that there can be but one Congo in the world', to
the happinefs of whofe monarch and people all the
reft were created to contribute, and to whofe treafury
the fea and rivers pay their conftant tribute of zim-
bis (or {hells, which are their current coin) *, whilft
other princes muft condefcend to enrich themfelves by
digging through rocks and mountains, to come at the
excrements of the earth, fo they ftyle gold and filver
which are in fuch requeft among other nations. Ac¬
cordingly, they imagine, that the nations which come
to traffic with them, are forced to that fervile employ- rjJ
ment by their poverty and the badnefs of their coun- T}!e;r flot}1}
try, rather than induced to it by luxury or avarice •, pride, &c.
whilft they themfelves can indulge their natural indo¬
lence or floth, though attended with the moft pinching
poverty, rather than difgrace the dignity of their blood
by the leaft effort of induftry, which, how laudable
and beneficial foever, is looked upon by them as only
a leffer degree of flavery. But though they generally
efteem it fo much below their dignity to apply to any
3 T ufeful
tlcngo.
J7 .
Complexi-
@n, charac¬
ter, cu-
ftoms, &c.
i3
Religion.
ip
Govern-
/aent.
C ON L S
ufeful work, they think it no difgrace to beg or heal.
With refpedt to the hr ft, they are faid to be the moft
fliamelefs and importunate beggars in the world. They
will take no denial, fpare no crouching, lying, prayers,
to obtain what they want, nor curfes and ill language
when fent away without it. With regard to the laft,
they deem no theft unlawful or fcandalous, except it
be committed in a private manner, without the know¬
ledge of the perfon wronged. It is efteerord a piece
of bravery and gallantry to wrench any thing from
another by violence j and this kind of theft is fo com¬
mon, not only among the vulgar, but alfo among the
great ones, that they make no fcruple, in their travels
from place to place, to feize not only upon all the pro-
vilions they meet with in towns and villages, but upon
every thing elfe that falls in their way. Thefe vio¬
lences oblige the poor people to conceal the few valu¬
ables they have, in lome fecret place out of the know¬
ledge and reach of thofe harpies } and they think them-
felves well off if they can efcape a fevere baftinading, or
other cruel u-fage, frequently inflifled upon them, in or¬
der to make them difeover the place of their concealment.
The complexion of the natives, both men and wo¬
men, is black, though not in the fame degree; fome
being of a much deeper black than others, iheir
hair is black and finely curled , fome have it alfo of a
dark Tandy colour : their eyes are moftly of a fine
lively black *, but fome are of a dark fea-colour. They
have neither fiat nofes nor thick lips like the Nubians
and other negroes. Their ftature is moftly of the
middle fize j and, excepting their black complexion,
they much referable the Portuguefe. In their temper
they are miftruftful, envious, jealous, and treacherous ;
and where they once take a diftafte or affront, will
fpare no pains, and flick at no means, however bafe,
to be avenged of, and crufh their enemy under their
feet. There is no fuch thing among them as natural
affeftion. A hufband, if a Heathen, may take as
many wives as he pleafes •, and if a Chriftian, may have
any number of concubines, whom he may divorce at
pleafure, and even fell them though with child. So
little regard have they for their children, that there is
fcarce one among them who will not fell a fon or a
daughter, or perhaps both, for a piece of cloth, a col¬
lar or girdle of coral or beads, and often for a bottle of
wine or brandy.
The religion of the Congoefe in many parts is down¬
right idolatry, accompanied with the moft ridiculous^
fuperftitions, and the moft abfurd and deteftable rites*
invented by their gangas or priefts ; and even in thofe
parts where Chriftianity is profeffed, it is fo darkened
by fuperftitions of one kind or other, that we may
juftly queftion whether the people are any gainers by
the exchange.
The government of this kingdom is monarchical,
and as despotic as any in Afia or Africa. 1 he kings
are the foie proprietors of ail the lands within their
dominions ; and thefe they can difpofe of to whom
they pleafe, upon condition they pay a certain tribute
out of them : upon failure of the payment of which,
er any other negleft, they turn them out. Even the
princes of the blood are fubjedted to the fame law •, fo
that there is no perfon of any rank or quality what¬
ever that can bequeath a foot of land to hjs heirs or
fucceffors } and when thefe owners under the crown
I
4 ] CON
die, the lands immediately return to it again, whether CW
they w'ere in their poffeffion, or had been left to ever Con§reSa-
fo many tenants under them j fo that it entirely de-. tlMl'
pends on the prince whether thefe lands (hall be con- ^
tinned in the fame, or be difpofed into other hands.
The Portuguefe, however, fince their fettling in thefe
parts, have prevailed upon the monarchs to permit the
heirs and fucceffors to continue in the quiet poffeflioa
of fuch lands, in order to avoid the confufions, or even
rebellions, which the alienation and deprival of them
frequently occafioned, and to oblige the tenants of them
to pay their tribute more dxaftly and readily than they
did before. ,0
St Salvador is the chief place of trade in this coun- Commerce,
try belonging to the Portuguefe and other Europeans.
There are thought to be about 4000 of them fettled
here, who trade with moft parts of the kingdom.
The chief commodities they bring hither are either
the produft of Brazil or European manufactures.
The former confift chiefly of grains, fruits, plants,
&.c. 5 the latter of Turkey carpets,'Englilli clo h, and
other fluffs •, copper, brafs veffels, fome kinds of blue
earthen ware, lings, and ornaments of gold, filver, and
other bafer metals j coral, glafs-beads, bugles, and o-
ther trinkets j light fluffs made of cotton, woollen, and
linen, for clothing ; and a great variety of tools and
other utenfils. In return for thefe they carry off a great
number of flayds, amounting to 15,000 or 16,000 an¬
nually, as we have already obferved. Formerly they
ufed alfo to carry away elephants teeth, furs, and other
commodities of the country but theie branches of
commerce are now greatly decayed, and the flave-trade
is what the Pertuguefe merchants principally depend
or).
Congo, a term applied to tea of the fecond quality.
CONGREGATION, an affembly of feveral eccle-
fiaftics, united fo as to conftitute a body.
The term is principally ufed for affemblies of cardi¬
nals appointed by the pope, and diftributed into feve¬
ral chambers, for the difeharge of certain fim&ions
and jurifdi&ions, after the manner of our offices and
courts. The firfl: is the congregation of the holy of¬
fice, or the inquifition : the fecond, that of jurifdic-
tion over bilhops and regulars ; the third, that of coun¬
cils •, this has power to interpret the council of Trent:
the fourth, that of cuftoms, ceremonies, precedencies,
canonizations, called tfie congregation of rites: the fifth,
that of St Peter’s fabric, which takes cognizance of
all caufes relating to piety and charity, part whereof
is due to the church of St Peter : the fixth, that of
w-aters, rivers, roads : the feventh, of fountains and
ftreets : the eighth, that of the index, which examines
the books to be printed or torrefied : the ninth, that
of the council of ftate, for the management of the
territories belonging to the pope and church (fee
Camerlingo) : the tenth, de bono regimine $ of which
two laft the cardinal-nepherv is chief: the eleventh,
that of money r the twelfth, that of bifhops, wherein
thofe who are to be promoted to bifhoprics in Italy
are examined \ this is held before the pope : the thir¬
teenth, that of confiftorial matters.; the chief whereof
is the cardinal dean : the fourteenth, a congregation
for propagating the faith (fee Coelege) : and the
fifteenth, that of ecclefiaftical immunity, for fettling
fuits againft churchmen. There is alfo a congrega¬
tion
C O' N [ s
! a*!1' t'-on a^nis> takes care of every thing that re-
tioi lates to the fubfiftence of Rome and the date of the
e II church.
_ongi Congregation is alfo ufed for a company or fo-
ciety of religious cantoned out of this or that order $
and making, as it were, an inferior order, or a fubdi-
vifion of the order itfelf. Such are the congregations
of the oratory, and thofe of Cluny, &c. among the
Benedi&ines.
The word is alfo ufed for aflemblies of pious perfons
in manner of fraternities, frequent among the Jefuits,
in honour of the Virgin, &q. It is likewife applied to
the audience in a church, particularly as conlifting of
the inhabitants of the fame parifh.
CONGREGATIONALISTS, in church-hiftory,
a feft of Proteftants who reje£i all church-government,
except that of a {ingle congregation under the direc¬
tion of one pallor.
CONGRESS, in political affairs, an alfembly of
commiffioners, envoys, deputies, &c. from feveral
courts meeting to concert matters for their common
good.
Congress, in America, is the affembly of delegates
from the United States. See America.
Congress, in a judicial fenfe, the trial made by
appointment of a judge before furgeons and matrons, in
order to prove whether or not a man be impotent, be¬
fore fentence is paflfed for the diflolution of a marriage
folicited upon fuch.a complaint.
Neither the civil nor canon law makes any mention
of the trial of virility by congrefs. It had its origin
in France from the boldnefs of a young fellow, who, in
open court, having beeir hard prelTed by his wife, de¬
manded the congrefs. The judge, furprifed with the
novelty of the demand, found it could not be denied,
ar, being the fureft evidence that the cafe could admit
of. In time it became a branch in the French jurif-
prudence, and was authorized by decreets and arrets. It
obtained for about I 20 years •, and was annulled by an
arret of parliament in 1677, as being found precarious 5
tome having failed under the experiment out of mere
modelty and (hame, which is found to have the fame
effect with aflual impotency.
CONGREVE, William, a younger brother of an
ancient family in Staffordlhire. His father was employ¬
ed in the ftewardlhip of the great ellate of the earl of
Burlington in Ireland, where he refided many years
and our author was born there in 1672. Mr Congreve
entered into the Middle-Temple when he came to Eng¬
land, and began to ftudy the law ; but his bias was
toward polite literature and poetry. His firft perfor¬
mance was a novel entitled, Incognita, or Love and
Duty reconciled. He foon after began his comedy of
the Old Bachelor ; which was the amufement of fome
leiiure hours during a flow recovery from a fit of illnefs
foon after his return to England ; yet was in itfelf fo
perfect, that Mr Dryden, on its being fhown to him,
declared he had never in his life feen fuch a firft play.
When brought on the ftage in 1693, it met with fuch
univerfal approbation, that Mr Congreve, though he
Avas but 19 years old at the time of his writing it, be¬
came now confidered as a prop to the declining flage,
and a riling genius in dramatic poetry. The next year
he produced the Double Dealer ; which, for what rea-
fon is not obvious, did not meet with fo much fu.ccefs
15] CON
as the former. The merit of his firft play, however,
had obtained him the favour and patronage of Lord
Halifax, and fome peculiar mark of diftinftion from
Queen Mary j on whofe death, which happened in the
elofe of this year, he wrote a very elegant elegiac pa-
lloral. In 1695, when Betterton opened the netv
houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn fields, Mr Congret'e joining
with him, gave him his comedy of Love for Love-, with
which the company opened their campaign, and which
met with fuch fuecefs, that they immediately offered
the author a (hare in the management of the houfe, on
condition of his furnifhing them with one play yearly.
T his offer he accepted 5 but whether through indo¬
lence, or that corre<ftnefs which he looked upon as ne~
ceffary to his works, his Mourning Bride did not Come
out till 1697, nor his Way of the World till two years
after that. The indifferent fuccefs this lafl: mentioned
play, though an exceeding good one, met with from,
the public, completed that difguft to the theatre,
which a long conteft with Jeremy Collier, who had
attacked the immoralities of the Englifli IHge, and
more efpecially feme of his pieces, had begun, and hd
determined never more to Avrite for the ftage. How¬
ever, though he quitted dramatic writing, he did not
lay down the pen entirely •, but occaiionally wrote
many little pieces both in profe and verfe, all of which
{land on the records of literary fame. It is very pof-
fible, however, that he might not fo foon have given
w’ay to this difguft, had not the eafinefs of his circum-
fiances rendered any fubfervienee to the opinions
and caprice of the town abfolutely unneceffary to him.
For his abilities having very early in life raifed him to
the acquaintance of the earl of Halifax, who Avas
then the Mecaenas of the age; thatftobleman, defirous
of railing fo promifing a genius above the neceflity of
too haily produftions, made him one of the commif¬
fioners for licenfing hackney-coaches ; or, according to
Coxeter, a commiiTioner of the Avine-licenfe. He foon
after beftowed on him a place in the pipe-office ; and
not long after gave him a poll in the cuffonts worth
600I. per annum. In the year 1718, he was appoint¬
ed fecretary of Jamaica ; fo that the Avhole of his in¬
come towards the latter part of his life Avas upAvards of
1200I. a-year.
The greatefl: part of the lafl: 20 years of his life
Avas fpent in eafe and retirement; and he either did
not, or affefted not to give himfelf any trouble about
reputation. Yet fome part of that conduft might pro¬
ceed from a degree of pride ; to which purpofe, T.
Cibber, in his Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. p. 93. re¬
lates the following anecdote of him : “ When the ce¬
lebrated Voltaire was in England, he waited upon Mr
Congreve, and palled fome compliments upon the me¬
rit and reputation of his works. Congreve thanked
him ; but at the fame time told that ingenious fo¬
reigner, that he did not choofe to be confidered as an
author, but only as a private gentleman, and in that
light expected to be vifited. Voltaire anfwered, that
if he had never been any thing but a private gentle-'
man, in all probability he had never been troubled with
that vifit.” He obferves, in his own account of the
tranfaftion, that he was not a little difgufted Avith fa
unfeafonable a piece of vanity.
Towards the elofe of his life he Avas much affiidled
Avith the gout; and making a tour to Bath for the be-
3 T 2 nefit
CON [ 51
Congreve, nefit of the waters, was unfortunately overturned in
l.Qiigruity, c]iariGt ; by which, it is fuppofed, he got fome
inward bruife, as he ever after complained of a pain
in his fide $ and, on his return to London, continu¬
ed gradually declining in his health, till the 19th of
January 1729, when he died, aged 57 j and, on the
26th following, was buried in Weftminfter Abbey,
the pall being fupported by perfons of the firft di-
ftinftion.
CONGRU1TY, a foitablenefs or relation of agree¬
ment between things.
The terms congruity and propriety are not applicable
to any fingle object: they imply a plurality, and ob-
vioufly fignify a particular relation between different
obje<5ts. Thus we currently fay, that a decent garb is
fuitable or proper for a judge •, modeft behaviour for a
young woman j and a lofty ftyle for an epic poem :
and on the other hand, that it is unfuitable or incon¬
gruous to fee a little woman funk in an overgrown far¬
thingale, a coat richly embroidered covering coarfe and
dirty linen, a mean fubjedt in an elevated ftyle, an ele¬
vated fubjedt in a mean ftyle, a firft minifter darning
his wife’s ftocking, or a reverend prelate in lawn fleeves
dancing a hornpipe.
The perception we have of this relation, which
feems peculiar to man, cannot proceed from any other
caufe, but from a fenfe of congruity or propriety 5 for,
fuppofing us deftitute of that ienfe, the terms would
be to us unintelligible.
It is a matter of experience, that congruity or pro¬
priety, wherever perceived, is agreeable ; and that in¬
congruity, or impropriety, wherever perceived, is dif-
agreeable. The only difficulty is, to afoertain what are
the particular objects that in conjunction fuggeft thefe
relations-, for there are many objects that do not: the
fea, for example, viewed in conjunction with a pic¬
ture, or a man viewed in conjunction with a moun¬
tain, fuggeft: not either congruity or incongruity. It
feems natural to infer, what will be found true by in¬
duction, that we never perceive congruity or inoon-
gruity but among things that are connected together
by fome relation ; fuch as a man and his aCtions, a
principal and his accefiories, a fubjeCt and its orna¬
ments. We are indeed fo framed by nature, as, among
things fo conneCted, to require a certain fuitablenefs
or correfpondence, termed cortgruity or propriety; and
to be difpleafed when we find the oppofite relation of
incongruity or impropriety.
If things conneCted be the fubjeCt of congruity, it
is reafonable before hand to expeCt, that a degree of
congruity ftiould be required proportioned to the de¬
gree of the connexion. And upon examination we
find this to hold in faCt : where the relation is inti¬
mate, as between a caufe and its eft’eCt, a whole and
its parts, we require the ftriCteft congruity ; but
where the relation is flight, or accidental, as among
things jumbled together in the fame place, we require
little or no congruity: the ftriCleft propriety is re¬
quired in behaviour and manner of living •, beeaufe a
man is connected with thefe by the relation of caufe
and effeCt: the relation between an edifice and the
ground it ftands upota, is of the moft intimate kind :
and therefore the fituation of a great houfe ought to be
lofty ; its relation to neighbouring hills, rivers, plains,
feeing that of propinquity only, demands bvft a fmall
6 ] CON
lhare of congruity ; among members of the fame club,
the congruity ought to be confiderable, as well as
among things placed for ihow in the fame niche:
among paffengers in a ftage coach, we require very lit¬
tle congruity j and lefs ftill at a public fpeCtacle.
Congruity is fo nearly allied to beauty, as com¬
monly to be held a fpecies of it; and yet they differ
fo effentially as never to coincide : beauty, like colour,
is placed upon a fingle fubjeCt; congrmty upon a plu¬
rality : further, a thing beautiful in itfelf, may, with
relation to other things, produce the ftrongeft lenie of
incongruity.
Congruity and propriety are commonly reckoned
fynonymous terms; but they are diitinguiihable, and
the precife meaning of each mult be afcertained. Con¬
gruity is the genus of which propriety is a fpecies ; for
we call nothing propriety, but that congruity or fuita-
blenefs which ought to fubfift between fcnfible beings
and their thoughts, words, and aCtions.
In order to give a full view of thefe fecondary rela¬
tions, we ftiall trace them through fome of the molt
confiderable primary relations. The relation of a part
to the whole, being extremely intimate, demands the
utmoft degree of cougvuity j even the flighteft deviation
is difguftlul. ,
Examples of congruity and incongruity are furnilh-
ed in plenty by the relation between a fubjeCt and its
ornaments. A literary performance intended merely
for amufement, is fufceptible of much ornament, as
well as a mufic-room or a play-houfe ; for in gaiet},
the mind hath a peculiar relifli for Ihow and decora¬
tion. The moft. gorgeous apparel, however improper
in tragedy, is not unfuitable to opera-aCtors j the truth
is, an opera, in its prefent form, is a mighty fine
thing ; but as it deviates from nature in its capital cir-
cumftanees, we look not for nature or propriety in
thofe which are acceffory. On the other hand, a ferious
and important fubjeCt admits not much ornament: nor
a fubjeCt that of itfelf is extremely beautiful: and a
fubjeCt that fills the mind with its loftinefs and gran¬
deur, appears belt in a drefs altogether plain.
To a perfon of a mean appearance, gorgeous apparel
is unfuitable; which, befides the incongruity, has a bad
effeCt; for by contraft it Ihows the meannefs of appear¬
ance in the ftrongeft light. Sweetnefs of look and
manner requires fimplicity of drefs, joined with the
greateft elegance. A ftately and majeftic air requires
fumptuous apparel, which ought not to be gaudy, nor
crowded with little ornaments. A woman of confum-
mate beauty can bear to he highly adorned, and yet
(hows belt in a plain drefs:
 For lovelinefs
Needs not the foreign aid of ornament,
But is, when unadorn’d, adorn’d the moft.
Thomfori's Autumn, 208.
Cougruity regulates not only the quantity of orna¬
ment, but alfo the kind. The ornaments that em-
bellith a dancing room ought to be all of them gay.
No piClure is proper for a church but what has reli¬
gion for its fubjeCt. All the ornaments upon a fliield
ought to relate to war; and Virgil, with great judg¬
ment, confines the carvings upon the fhield of Atneas
to the military hiftory of the Romans : but this beau¬
ty is overlooked by Homer; for the bulk of the fculp-
ture
CON [51
ity. ture upon tKe (Held of Achilk's, is of the arts of peace
in general, and of joy and feftivity in particular : the
author of Telemachus betrays the fame inattention, in
defcribing that young hero.
In judging of propriety with regard to ornaments,
we muft attend, not only to the nature of the fubjeft
that is to be adorned, but alfo to the circumftances in
which it is placed; the ornaments that are proper for
a ball, will appear not altogether fo decent at public
worlhip ; and the fame perfon ought to drefs differently
for a marriage feaft and for a burial.
Nothing is more intimately related to a man, than
his fentiments, words, and anions j and therefore we
require here the flrifteft conformity. When we find
what we thus require, we have a lively fenfe of pro¬
priety : when we find the contrary, our fenfe of im¬
propriety is not lefs lively. Hence the univerfal dif-
tafte of affe&ation, which confifts in making a Ihow of
greater delicacy and refinement than is fuited either to
the character or circumftance of the perfon.
Congruity and propriety, wherever perceived, ap¬
pear agreeable $ and every agreeable objeft produces
in the mind a pleafant emotion : incongruity and im¬
propriety, on the other hand, are difagreeable ; and
of courfe produce painful emotions. Thefe emo¬
tions, whether pleafant or painful, fometimes vanifh
without any confequence *, but more frequently oc-
cafion -other emotions, w hich we proceed to exem-
pUfy- .
When any flight incongruity is perceived in an ac¬
cidental combination of perfons or things, as of paf-
fengers in a ftage.coach, or of individuals dining at
an ordinary •, the painful emotion of incongruity, after
a momentary exiftence, vaniiheth without producing
any effed. But this is not the cafe of propriety and
impropriety : voluntary a£ls, whether words or deeds,
are imputed to the author j when proper, we reward
him with our efteem $ when improper, we punifh him
with our contempt. Let us fuppofe, for example, a
generous a&ion fuited to the charadter of the author,
which raifes in him and in every fpedlator the pleafant
emotion of propriety } this emotion generates in the
author both felf-efteem and joy, the former when he
confiders his relation to the aftion, and the latter when
he confiders the good opinion that others wdll entertain
of him : the fame emotion of propriety produceth in
the fpedlators efteem for the author of the adlion : and
when they think of themfelves, it alfo produceth, by
means of contraft, an emotion of humility. To difco-
ver the effedls of an unfuitable adlion, we muft invert
each of thefe circumftances: the painful emotion of
impropriety.generates in the author of the adtion both
humility and fhame; the former when he confiders
his relation to the adlion, and the latter when he con¬
fiders what others will think of him : the fame emo¬
tion of impropriety produceth in the fpedlators con¬
tempt for the author of the adtion $ and it alfo pro¬
duceth, by means of contraft, when they think of
themfelves, an emotion of felf-efteem. Here then are
many different emotions, derived from the fame adtion,
confidered in different views by different perfons; a
machine provided with many fprings, and not a little
complicated. Propriety of adtion, it would feem, is
a chief favourite of nature, when fuch care and foli-
citude is beftowed upon it. It is -not left to cur
7 ] CON
own choice j but, like juftice, is required at our
hands j and, like juftice, is enforced by natural re¬
wards and puniihments : a man cannot, with impunity,
do any thing unbecoming or improper j he fuffers the
chaftjfement of contempt inflidted by others, and of
fljame inflidted by himfelf. An apparatus fo compli¬
cated, and fo Angular, ought to roufe our attention :
for nature doth nothing in vain y and we may con¬
clude with great certainty, that this curious branch of
the human conflitution is intended for fotne valuable
purpofe.
A grofs impropriety is punifhed with contempt and
indignation, which are vented againft the offender, by
correfponding external expreflions j nor is even the
llighteft impropriety fuffered to pafs without fome de¬
gree of contempt. But there are improprieties, .of
the {lighter kind, that provoke laughter: of which
we have examples without end, in the blunders and
abfurdities of our own fpecies: fuch improprieties re¬
ceive a different punithment, as will appear by what
follows. The emotions of contempt and of laughter
occafioned by an impropriety of this kind, uniting in¬
timately in the mind of the fpadlator, are exprefled
externally by a peculiar fort of laugh, termed a Ipugh
of denjion or /corn. An impropriety that thus moves
not only contempt, but laughter, is diftinguhhed by
the epithet of ridiculous ; and a laugh of derifion or
fcorn is the punifhment provided for it by nature. Nor
ought it to efcape obfervation, that we are fo fond of
inflifting this punilhment, as fometimes to exert it even
againft creatures of an inferior fpecies j witnefs a tur¬
key-cock fwelling w ith pride, and ftrutting with dif-
played feathers j a ridiculous objeft, which in a.gay
mood is apt to provoke a laugh of Aerifion.
We muft not expeft, that thefe different impro¬
prieties are feparated by diftinft boundaries; for of
improprieties, from the flighteft to the moft grofs,
from the moft rifible to the moft ferious, there are de¬
grees without end. Hence it is, that in viewing fome
unbecoming aftions, too rifible for anger, and too fe-
rious for derifion, the fpeftator feels a fort of mixt
emotion, partaking both of derifion and of anger •,
which accounts for an expreflion, common with refpedt
to the impropriety of fome a&ions, that we know not
whether to laugh or be angry.
It cannot fail to be obfervtd, that in the cafe of a
rifible impropriety,.which is always,-flight, the contempt
we have for the offender is extremely faint, thqugh
derifioM, its gratification, is extremely pleafant. This
dilproportion between a paflion and its gratification,
feems not conformable to the analogy of nature. In
looking about for a folution, we muft refle6l upon
what is laid down above, that an improper aftion hot
only moves our contempt for the author, but alfo,- by
means of contraft, fwells the good opinion we have of
ourfelves. This contributes, more than any other ar¬
ticle, to the pleafure we have in ridiculing follies and
abfurdities j and accordingly, it is well known, that
they who put the greateft value upon themfelves are
the moft prone to laugh at others. Pride, which is a
vivid paflion, pleafant in itfelf, and not lefis fo in its
gratification, would fingly be fufficient to account for
the pleafure of ridicule, without borrowing any aid
from contempt. Hence appears the reafon of a noted
obfervation, That we are the moft difpofed to ridicule
"the
L- U i\ [5
Gingruity. the blunders and abfurdities of others, when we are in
v_ high fpirits j for in high fpirits, felf-conceit difplays it-
felf with more than ordinary vigour.
With regard to the final caul'es of congruity and im¬
propriety ; one regarding congruity, is pretty obvious,
that the fenfe of congruity, as one principle of the fine
arts, contributes in a remarkable degree to our enter¬
tainment. Congruity, indeed, with refpedl to quantity
coincides with proportion : when the parts of a build¬
ing are nicely adjufied to each other, it may be faid in¬
differently, that it is agreeable by the congruity of its
parts, or by the proportion of its parts. But propriety,
which regards voluntary agents only, can never be the
fame with proportion, a very long nofe is difpropor-
tioned, but cannot be termed improper. In fome in-
ftances, it is true, impropriety coincides with difpro-
portion in the fame fubjedl, but never in the fame re-
fpedf $ for example, a very little man buckled to a long
toledo : confidering the man and the fword with refpedl
to fize, we perceive a difproportion j confidering the
fword as the choice of the man, we perceive an impro¬
priety.
The fenfe of impropriety with refpedf to miftakes,
blunders, and abfurdities, is happily contrived for the
good of mankind. In the fpeftators, it is productive
of mirth and laughter, excellent recreation in an inter¬
val from bufinefs. But this is a trifle inrefpeCt of what
follows. It is painful to be the fubjeft of ridicule ; and
to punifh with ridicule the man who is guilty of an ab-
furdity, tends to put him more upon his guard in time
coming. Thus even the molt innocent blunder is not
committed with impunity ; becaufe, were errors licen-
fed where they do not hurt, inattention would grow in¬
to a habit, and be the occafion of much hurt.
The final caufe of propriety as to moral duties, is
of all the molt illuftrious. To have a juft notion of
it, the moral duties that refpeCt others muft be diftin-
guiihed from thofe that relpeft ourfelves.. Fidelity,
gratitude, and the forbearing injury, are examples of
the firlt fort j temperance, modefty, firmnefs of mind,
are examples of the other : the former are made duties
by the fenfe of juftice the latter by the fenfe of pro¬
priety. Here is a final caufe of the fenfe of pro¬
priety, that muft roufe our attention. It is undoubt¬
edly the intereft of every man, to fuit his behaviour
to the dignity of his nature, and to the ftation allotted
him by Providence $ for fuch rational conduct con¬
tributes in every, refpeCt to happinefs, by preferving
health, by procuring plenty, by gaining the efteem of
others, and, which of all is the greateft bleffing, by
gaining a juftly-founded felf-efteem. But in a matter
fo eflential to our well being, even felf-intereft is not
relied on : the powerful authority of duty is fuperadd-
ed to the motive of intereft. The God of nature, in
all things eflential to our happinefs, hath obferved one
. uniform method j to keep us fteady in our conduCI, ha
18 ] CON
hath fortified us with natural laws and principles,
which prevent many aberrations, that would daily hap¬
pen were we totally furrendered to fo fallible a guide as
human reafon. Propriety cannot rightly be confidered
in another light, than as the natural law that regulates
our conduCI with refpefl to ourfelves 5 as juftice is the
natural law that regulates our conduCt with refpedl to
others. We call propriety a law, not lefs than juftice ;
becaufe both are equally rules of conduCI that ought
to be obeyed : propriety includes this obligation ; for
to fay an aftion is proper, is, in other words, to fay,
that it ought to be performed 5 and to fay it is impro¬
per, is, in other words, to fay that it ought to be for¬
borne. It is this very charatfter of ought and Jhou/d
that makes juftice a law to us j and the fame charac¬
ter is applicable to propriety, though perhaps more
faintly than to juftice : but the difference is in degree
only, not in kind •, and we ought, without hefitation
or reluftance, to fubmit equally to the government of
both.
But it muft, in the next place, be obferved, that to
the lenfe of propriety, as well as of juftice, are annexed
the fanflions of rewards and punilhments ; which evi¬
dently prove the one to be a law as well as the other.
1 he fatisfadlion a man bath in doing his duty, joined
with the efteem and good will of others, is the reward
that belongs to both equally. The puniftur.ents aifo,
though not the fame, are nearly allied 5 and differ in
degree more than in quality. Difobedience to the law
of juftice, is punilhed with remorfe •, difobedience to
the law of propriety, with Ihame, which is remorfe in
a lower degree. Every tranfgreflion of the law^ of ju ¬
ftice raifes indignation in the beholder 3 and fo doth
every flagrant tranfgreffion of the law of propriety.
Slighter improprieties receive a milder punifliment:
they are always rebuked with fome degree of con¬
tempt, and frequently with derifion. In general, it is
true, that the rewards and puniihments annexed to the
fenfe of propriety, are {lighter in degree than thofe
annexed to the fenfe of juftice : which is wifely or¬
dered, becaufe duty to others is ftill more eflential to
fociety than duty to ourfelves 5 for fociety could not
fubfift a moment were individuals not protefted from
the headftrong and turbulent paflion of their neigh¬
bours.
CONI, a ftrong town of Italy in Piedmont, and ca¬
pital of a territory of that name, with a good citadel.
The town being divided into two factions, it furrender¬
ed to the French in 1641 ; but was reftoredtbthe duke
of Savoy foon after. It is feated at the confluence of
the rivers Greffe and Sture. Its trade is confiderable,
being the repofitory of all merchandife from Turin and
Nice, defigned for Lombardy, Switzerland, and Ger¬
many. It contains about 10,000 people befidesthe gar-
rifon. It was taken by the French in April 1796.
E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 44. 30.
Congruit
Cc&i.
CONIC
r 519 i
CONIC SECTIONS.
INTRODUCTION.
IN treating of fo confiderable a branch of the mathe-
matical fciences as the Conic Se&ions, it would be
improper to pafs over in total filence the hiftory of
thofe remarkable curves. But this topic will not require
any long detail. None of the works of the more
early Greek geometers have reached our time j nor
have we any work of antiquity profeflTedly written on
the fubjeft of our inquiry. Our curiolity muft there¬
fore reft fatisfied with the knowledge of a few inci¬
dental notices and fails, gleaned from different au¬
thors.
The difcover^ of the conic feilions feems to have
originated in the fchool of P/ato, in which geometry
was highly refpeiled, and much cultivated. It is
probable that the followers of that philofopher were
led to the difcovery of thefe curves, and to the invef-
tigation of many of their properties, in feeking to re-
folve the two famous problems of the duplication of
the cube, and the trifeftion of an angle, for which the
artifices of the ordinary or plane geometry were in-
fufficient. Two folutions of the former problem, by
the help of the conic feilions, are preferved by Euto-
;»In rh. cms*, and are attributed by him to Memtchmur, the
tb. lie fcholar of Eudoxus, who lived not much pofterior to
>?h. Cyl. the time of Plato : and this circumftance, added to a
■ It,; few words in an epigram of E‘-atoJlhenes\, has been
thought fufficient authority, by fome authors, to a-
fcribe the honour of the difcovery of the conic fac¬
tions to Meruechmus. We may at leaft infer that, at
this epoch, geometers had made fome progrefs in deve¬
loping-the properties of thefe curves.
The waitings of Archimedes that have reached us
explicitly fhewq that the geometers before his time
had advanced a great length in inveftigating the pro¬
perties of the conic, fefliohs. This author exprefsly
mentions many principal propofitions to have been de-
inonftrated by preceding writers j and he often refers
to properties of the conic fections, as truths commonly
divulged, and known to mathematicians. His own
difeoveries in this branch of fcience are worthy of the
moft profound and inventive genius of antiquity. In
the quadrature of the parabola he gave the firft, and
the moft remalkable inftance that has yet been dife'o-
vered, of the exafl equality of a curvilineal to a redti-
lineal fpace. He determined the proportion of the
elliptic fpaces to the circle \ and’ he invented many
proportions refpedling the menfuration of the folids
formed by the revolution of the conic fedlions about
their axes.
It is chiefly from the writings of Apollonius of
Perga^ a town in Pamphylia, on- the fubjedl of the
conic fedlions, that w^e know how far the ancient ma¬
thematicians carried their fpeculations concerning thefe
curves. Apollonius flourifhed under Ptolemy Philopa-
tor, about forty years later than Archimedes. He
formed his tafte for geometry, and acquired that fupe-
*icr fldll in the fciencc to which he is indebted for his
fame, in the fchool of Alexandria, under the fucceP
fors oP Euclid. Betides his great work on the conic
fedlions, he was the author of many fmaller treatifes,
relating chiefly to the geometrical analyfis, the origi¬
nals of which have all periftied, and are only known to
modern mathematicians by the account given of them
by Pappus of Alexandria, in the feventh book of his
Mathematical Collellions.
The work of Apollonius on the conic feclions,
w'ritten in eight books, wras held in fuch high eftima-
tion by the ancients, as to procure for him the name
of the Great Geometer. The firft four books of this
treatife only have come down to us in the original
Greek. It is the purpofe of thefe four books, as weard
informed in the prefatory epiftle to Eudemus, to de¬
liver the elements of the fcience; and in this part of
his labour, the author claims no farther merit than
that of having collected, amplified, and reduced to
order, the difeoveries of preceding, mathematicians.
One improvement introduced by Apollonius is too re¬
markable to be pafled over without notice. The geo¬
meters who preceded him derived each curve from a
right cone, which they conceived to be cut by a plane
perpendicular to its fiant fide. It will readily be per¬
ceived, from what is fhewn in the firft feftion of the
fourth part of the following treatife, that the fedlion
w'ould be a parabola when the vertical angle of the
cone was a right angle ; an ellipfe when it was acute;
and a hyperbola w'hen it was obtufe. Ihus each
curve w as derived from a different fort of cone. Apol¬
lonius rvas the firft to ftiew that all the curves are pro¬
duced from any fort of cone, whether right or oblique,
according to the different inclinations of thfe cutting
plane. This faft is one remarkable inftance’ of the
adherence of the mind to its firft conceptions, and of
the flownefs and difficulty wdth which it generalizes.
The original of the firft four books of the treatife
of Apollonius is loft ; nor is it eafy to afeertain in what
age it difappeared. In the year 1658 Borelh difeo-
vered at Florence an Arabic manufeript, entitled
Apollonii Pergai Conicorum Libri Ohio. By the libe¬
rality of the Duhe of Tufcany he was permitted to
carry the manufeript to Rome, and, with the aid of an
Arabic fcholar, Abraham Ecchellenjis, he publiffied in
1661 a Latin tranflation of it. The manufeript, al¬
though from its tithe it was expe£led to be a complete
tranfiation of all the eight books, was jet found to
contain only the firft feven books:1 and it is remark¬
able, that another manufeript, brought from the eaft
by Golius, the learned profeffor of Leyden, fo early as
1664, as Avell as a third, of which Ravius publiihed a
tranflation in 1669, have the fame defeat : all the
three manuferipts agreeing in the want of the eighth
book, wm may nowr confider that part of the work of
Apollonius as irrecoverably loft. Fortunately, in the
ColleBiones Mathematical of Pappus, in whofe time the
entire treatife of Apollonius was extant, there is pre¬
ferred
52°
CONIC SECTIONS.
Pan
ferved forae account of the fubjefts treated in each
book, and all the Lemmata required in the inveftiga-
tions of the propofitions they contain. Dr Halley,
who in 1710 gave a correct edition of the Qotiics of
Hpo/lonius, guided in his refearches by the lights de¬
rived from Pappus, has reftored the eighth- book with
fo much ability as to leave little room to regret the
original.
The four laft books of the Conics of Apollonius,
containing the higher or more recondite parts of the
fcience, are generally fuppofed to be the Iruit of the
author’s own refeajrehes 5 and they do much honour to
the geometrical ikill and invention of the Great Geo¬
meter. Even in our times the whole treatife mu ft be
regarded as a very extenfive, if not a complete work
on the conic fections. Modern mathematicians make
important applications of thele curves, with which the
ancients were unacquainted ; and they have been thus
led to confider the fubjeft in particular points of view,
fuited to their purpofes j but they have made few dif-
coveries, of which there are not feme traces to
found in the work of the illuftrious ancient.
The geometers who followed Hpollomus feem to
have contented themfelves with the humble talk of
commenting on his treatife, and of rendering it of
more eafy accefs to the bulk of mathematicians. Till
about the middle of the 16th century, the hiftory of
this branch of mathematical fcience prefents nothing
remarkable. The ftudy of it was then revived ; and
lince that time this part of mathematics has been more
cultivated, or has been illuftrated by a greater variety
of ingenious writings.
Among the ancients, the ftudy of the conic fe ft ions
was a fubjeft of pure intelleftual fpeculation. I he
applications of the properties of thefe curves in natural
philofophy have, in modern times, given to this part
of the mathematics a degree of importance that it did
not formerly poflefs. That which, in former times,
might be confidered as interefting only to the learned
theorift and profound mathematician, is now a neceflary
attainment to him who would not be ignorant of thole
difcoveries in nature, that do the greateft honour to the
prefent age.
It is curious to remark the progrefsof difcovery, and
the connexion that fubfifts between the different branches
of human knowledge 5 and it excites fome degree of
admiration to, refleft, that the aftronomical difcoveries
of Kepler, and thefublime theory of Newton, depend on
the feemingly barren ipeculations of Greek geometers
. concerning the feftions of the cone.
Hpolionius, and all the writers on conic feftions be¬
fore Dr Wallis, derived the elementary properties of
the curves from the nature of the cone. In the fecond
part of his treatife De SeSlionibus Conicis, publiihed in
1665, Dr Wallis laid afide the confideration of the
cone, deriving the properties of the curves from a de-
fcription in piano. Since his time authors have been,
much divided as to the beft method of defining thofe
curves, and demonftrating their elementary properties •,
many of them preferring that of the ancient geometers,
while others, and fome of great note, have followed
the example of Dr Wallis.
In fupport of the innovation made by Dr Wallis, it
is urged, that in the ancient manner of treating the co¬
nic feftions, young ftudents are perplexed, and difeou-
raged by the previous matter to be learnt refpefting the
generation and properties of the cone; and that they
find it no eafy matter to conceive fteadily, and to un-
derftand diagrams rendered confufed by lines drawn in
different planes : all which difficulties are avoided by
defining the curves in piano from one of their effential
properties. It is not our intention particularly to dif-
cufs this point ; and we have only to add, that, in the
following treatife, we have chofen to deduce the pro¬
perties of the conic feftions from their defeription m
piano, as better adapted to the nature of a work deiign-
ed for general readers.
A geometrical treatife on the conic feftions muft
neceffarily be founded upon^the elements of geometry.
As Euclid'ls Elements of Geometry are generally ftu-
died, and in every one’s hands, we have chofen to re¬
fer to it in the demonftrations. The edition vre have
ufed is that publiffied by Profeffor Playfair of Edin¬
burgh. Although the references are made to Euclid’s
Elements, yet they will alfo apply to the treatife on
Geometry given in this Work ; for a table is there
given, indicating the particular propofition of our treatife
that correfponds to each of the mort material propofi-
tions in Euclid’s Elements.
The references are to be thus underftood: (20.1. E.)
means the 20th prop, of the xft book of Euclid'1 s Ele¬
ments : (2 cor. 20. 6. E.) means the 2d corollary to
the 20th prop, of the fixth book of the fame work ;
and fo of others. Again, (7.) means the feventh propo¬
fition of that part of the following treatife in which
fuch reference happens to occur: (cor. 1.) means the
corollary to the firft propofition : (2 cor. 3.) means the
2d corollary to the third propofition, &c.—fuch refe¬
rences being all made to the propofitions in the divifion
of the treatife in which they are found.
PART I. OF THE PARABOLA.
Definitions.
Plate I. If a ftraight line BC, and a point without it F,
CLYI. be given by pofition in a plane, and a point D be fup-
I* pofed to move in fuch a manner that DF, its diftance
from the given point, is equal to DB, its diftance
from the given line, the point D will deferibe a line
DAD, called a Parabola.
Corollary. The lines DF, DB, may become
greater than any given line; therefore the parabola
\ 2
extends to a greater diftance from the point F, and the
line 'BC, than any that can be affigned.
II. The ftraight line BC, which is given by pofi¬
tion, is called the DireSlrix of the Parabola.
III. The given point F is called the Focus.
IV. A ftraight line perpendicular to the direftrix,
terminated at one extremity by the parabola, and pro¬
duced indefinitely within it, is called a Diameter.
V. The point in which a diameter meets the parabo¬
la is called its Vertex,
VI. The
•ar I. CONICS
Of 2 VI. I he diaraetev wLicli paffes through the focus
pPara a' is called the Axis of the parabola ; and the vertex of
“"o the axis is called the Principal Vertex.
CoR. A perpendicular drawn from the focus to the
dire&rix is bifedted at the vertex of the axis.
VII. A ftraight line terminated both ways by the
parabola, and bifedled Ly a diameter, is called an Or¬
el inate to that diameter.
VIII. The fegment of a diameter between its vertex,
and an ordinate, is called an Abfcifs.
IX. A ftraight line quadruple the diftance between
the vertex of a diameter and the directrix, is called the
Parameter, alfo the Lotus Recium of that diameter.
X. A ftraight line meeting the parabola only in one
point, and which everywhere elfe falls without it, is
laid to touch the parabola at that point, and is called a
Tangent to the parabola.
Proposition I.
The diilance of any point without the parabola
from the focus is greater than its diftance from
the dire&rix ; and the diftance of any point
within the parabola from the focus is lefs than
its diftance from the diredlrix.
g-2 Let DA*/ be a parabola, of which F is the fo¬
cus, GC the direftrix, and P a point without the
curve, that is, on the fame fide of the curve with the
dire&rix ; PF, a line drawn to the focus, will be
greater than PG, a perpendicular to the directrix.
For, as PF muft neceflhrily cut the curve, let D be
the point of interfeftion j draw DJB perpendicular to
the dire&rix, and join PB. Becaufe D is a point in
the parabola, DB~DF (Definition I.), therefore
PFzz:PD-|-DB ; but PD-f-DB is greater than PB
(20. I. E.), and therefore ftill greater than PG (19.
I. E.), therefore PF is greater than PG.
Again, let Q be a point within the parabola, QF,
a line drawn to the focus, is lefs than QB, a perpen¬
dicular to the direflrix. The perpendicular ne-
ceffarily cuts the curve 5 let D be the point of inter-
feftion join DF. Then DFrzrDB (Def. 1.), and
QD-f-DF—QB •, but QF is lefs than QD-j-DF,
therefore QF is lefs than QB.
Corollary. A point is without or within the pa¬
rabola, according as its diftance from the focus is
greater or lefs than its diftance from the dire&rix.
Prop. II.
Every ftraight line perpendicular to the dire&rix
meets the parabola, and every diameter falls
wholly within it.
•2. Let the ftraight line BQ be perpendicular to the
direftrix at B, BQ fhall meet the parabola. Draw
BF to the focus, and make the angle BFP equal to
FBQ; then, becaufe QBC is a right angle, QBF
and PFB are each lefs than a right angle, therefore
QB and PF interfeft each other : let D be the point
uf mterfedtion, then DB—DF (5. 1. E.) ; therefore,
D is a point in the parabola. Again, the diameter
DQ falls wholly within the parabola •, for take Q any
point in the diameter, and draw FQ to the focus,
Vol. VI. Part II.
: c t 1 o n s. < 521
then QB or QD-fDF is greater than QF, therefore Of the
Q is within the parabola (Cor. I.). Parabola.
Cor. T he parabola continually recedes from the "
axis, and a point may be found in the curve that
fhall be at a greater diftance from the axis than any
afligned line.
Prop. III..
The ftraight line which bife&s the angle contain¬
ed by two ftraight lines drawn from any point
in the parabola, the one to the focus, and the /
other perpendicular to the dire&rix, is a tan¬
gent to the curve in that point.
Let D be any point in the curve; let DF be Fig. 3.
drawn to the focus, and DB perpendicular to the di¬
rectrix j the ftraight line DE, which bifedts the angle
IDE, is a tangent to the curve. Join BF meeting
DE in I, take H any other point in DE, join HF,
HB, and draw HG perpendicular to the diredtrix.
Becaufe D! —DB, and DI is common to the triangles
DFI, DBI, and the angles FDI, BDI, are equal,
thefe triangles are equal, and FInrIB, and hence
FH=HB (4. 1. E.) : but HB is' greater than HG
(19. I. E.) 5 therefore the diftance of the point H
from the focus is greater than its diftance from the
direftrix, hence that point is without the parabola
(Cor. I.), and therefore HDI is a tangent to the
curve at D (Def. 10.).
Cor. 1. There cannot be more than one tangent toTig. 4.
the parabola at the fame point. For let any other
line DK, except a diameter, be drawn through Dj
draw FK perpendicular to DK j on D for a centre,
with a radius equal to DB, or DF, deferibe a circle’
cutting FK in N; draw NL parallel to the axis’
meeting DK in L, and join FL. Then FK—KN
(3- 3' E.) and therefore i;L—LPm. Now' BD beinp"
perpendicular to the directrix, the circle FBN touches,
the direftrix at B (16. 3. E.) j and hence' N, any
other point in the circumference, is without the di¬
rectrix, and on the fame fide of it as the parabola,
therefore the point L is nearer to the focus than to the
direCtrix, and confequently is within the parabola.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the axis "at its vertex Fig ^
is a tangent to the curve. Let AM be perpendicular
to the axis at the vertex A, then RS, the diftance of
any point in AM from the direftrix, is equal to CA,
that is to AF, and therefore is lefs than RF, the di-
ftance of the fame point from the focus.
Cor. 3. A ftraight line drawn from the focus of a
parabola perpendicular to a tangent, and produced to
meet the dire&rix, is bifedted by the tangent. For it
has been (hewn that FB, which is perpendicular to the
tangent DI, is bifefled at I.
Cor. 4. A tangent to the parabola makes equal Fig 3.
angles with the diameter which paffes through "the
point of conta<ft, and a ftraight line drawn from that
point to the focus. For BD being produced bo Q,
DQ is a diameter, and the angle HDQ is equal to
BDE, that is, to EDF.
Cor. 3. i he axis is the only diameter which is per¬
pendicular to a tangent at its vertex. For the anode1
HDO, or BDE, is the half of BDF, and therefore
lefs than a right angle, except when BD and DF lie
3 V
m
1
w.
CONIC SECTIONS.
Part
Of the in -a fkaight line, which happens when D falls at the
Parabola.
F'S- 5*
Fig. 6.
vertex.
Scholium.
From the property of tangents to the parabola de¬
monitrated in Cor. 4. the point F takes the name of
the Focus. For rays of light proceeding parallel to
the axis of a parabola, and falling upon a poliihed
lurface whofe figure is that produced by the revolution
of the parabola about its axis, are reflected to the
focus.
Prop. IV.
A ftraight line drawn from the focus of a para¬
bola to the interfection of two tangents to
the curve, will make equal angles with ftraight
lines drawn from the focus to the points of con-
tafft.
Let HP, H/> be tangents to a parabola at the
points P,/>; let a ftraight line be drawn from H, their
interfedlion, to F the focus, and let FP, F ^ be drawn
to the points of contadl, the lines PF and /> F make
equal angles with HF.
Draw PK, /> k perpendicular to the dire&rix ; join
HK, H£, join alfb FK, F£, meeting the tangents in
G and g. The triangles FPH, KPH have PF equal
to PK, and PH common to both, alfo the angle
FPH equal to KPH (3.), therefore FH is equal to
KH, and the angle HFP is equal to the angle HKP,
In like manner it may be (hewn that FH is equal to
£H, and that the angle HF/> is equal to the angle
H £/>; therefore HK is equal to H k, and hence the
angle HK k is equal to H £ K : now the angles PK h,
/> £ K are right angles, therefore the angle HKP is
equal to H £/>; but thefe angles have been (hewn to
be equal to HFP and HFp refpeftively, therefore the
lines PF and />F make equal angles with HF.
Prop. V.
Two tangents to a parabola, which are limited by
their mutual interfe&ion and the points in which
they touch the curve, are to each other recipro¬
cally as the fines of the angles they contain with
ftraight lines drawn from the points of contaft
to the focus.
Let HP, H/>, which interfeft each other at H, be
tangents to a parabola at the points P,/>,- and let PF,
/> F be drawn to the focus : then
HP : H/» :: fine H/.F : fine HPF.
The ftraight line D */, terminated by the parabola, Of til t
and parallel to the tangent HP /i, is bifedted at E by PE Parabo i
the diameter that paffes through P the point of contaft. Z v'‘
Let KD, K*/, tangents at the points D, meet the ®
tangent at the vertex in H and h ; draw DL, dl, pa¬
rallel to EP, meeting H/i in L and /, and draw DF,
d¥, PF to the focus.
Becaufe H h is parallel to D</,
HD : hd :: KD : K d.
But KD, K d being tangents to the parabola.
Sine hd¥ : fine HDF :: KD : ^(5.),
Therefore, fine hdY \ fine HDF :: HD \ hd;
Now fine k PF : fine h d¥ :: hd \ (5.),
Therefore, ( 23.5. E.) fine h PF : fine HDF :: HD : hH* 5
but fine HPF, or fine /zPF : fine HDF :: HD : HP,
therefore the ratio of HD to ^ P is the fame as that of
HD to HP, wherefore HP=P/i.
Again, becaufe the angles HDF and hd¥ are fe-
fpedfively equal to HDL and hd(y (3.)
DH : dh :: fine kd/: fine HDL,
Now HL : DH :: fine HDL : fine HLD, or fine hid
(by Trigon.)
therefore (23.5.E.) HL : dh :: fine hdl: fine hid:: hi: dh,
•wherefore HL, and hi, have the fame ratio \.odh, hence
HLrr:^/; and fince it has been Ihewn that HP=.P^, it
follows that LP=P/, and therefore DE=E</.
CoR. 1. Straight lines which touch a parabola at
the extremities of an ordinate to a diameter interfedf
each other in that diameter. For ~Qd and H/$ being
fimilarly divided at E and P, the ftraight line which
joins the points E, P, will pafs through K the vertex
of the triangle DK</.
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a diameter is parallel to
a tangent at its vertex. For, if not, let a tangent be
drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the diameter drawn
through the point of contadl would bifeft the ordinate,
and thus the fame line would be bifefted in two differ¬
ent points, which is abfurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the fame diameter are
parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A ftraight line that bifefts tw© parallel
chords, and terminates in the curve, is a diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to the axis are perpendicu¬
lar to it, and no other diameter is perpendicular to its
ordinates. This is evident from 2 cor. and 5 cor. to
Prop. III.
Cor. 6. Hence the axis divides the parabola into
two narts which are fimilar to each other.
Prop. VII.
Join HF j and in FP take F£) equal to Fp, and join
HQ/, then, the angles at F being equal (4.), the tri¬
angles HFO, HFp are equal, therefore HQ is equal
to H/>, and the angle HQF is equal to H /> F, Nowr,
in the triangle HPQ,
HP : HQ :: fine HQP or fine HQF : fine HPF (by
Trigon.)
therefore HP ; H/> :: fine H/> F : fine HPF.
Prop. VI.
Any ftraight line terminated both ways by a para¬
bola, and parallel to a tangent, is bife£ted by
the diameter that pafles through the point of
contaft j or is an ordinate to that diameter.
If a tangent to any point in a parabola meet a dia¬
meter, and from the point of conta& an ordi¬
nate be drawn to that diameter, the fegment of
the diameter between the vertex and the tan¬
gent is equal to the fegment between the vertex
and the ordinate.
Let DK, a tangent to the curve at D, meet thep^ y
diameter EP in K, and let DE</be an ordinate to that
diameter, PK is equal to PE.
Through P, the vertex of the diameter, draw the
tangent PH, meeting KD in H j draw DL parallel
to EP, meeting PH in L, and draw DF, PF to the
focus: then
PH
"ar f.
of ^
par >ia-
Bg-
CONIC SECTIONS. 523
PH : HD :: fine HDF : fine HPF (5.)
But the angle HDF is equal to HDL, and HPF is
equal to HPK (3.), that is (becaufe of the parallel
lines DL, PK) to HLD, therefore
PH : HD :: fine HDL : fine HLD :: HL : HD,
wherefore PH=HL, and confequently PK=DL •,
but PL is parallel to DE, by laft propofition, and
therefore DL=PE, therefore PK=PE.
Prop. VIIL
If an ordinate to any diameter pafs through the
focus, the abfcifs is equal to one-fourth of the
parameter of that diameter, and the ordinate is
equal to the whole parameter.
Let DE</, a ftraight line paffing through the fo¬
cus, be an ordinate to the diameter PE ; the abfcifs
PE is equal to the parameter, and the ordinate ~Qd
is equal to the whole parameter of the diameter PE.
Let DK, PI be tangents at D and P *, let DK
meet the diameter in K } draw PF to the focus, and
DL parallel to EP. The angles KPI, IPF being
equal (3.), and PI parallel to EF (2 cor. 6.), the
angles PEF, PFE are alfo equal (29. 1. E.), and
PE=PFrr^ the parameter (Def. 9. and Def. 1.).
Again, the angle KDE is equal to LDK (3.), and
therefore equal to DKE } confequently ED is equal
to EK, or to twice EP (7.) : therefore D is equal
to 4 EP, or to 4 PF, that is, to the parameter of the
diameter.
Prop. IX.
meter PN j draw PG a tangent to the ourve at the Of the
vertex of the diameter, and complete the parallelo- , ara 0 a‘
grams PEHG, PNKI j then PG, PI are equal to
EH, NK, and GH, IK to PE, PN, refpe&ively ;
therefore HE* : KN* :: PE :: PN.
Prop. X.
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of a pa¬
rabola, the redtangle under the abfcifs and the
parameter of the diameter is equal to the fquare
of the femi-ordinate.
Let HB h be an ordinate to the diameter PK, the Fig. 8.
redtangle contained by PB and the parameter of the
diameter is equal to the fquare of HB, the femi-ordi¬
nate.
Let DE*/ be that ordinate to the diameter which
pafl'es through the focus. The femi-ordinates DE, E*/
are each half of the parameter, and the abfcifs EP is
one-fourth of the parameter (8.),
Therefore D */: DE :: DE : PE,
and D d * PErrrDE*,
ButD</ PE : D*/‘PB, or PE : PB :: DE*: HB* (cor. 9.),
Therefore D*/* PB=HB*.
Scholium.
It was on account of the equality of the fquare of
the femi-ordinate to a redangle contained by the pa¬
rameter of the diameter and the abfcifs, that Apollo¬
nius called the curve line to which the property be¬
longed a Parabola.
If any two diameters of a parabola be produced
to meet a tangent to the curve, the fegments
of the diameters between their vertices and the
tangent are to one another as the fquares of the
fegments of the tangent intercepted between
each diameter and the point of contadl.
Fij ). Let QH, RK, any two diameters, be produced to
meet PI, a tangent to the curve at P, in the points
G, 1$ then
HG : KI :: PG* : PI*.
Let PN, a femi-ordinate to the diameter HQ, meet
KR in O, and let PR, a femi-ordinate to the diame¬
ter KO, meet HN in R •, from H draw parallels to
NO and QR, meeting KR in L and M, thus HL is
a tangent to the curve, and HM a femi-ordinate to
KR.
Now KIzrKR, and KL=KM (7.)
Therefore, by fubtraflion, LIsriMRmHQ^
But LO=HN=rHG (7.)
Therefore by addition, IO=GQ^.
The triangles PGN, PIO, are fimilar, as alfo PGQ,
PIR,
Therefore GN : 10, or 2 GH : 10 :: PG : PI,
And G£ : IR, or IO : 2 IK :: PG : PI,
Hence, taking the reftangles of the correfponding
terms,
2 GH • 10 : 2IO • IK :: PG* : PI*
Therefore GH : IK :: PG* PI*.
F 10. Cor. The fquares of femi-ordinates, and of ordinates
to any diameter, are to one another as their correfpond¬
ing abfcifles. Let HE//, KNZJ be ordinates to the dia-
Prop. XL
A ftraight line drawn from the focus of a para¬
bola, perpendicular to a tangent, is a mean
proportional between the ftraight line drawn
from the focus to the point of contaft, and one-
fourth the parameter of the axis.
Let FB be a perpendicular from the focus uponpjg. n.
the tangent PB, and FP a ftraight line drawn to the
point of contaft j let A be the principal vertex, and
therefore FA equal to one-fourth of the parameter of
the axis j FB is a mean proportional between FP and
FA.
Produce FB and FA to meet the direftrix in D
and C, and join AB. The lines FC, FD are bifeaed
at A and B (3 cor. 3.), therefore (2. 6. E.) AB is
parallel to CD, or perpendicular to CF, and confe¬
quently a tangent to the curve at A (2 cor. 3.) j now
BP is a tangent at P, therefore the angle AFB is
equal to BFP (4.), and fince the angles FAB, EBP
are right angles, the triangles FAB, FBP are equi¬
angular j hence
FP : FB :: FB : FA.
Cor. I. The common interfeaion of a tangent, and
a perpendicular from the focus to the tangent, is in a
ftraight line touching the parabola at its vertex.
Cor. 2. If PH be drawn perpendicular to the tan¬
gent meeting the axis in H, and HK be drawn perpen¬
dicular to PF, PK (hall be equal to half the parameter
of the axis. For the triangles HPK, FBP are mani-
feftly equiangular, therefore
HP : PK :: PF : FB :: FB ; FA :: FD : FC,
3 U 2 But
524
Of' the
Parabola,
CONIC SEC
Fig. u.
But if PD be joined, the line PD is evidently per¬
pendicular to the diredrix (3.), therefore the figure
HPDF is a parallelogram, and HP=FD, therefore
PK=:FC=:half the parameter of the axis.
Prop. XII.
If any ordinate and abfcifs of a parabola be com¬
pleted into a parallelogram, the area of the
parabola, included between the ordinate and
the curve, is two thirds of the parallelo¬
gram.
; *Tt * . J
Let AN be any diameter of a parabola, and PQ
an ordinate to that diameter. Let BC be drawn
through A, parallel to P£), and let PB, QC be
drawn parallel to NA; the area comprehended by the
curve line PA£) and ordinate P£) is two thirds of the
parallelogram PBCQ. Join PA, QA, and draw the
tangents PT, QT, meeting the diameter NA in T,
and B*_, in E and G j through E and G draw the
diameters EFD, GHX, which will bife£t PA, QA
in D and K, (1 cor. 6.) .and through F and H, the
vertices, draw the tangents RL, MV ; join PF, AF,
alfo QH, AH. Becaufe NArrAT (7.) and there¬
fore PQ= 2 EG, the triangle PAQ is double the tri¬
angle ETG. For the fame reafon the' triangles
PFA, QUA are double the triangles REL, VGM
refpediively, therefore the infcribed figure PFAHQ^ is
double the external figure FRLMV. If diameters were
drawn through the points R, L, M, V, and ftraight
lines were drawn joining the vertices of every two adja¬
cent diameters, alfo tangents at the vertices of the dia¬
meters which pafs through.the points R, L, M, V, there
would thus be infcribed in the parabola a new figure
■w hich would have the fame bafe PQ, as the former,
but the number of the remaining fides double that of
the former 5 and correfponding to it there would be a
new external figure formed by the tangents at the
vertices of the diameters, but ftill the fame proportion
between the two figures would hold, or the former
would be double the latter, and this would evidently
be the cafe, if the operation of infcribing and circum-
fcribing a new figure were repeated continually. Now
it is evident that by thus increafing continually the
number of fides of the infcribed figure, it approaches
nearer and nearer to the area of the parabola, which is
its limit } alfo that the externa] figure approaches to
the area contained by the two. tangents TP, TQ and
the parabolic areh PAQ, which fpace is its limit;
and fince the limits of any two quantities which have
a conftant ratio muft have the fame proportion to each
other as the quantities themfelves, the area contained
by the parabolic arch PAQ and the ordinate PQ mult
be double the area contained by the fame arch and the
two tangents TP, TO, and therefore mult be two
thirds of the area of the triangle -TPQ, which
triangle is evidently equal to the parallelogram
PBCQ. . 6
T IONS.
Prop. XIII. Problem.
Pan
Oftl
Parabi
The directrix and focus of a parabola being given
by pofition, to defcribe the parabola.
Fibst Method. By Mechanical Defcription.
Let AB be the given directrix, and F the focus.Fig. 13.
Place the edge of the ruler ABKH along the diredrix
AB, and keep it fixed in that pofition. Let LCG be
another ruler of fuch a form that the part LC may
Hide along AB the edge of the fixed ruler ABKH,
and the part CG may have its edge CD conftantly
perpendicular to AB. Let GDF be a firing of the
lame length as GC the edge of the moveable ruler ;
let one end of the firing be fixed at F, and the other
faftened to G, a point iq the moveable ruler. By
means of the pin D let the firing be firetehed, fo
that the part of it between G and D may be applied
clofe to the edge of the moveable ruler, while, at the
fame time, the ruler Hides along AB the edge of the
fixed ruler ; the pin D will thus be conftrained to
move along CG the edge of the ruler, and its point
will trace upon the plane in which the diredrix and
focus are fituated a curve line DE, which is the para¬
bola required. For the firing GDF being equal in
length to GDC, if GD be taken from both, there re¬
mains DF equal to DC ; that is, the diftance of the
moving point D from the focus is equal to its diftance
from the diredrix, therefore the point D deferibes a
parabola.
SECOND Method. By finding any number of points
in the curve.
m Through the focus F draw EFC perpendicular to the Fig. ip
diredrix, and EC will be the axis. Draw any ftraight
line HE/6 parallel to the diredrix, meeting the axis in
E any point below the vertex ; and on F as a centre,
with a radius equal to CE, defcribe a circle cutting
H/z in D and d; thefe will be points in the parabola
required, as is fufticiently evident.
Prop. XIV. Problem.
A parabola being given by
diredbrix and focus.
pofition, to find its
Let DP</ be the given parabola; draw any. two Fig. tJ
parallel chords Dfl', Ee, and bifed them at H and K ;
join KH, meeting the parabola in P, the ftraight line
PHK is the diameter (4 cor. 6.) the point P is its ver¬
tex, and Dd, E^ are ordinates to it. In HP produ¬
ced take PL equal to one fourth part of a third pro¬
portional to PH and HD, and draw LN perpendicu¬
lar to PL, the line LN will evidently be the diredrix
(10. & Def. 9.). Draw PM parallel to the ordinates
to the diameter PK, then PM will be a tangent to the
curve at P (2 cor. 6.). Draw LM perpendicular to
PM, and take MF=ML, and the point F will be the
focus of the parabola (3 cor. 3.).
PART
II.
CONIC SECTIONS.
525
PART II. OF THE ELLIPSE.
Definitions.
I. If two points F and f be given in a plane, and a
point D be conceived to move around them in fuch a
manner that Dy-pDF, the i'um of its diftances from
them, is always the fame, the point D will defcribe
upon the plane a line AB a b, which is called an
Ellipfe.
II. The given points Y,f are called the Foci of the
ellipfe.
III. The point C, which bifefts the flraight line
between the foci, is called the Centre.
IV. The diftance of either focus from the centre
is called the Excentricitij.
V. A ftr-.ight line palling through the centre, and
terminated both ways by the ellipfe, is called a Dia¬
meter.
VI. The extremities of a diameter are called its
Vertices.
VII. The diameter which paffes through the foci
is called the Tranfverfe Axis, alfo the Greater Axis.
VIII. The diameter which is perpendicular to the
tranfverfe axis is called the Conjugate Axis, alfo the
Leffcr ‘Axis.
IX. Any ftraight line not pafling through the
centre, but terminated both ways by the ellipfe, and
bifected by a diameter^ is called an Ordinate to that
diameter.
X. Each of the fegments of a diameter intercept¬
ed between its vertices and an ordinate, is called an
Abfcifs.
XI. A ftraight line which meets the ellipfe in one
point only, and everywhere elfe falls without it, is faid
td touch the ellipfe in that point, and is called a Tan¬
gent to the ellipfe.
Prop. I.
If from any point in an ellipfe two ftraight lines
be drawn to the foci, their fum is equal to the
tranfverfe axis.
Let AB ab be an ellipfe, of which Y,f are the
foci, and A a the tranfverfe axis •, let D be any point
in the curve, and DF, Df lines drawn to the foci,
D/+DF=A*,
Becaufe A, a are points in the ellipfe,
A/-{-AF=fl F-frff (Def. i.)
therefore Y f-\-2 AF=FfA-2 af;
Hence 2 AY =2 af, and AYzzaf,
and Af-\-AY—Afy.a f~Aa.
But D and A being points in the ellipfe,
D/-fDF—A/+AF,
therefore Dy-{-DF= A tf.
Cor. i. The fum of two flraight lines drawn from
a point without the ellipfe to the foci is greater than
the tranfverfe axis. And the fum of two ftraight lines
drawn from a point within the ellipfe to the foci is
iefs than the tranfverfe axis,
4
Let PF, Py be drawn from a point without the el-Fg. 17,
lipfe to the foci j let Py meet the ellipfe in D j join
FD j then Py-J-PF is greater than Dy+DF (21.
I. E.), that is, than A a. Again, let QF, QJ be
drawn from a point within the ellipfe, let Qj meet
the curve in D, and join FD ; Qy+QF is lefs than
Dy+DF (21. 1. E.), that is, than Ac.
Cor. 2. A point is without or within the ellipfe,
according as the fum of two lines drawn from it to the
foci is greater or lefs than the tranfverfe axis.
Cor. 3. The tranfverfe axis isbifecled in the centre.
Let C be the centre, then CFzrCy (Def. 3.), and
YA=:fa, therefore CArrCtf.
Cor. 4. The diftance of either extremity of the
conjugate axis from either of the foci is equal to half
the tranfverfe axis. Let B £ be the conjugate axis $
join Yb,fb. Becaufe CFrrCf, and Q b is common
to the triangles CF b, Cfb, alio the angles at C are
right angles, thefe triangles are equal 5 hence Y b—jb,
and fince F b-\-b f—A a, Fl — AC.
Cor. 5. The conjugate axis is bifedled in the cen¬
tre. Join fb, yB. By the laft corollary Y>f=zbf,
therefore the angles fY>C,fb C are equal 5 now7yC is
common to the trianglesyCB,yC b, and the angles at
C are right angles, therefore (26. 1. E.) CB=:C^.
Prop. II.
Every diameter of an ellipfe is bife&ed in the
centre.
Let P /> be a diameter, it is biledled in C. For if Eg. iS, .
C/> be not equal to CP, take CQ^ equal to CP, and
from the points P, />, draw lines to F, f the foci.
The triangles FCP,yC£, having FC-Cy, PCrrCQ,
and the angles at C equal, are in all reipedls equal,
therefore FP=y£) ; in like manner it appears that
yP—FQ, therefore FQ^-f-yQ. is equal to FP-fyP,
or, (Def. 1.), to Yp-\-fp, which is abfurd (21. I. E.),
therefore CP“C/».
CoR. 1. Every diameter meets the ellipfe in two
points only.
Cor. 2. Every diameter divides the ellipfe into two
parts which are equal and fimilar, the like parts of the
curve being at oppofite extremities of the diameter.
Prop. II.
The fquare of half the conjugate axis of an ellipfe
is equal to the redtangle contained by the feg-
ments into which the tranfverfe axis is divided
by either focus.
Draw a ftraight line from y either of the foci, to Fig vj,
B, either of the extremities of the conjugate axis.
Then BC* + Cy*=zBy*=rC;a* (4 cor. 1.),
But becaufe A a is bife<fted at C,
Ca2=Af- fa + Cf\
therefore IjC1 -\-C f* = Af' J tf-f-Cy*,
and BOzzAf- fa.
Prop.
CONIC SECTIONS.
526
Of the
. EU‘P<% Prop. IV.
The ftraightiine which bife£b the angle adjacent
to that which is contained by two Itraight lines
drawn from any point in the ellipfe to the foci
is a tangent to the curve in that point.
Fig. ip. Let D be any point in the curve 5 let DF, Df be
ftraight lines drawn to the foci, the ftraight line DE
which bife£ls the angle yDG adjacent to/T)F, is a
tangent to the curve at D.
Take H any other point in DE, take DG—D/j
and join H/J HF, HG, fCr ; let f(j meet DE in I.
Becaufe D/hrDG, and DI is common to the triangles
D/I, DGI and the angles /DI, GDI are equal,
thefe triangles are equal, and /IzrIG, and hence
/H=HG (4. 1. E.), fo that FH+/H=FH + HG j
but FH + HG is greater than FG, that is, greater
than FD-f-/D or Art, therefore FH-f/H is greater
than A a, hence the point H is w ithout the ellipfe
(2 cor. 1.), and therefore DHI is a tangent to the
.curve at D (Def. 11.).
Cor. 1. There cannot be more than one tangent at
the fame point. For D is fuch a point in the line
DE that the fum of DF, D/ the diftances of that
point from the foci, is evidently lefs than the Run of
HF, H/ the diflances of H any other point in that
line } and if another line KDL be drawn through
D, there is in like manner a point K in that line,
which will be different from D, fuch that the fum of
FK, /K is lefs than the fum of the diftances of any
other point in KL, and therefore lefs than FD-f/D ;
therefore the point K will be within the ellipfe
(2 cor. 1), and the line KL will cut the curve.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis at
either of its extremities is a tangent to the curve.
The demonftration is the fame as for the propofition,
if it be confidered that when D falls at either extre¬
mity of the axis, the point I falls alfo at the extremity
of the axis, and thus the tangent DE, which is al¬
ways perpendicular to /I, is perpendicular to the
N axis.
Cor. 3. A perpendicular to the conjugate axis at
either of its extremities is a tangent to the curve. For
the perpendicular evidently bifedls the angle adjacent
to that which is contained by lines drawn from the ex¬
tremity to the foci.
Cor. 4. A tangent to the ellipfe makes equal
angles with ftraight lines drawn from the point of
contadt to the foci. For the angle /DE being equal
to GDE, is alfo equal to FDM, which is vertical to
GDE.
Scholium.
From the property of the ellipfe, which forms this
laft corollary, the points F and / take the name of
Foci. For writers on optics drew that if a poliftied
furface be formed, w'hofe figure is that produced by the
revolution of an ellipfe about its tranfverfe axis, rays
of light which flow from one focus, and fall upon that
furface, are refiefted to the other focus, fo that if alu¬
minous point be placed in one focus, there is formed
by refledlion an image of it in the other focus.
I
Parti
or*
Prop. V. eu^
'—
The tangents at the vertices of any diameter of an
ellipfe are parallel.
tj«. 1
Let P/> be a diameter, HPK, /ipk tangents at itspb.^ '
vertices ; draw ftraight lines from P and /> to F and/ °
the foci. The triangles FCP,/C />, having FCrr/c,
CP=rC/> (2), and the angles at C equal, are in all
refpedts equal 5 and becaufe the angle FPC is equal to
C/>/ FP is parallel to fp (27. I. E.) ; therefore P/
is equal and parallel to/>F (33. 1. E.), thus FP//>is
a parallelogram, of which the oppofite angles P and p
are equal (34. 1. E.). Now the angles FPH,//>/$
are evidently half the fupplements of thefe angles
(4 cor. 4.), therefore the angles FPH,//>^, and hence
CPH, Qph are alfo equal, and confequently HP is
parallel to h p.
Cor. 1. If tangents be drawn to an ellipfe at the
vertices of a diameter, ftraight lines drawn from either
focus to the points of contaft make equal angles
with thefe tangents. For the angle F /> £ is equal to
FPH.
Cor. 2. The axes of an ellipfe are the only diame¬
ters which are perpendicular to tangents at their ver¬
tices. For let P/> be any other diameter, then PF
and/>F are neceffarily unequal, and therefore the angles
F/> P, FPp are alfo unequal j to thefe add the equal
angles F/>£, FPH, and the angles C/>£, CPH are
unequal, therefore neither of them can be a right
angle (29. 1. E.).
Prop. VI.
A ftraight line drawn from either focus of an
ellipfe to the interfedHon of two tangents to
the curve, will make equal angles with ftraight
lines drawn from the fame focus to the points
of contadL
Let HP, H/> be tangents to an ellipfe at the Fig »
points P,/>,- let a ftraight line be drawn from H,
their interfeftion, to F, either of the foci, and let
FP, F/> be drawn to the points of contact, the lines
PF and p F make equal angles with HF.
Draw P/ />/to the other focus j in FP, Fp pro¬
duced take PK=P/ and pk—pf; join HK, H and
let/K, /£ be drawn, meeting the tangents at G and
g. The triangles /PH, KPH, have P/=rPK, by
conftrudfion, and PH common to both, alfo the angle
/PH equal to KPH (40> therefore /H is equal to
KH. In like manner it may be Ihewm that /H is
equal to k H, therefore HK is equal to FLk; now
FK is equal to F £, for each is equal to FP-fP/ or
Fp -\-pf that is, to the tranfverfe axis ; therefore the
triangles FKH, F £ H are in all refpedts equal, and
hence the angle KFH is equal to k FH j therefore
PF and p F make equal angles with HF.
Prop. VII.
Two tangents to an ellipfe, which are limited by
their mutual interfe&ion, and the points in
which
CONIC SECTIONS.
'«II-
Of e which they touch the curve, are to each other
Eli e. reciprocally as the fines of the angles they con-
' tain with ftraight lines drawn from the points of
contact to either focus.
Fij I. Let the ftraight lines HP, H/>? which interfe£t each
other at H, be tangents to an ellipfe at the points P/>,
and let PF, />F be drawn to either focus } then
HP : H/> : : fine H/>F : fine HPF.
Join HF, and in FP take F^) equal to F/, and join
HQ.-, then the angles at F being equal (6.) the tri¬
angles HFQ^, HF/> are equal, therefore HQ. is equal
to H/>, and the angle HQF is equal to H/>F. Now,
in the triangle HPQ,
527
Of the
Ellipfe.
HP : HQ^ : : fine HQP or fine HQF : fine HPF (Trigon.)
therefore HP : H/> : : fine H/>F : fine HPF.
Lemma.
Let KL/ be a triangle, having its bafe L/ bifefted
at />, and let H j6, any ftraight line parallel to
the bafe, and terminated by the fides, be bi-
fe&ed at P ; then P, p, the points of bifedhion,
and K, the vertex of the triangle, are in the
fame ftraight line, and that line bifedts D</, any
other line parallel to the bafe.
Fi iz. Complete the parallelograms KHPM, KL/>N. The
triangles KH/$, KL/ being fimilar, and H/q'L/ fimilar-
ly divided at P and />,
KH : KL :: Wt : L/ :: HP : Ly>,
hence the parallelograms KHPM, KL/»N are fimilar.
Now they have a common angle at K, therefore they
are about the fame diapieter, that is, the points K, P,/5,
are in the fame ftraight line (26. 6. E.).
Next, let ~Dd meet K/> in E, then
HP : DE : KP : KE) :: P/*: E</,
therefore DE is equal to D*/.
Prop. VIII.
Any ftraight line not paffing through the centre,
but terminated both ways by an ellipfe, and
parallel to a tangent, is bifedhed by the diame¬
ter that pafies through the point of contadh j or
is an ordinate to that diameter.
Fi The ftraight line D</, terminated by the ellipfe, and
and parallel to the tangent HP^, is bifefted. at E, by
P/> the diameter that paffes through the point of con-
tadl.
Let L /> / be a tangent at the other extremity of the
diameter, and let KD, K</, tangents at the points D, </,
meet the parallel tangents HP/1, L/)/ in the points
H, L, h, /, and draw DF, </F, PF, /> F to either
focus. Becaufe H// is parallel to T)d,
HD : hd :: KD : Y,d.
But, KD, K// being tangents to the ellipfe,
Sine h dY ■. fine HDF : r KD : K</ (7.)
therefore fine hdY : fine HDF : : HD : hd.
Now, fine //PF : fine hd£ :: nd : ^P (7.)
therefore (23. 5. K.) fine //PF : HDF : : HD : HP j
but fine HPF or fine h PF : fine HDF : : HD : HP,
therefore the ratio of HD to /;P is the fame as that of
HD to PIP, wherefore PHr=P//. In the fame man¬
ner it may be demonftrated that pYzzp /, therefore
(Lemma) the diameter p P when produced pafies
through K, and bifedts D //, which is parallel to H
or L/, at E.
Cor. 1. Straight lines which touch an ellipfe at the
extremities of an ordinate to any diameter interfedt
each other in that diameter.
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a diameter is parallel to
a tangent at its vertex. For if not, let a tangent be
drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the diameter
drawn through the point of contadl would bifedl the
ordinate, and thus the fame line would be bifedted in
two different points, which is abfurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the fame diameter are
parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A ftraight line that bifedts two parallel
chords and terminates in the curve is a diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to either axis are perpendi¬
cular to that axis ■, and no other diameter is perpendi¬
cular to its ordinates. This follows evidently from
2 and 3 cor. to prop. 4. and 2 cor. to prop. 5.
Cor. 6. Hence each axis divides the ellipfe into
two parts which are fimilar and equal.
Prop. IX.
If a tangent to an ellipfe meet a diameter, and
from the point of contadt an ordinate be drawn
to that diameter, the femi-diameter will be a
mean proportional between the fegments of the
diameter intercepted between the centre and the
ordinate, and between the centre and the tan¬
gent.
Let DK, a tangent to the curve at D, meet the Fig. 23
diameter />P, produced in K, and let DE// be an ordi¬
nate to that diameter.
Then CE : CP : : CP: CK.
Through P and />, the vertices of the diameter, draw
the tangents PH and />L, meeting KD in H and L 5
thefe tangents are parallel to each other (5.) and to
DE, the ordinate, by the laft propofition. Draw PF,
/>F, DF to either of the foci, Then
DH : PH : : fine HPF : fine HDF 1 .
and DL : /> L : : fine L/>F : fine LDF j
Now the' angles HPF, L/>F are equal (cor. 5.) and
the fine of HDF is the fame as that of LDF, therefore
DH : PH : : DL : />L,
and by alternation,
DH : DL :: PH : />L ;
therefore, becaufe of the parallel lines PH, ED,^L,
EP : E/>:: PK : p K.
Take
523 CON IC
Or fhe Take CGrrCE, then by divifion
Eilipfe. ’ J
^ -> EG : EP :: P/» : PK,
and taking the halves of the antecedents,
CE : EP :: CP : PK j
hence, by compohtion, CE : CP :: CP : CK.
SECTIONS.
Part 11,
Cor. i. I he reftangle contained by PE and E/> is Of the
equal to the reftangle contained by KE and CE. Eilipfe
For PC2=KC CE=rKE-EC-fEC2(2. 2. E )
alfo PC2=PE-E/)-f-EC2 (5. 2. E.)
therefore KE-EC-f-EC2=:PE-E/>4-EC2
and KE-EC=PE*E/r.
Cor. 2. The redlangle contained by PK and K/i is equal to the redlangle contained by KE and KC.
For KC2=PK-K/. + CP2 (6. 2. E.)
alfo KC2=:EK-KC-FEC-KC-EK-KC + CP2 (1. 2. E. and by the prop.)
therefore PK'K/t-bCI3*—
and PK-K/>=EK-KC.
Prop. X.
If a diameter of an eilipfe be parallel to the ordi¬
nates to another diameter, the latter diameter
fhall be parallel to the ordinates to the former.
Gg- 24. Let P/>, a diameter of an eilipfe, be parallel to DE*/
any ordinate to the diameter <7, the diameter Qjj (hall
be parallel to the ordinates to the diameter P/>.
Draw the diameter </CG through one extremity of
the ordinate </D, and join G and D, the other extre¬
mity, meeting Vfi in H. Becaufe dG is bifefted at
C, an.d CH is parallel to </D, the line DG is bifefted
at H, therefore DG is an ordinate to the diameter V/j.
And becaufe dG and </D are bifedted at C and E,
the diameter Qy is parallel to DG (2. 6. E.) there¬
fore O7 is parallel to any ordinate to the diameter P/>.
Definitions.
XII. Two diameters are faid to be conjugate to one
another when each is parallel to the ordinates to the
oilier diameter.
Cor. Diameters which are conjugate to one ano¬
ther are parallel to tangents at the vertices of each
ether.
XIII. A third proportional to any diameter and its
conjugate is called the 'Parameter, alfo the Lotus rec¬
tum of that diameter.
Prop. XL
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of an
eilipfe, the redlangle under the abfcifles of the
diameter will be to the fquare of the femi-ordi-
nate as the fquare of the diameter to the fquare
of its conjugate.
Gg 25. Let DE^/be an ordinate to the diameter P/>, and
let be its conjugate, then
PE*E/» : DE* :: P/>2 : Qf.
Let KDL a tangent at D meet the diameter in K,
and its conjugate in L; draw DG parallel to P/>, meet-
Q.? G. Becaufe CP is a mean proportional
between CE and CK (9.)
CP2 : CE2 :: CK : CE (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
* and by divifion CP2 : PE-E/> :: CK : KE.
But, becaufe ED is parallel to CL,
CK : KE :: CL : DE or CG,
and becaufe CO is a mean proportional between CG
and CL (9.)
CL : CG :: C£2 : CG2 or ED2 5
therefore CP2 : PE-E/> :: CQ2 : DE2,
and by inverfion and alternation,
PE E/. : DE2 :: CP2 : CQ2 :: Py52 : Qy.
Cor. 1. The fquares of femi-ordinates and of ordi¬
nates to any diameter of an eilipfe are to one another
as the reftangles contained by the correfponding ab¬
fcifles.
Cor. 2. The ordinates to any diameter, which in¬
tercept equal fegments of that diameter from the cen¬
tre, are equal to one another, and, converfely, equal or¬
dinates intercept equal fegments of the diameter from
the centre.
Cor. 3. If a circle be defcribed upon A a, either of F;
the axes of an eilipfe, as a diameter, and DE, de, any 1
two.femi-ordinates to the axes meet the circle in Hand
h, DE lhall be to de as HE to he. For
DE2 : <A2 :: AE-Ea : Ae.ea HE2 : h e\
therefore DE : de :: HE : he.
Cor. 4. If a circle be defcribed on Aa the tranf-
verfe axis as a diameter, and DE, any ordinate to the
axis, be produced to meet the circle in H, HE {hall
be to DE as the tranfvcrfe axis Ac to the conjugate
axis Lb. For, produce the conjugate axis to meet°the
circle in K, then, by laft corollary,
HE : DE :: KC, or AC : BC :: Aa : Lb.
Cor. 5. And if HE be divided at D, fo that HE
is to DE, as the tranfverfe axis to the conjugate axis,
D is a point in the eilipfe, and DE a femi-ordinate to
the axis Aa.
Prop. XII.
The tranfverfe axis of an eilipfe is the greateft of
all its diameters, and the conjugate axis is the
lead of all its diameters.
Let A« be the tranfverfe axis, Lb the conjugate Fig.
axis, and CD any femidiameter. Draw DE perpendi¬
cular to A a, and DL perpendicular to B£.
Becaufe Aa2 : Lb1 :: AE’E# : DE2 (11.)
and Art2 is greater than B£2,
therefore AE E a is greater than DE2;
and AE’Ert-f-EC2 is greater than DEa-|-EC2,
that is, AC2 is greater than DC2,
therefore, AC is greater than DC.
By
'
aril. CONIC S
Of t By the lame manner of reafoning it may be ftiewn that
becaufe B b* is lefs than A o*,
BL • L^-fCL* is lefs than DL*-|^CL1 j
that is, BC* is lefs than DC*,
and BC lefs than DC.
Prop. XIIL
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of an
ellipfe, the rectangle under the abfcifies of the
diameter is to the fquare of the femi-ordinate
as the diameter to its parameter.
ig. *
529
Of the
Ellipfe.
Bet DE be a femi-ordinate to the diameter Pf>, let
PG be the parameter of the diameter, and the con¬
jugate diameter. By the definition of the parameter
(Def. 13.)
p/> : 0.7 :: Of : PG>
therefore P/ : PG :: P/>* : (£<7* (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But P/d : :: PE • E/. : DE*, (11.)
therefore PE * E/> : DE* :: P/> : PG.
Cor. Let the parameter PG be perpendicular to
the diameter P /> *, join />G, and from E draw EM pa¬
rallel to PG, meeting />G in M. The fquare of DE*
the femi-ordinate, is equal to the rectangle contained
by PE and EM.
For PE.- E/> : DE* :: P/> : PG,
and P/> : PG :: E/> 1 EM :: PE • E/> : PE-EM,
therefore DE*=sPE • EM.
Scholium.
If the rectangles PGL/>, HGKM be completed, it.
will appear that the fquare of ED is equal to the rect¬
angle MP, which reCtangle is lefs than the reCtangle
KP, contained by the abfcifs PE and parameter PG,
by a reCtangle KH fimilar and fimilarly fituated to LP,
the reCtangle contained by the diameter and parame¬
ter. It was on account of the deficiency of the fquare
of the ordinate from the reCtangle contained by the
abfcifs and parameter that Apollonius called the curve
Hue to which the property belonged an Ellipfe.
E C T I O N S.
PROP. XIV.
If from the vertices of two cdnjugate diameters of
an ellipfe there be drawn ordinates to any third
diameter, the fquare of the fegment of that di¬
ameter ihtercepted between either ordinate and
the centre is equal to the re&angle contained
by the fegments between the other ordinate and
the vertices of the fame diameter.
Let P/>, Q17 be two conjugate diameters, and PE,Fig. 28.
QG femi-ordinates to any third diameter Rr, then
CG2=RE ‘ E r* and CE*=RG * G r.
Draw the tangents PH, QK meeting Rr in H and
K. The reCtangles HC • GE and KC • CG are equal,
for each is equal CR* (9.), therefore
HC : CK :: CG : CE,
But the triangles HPC, CQK are evidently fimilar
(tor. def. 12.) j and PE being parallel to QG, their bafes
CH, KC are fimilarly divided at E and G, therefore
HC : CK :: HE : CG
wherefore CG : CE :: HE : CG,
confequently CG*=CE * EHr=(i cor. 9.) RE • E r.
In like manner it may be (hewn that CE*—RG * G r.
Cor. 1. Let S r be the diameter that is conjugate
to Rr, then Rr is to Sj- as CG to PE, or as CE to
QG.
For Rr* : S j* :: RE • Er, or CG* : PE*,
therefore Rr : Sr :: CG : PE.
In.like manner R r : S J :: CE : QG.
Cor. 2. The fum of the fquares of CE, CG, the
fegments of the diameter to which the femi-ordinates
PE, QG are drawn, is equal to the fquare of CR the
femhdiameter.
For CE*-f CG*=CE* + RE • EGzrCR*.
CoR. 3. The fum of the fquares of any two conju¬
gate diameters is equal to the fum of the Iquares of the
axes.
Let R r, S r be the axes, and P/1, Qy any two con¬
jugate diameters j draw PE, QG perpendicular to Rr,
and PL, QM perpendicular to Sr. Then
CE*+CG*=CR\ and CM*-j-CL% or GQ*-FPE*=CS*
therefore CE*-f- PE*-J-CG*+GQ*= CR*-{-CS*,
that is (47. 1. E.), CP*-FCQ* = CR*-f-CS%
therefore P/>*-j~Qy*:=Rr-j-Sj*.
j
Prop. XV.
If four ftraight lines be drawn touching ah ellipfe
at the vertices of any two conjugate diameters,
the parallelogram formed by thefe lines is equal
to the re&angle contained by the tranfverfe and
conjugate axis,
ig. Let P/>, Qy be any two conjugate diameters, a pa¬
rallelogram DEGH formed by tangents to the curve
at their vertices is equal to the reftangle contained by
Ac, B£ the two axes.
Produce An, one of the axes, to meet the tangent
PE in K, join QK, and draw PL, QM perpendicular
to Ac.
VOL, VL Part IL
Becaufe Cfc : CA :: CA : CL (9.)
and CA : CB :: CL : QM (1 cor. 14.)
ex aeq. CK : CB :: CA : QM.
therefore CK * QM=CB • CA.
But CK • QMzztwice triah. CKQzrparal. CPEQ,
therefore the parallelogram CPEQirCB • CA,
and taking the quadruples of thefe, the parallelogram
DEGH is equal to the reftangle contained by A. a
and B b*
, : _ f • . > ' I /
Prop. XVI.
If twd tahgents at the vertices of any diameter of i>}ate
an ellipfe meet a third tangent, the rectangle CLVlil.
contained by their fegmente between the points
‘ . 3X of
F'g. 30.
CONIC SECTIONS.
of contact and the points of interfedtion is equal
to the fquare of the femi-diameter to which
they are parallel. And the redlangle contained
by the fegments of the third tangent between
its point of contadf and the parallel tangents is
equal to the fquare of the femi-diameter to
which it is parallel.
Let PH, P h tangents at the vertices of a diame¬
ter P p meet HD a tangent to a curve at any point
D, in H and h; let C^) be the femi-diameter to which
the tangents PH, ph are parallel, and CR that to
which H h is parallel, then,
PPI • //i=C^)s, and DH • DZ—CR1.
If the tangent HD h be parallel to P^ the propofi--
tion is manifeft. If it is not parallel, let it meet the
femi-diameters CP, CQ, in L and K. Draw DE,
RIVI parallel to CQ^, and DG parallel to CP.
Becaufe LP * L/»=LE • LC (2 cor. 9.),
LP : LE :: LC : L/>,
^ art H
Let DP*/ be a tangent to the curve at P, and FD, Ofn,
fd perpendiculars to the tangent from the foci, the Ellipfe,
ftraight lines joining the points C, D,' and C, </, are
each equal to AC half the tranfverfe axis. Flg'31'
Join FP/P, and produce FD,/P till they interfe&
in E. The triangles FDP, EDP, have the angles at D
right angles, and the angles FPD, EPD equal (4.) and
the fide DP common to both, they are therefore equal,
and confequently have EDrrDF, and EP=PI*\
wherefore E/—FP -}- P/~ A*. Now the ftraight lines
FE, Yf, being bifefted at D and C, the line DC is
parallel to E/, and thus the triangles F/E, FCD are
fimilar,
therefore Yf: fY or Ka :: FC : CD,
but FC is half of Fyl therefore CD is half of A<7. In
like manner it may be ftrewn that C */ is half of Ka.
Cor. If the diameter £) y be drawn parallel to the
tangent Yid, it will cut off from PF, P/the fegments .
P^, each equal to AC half the tranfverle axis.
For. CdPG, CD P^ are parallelograms, therefore
PG—d C — AC, and P^=DC=AC.
I
I
3|'i]
hence, and bccaufe of the parallels PH, ED, CK,/>/5,
Prop. XVIII.
PH : ED :: CK : ///,
wherefore PH " p A~ED ’ CK,
but ED • CK-CG • CKzrCQ1 (9.)
therefore PH ‘ p //—CQ*.
Again the triangles LED, CMR are evidently limi-
lar, and LE, LD fimilarly divided at H and P, alfo at
A and p,
therefore PE : HD :: (LE : LD ::) CM : CR,
alfo p E : AD:: (LE : LD ::) CM : CR,
hence, taking the redtangles of the correfponding terms,
PE ■ pE : HD ’AD :: CM1 : CR*.
But if CD be joined, the points D and R are evidently
the vertices of two conjugate diameters (cor. Def. 12.)
and therefore PE */)E=::CM* (14.)
therefore HD ‘ ^D=CR*.
Cor. The re&angle contained by LD and DK, the
fegments of a tangent intercepted between D the point
of contaft and Pp, Oy, any twm conjugate diameters, is
equal to the fquare of CR, the femi diameter to which
the tangent is parallel.
Let the parallel tangents PH, pA meet LK in H and
A, and draw DE a femi-ordinate to P/H Becaufe of the
parallels PH, ED, CK,pAt
The redJangle contained by perpendiculars drawn
from the foci of an ellipfe to a tangent is equal
to the fquare of half the conjugate axis.
Let DP</ be a tangent, and FD, fd perpendicu- ti
lars from the foci, the redtangle contained by FD and 0 5
fd is equal to the fquare of CB half the conjugate axis.
It is evident from the laft propofition that the points
D, d are in the circumference of a circle whofe cen¬
tre is the centre of the ellipfe, and radius CA, half the
tranfverfe axis; now FD</being a right angle, if dC
be joined, the lines DF, dC when produced will meet
at H, a point in the circumference; and fince FC=r
fC, and CH—C d, and the angles FCH,/C</ are
equal, FH is equal to fd, therefore
DF • df=DE • FHzrAF • Fa (35.3. E)=CB* (3.).
Cor. If PF, P/be drawn from the point of con¬
tact to the foci, the fquare of FD is a fourth propor¬
tional to fP, FP and BC1. For the lines /P, FP
make equal angles with the tangent (4 cor. 4.) and
fdP, FDP are right angles, therefore the triangles
fPd, FPD are limilar, and
/P : FP :://: FD : fd- FD or CB* : FD*.
Prop. XIX.
LE : LD :: EP : DH,
and EC : DK :: E/> : DA,
therefore LE • EC :: LD -DK :: EP • Ep : DH ‘DL
But LE • EC—EP • Ep ( \ cor. 9.)
therefore LD * DK=DH * Dh= (by this prop.) CR*.
Prop. XVII.
If two ftraight lines be drawn from the foci of an
ellipfe perpendicular to a tangent, ftraight lines
drawn from the centre to the points in which
they meet the tangent wilbeach be equal to half
she tranfverfe axis.
If from C the centre of an ellipfe a ftraight line Fig-3!-
CL be drawn perpendicular to a tangent LD,
and from D the point of conta£t a perpendicu¬
lar be drawn to the tangent, meeting the tranf¬
verfe axis in H and the conjugate axis in h, the
re£tangle contained by CL and DH is equal to
the fquare of CB, the femi-conjugate axis ; and
the rectangle contained by CL and D/j is equal
to the Iquare of CA, the femi-tranfverfe axis.
Produce the axes to meet the tangent in M and
tn, and from D draw the femi-ordinates DE, D e,
which will be perpendicular to the axes.
The
0
Ei
t n. conics
be The triangles DEH, CL m are evidently equi-an-
|fe* gular, therefore
DH : DE :: C : CL,
hence CL • DH—DE ‘Cm;
but DE • C w, or Ce • C ?«=BCZ,
therefore CL * DHnrEC1.
In the fame way it is fhewn that CL • D /i=AC*.
Cor. l. If a perpendicular be drawn to a tangent at
the point of contaft, the fegments intercepted between
the points of contaft, and the axes, are to each other
EOT IONS. 531
reciprocally as the fquares of the axes by which they
are terminated. . ^^ >
For AC1 : BC:: CL ' D & : CL • DFI :: D ^: DH.
Cor. 2. If DF be drawn to either focus, and HK
be drawn perpendicular to DF, the llraight line DE
lhall be equal to half the parameter of the tranfverfe
axis.
Draw CG parallel to the tangent at D, meeting
DH in N, and DF in G. The triangles GDN,
HDK are firniiar, therefore
GD : DN :: HD : DK, and hence GD * DK—HD * DN.
But GD=AC (cor. 17.) and ND~CL,
therefore AC • DK—HD • CL= (by the prop.) CB%
wherefore AC : BC :: BC : DK, hence DK is half the parameter of A a (Def. 13.).
Definitions.
Fig 3-
XIV. If a point G be taken in . the tranfverfe axis
of an ellipfe produced, fo that the diftance of G from
the centre may be a third proportional to. CF the ex-
centricity, and CA the femi-tranfverfe axis, a ftraight
line GH h, drawn through G perpendicular to the axis,
is called the DireBrix of the ellipfe.
Cor. I. If MF an ordinate to the axis, be
drawn through the focus, tangents to the ellipfe at the
extremities of the ordinate will meet the axis at the
point G. (9.)
Cor. 2 The ellipfe has two dire&rices, for the
point G may be taken on either lide of the centre.
Prop. XX.
The diftance of any point in an ellipfe from either
directrix is to its diftance from the focus near-
eft that directrix in the conftant ratio of the fe¬
mi-tranfverfe axis to the excentricity.
Let D be any point in the ellipfe, let DK be drawn
perpendicular to the diredlrix, and let DF be drawn
to the focus neareft the direftrix •, DK is to DT. as
CA, half the tranfverfe axis, to CF, the excentricity.
Draw Dto the other focus, and DE perpendicu¬
lar to A a, take L a point in the axis, fo that AL=
FD, and confequcntly L Dy, then CL is evidently
half the difference between AL and a L, or FD and
yD, and CE half the difference betweenyE and FE,
and becaufe
Dy-f- DF -.yF ::yE —FE : Dy—DF (Trigon.)
By taking the halves of the terms of the proportion
CA : CF :: CE : CL,
But CA : CF :: CG : CA (Def. 14.)
therefore CG : CA :: CE : CL,
hence (20. E.) EG : AL :: CG : CA :: CA : Ch,
that is, DK : DF :: CA : CF.
CoR. 1. If the tangent GMN be drawn through
M, the extremity of the ordinate paffing through the
focus, and ED be produced to meet GM in N, EN
fliall be equal to DF. For draw MO perpendicular
to the direarix, then, becaufe M and D are points in
the ellipfe, and from fimilar triangles,
FM : FD :: MO : DK :: GF : GE :: FM : EN,
therefore FD=:EN.
Cor. 2. If AI and a i be drawn perpendicular to
the tranfverfe axis at its extremities, meeting the tan¬
gent GM in I, and /, then AI—AF and ai—a¥.
This follow's evidently from laft corollary.
Prop. XXL
Let A a, B £ be the tranfverfe and conjugate axes Fig. 34.
of an ellipfe ; from K any point in the conju¬
gate axis let a ftraight line KH, which is equal
to the fum or difference of the femi-axes CA,
CB, be placed fo as to meet the tranfverfe axis
in H, and in KH, produced beyond H when
KH is the difference of the femi-axes, let HD
be taken equal to CB ; the point D is in the
ellipfe.
Draw DE perpendicular to A a, and through C
draw CG parallel to KD, meeting ED in G, then
CG=KD—AC by conilruftion, hence G is in the
circumference of a circle of which C is the centre, and
C A the radius ; and becaufe the triangles CEG, HED
are fimilar,
GE : DE :: CG : HD :: CA : CB,
therefore DE is a femi-ordinate, and D a point in the
ellipfe (5 cor. 11.)
Scholium.
The inftrument called the trammels, alfo the elliptic
compares, which workmen ufe for defcribing elliptic
curves, is conftrufted on the property of the curve
demonftrated in this propofition. (See Compasses.)
Upon the fame principle lathes are conftru&ed for
turning pi&ure frames, &c. of an oval form.
Prop. XXII.
If a circle be defcribed on the tranfverfe axis of an
ellipfe as a diameter, the area of the circle will
be to the area of the ellipfe as the tranfverfe
axis to the conjugate axis.
Let A a be the tranfverfe axis of the ellipfe, which Fig. y*
is alfo the diameter of the circle. Draw DE, D'E',
D" E" any number of perpendiculars to the axis, meet¬
ing the ellipfe in D, D', D", and the circle in d, d\
d\ and join AD, DD\ D'D", D"« > alfo A d, dd\
3X2 d'd”,
"I
532
Hyperbola. <1^ DC, dg parallel to A a, meeting
CONIC SECTIONS.
Fart 11]( %
yig* 3^*
F.g- 39-
^ d' E' in G and ^.
The triangle A r/ E is to the triangle ADE as E
to DE, that is (4 cor. u.) as the tranfverfe axis to
the conjugate axis. Again, becaufe r/'E' and </E are
fimilarly divided at D' and D (3 cor. 11.)
//E : DE :: {d'~El—dE : D'E'—DE ::) d'g : D G,
But, triangle dg d' : triangle DGD' :: d'g : D'G,
therefore the triangles dg d\ DGD; as well as the
rectangles E;, DE' are to each other as E to DE,
or as the tranfverfe axis to the conjugate axis, and
confequently the trapezoids z/EEV', DEE'D' are to
each other in the lame ratio. In like manner it may
be Ihewn, that the trapezoids r/'E'EV", D'E'E"D",
alfo the triangles d"¥J' a, D"E''« are to each other as
the tranlverfe to the conjugate axis, and therefore the
whole reflilineal figure Kdd'd1 a inferibed in the fe-
micirele to the whole figure ADD'D"« inferibed in
the femiellipfe in the fame ratio, which satio is con-
ilant, and altogether independent’of the number of
the fides of each figure. But. the bafe A a remaining
common to both figures, if we fuppofe the number of
perpendiculars r/DE, z'D'E', See. indefinitely increaf-
ed, it is evident that the polygons A.d d’ ti" a,
ADD'D" a will approach nearer and nearer to the
femicircle and femiellipfe, which are their refpesftive
limits, therefore, the femicirele is to the 'femiellipfe,
and confequently the circle is to the ellipfe, as the
tranfverfe to the conjugate axis.
Cor. The area of an ellipfe is equal to the area of a
circle, whofe diameter is a mean proportional between
the axes.
Let the ends of a firing, equal in length to A /?, be lit
faftened at the points F,/, and let the firing be ftretch- %erk. I'i
~ 1 ’ ' ’ ’ ' Ir
ed by a pin D, and while it is kept uniformly tenfe,
let the point of the pin be carried round, in the plane
in which the lines A <7, B £ are fituated, till it return to
the place from which it fet out; by this motion the
point of the pin will trace upon the plane a curve line
which is the ellipfe required, as is evident from the de¬
finition of the Ellipfe.
Second Method.
By Finding any Number of Points
in the Curve.
Find F either of the foci as before j draw HAKFig,^.
h a k, perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis at its extre¬
mities, and take AH and AK on each fide of the ver¬
tex equal to AF, alfo a h and a k each equal to a F,
join H h and K kt take E any point in A a, and
through E draw NE« parallel to HK, meeting H//
and K £ in N and n. Qn F as a centre with a radius
equal to EN or E « let a circle be deferibed, meeting
N » in D and d, thefe will be two points in the el-
lipfe, and in the fame way may any number of points
be found. The reafon of this confiruftion is obvious
from cor. 1. and 2.,to prop. zo.
Prop. XXIV. Problem.
An ellipfe being given by pofition, to find its axes.
Let AB> a b be the given ellipfe. Draw two Pa-j.;g ,5
Prop. XXIII. Problem.
Two unequal ftraight lines which bife£i each other
at right angles being given by pofition, to de-
feribe an ellipfe of which thefe may be the two
axes.
First Method. By a Mechanical Defeription.
Let A#, B £ be the tranfverfe and conjugate axes,
and C the centre. On B, one extremity of the con¬
jugate axis, as a centre, with a radius equal to AC,
half the tranfverfe axis, let a circle be deferibed, cut¬
ting the tranfverfe axis in F and f; thefe points will be
the foci of the ellipfe (4 cor. 1.).
rallel chords H h, K and bifeft them at L and M 5
join LM, and produce it to meet the ellipfe in P and
/>, then, P/> is a diameter (4 cor. 8.). Biftft Bp in
C, the point C is the centre of the ellipfe (2.).
Take D any point in the ellipfe, and on C as a cen¬
tre w ith the diftance CD deferib.e a circle. If this cir¬
cle fall wholly without the curve, then CD mult be
half the tranfverfe axis 5 and if it fall wholly within the
curve, then CD mufi be half the conjugate axis (12.).
If the circle neither falls wholly without the curve, nor
wholly within it, let the circle meet it again in </, join
D z^, and bifefl D in E, join CE, which produce to
meet the ellipfe in A and a, then A a will be one of
the axes (5 cor. 8.), for it is perpendicular to Dt/
(3. 3. E ) which is an ordinate to A a. The other ax¬
is B b will be found by drawing a ftraight line through
the centre perpendicular to A a.
PART III. OF THE HYPERBOLA.
Definitions.
I. If two points F,/ be given in a plane, and a
point D be conceived to move in fuch a manner that
D/—DF, the difference of its diftances from them is
always the fame, the point D Avill deferibe upon the
.plane a line DAD' called an. Hyperbola. By affuming
firft one of the given points F, and then the other / as
that to which the moving point is neareft, the differ¬
ence of the lines DF and D f in both cafes being the
fame, there will be two hyperbolas DAD', dad’, de-
feribed, oppofite to one another, which are therefore
called Oppofite Hyperbolas.
Cor. The lines DF, D f may become greater than
any given line, therefore the hyperbolas extend to a
greater difiance from the given points F, f than any
-which can be afligi.ed.
II. The given points Y,f are called the Foci of the
hyperbola.
III. The point C, which bifefls the ftraight line
between the foci, is called the Centre.
IV. ' A ftraight line palling through the centre, and
terminated
4HI. CONIC SE
; Ot a terminated by the oppofite hyberbolas, is called a
'lype ^a- Tranfverfe Diameter. It is alfo fometimes called, fim-
—^ ply, a Diameter.
V. The extremities of a diameter are called its Ver¬
tices. . .
VI. The diameter which paffes through the foci, is
called the Tranfverfe Axis.
Cor. The vertices of the tranfverfe axis lie be¬
tween the foci. Let A be either of the vertices, then,
becaufe any fide of a triangle is greater than the differ¬
ence between the other two Tides, Yj is greater than
/D—DF which is equal to/A—-FA (Def. i.). Now
this can only take place when A is between F and/
VII. A ftraight line palling through the centre,
perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis, and limited at B
and £ by a circle defcribed on one extremity of that
axis, w ith a radius equal to the diftance of either focus
from the centre, is called the Conjugate Axis. It is alfo
called the Second Axis. _ '
Cor. The conjugate axis is bifetted in the centre.
This appears from 3. 3. E.
VIII. Any ftraight line terminated both ways by
the hyperbola, and bifefted by a tranfverfe diameter
produced, is called an Ordinate to that diameter.
IX. Each of the fegments of a tranfverfe diameter
produced, intercepted by its vertices, and an ordinate,
is called an- Abfcifs.
X. A ftraight line which meets the hyperbola in
one point only, and which everywhere elle falls with¬
out the oppofite hyperbolas, is faid to touch the hyper¬
bola in that point, and is called a Tangent to the hy¬
per Lola.
C T I O N S> 533
ceffarily meet the curve j let D be the point of inter- ft1®
feaion, join FD QF is greater than OD-f DF, and tiyp£Ib0'*’,
therefore Qf-—CF is greater than iff—(QD -f-DF),
that is, greater than D/—DF or A. a.
Cor. 2. A point is without, or within the hyper¬
bolas, according as the difference of two lines drawn
from that point to the foci is lefs or greater than the
tranfvecfe axis.
Cor. 3. The tranfverfe axis is bifedled in the centre.
Let C be the centre ; then CF—Cf (Def. 3.), and
FArr/o, therefore CA~Ca.
Lemma I.
Two triangles ABC, ADC on the fame bafe, and Fig. 41.
on the fame fide of it, having AB, AD, the
greater of the two fides of each ending in the
fame extremity of the bafe, and having their
vertical angles B, D without each other, cannot
have the difference of the fides of the one equal
to the difference of the fides of the other.
Let AD meet BC in E. Becaufe AE-J-EB is
greater than AB, (AE-j-EB)—BC—AE—EC is
greater than AB—BC. Again, becaufe DC is Itls
than DE-j-EC, AD—DC is greater than AD—
(DE-j-EC)—AE—EC y much more therefor? is AD
—DC greater than AB—BC. Therefore AD—DC
cannot be equal to AB—BC.
Prop. II.
Every tranfverfe diameter of an hyperbola is bi-
fected in the centre.
Plate
CLIX*
Prop. L
If from any point in an hyperbola two ftraight
lines be drawn to the foci, their difference is
equal to the tranfverfe axis.
Let DAD', dad1 be oppofite hyperbolas, of which
F, f are the foci, and A a the tranfverfe axis $ let D
be any point in the curve, and D1J, Dj lines drawn
to the foci, D/—DFrrAfl.
Becaufe A and a are points in the hyperoola,
A/—AFr=*F—*/(Def. 1.)
therefore Fj—2 AF~F/—2 af;
Hence 2AF—2«/and AY~af
and A f-—AF—A/—af—A a.
But D and A being points in the hyberbola,
D/—DF=A/—AF, therefore D/—DFzrAtf.
Cor. I. The difference of two ftraight lines drawn
from a point without the oppofite hyperbolas to the foci
is lefs than the tranfverfe axis, and the difference of
two ftraight lines drawn from a point within either of
them to the foci is greater than the tranfverfe axis.
Let P/ PF be lines drawn from a point without
the hyperbolas, that is, between the curve and its
conjugate axis. The line PF muft neceffarily meet
the curve, let D be the point of interfeftion j ff is
lefs than PD-fD/ (20. 1. E.), therefore P/—PF is
lefs than (PD -f D/)—PF, that, is, lefs than D/—DF,
or Ac. Again, let Q/, QF be lines drawn from a
point within either of the hvperbolasj Q/ muff ns-
Let P/> be a tranfyerfe diameter, it is bifefted in Fig. 42.
C j for if C/> be not equal to CP, take CQ equal to
CP ; from the points P, />, Q draw ftraight lines to F
and f the foci ; draw /D perpendicular to C/>, and
FE parallel to PD, meeting/D in E j join E/>, EQ.
Becaufe /CrrCF, and CD is parallel to EF, /D=r
DE (2. 6. E.). Now'/>D is common to the triangles
/D/j, ED/>, and the angles at D are equal, being
right angles, therefore the triangles are equal, and
pyb^E. In like manner, it appears that Q/nQE.
Again, the triangles FCP, /CQ having EC=C/,
PC = CQ, and the angles at C equal, are in all re-
fpefts equal, therefore EPrr/Q. In like manner it
appears that P/—QF, therefore FQ—/Qis equal to
/P—FP, or (Def. I.) to Yp—fp that is, FQ—QE
is equal to F p—p E, which by the preceding lemma
is abfurd j therefore CP—C/\
Cor. i. Every tranfverfe diameter meets the op¬
pofite hyperbolas each in one point only, and being
produced falls within them.
Cor. 2. Every tranfverfe diameter divides the cp-
pofite hyperbolas into parts which are equal and fimi-
lar j the like parts of the curve being at oppofite ex¬
tremities of the diameter, and an contrary fides of it.
Prop. III.
The fquare of half the conjugate axis of an hyper¬
bola is equal to the rectangle contained by the
ftraight lines between either focus and the ex¬
tremities of the traufverfe axis.
Draw
534
Of the Draw a ftraight line from <?, either of the extremi-
Hyperbola. tjes Gf t|ie tranfVerfe axis, to B, either of the extremi-
* 7late~; t‘eS ^ie conjugate ax^9*
CLVIII. Then BCJ-f C^=Bas=C/* (Def. 7.)
Dg- 39- But becaufe A.a is bife£l;ed at C, and produced
€,/*=: a* (6. 2. E.)
therefore 'StC1-ifCat=zAf’fa-]rCa'li
and BCs=A//a.
CONIC SECTIONS.
Part U ill
Prop. IV.
FD :/D :: FE :/E (3. 6. E.)
Scholium.
From the property of the hyperbola which forms this
propofition, the points F and f are called Foci. For
rays of light proceeding from one focus, and falling
upon a poliihed furface whofe figure is that formed by
the revolution of the curve about the tranfverfe axis,
are refledled in lines palling through the other focus.
Of tile *
%peb«4o.J'
Prop. V.
The ftraight line which bife£ts the angle contained
by two ftraight lines drawn from any point in
the hyperbola to the foci is a tangent to the
Plate curve at that point.
Fi^ ■^jET -D be any point in the curve, let DF, Djf be
“ ftraight lines drawn to the foci, the ftraight line DE
which bifedts the angle /DF is a tangent to the
curve.
Take H any other point in DE, take DGrnD^
and join Fif, HF, HG, fG ; let^G meet DE in L
Becaufe D/=zDG and DI is common to the triangles
D/I, DGI, and the angles/DI, GDI are equal,
thefe triangles are equal, and/Iz=IG, and hence/H
=HG (4. 1. E.), fo that FH—/H=FH—•HG : but
lince FH is lefs than FG-f-GH, hH—HG is lefs than
I^G, that is lefs than FD—/D or A a, therefore
FH—/H is lefs than A a; hence the point H is
without the hyperbola, (2 cor. 1.), and confequently
DHI is a tangent to the curve at D (Def. 10.).
CoR. I. There cannot be more than one tangent
to the hyperbola at the fame point. For D is fuch a
point in the line DE, that the difference of the lines
DF, D f the diftances of that point from the foci,
is evidently greater than the difference of FH, /H
the diftances of H any other point in that line ; and
if another line KD be drawn through_D, there is in
like manner a point K in that line, which will be dif¬
ferent from D, fuch, that the difference of FK, /K
is greater than the difference of the diftances of any
other point in KD, and therefore greater than FD—
/E>, therefore the point K will be within the hyper¬
bola (2 cor. 1.), and the line KD will cut the
curve.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis at
either of its extremities is a tangent to the curve.
The demonftration is the fame as for the propofition,
■ if it be confidered that when D falls at either extre*
mity of the axis, the point I falls alfo at the extremi¬
ty of the axis, and thus the tangent DE, which is al¬
ways perpendicular to /I, is perpendicular to the
axis.
Cor. 3. Every tangent to either of the oppofite hy¬
perbolas paffes between that hyperbola and the centre.
Let the tangent DI meet the axis in E. Becaufe DE
bifedls the angle FD/
The tangents at the vertices of any tranfverfe dia¬
meter of an hyperbola are parallel.
Let P/> be a diameter, HP, ///> tangents at its ver- F'g.
tices $ draw ftraight lines from P and /> to F and/the
foci. The triangles FCP, /C/>, having FC—/C,
CP=:C/> (2.), and the angles at C equal, are in all
refpefts equal, and becaufe the angle FPC is equal to
C/>/ FP is parallel to fp (27. 1. E.), therefore P/
is equal and parallel to/>F (33. 1. E.) : thus FP fp
is a parallelogram of which the oppofite angles P and
p are equal (34. 1. E.) ; now the angles FPH,///j
are the halves of thefe angles (4.) \ therefore the
angles FPH,//>/$, and hence CPH, C/>^, are alfo
equal, and confequently HP is parallel to hp.
CoR. r. If tangents be drawn to an hyperbola at
the vertices of a tranfverfe diameter, ftraight lines
drawn from either focus to the points of contaft make
equal angles with thefe tangents. For the angle Fph
is equal to FPH.
Cor. 2. The tranfverfe axis is the only diameter
which is perpendicular to tangents at its vertices. For
let P/> be any other diameter. The angle CPH is
lefs than FPH, that is, lefs than the half of FP/,
therefore CPH is lefs than a right angle.
Prop. VI.
A ftraight line drawn from either focus of an hy¬
perbola to the interfe&ion of two tangents to
the curve, will make equal angles with ftraight
lines drawn from the fame focus to the points
of contadL
But FD is greater than /D (Def. I.), therefore
FE is greater than /E, and hence E is between C and
the vertex of the hyperbola to which DE is a tan¬
gent.
Let HP, H/ be tangents to an hyperbola at the fig. 45,
points P, p ; let a ftraight line be drawn from H their and 46.
interfeftion to F either of the foci 3 and let FP, F/>
be drawn to the points of contaft 3 the lines PF, />F
make equal angles with HF.
Draw' P/, />/ to the other focus. In PF and p F
take PK=P/, and pk—pf; join HK, HT, and let
/K, /£ be drawn, meeting the tangents in G and £.
The triangles /PH, KPH have P/rrPK, by con-
ftruftion, and PH common to both, alio the angle
/PH equal to KPH (4.) 3 therefore /H is equal to
KH. In like manner it may be (hewn that /H is
equal to h H, therefore HK is equal to H £ ; now FK
is equal to F for each is equal to the difference be¬
tween FP and/P, or F/> and/>, that is, to the tranf¬
verfe axis 3 therefore the triangles FKH, F£H are in
all refpefts equal, and hence the angle KFH is equal
to h FH, therefore PF and p F make equal angles
with HF.
3
Prop.
CONIC SECTIONS. 5.35
)ft!
iperb . Prop. VII.
Two tangents to an hyperbola, or oppofite hyper¬
bolas, which are limited by their mutual inter-
fedHon and the points in which they touch the
curve, are to each other, reciprocally, as the fines
of the angles they contain with ftraight lines
drawn from the points of contadi to either
focus.
>47 i(l Let HP, H/>, which interfedf each other at H, be
tangents to an hyperbola, or oppofite hyperbolas, at
the points P,/»; and let PF,/> F be drawn to either
■ focus, \
HP : H/> :: fine H/>F : fine PHF.
Join HF, and in FP take FQ^ equal to F/>, and join
HQ,; then, the angles at F being equal (6.), the tri¬
angles HFQ, HF/> are equal, therefore HQ is equal
to H/>, and the angle HQF is equal to H/>F. Now
1 in the triangle HPQ,
HP : HQ:: fine H£P, or fine HQF : fine HPF(Trig.)
therefore HP : H/> :: fine H/>F : fine FIPF.
Lemma II.
45 Let KL7 be a triangle, having its bafe L/ bifedh-
ed at />, and let H/j, any ftraight line parallel to
the bafe, and terminated by the fides produced,
be bifedfed at P, then P, p the point of bifeddion,
and K the vertex of the triangle, are in the fame
ftraight line, and that line bifedls D7 any other
line parallel to the bafe.
JoinKP, K^. The triangles KH/i, KL/ being
fimilar, and H/q L/ fimilarly divided at P./>,
KH :-;KL (H/i : L/::) HP : L/>.
Now the angles at H and L are equal, therefore the
triangles KHP, KL/> are fimilar, and the angle PKH
is equal to p KL j To both add the angle HK/>, and
the angles PKH, HK/> are equal to />KL, HK/>,
that is, to two right angles 4 therefore KP, Kf» lie in
- the fame ftraight line (14. 1. E.)
Next let D d meet K/> in E, then
HP : DE (:: PK : EK) :: P7 ; E<
therefore DE is equal to E</.
Prop.'VIII.
i Any ftraight line terminated both ways by an hy¬
perbola, and parallel to a tangent, is bifedded
by the tranfverfe diameter produced, that pafles
through the point of contatt, or is an ordinate
to that diameter.
'<■ 5< The ftraight line D7, terminated by the hyperbola,
i and parallel to the tangent HP7, is bifefted at E
0 by P/> the tr?nfverfe diameter produced, which pafles
il through P, the point of contaft.
Let L /> / be a tangent at the other extremity of the
diameter, and let KD, K7, tangents at the points
I D.</; meet the parallel tangents HP/q L/>/ in the
point H, L,/q /, and draw DF, e/F, PF to either fo- Of the
cus. Becaufe H h is parallel to D7, , ^P^1130*3-
HD : hd-r. KD : K d.
But KD, K7 being tangents to the hyperbola,
fine hdY : fine HDF :: KD : K7 (7.)
therefore fine hdY : fine HDF :: HD : //</,
now, fine h PF : fine h d Y :: h d : hY (7.)
therefore, (23,5. E.) fine h PF : fine HDF :: HD : hY ;
but fine HPF or fine h PF : fine HDF :: HD : HP,
therefore the ratio of HD to h P is the fame as the ra¬
tio of HD to HP, wherefore PHz=P7. In the fame
manner it may be demonftrated that pYzzpl, there¬
fore (lemma 2.) the diameter Yp when produced paf-
fes through K, and bifefts D 7, which is parallel to
H /i, or L /, at E.
Cor. 1. Straight lines which touch an hyperbola at
the extremities of an ordinate to any tranfverfe diame¬
ter, interfefl each other in that diameter.
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a tranfverfe diameter is
parallel to a tangent at its vertex. For, if not, let a
tangent be drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the
diameter drawn through the point ot contact would
bifetl the ordinate, and thus the fame line would be
bifedted in two different points, which is abfurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the fame tranfverfe
diameter are parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A ftraight line that bifedls two parallel
chords, and terminates in the oppofite hyperbola, is a
tranfverfe diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to the tranfverfe axis are per- /
pendicular to it, and no other tranfverfe diameter has
its ordinates perpendicular to it. Tins follows from
2 cor. 4. and 2 cor. 5.
Cor. 6; The tranfverfe axis, indefinitely produced,
divides each of the oppofite hyperbolas into two parts
which are fimilar to one another.
Prop. IX.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet a tranfverfe dia -
meter, and from the point of contact an ordi¬
nate be drawn to that diameter, the femidiame-
ter will be a mean proportional between the feg-
ments of the diameter intercepted between the
centre and the ordinate, and between the centre
and the tangent.
Let DK a tangent to the curve at D meet the Fig. 50>
tranfverfe diameter Yp in K, and let DE</ be an or¬
dinate to that diameter,
Then CE : CP :: CP : CK. '
Through P and />, the vertices of the diameter, draw
the tangents PH and p L, meeting KD in H and L,
thefe tangents are parallel to each other (5.), and to
DE, the ordinate, by laft propofition. Draw PF,
p F, DF to either of the foci. Then,
DH: HP:: fine HPF: fine HDF, 1, ^
andDL : L/>::fmeL/>F : fine LDF, or fine HDF jf
Now the angles HPF, L/>F are equal (1 cor. 5);
therefore, - •
536
Of the therefore,
Hyperbola.
CONIC SECTIONS.
DH : PH :: DL : p L,
and by alternation
c DH : DL :: PH :/.L>
therefpre, becaufe of the parallel lines PH, ED, p L,
EP : E/> :: PK : p K.
Take CGzrCE, then PG—E/>, and by compohticn
EG : EP :: Vp : PK,
and taking the halves of the antecedents
CE : EP :: CP : PK j
hence, by divifion, CE : CP :: CP : CK.
Pan in,
Of the
Hypetboh,
Cor.. I. The re&angle contained by PE and E
is equal to the re&angle contained by KE and CE.
For CP*=KC CE=EC*—KE EC (2. 2. E.y
alfo CP*=EC*—PE’E/t (6. 2. E.)
therefore EC*—KE'ECrrEC*—-PE‘E/>,
and KE-EC=PE-E/>.
COR. 2. The refliangle contained by PK and
is equal to the re&angle contained by KE and KC.
For KC*=rCP*—^PK*K/> (5. 2. E.)
alfo KC*=EC-KC—EK-KC=CP*—EK-KC (3. 2« E. and by the prop.)
therefore CP*—PK K/>=CP*—EK-KC.
and PK-K/>=EK'KC.
Prop. X.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet the conjugate
axis, and from the point of contadt a perpendi¬
cular be drawn to that axis, the femiaxis will
be a mean proportional between the fegments
of the axis intercepted between the centre and
the perpendicular, and between the centre and
the tangent.
pic, £T> Let DH, a tangent to the hyperbola at D, meet
the conjugate axis B in H, and let DG be perpen¬
dicular to that axis, then
CG ; CB :: CB : CH.
Let DPI meet the tranfverfe axis in K, draw DE
perpendicular to that axis, draw DF, Dy to the foci,
and defcribe a circle about the triangle Djf F j the
conjugate axis Avill evidently pafs through the centre
of the circle, and becaufe the angle FDf is bife£ted
by the tangent DK, the line DK will pafs through
one extremity of the diameter $ therefore the circle
paffes through H. Draw DL to the other extremity
„ of the diameter. The triangles LGD, KCPI, are IP
miiar, for each is hmilar to the right-angled triangle
LDH, therefore,
LG : GD (=CE) :: CK : CH 5
hence LG’CH—CE'CKzr (by laft prop.) CA*.
Now LC.CH=CF* (35. 3. E.)
therefore LC.CH— LG-CH=:‘CF*—CAJ,
that is, CG-CH=CB* (Def. 7.)
wherefore CG : CB :: CB : CH.
Definition.
XL If through A, one of the vertices of the tranf¬
verfe axis, a ftraight line HA h be drawn, equal and
parallel to B £ the conjugate axis, and bifeCted at A
by the tranfverfe axis, the ftraight lines CPIM, C h m
drawn through the centre, and the extremities of that
parallel, are called Afymptotes.
Cor. 1. The afymptotes of two oppofite hyperbo¬
las are common to both. Thrbugh a, the other ex¬
tremity of the axis, draw H' a h\ parallel to B b, and
meeting the afymptotes of the hyperbola DAD in H'
tod k'. Becaufe « C is equal to AC, a H' is equal to
2
A h, or to BC 5 alfo a h! is equal to AH, or to BC ;
hence, by the definition, CH' and C /? are afymp¬
totes of the oppofite hyperbola dad.
Cor. 2* The afymptotes are diagonals of a refl-
angle formed by drawing perpendiculars to the axes
at their vertices. For the lines AH, CB, a H' being
equal and parallel, the points H, B, H' are in a
ftraight line palling through B parallel to A 0 ; the
fame is true of the points h, b, h1.
Prop. XL
The afymptotes do not meet the hyperbola; and
if from any point in the curve a ftraight line be
drawn parallel to the conjugate axis, and ter¬
minated by the afymptotes, the re&angle con¬
tained by its fegments from that point is equal
to the fquare of half that axis.
Through D any point in the hyperbola draw a Fig. 53.
ftraight line parallel to the conjugate axis, meeting
the tranfverfe axis in E, and the afymptotes in M
and m ; the points M and fn Ihall be without the hy--
perbola, and the rectangle MD’D m is equal to the
fquare of BC.
Draw DG perpendicular to B £ the conjugate axis,
let a tangent to the curve at D meet the tranfverfe
axis in K, and the conjugate axis in L, and let a per¬
pendicular at the vertex A meet the afymptote in H.
Becaufe DK is a tangent, and DE an ordinate to the
axis, CA is a mean proportional between CK and
CE (9.), and therefore
CK : CE :: CA* : CE2 (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But CK : CE :: LC : LG,
and CA* : CE* :: AH* : EM*;
therefore LC : LG :: AH* : EM*.
Again, CB being a mean proportional between CL
and CG (10.)
LC : CG :: CB* : CG*,
and therefore
LC : LG :: CB* :: CB*+CG*, or CB5+ED*;
wherefore AH* : EM* :: CB*: CB*-j-ED*;
Now AH*=CE* (Def. 11.)
therefore EM*z^CB*-j-ED*,
confequently EM* is greater than ED*, and EM
greater
1'J ill. CONIC S
Oft greater than ED, therefore M is without the hyp^r-
bola. In like manner it appears that m is without the
““"V " hyperbola •, therefore every point in both the afymp-
totes is without the hyperbola. Again, the ftraight
line terminated by the afymptotes, being mani-
feilly bifecled by the axis at E,
ME’rtMD-D/n+DES
but it has been {hewn that
ME’^BC’+DE*
therefore MD'Dw—BC*.
Cor. i. Hence, if in a flraight line Mw, termina¬
ted by the afymptotes, and parallel to the conjugate
axis, there be taken a point D fuch that the reftangle
MD‘D/« is equal to the fquare of that axis, the point
D is in the hyperbola.
Cor 2. If ftraight lines MD NR«, be drawn
through D and R, any points in the hyperbola, or
oppofite hyperbolas, parallel to the conjugate axis, and
meeting the afymptotes in M, w, and N, », the rect¬
angles MD'D ///, NR‘R« are equal.
Prop. XII.
The hyperbola and its afymptote when produced
continually approach to each other, and the
diftance between them becomes lefs than any
given line.
Fig.p Take two points E and O in the tranfverfe axis
produced, and through thefe points draw ftraight
lines parallel to the conjugate axis, meeting the hy¬
perbola in D, R, and the afymptotes in M»/, and
N«.
Becaufe NO* is greater than ME*,
and NR R«—PvID-Dw, (2 cor. n.)
thereforeNO*—NR Rwis’greaterthanME*—MD'Dw,
that is RO* is greater than DE*,
and RO is greater than DE j
now Ofl is greater than Eot,
therefore Rn is greater than Dw,
and lines R« : Dm :: DM : RN, (2 cor. n.)
DM is greater than RN,
therefore the point R is nearer to the afymptote than D,
that is, the hyperbola when produced approaches to the
afymptote.
Let S be any line lefs than half the conjugate axis j
then, becaufe Dm, a ftraight line drawn from a point
in the hyperbola, parallel to the conjugate axis, and ter¬
minated by the afymptote on the other fide of the tranf¬
verfe axis, may evidently be of any magnitude greater
than A//, which is equal to half the conjugate axis,
Dm may be a third proportional to S and BC ; and
fince D^ is alfo a third proportional to DM (the feg-
ment between D and the other afymptote) and BC,
DM may be equal to S j but the diftance of D from
the afymptote is lefs than DM, therefore that diftance
inay become lefs than S, and confequently lefs than any
given line.
Cor. Every ftraight line pafllng through the centre,
V'ithin the angles contained by the afymptotes through
vhich the tranfverfe axis palfes, meets the hyperbola,
and therefore is a tranfverfe diameter; and every
ftraight line palling through the centre within the ad¬
jacent angles falls entirely without the hyperbola.
Vol. VI. Part II.
E C T I O N S. 537
Of the
SCHOLIUM. Hyperbola.
The name afijmptotes (non concuri'entes') has been
given to the lines CH, C//, becaufe of the property
they have of continually approaching to the hyper¬
bola without meeting it, as has been proved in this pro-
pofition.
Prop. XIII.
If from two points ill a hyperbola, or oppofite hy-PIate
perbolas, two parallel ftraight lines be drawn to
meet the afymptotes, the re&angles contained
by their fegments between the points and the
afymptotes are equal.
Let D and G be two points in the hyperbola, orpig. 54. and
oppofite hyperbolas, let parallel lines EDe, HG^ be 55.
drawn to meet the afymptotes in E, e, and H, h, the
rectangles ED'De, HG'GH are equal.
Through D and G draw ftraight lines parallel to
the conjugate axis, meeting the afymptotes in the
points L, /, and M, m. The triangles HGM, EDL
are fimilar, as alfo the triangles h G m, e D /,
therefore DL : DE :: GM : GH,
and D/: De :: Gm : Gh;
hence, taking the rectangles of the correfponding termi
of the proportions,
LD D/: EDT> :: MG Gw : llG Gh.
But LDvD/—MG-G/« (2 cor. 11.)
therefore ED’D erzHG'G^.
Cor. 1. If a ftraight line be drawn through D, ^ Fig. 54. and
two points in the fame or oppofite hyperbolas, the leg- 55*
ments DE, d e between thofe points and the afymp¬
totes are equah For in the fame manner that the
reftangles ED’Df, HG • Gh have been proved to be
equal, it may be Ihewn that the rectangles Y^d' dc,
HG * Gh are equal, therefore ED • D E d ' d e.
Let E e be bifefted in O, then ED'D^—EO*—OD*
and YLd-de — YLO''—Ck/% therefore EO*—OD*=r
EO*—(V*j hence ODrrCV, and YLD-zzed.
Cor. 2. When the points D and d are in the fame Fig. 54. and
hyperbola, by fuppofing them to approach till they 55°
coincide at P, the line Ee will thus become a tangent
to the curve at P. Therefore any tangent KP/*, which
is terminated by the afymptotes, is bifefted at P, the
point of contaft.
Cor. 3. And if any ftraight line KP£, limited by Fig. 54,
the afymptotes, be bifefted at P a point in the curve,
that line is tangent at P. For it is evident that only
one line can be drawn through P which lhall be limit¬
ed by the afymptotes, and bife&ed at P.
Cor. 4. If a ftraight line be drawn through D, Fig. 54.
any point in the hyperbola, parallel to a tangent KP^
and terminated by the afymptotes at E and e, the reft-
angle ED'Dt- is equal to the fquare of PK, the fcg-
ment of the tangent between the point of contaft and
either afymptote. The demonftration is the fame as in
the propofition.
# Cor. 5. If from any point D in a hyperbola a ftraight Fig. 55.
line be drawn parallel to P/> any diameter, meeting the
afymptotes in E and e, the re&angle ED-Dt- is equal
to the fquate of half the diameter. The demonftra¬
tion is the fame as in the propofition,
3 Y
Prop.
53s
Of the
Hyperbola.
Fig. 56.
Fl'g' 57-
CONIC S E C T I O N S.
Part
Prop. XIV.
If two ftraight lines be drawn from any point in
an hyperbola to the afymptotes, and from any
ether point in the fame, or oppofite hyperbolas,
two other lines be drawn parallel to the lormer,
the re&angle contained by the firft two lines
will be equal to the redlangle contained by the
other two lines.
From D any point in the hyperbola draw DH and
DK to the afymptotes, and from any other point d
draw dh and dh parallel to DM and DK. 1 he rect¬
angles HD 1 DK, hd • dh are equal.
Join D, d meeting the afymptotes in E, e. From
firailar triangles
ED : DH :: E^: dh,
and e D : DK :: e d \ dk,
therefore taking the reftangles of correfponding terms,
ED ' D e : HD • DK :: E d • de : hd ' dh;
but ED • D e~E d ' de (13.),
therefore HD • DKzzhd • dk.
Cor. i. If the lines D'K', D'H', d'k’, d h\ be pa¬
rallel to the afymptotes, and thus form the parallelo¬
grams D'K'CH', d‘ y C //, thefe are equal to one an¬
other (16. and 14. 6. E.). And if D'C,y/C be joined,
the halves of the parallelograms, or the triangles D'K'C,
d' k' C are alfo equal.
Cor. 2. If from D', d', any two points in an hyper¬
bola, ftraight lines D'K', d'k' be drawn parallel to one
afymptote, meeting the other in K' and k', thefe lines
are to each other reciprocally as their dillanccs from
the centre, or D'K : d' k' :: C k': CK'. This appears
from lall cor. and 14. 6. E.
Definitions.
Prop. XV.
that pafles through the point of contact, or .is of
an ordinate to that diameter. %<|
XII. If A a be the tranfverfe axis, and B b the con¬
jugate axis of two oppofite hyperbolas DAD, dad,
‘and if B £ be the tranfverfe axis, and A a the conju¬
gate axis of other two oppofite hyperbolas EBE, e b e,
thefe hyperbolas are faid to be conjugate to the former.
When all the four hyperbolas are mentioned they are
called conjugate hyperbolas.
Cor. The afymptotes of the hyperbolas DAD, dad
are alfo the afymptotes of the hyperbolas EBE, ebe.
This is evident from Cor. 2. to Definition 11.
XIII. Any diameter of the conjugate hyperbolas is
called a fecond diameter of the other hyperbolas.
Cor. Every ftraight line paffing through the centre,
within the angle through which the conjugate or
fecond axis paffes, is a fecond diameter of the hyper¬
bola.
XIV. Any ftraight line not paffing through the
centre, but terminated both ways by the oppofite hy¬
perbolas, and bifeaed by a fecond diameter, is called
an Ordinate to that diameter.
The ftraight line D d terminated by the oppofiteFi=
hyperbolas, and parallel to the tangent KO£, is bifed-
ed at E by O the diameter that paffes through the
point of contaft.
Let D d meet the afymptotes in G and g, and let -the
tangent meet them in K and k. The ftraight lines
G^, K k are evidently fimilarly divided at E and 0,
and fince Kf)~O £ (2 cor. 13.) therefore GE—E^;
now T>G=gd (1 cor. 13.) therefore DE=:Ea'.
Cor. 1. Every ordinate to a fecond diameter is pa¬
rallel to a tangent at its vertex. The demonftration is
the fame as in Cor. 2. Prop. 8.
Cor. 2. All the ordinates to the fame fecond diame¬
ter are parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A ftraight line that bifefts two parallel
ftraight lines which terminate in the oppofite hyperbolas
is a fecond diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to the conjugate or fecond
axis are perpendicular to it, and no other it cend diame¬
ter is perpendicular to its ordinates.
Cor. 6. The oppofite hyperbolas are fimilar to one
another, and like portions of them are, in all refpefb,
equal.
Prop. XVI.
If a tranfverfe diameter of an hyperbola be parallel
to the ordinates to a fecond diameter, the latter
fhall be parallel to the ordinates to the former.
Definitions.
XV. Two diameters are faid to be conjugate to one
another when each is parallel to the ordinates to the
other diameter.
Cor. Diameters which are conjugate to one ano¬
ther are parallel to tangents at the vertices of eacn
other.
XVI. A third proportional to any diameter and its
conjugate is called the Parameter, alio the Lotus reElutn
of that diameter.
Prop. XVII.
Any ftraight line not paffing through the centre,
but terminated by the oppofite hyperbolas, and
parallel to a tangent to either of the conjugate
hyperbolas, is bife&ed by the fecond diameter
3
The tangent at the vertex of any tranfverfe diame¬
ter of an hyperbola, which is terminated by tiie
afymptotes, is equal to the diameter that is con¬
jugate to that diameter.
Let P/>, a tranfverfe diameter of an hyperbola, beTig
parallel to DE*/, any ordinate to the fecond diameter
Qq, the fecond diameter Qq ftiall be parallel to the
ordinates to the diameter P/>.
Draw the diameter </CG through one extremity of
the ordinate d D, and join G and D, the other extre¬
mity, meeting P /> in H. Becaufe G is bifefled
at C, and CH is parallel to d~Q, the line DG is bi-
fedted at H, therefore DG is an ordinate to the dia¬
meter P p. And becaufe dG and */D are bifefled at
C and E, the diameter is parallel to DG (2.6 E.),
therefore is parallel to any ordinate to the diame¬
ter P/>.
Let PC/> be any tranfverfe diameter of an hyper¬
bola, PIP h a tangent at its vertex, meeting the afymp-
totes
i A
CONIC SECTIONS.
totes in H and //, and Q q die diameter which is con¬
jugate to P p; the tangent H h is equal to thediame-
ter Q. . . , , , i i
Through D, any point m the hyperbola, draw a
ftraight line parallel to the tangent and diameter,
cutting either of the conjugate hyperbolas in d, and
the afymptotes in E and e, and through D and d
draw lines parallel to B £ the conjugate axis, meet¬
ing the afymptotes in the points K, £, and L, /. Ihe
triangles DEK, d EL are fimilar, as alio eY) k, e d
therefore
KD : DE :: L*/: r/E,
and k T) \ T) e Id \ d e ;
therefore, taking the re61 angles of the correfponding
Cor. 2. If tangents be drawn at the vertices or two
conjugate diameters, they will meet in the afymptotes,
and form a parallelogram of which the afymptotes are
diagonals.
Prop. XVIII.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet a fecond diame¬
ter, and from the point of conta£l an ordinate
be drawn to that diameter, half the fecond dia¬
meter will be a mean proportional between
the fegments of the diameter intercepted be¬
tween the centre and the ordinate, and between
the centre and the tangent.
539,
Of the
Hyperbola.
terms,
KD • D £ : ED • D £ d • d l: Y.d' d e.
But KD-D-f—BC1 (x i.) and BC*—L d’d l (jcor. 13.)
therefore ED ‘ D errE d' de.
Now ED • D crrHP* (4 cor. 13.),
and d‘ de—QC1 (5 cor. 13.)
therefore HP2~QCl, and HP~QC,
and confequently
Cor. I. If another tangent be drawn to the curve at
/>, meeting the afymptotes in H' and /P, the ilraight
lines which join the points H, H', alio //, //, are tan¬
gents to the conjugate hyperbolas at Q and q. For
p H' as well as PH is equal and parallel to CC), there¬
fore the points H, Q, H' are in a ftraight line parallel
to P />, and HQ = H/^) (33. 1. E.), therefore HQ^H'
is a tangent to me curve at £L In like manner it ap¬
pears that h q // is a tangent at q.
Let DL a tangent to the curve at D meet the fe-Fig. 61,
cond diameter in L, and let DG d1 be an ordinate
to that diameter, then
CG : Cg :: C£ : CL.
Let P /> be the diameter that is conjugate to Q q,
let HP /i be a tangent at the vertex, terminated by the
afymptotes •, through D draw the ordinate DE d to the
diameter P/>, meeting the afymptotes in M and m ;
let K be the interfedion of DL and P/>. Becaufe
DK is a tangent at D, and DE an ordinate to P/>,
CP is a mean proportional between CE and CK (9.)
and therefore
CE* : CP* :: CE : CK.
Now, the lines CQ, PH, EM being parallel (8. and
Def. 15.), from fimilar triangles,
CE1
and CE, or DG
therefore EM*
and by divilion, &. EM*—PH*
CP*
CK
PH*
PH*
EM*
LG
LG
: CG
PH*,
LC •,
LC,
LC :
CG* : CG • LC.
But fince PH*=MD • D /« (4 cor. 13.), EM
therefore PH*r=CG • LC j
wherefore, and fince PH=rCg (17.)
CG : eg:: Cg : CL.
PH1=ED*=CG%
Prop. XIX.
If an ordinate be drawn to any tranfverfe diame¬
ter of an hyperbola, the rectangle under the ab-*
feiffes of the diameter will be to the fquare of
the femi-ordinate as the fquare of the diameter
to the fquare of its conjugate.
Let DEi/be an ordinate to the tranfverfe diameter
Pp, and let g 7 be its conjugate diameter.
PE • E/> : DE* :: P/>* : g?*.
Let DKL a tangent at D meet the diameter in K,
and its conjugate in L. Draw DG parallel to P />,
meeting Qq in G. Becaufe CP is a mean proportion¬
al between CE and CK (9.)
CP* : CE* :: CK : CE,
and by divifion CP* : PE * E/> :: CK : KE.
But, becaufe ED is parallel to CL,
CK : KE :: CL : DE, or CG,
and becaufe CO is a mean proportional between CG
and CL (18.)
CL : CG :: Cg* : CG2, or DE*,
therefore CP* : PE * E/> :: Cg* : DE*, .*
and by inverfion and alternation,
, PE • E/> : DE* :: CP* : Cg* :: P/>* : g?s.
Cor. 1. If an ordinate be drawn to.any fecond dia¬
meter of an hyperbola, the fum of the fquares of half
the fecond diameter and its fegment intercepted by the
ordinate from the centre is to the fquare of the fern!-,
ordinate, as the fquare of the fecond diameter to the
fquare of its conjugate.
Let DG be a femi-ordinate to the fecond diameter
P q. It has been (hewn that
CG* : Cg* :: PE * E/> : CP*,
therefore, by comp.
Cg*-fCG* : eg* : CE* or DG* : CP*,
and by alter.
Cg*-fCG* : CE* :: Cg* : CP* :: g?1 = P/E.
Cor. 2. The fquares of femi-ordinates, and of or¬
dinates to any tranfverfe diameter, are to one another
as the re&angles contained by the correfponding ab-
feiffes *, and the fquares of femi-ordinates, and of ordi-
3 Y 2 nates,
54© CONICS
Of the nates to any fecond diameter are to one another as the
Hyperbola. fums 0f the fquares of half that diameter and the feg-
ments intercepted by the ordinate from the centre.
Cor. 3. The ordinates to any tranfverfe diameter,
which intercept equal fegments of that diameter from
the centre, are equal to one another, and, converfely,
equal ordinates intercept equal fegments of the diameter
from the centre.
Prop. XX.
PlateCLXI.The tranfvevfe axis of an hyperbola is the leaft of
all its tranfverfe diameters, and the conjugate
axis is the leaft of all its fecond diameters.
Fig. 64. Let Hr he the tranfverfe axis, ¥p any other tranf¬
verfe diameter, draw PE perpendicular to Rr; then
CE being greater than CR, and CP greater than
CE, much more is CP greater than CR, therefore P^
is greater than Rr. In like manner it is {hewn that if
Sr be the conjugate axis, and Qq any other fecond
diameter, 7 is greater than Sr.
E C T I O N S. Part uj
any third tranfverfe diameter, the fquare of the Of the
fegment of that diameter, intercepted between*Hvtwb'-'!*
the ordinate from the vertex of the fecond dia-
meter, and the centre, is equal to the redlangle
contained by the fegments between the other
ordinate and the vertices of the third tranfverfe
diameter. And the fquare of the fegment in¬
tercepted between the ordinate frpm the vertex
of the tranfverfe diameter and the centre is
equal to the fquare of the fegment between the
other ordinate, and the centre, together with
the fquare of half the third tranfverfe diameter.
Let P/>, Qq be two conjugate diameters, of which rv. 6a.
P/> is a tranfverfe, and a fecond diameter j let PE, °
QG be femi-ordinates to any third tranfverfe diameter
Rr, then CG2=;RE*Er, and CEJ=CGz-{-CR*.
Draw the tangents PH, QK, meeting Rr in H and
K. The redtangles HC -CE and KC-CG are equal,
for each is equal to CR* (o.) therefore,
HC : CK :: CG : CE.
Prop. XXL
Plate ax. If an ordinate be drawn to any tranfverfe diame¬
ter of an hyperbola, the re&angle under the
abfciiTes of the diameter is to the fquare of the
femi-ordinate as the diameter to its parameter.
Tig. 6?, Let DE be a femi-ordinate to the tranfverfe diame¬
ter P/>; let PG be the parameter of the diameter, and
Qy the conjugate diameter. By the definition of the
parameter (Def. 16.)
P/> • 0.9 ■■■■ 09 ■■ PG,
therefore P/> : PG :: P/i* : (£<7% (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But iy : Oy :: PE • E/> . DE*, (19.)
therefore PE'Ey> : DE* :: P/> : PG.
Cor. Let the parameter PG be perpendicular to the
diameter P/>; join/>G, and from E draw EM paral¬
lel to PG, meeting />G in M. The fquare of DE the
femi-ordinate is equal to the reftangle contained by PE
and EM.
For PE-E/> : DE* :: P/> : PG,
and ?J> : PG :: E/> : EM :: PE-E/> : PE-EM,
therefore DE*=PE’EM.
Scholium.
If the red!angles PGL/>, HGKM be completed, it
will appear that the fquare of ED is equal to the redt-
angle MP, which redtangle is greater than the redt-
angle KP, contained by the abfeifs PE, and the pa¬
rameter GP, by a redtangle KH fimilar and fimilar-
ly fituated to LP, the redlangle contained by the pa¬
rameter and diameter. It was on account of the ex-
cefs of the fquare of the ordinate above the redtangle
contained by the abfeifs and parameter that Apollonius
gave the curve to which the property belonged the
name of Hyperbola.
Prop. XXII.
KatcCLXlJf from the vertices of trvo conjugate diameters
of an hyperbola there be drawn ordinates to
2
But the triangles HPC, COK are evidently fimilar
(cor. Def. 15.) and fince PE, QG are parallel, their
bafes CH, KC fimilarly divided at E and G, there¬
fore
HC : CK :: HE : CG,
wherefore CG : CE :: HE : CG,
confequently CG*—CE • EH— (1 cor. 9.) RE • Er.
Again, from the fimilar triangles HPC, CQX,
HC : CK :: CE : KG.
Now it was {hewn that HC : CK :: CG : CE,
therefore CG : CE :: CE : KG,
confequently
CE*=CG-GK=r (3. 2. E.) CG*-fGC-CK.
But GC-CK=CR* (18..)
therefore CE*=:CG*-j-CR*.
Cor. i. Let Sr be the diameter that is conjugate
to Rr, then Rr is to Sr as CG to PE, or as CE to
QG.
For Rr* : Sr* :: RE • Er, or CG* : PE*,
therefore Rr : Sr :: CG : PE.
In like manner Rr : Sr CE : QG.
Cor. 2. The difference between the fquares of CF,
CG the fegments of the tranfverfe diameter to which
the femi-ordinates PE, QG are drawn, is equal to the
fquare of CR the femi-diameter. For it has been {hewn
that CE*=CG*-fCR*j
therefore CE*—CG*=CR*.
Cor. 3. The difference of the fquares of any two
conjugate diameters is equal to the difference of the
fquares of the axes. Let Rr, Sr be the axes, and
PA Q? any tw-o conjugate diameters; draw PE,
QG perpendicular to Rr, and PL, QM perpendicular
to Sr. Then
CE*—CG* = CR%
and CM*—CL*, or GB*—PE*—CS‘,
therefore CE* + PE*—(CG*-fGQ*)—CR*—CS%
that is (47. 1. E.) CP*—CQ*=CR*—CS\
therefore Vp1—Qj*—lir*—Sj*.
Prop.
P t III. CONIC £
the Prop. XXIII.
jj rbola-jf ftraight lines be drawn touching conjugate
hyperbolas at the vertices of any two conjugate
diameters, the parallelogram formed by thefe
lines is equal to the rectangle contained by the
tranfverfe and conjugate axes.
Let P/>, be any two conjugate diameters, a
^ parallelogram DE.GH formed by tangents to the con¬
jugate hyperbolas at their vertices is equal to the re£t-
angle contained by A B £ the two axes.
Let A a, one of the axes, meet the tangent PL in K j
join QK, and draw PL, OM perpendicular to A a.
Bccaufe CK : CA :: CA : CL (9.)
and CA : CB :: CL : QM (1 cor. 22->
ex aeq. CK : CB :: CA : QM,
therefore CK • Q^M—CB * CA.
But CK • QMrrtwice trian. CK^paral. CPEO,
therefore the parallelogram CPLt^r^CB * CA j
and, taking the quadruples of thefe, the parallelogram
DEGH is equal to the re&angle contained by A a
and B b.
Prop. XXIV.
If two tangents at the vertex of any tranfverfe dia¬
meter of an hyperbola meet a third tangent,
the re&angle contained by their fegments be¬
tween the points of contadh, and the points of
interfedfion, is equal to the fquare of the femi-
diameter to which they are parallel. And the
redfangle contained by the fegments of the third
tangent between its points of contadl and the
. parallel tangents, is equal to the fquare of the
femi-diameter to which it is parallel.
1 65. Let PH,/> /z, tangents at the vertices of a tranfverfe
diameter P/>, meet DH a tangent to the curve at
any point D, in H and h; let C£) be the femi-diame¬
ter to which the tangents PH, fi h are parallel, and
CR that to which H ^ is parallel $ then
PH • /> /?=CQ*, and DH * D /zrrCR*.
Let H h meet the femi-diameters CP, C£) in L and
K. Draw ED, RM parallel to CQ, and DG parallel
to CP.
Becaufe LP * L/>=rLE • LC (2 cor. 9.)
LP : LE :: LC : L/>;
Hence, and becaufe of the parallels PH, ED, CK,/>/5,
PH : ED :: CK : />//,
wherefore PH ’/i/zzrED ' CK^
But ED • CK-CG • CKrrCQ1 (18.)
therefore PH • />
Again, the triangles LED, CMR are evidently fi-
milar, and LE, LD are fimilarly divided at PI and P,
alfo at h and />,
therefore PE : HD :: (LE : LD ::^ CM : CR,
alfo/> E : /z D :: (LE : LD ::) CM : CR,
hence, taking the redlangles of the correfponding
terms,
P£ •/>£ ; HD • //D :: CM* ; CR*.
E C T I O N S. 541
But, if CD be joined, the points D and R are evi-
dently the vertices of two conjugate diameters (cor., ype'r '°‘a(
def. 15.) and therefore PE 'p E=CM* (22.)
therefore HD * h DzrCR*.
Cor. The reflangle contained by LD and DK, the
fegments of a tangent intercepted between D the point
of contact, and P/>, any two conjugate diameters,
is equal to the fquare of CR, the femi-diameter to which
the tangent is parallel..
Let the parallel tangents PH, p h meet LK in H
and and draw DE a femi-ordinate to P^. Becaufe
of the parallels ED, PH, CK,/> ^,
LE : LD :: EP : DH,
and EC : DK :: E/> : D/z,
therefore
LE • EC : LD • DK :: EP • E/> : DH • D /z.
But LE • EC=:EP * E/> (1 cor. 9.)
therefore LD • DKrrDH ' D /z=(by this prop.) CFA
Prop. XXV.
If two (Iraight lines be drawn from the foci of an
hyperbola perpendicular to a tangent, ftraight
lines drawn from the centre, to the points in
which they meet the tangent, will each be
equal to half the tranfverfe axis.
Let P z/ D be a tangent to the curve at P, and FD, Fig. 67.
f d perpendiculars to the tangent from the foci, the
ftraight lines joining the points C, D and C, d are each
equal to AC, half the tranfverfe axis.
Join FP,/P, and produce FD, P f till they inter-
fe<ft in E. The triangles FDP, EDP have the an¬
gles at D right angles, and the angles FPD, EPD
equal (4.), and the fide DP common to both; they are
therefore equal, and confequently have1 ED—DF, and
EP=PF, wherefore E yhrFP—P f—K a. Now the
ftraight lines FE, F/"being bifefled at D and C, the-
line DC is parallel to E/j and thus the triangles
F/E, FCD are fimilar,
therefore F/": jf F, or A z* :: FC : CD ;
but FC is half F/j therefore CD is half of A a*
Cor. If a ftraight line () y be drawm through the
centre parallel to the tangent D z/, it will cut off
from PE, Vf the fegments PG, P^-, each equal to AC
half the tranfverfe axis. For Cz/ PG, CDP^ are pa¬
rallelograms, therefore PGm:z/C=:AC, and P^zzDC^:
AC.
Prop. XXVI.
The re&angle contained by perpendiculars drawn
from the foci of an hyperbola to a tangent is
equal to the fquare of half the conjugate axis.
Let Pz/D be a tangent, and FD,/z/ perpendicu-^ ^
lars from the foci, the reftangle contained by FD and
f d is equal to the fquare of BC half the conjugate
axis.
It is evident from laft propofition that the points
D, d are in the circumference of a circle, whofe centre
is
542
Qfth^ js the centre of the hyperbola, and radius CA half the
Uyper»oia. tranverfe axis j now FD</ being a right angle, if </ C
’ be joined, and produced, it will meet DF in H, a
point in the circumference 5 and fince FCr^yC, and
CHrzG/, and the angles FCH,/'Ci/ are equal, FH
is equal to f d, therefore,
DF^/-DF-FH=rAF-rtF (36. 3. E.)=rCBa (3.)
Cor. If PF, Vf, be drawn from the point of con¬
tact to the foci, the fquare of FD is a fourth propor¬
tional to/"P, FP and CB\ For the angles
FPD are equal (4.), and FDP, f d P are right angles,
therefore the triangles FDP,yV/P are fimilar, and
/P : FP :: fd: FD :: fd' FD or BC* : FD*.
Prop. XXVII.
'lo'CS* If from C the centre of an hyperbola a ftraight
line CL be drawn perpendicular to a tangent
LD, and from D the point of contact a perpen¬
dicular be drawn to the tangent, meeting the
tranfverfe axis in H, and the conjugate axis in
hy the rectangle contained by CL and DH is
equal to the fquare of CB, the femi-conjugate
axis; and the - rectangle contained by CL and
DA is equal to the fquare * of CA, the femi-
tranfverfe axis.
Let the axes meet the tangent in M and w, and
from D draw the femi-ordinates DE, Dp, which will
be perpendicular to the axes.
The triangles DEH, CL/» are evidently equiangu-
iar, therefore,
DH : DE ■.-.Cm : CL,
hence CL • DHrrDE • Cw,
but DE ■ C 772 or C e * (10.)
therefore CL • DH=BC*.
In the fame way it may be fhewn that CL • D //=
AC*.
Cor. I. If a perpendicular be drawn to a tangent
at the point of contaft, the fegments intercepted be¬
tween the point of contadl and the axes are to each
other reciprocally as the fquares of the axes by which
. they are terminated.
For AC* : BC* :: CL • D /2 : CL • DH :: D/S : DH.
Cor. 2. If DF be drawn to either focus, and HK
be drawn perpendicular to PF •, the ftraight line DK
{hall be equal to half the parameter of the tranfverfe
axis.
Draw CG parallel to the tangent at D, meeting
DH in N, and DF in G. The triangles GDN, HDK
are iimilar, therefore
GD : DN :: HD : DK j
and hence GD • DK=HD • DN.
But GD=AC (cor. 25') and ND=CL,
therefore AC • DKrrHD : CLrz(by the prop.) CB4,
wherefore AC : BC :: BC : DK,
hence DK is half the parameter of Aa (def. 16.)
Definition.
Fig. XVII. If a point G betaken in the tranfverfe axis
of an hyperbola, io that the divtance of G from the
Part II]
centre may be a third proportional to CF, the di- Of the,
fiance of either focus from the centre, and CA the Hyperhdl
femi-tranfverfe axis, a ftraight line HG /i drawn "“V"’1'
through G, perpendicular to the axis, is called the Di~
redlrix of the hyperbola.
Cor. I. If P/IF/tz, an ordinate to the axis, be drawn
through the focus, tangents to the hyperbola at the ex¬
tremities of the ordinate will meet the axis at the point
G (9.).
Cor. 2. The hyperbola has two directrices, for the
point G may be taken on either ftde of the centre.
Prof. XXVIII.
The diftance of any point in an hyperbola from
either directrix is to its diftance from the focus
neareft that dire&rix, in the conftant ratio of
the femi-tranfverfe axis to the diftance of the fo¬
cus from the centre.
Let D be any point in the hyperbola j let DK be Fig
drawn perpendicular to the directrix, and DF to the
focus neareft the diredlrix ; DK is to DF as CA, half
the tranverfe axis, to CF, the diftance of the focus
from the centre.
D^awr D^to the other focus, and DE perpendicu¬
lar to A z?,-'take L a point in the axis To that ALrr
FD, and confequently Ln—T)f ; then CL is evidently
half the fum of AL and a L, or of FD and/D, and
CE half the fum of FE andXE, and becaufe
D/-DF : F/::/E+FE : D/+DF (Trig.)
by taking the halves of the terms of the proportion,
CA : CF :: CE : CL.
Hut CA : CF :: CG : CA (def. 17.L
therefore, CG : CA :: CE : CL,
hence (19. 5. E.) EG : AL :: CG : CA :: CA : CF
that is, DK : DF :: CA : CF.
Cor. 1. If ..the tangent GMN be drawn through M,
the extremity of the ordinate pafling through the focus,
and ED be produced to meet GM in N, EN {ball be
equal to DF. For draw MO perpendicular to the
dire£trix, then, becaufe M and D are points in the hy¬
perbola, and from fimilar triangles,
EM : FD :: MO : DK :: GF : GE :: ME : EN,
therefore FDmEN.
Cor. 2. If AI and a i be drawn perpendicular to the
tranfverfe axis at its extremities, meeting the tangent,
GM in I and then AI—AF and ai~aY.
Prop. XXIX.
If through P and Q the vertices of two femi-dia- Fig. j
meters of an hyperbola there be drawn ftraight
lines PD, QE parallel to one of the afymptotes
CN, meeting the other afymptote in D and E,
the hyperbolic fe£torPCO is equal to the hyper¬
bolic trapezium PDEQ.
Let C£) meet PD in G. The triangles CDP,
CEQ^are equal (1 cor. 14.) therefore, taking the tri¬
angle CDG from both, the triangle CGP is equal to
the quadrilateral DEQG 5 to thefe add the figure
PG&,
CO NIC S E € TI ONS.
ptlll. CONIC S
the FGQ, and the hyperbolic fc£lor PCQ_ is equal to the
3 :ibola hyperbolic trapezium PDEO.
Prop. XXX.
If from tlie centre of an hyperbola the fegments
CD, CE, CH be taken in continued propor¬
tion, in one of the afymptotes, and the ftraight
lines DP, EQ, HR be drawn parallel to the
other afymptote, meeting the hyperbola in P,
Q> the hyperbolic areas PDEO, QEHR are
equal.
Through Q draw a tangent to the curve, meeting
the afymptotes in K and L : join PR meeting the
afymptotes in M and N *, draw the femi-diameters CP,
C(^, CR, let meet PR in G.
Eecaufe is parallel to CM, and KQ^ is equal to
QL (2 cor. 13.) CE is equal to EL*, and becaule
MC, PD, RH, are parallel, and MP is equal to
RN (1 cor. 13.) CD is equal to HN. Now, by hy¬
pothecs.
CD : CE •: CE : CH,
therefore NH : LE :: CE : CH 5
but CE : CH :: HR : EQ^fzcor. 14.)
therefore NH : LE :: HR : EQ,
and by alternation NH : PIR :: LE : E£).
Now the angles at H and E are equal, therefore
the triangles NHR, LEQ^ are equiangular, and NR
is parallel to LO } confequently RP is an ordinate to
the diameter CQ^(8.) and is bife£ted by it at G j and
as Cf) bifedls all lines which are parallel to KL, and
are terminated by the hyperbola, it will bifeft the
area PQR. Let the equal areas PQG, RQG be
taken from the equal triangles PCG, RCG, and there
will remain the hyperbolic fedlofs PCO, RC£) equal
to each other. Therefore (29.) the areas DPf)E,
E£RH are alfo equal.
Cor. Hence if CD, CE, CH, &c. any number of
fegments of the afymptote be taken in continued pro¬
portion, the areas DP£)E, DPQRH, &c. reckoned
from the firft line-DP, will be in arithmetical progref-
fion.
Prop. XXXI. Problem.
I; 7:, 73.Two ftraight lines Ha, B which bife£l: each
other at right angles in C, being given by po-
fition, to defcribe an hyperbola, of which H a
lhall be the tranfverfe and B b the conjugate
axis.
First Method. By a Mechanical Defcripnon.
‘ ^3‘ Join AB, and in A a, produced, take CF, C^each
equal to AB 3 the points F, f will be the foci of the
hyperbola.
Let one end of a firing be faftened at F, and the
other to G the extremity of a ruler ./DG, and let the
E C T 10 N S. 543
difference between the length of the ruler and the 01 the,
firing be equal to A a. Let tne other end 01 the ^ ‘ t
ruler be fixed to the pointy, and let the rulei be made
to revolve about f as a centre in the plane in which
the axes are fituated, while the firing is ftretched by
means of a pin D, fo that the part of it between G
and D is applied clqfe to the'edge of the ruler 5 the
point of the pin will by its motion trace a curve line
DAD upon the plane which is one of the hyperbolas
required. /
If the ruler be made to revolve about the other
focus F, while the end of the firing is faftened to f
the oppofite hyperbola will be deferibed by the
moving point D* \ for in either cafe Fj j—(GD-f-Dh ),
that is, D/L_DF is by hypothefis equal to A « the
tranfverfe axis.
SECOND Method. By finding any number of points in
the curve.
Find F, either of the foCi as before, draw HAK, Fjg. 73#
h a k perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis at its extre¬
mities, and take AH and AK on each fide of the ver¬
tex equal to AF, alio a h and a k each equal to i3 F j
join H h and K k ; take E any point in A a, and
through E draw NE n parallel to HK, meeting H h
and K £ in N and n. On F as a centre, with a radihs
equal to EN or E «, let a circle be deferibed meeting
N n in D and thefe will be' two points in the hy¬
perbola ; and in the fame way may any number of
points in the hyperbola, or oppofite hyperbolas, be
found. The reafon of this conftru&ion is obvious from
cor. I. and 2. to Prop. 28. t
Prop. XXXII. Problem.
An hyperbola being given by pofition, to find its Clxli.
axes.
Let HA h be the given hyperbola. Draw twoFlg 74>
parallel ftraight lines H /$, K b terminating in either
of the oppofite hyperbolas, and bifedl them at L and
M 5 join LM, and produce it to meet the hyperbola in
P 3 then LP will be a tranfverfe diameter (4 cor. 8.).
Let p be the point in which it meets the oppofite hy¬
perbola, bifeft P p in C, the point C is the centre (2.).
Take D any point in the hyperbola, and on C as a
centre with the diflanee CD defcribe a circle 5 if this
circle lie wholly without the oppofite hyperbolas, then
CD muft be half the tranfverfe axis (20.), but if not,
let the circle meet the hyperbola again in d, join
D d, and bifeft it in E, join CE, meeting the oppofite
hyperbolas in A and a, then A a will be the tranfverfe
axis (5 cor. 8.) for it is perpendicular to D (3. ,3.
E.) which is an ordinate to A a. The other axis will
be found by drawing B £ a ftraight line through the
centre perpendicular to A <7, and taking CB lb that
CB1 may be a fourth proportional to the redlangle
AE * E rf, and the fquares of DE and CA, thus CB
is half the conjugate axis (ip-)*
PART
544
Of the Cone
and its
Sections.
CONIC SECTIONS,
PART IV.
Part 1\ i
OftheCc
and its
Sections
SECT. L
OF THE CONE AND ITS SECTIONS.
Definitions.
75* I. If through the point V, without the plane of the
circle ADB, a ftraight line AVE be drawn, and pro¬
duced indefinitely both ways, and if the point V re¬
main fixed while the ftraight line AVE is moved round
the whole circumference of the circle, two fuperficies
will be generated by its motion, each of which is called
a Conical Superficies, and thefe mentioned together are
called Oppofite Conical Superficies.
II. 1 he folid contained by the conical fuperficies,
and the circle ADB is called a Cone,
III. The fixed point V is called the Vertex of the
cone.
IV. The circle ADB is called the Eafie of the cone.
V. Any ftraight line drawn from the vertex to the
circumference of the bafe is called a Side of the cone.
VI. A ftraight line VC drawn through the vertex
of the cone, and the centre of the bafe, is called the
Axis of the cone.
VII. If the axis of the cone be perpendicular to the
bafe it is called a Right cone.
VIII. If the axis of the cone be not perpendicular to
the bafe, it is called a Scalene cone.
Prop. I.
If a cone be cut by a plane palling through the
vertex, the fe£lion will be a triangle.
Fig. 75. Let ADBV be a cone, of which VC is the axis ;
let AD be the common feftion of the bafe of the cone
and the cutting plane } join VA, VD. When the ge¬
nerating line comes to the points A and D, it is evi¬
dent that it will coincide with the ftraight lines VA,
VD, they are therefore in the furface of the cone, and
they are in the plane which paffes through the points
V, A, D, therefore the triangle VAD is the common
fe&ion of the cone and the plane which paflfes through
its vertex.
Prop. II.
If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its bafe, the
fe&ion will be a circle, the centre of which is
in the axis.
Let EFG be the fe£Uon made by a plane parallel
^ to the bafe of the cone, and VAB, \ CD two fe£hons
of the cone made by any two planes palling through
the axis VC j let EG, HF be the common fe&ions
of the plane EFG, and the triangles VAB, VCD.
Becaufe the planes EFG, ADB are parallel, HE,
HF will be parallel to CA, CD, and
AC : EH t: (VC r VH ::) CD : HF,
but AC —CD, therefore EH=HF. For the fame
reafon GH=HF, therefore EFG is a circle of which
H is the centre and EG the diameter.
Prop. III.
If a fcalene cone ADBV be cut through the axis 76.
by a plane perpendicular to the bafe, making
the triangle VAB, and from any point H, in
the ftraight line AV, a ftraight line EIK be
drawn in the plane of the triangle VAB, fo that
the angle VHK may be equal to the angle VBA,
and the cone be cut by another plane palling
through HK perpendicular to the plane of the
triangle ABC, the common fe£lion HFKM of
this plane and the cone will be a circle.
Take any point L in the ftraight line HK, and
through L draw EG parallel to AB, and let EFGM
be a feftion parallel to the bafe, palling through EG ;
then the two planes HFKM, EFGM being perpendi¬
cular to the plane VAB, their common fedlion FLM
is perpendicular to ELG, and fince EFGM is a circle
(by laft prop.) and EG its diameter, the fquare of FL
is equal to the re&angle contained by EL and LG
(35. 3. E.) 5 but fince the angle VHK is equal to
VBA, or VGE, the angles EHK, EGK are equal,
therefore the points E, H, G, K, are in the circum¬
ference of a circle (21.3. E;), andHL * LK= EL * LG
(35. 3. E.)=FL% therefore the feftion HFKM is a
circle of which HLK is a diameter (35. 3. E.).
This feci ion is called a Subcontranj Seciion.
Prop. IV.
If a cone be cut by a plane which does not pafs
through the vertex, and which is neither paral¬
lel to the bafe, nor to the plane of a fubcontra-
ry fe£lion, the common fe£tion of the plane and
the furface of the cone will be an elliple, a pa¬
rabola, or an hyperbola, according as the plane
palling through the vertex parallel to the cut¬
ting plane falls without the cone, touches it, or
falls within it.
Let ADBV be any cone, and let ONP be thep-ig.
common fe&ion of a plane palling through its vertex 79.
and the plane of the bafe, which will fall without the
bafe, will touch it, or will fall within it.
Let FKM be a fe&ion of the cone parallel to VPO ;
through C the centre of the bafe draw CN perpendi¬
cular to OP, meeting the circumference of the bafe in
A and B ; let a plane pafs through V, A and B,
meeting the plane OVP in the line NV, the furface
of the cone in VA, VB, and the plane of the fe&iort
FKM in LK •, then becaufe the planes OVP, MKF
are parallel, KL will be parallel to VN, and will
meet VB one fide of the cone in K j it will meet VA
CONIC SECTIONS.
iv.
Gone the other Tide in H, fig. 77. within the cone*, it will
■ts be parallel to VA in fig. 7^’ ailtl it will meet A,
3ns-, produced beyond the vertex, in H, fig. 79.
Let EFGM be a feftion of the cone parallel to the
bafe, meeting the plane VAB in EG, and the plane
FKM in FM, and let L be the interfeftion of EG
and FM, then EG will be parallel to BN, and FM
will be parallel to PO, and therefore will make the
fame angle with LK .wherever the lines FM,LK cut
each other, and fince BN is perpendicular to PO, EG
is perpendicular to FM. Now the fedlion EIGM is a
circle of which EG is the diameter (2.) 5 therefore
triangle and circle, may be referred to the hyperbola Of the Cur.
and the ellipfe, for if the axes of an hyperbola be fup- 'conk
pofed to retain a conttant ratio to each other, and, at se<ftjons,
the fame time to diminifh continually, till at laft the 1 1 — v'—■*
vertices coincide $ the oppofite hyperbolas will evi¬
dently become two flraight lines interfedting each
other in a point •, and a circle may be confidered as .an
ellipfe, whofe axes are equal, or whofe foci coincide
with the centre j fo that the only three feflions which
require to be feparately coniidered, are the ellipfe, the
parabola, and the hyperbola.
FM is bife&ed at L, and FL2 = EL-.LG.
7- Case I. Let the line PNO be without the bafe of
the cone. Through K and H draw KR and HO pa¬
rallel to AB. The triangles KLG, KHQ^ are fimi-
lar, as alfo HLE, HKR * therefore
KL : LG :: KH : HQ,
and HL : LE :: KH : KR j
therefore KL'HL : LG‘LE or LF1 :: KH1: HQ'KR.
Now the ratio of KH1 to HQ'KR is the fame where-
ever the feftions HFKM, EIGM interfedt each other,
therefore KL'HL has a conftant ratio to LF1, confe-
quently (1 cor. 11. Part II.) the fedtion HFKM is an
ellipfe, of which HK is a diameter and MF an ordi¬
nate.
7S. Case II. Next, fuppofe the line ONP to touch
the circumference of the bafe in A. Let DIS be the
common feclion of the bafe and the plane FKM, the
line DIS is evidently parallel to FLM and perpendi¬
cular to AB, therefore DP=r AI * IB,
hence DP : FL* :: AI * IB : EL * LG.
But fince EG is parallel to AB, and IK parallel to
AV, AI is equal to EL, and
IB : LG :: KI : KL j
therefore DP : FL*:: KI : KL.
Hence it appears (cor. 9. Part I.), that the fe&ion
DFKMS is a parabola, of which KLI is a diameter
and DIS, FLM ordinates to that diameter.
79- Case III. Laftly, Let the line PNO fall within the
bafe j draw VT through the vertex parallel to EG. The
triangles HVT, HEL arefimilar, as alfo the triangles
KVT, KGL, therefore
HT : TV :: HL : LE,
and KT : TV :: KL : LG,
therefore HT-KT : TV2 :: HL-LK : LE-LGor LF1.
Hence it appears, that HL'LK has to LF* a conftant
ratio, therefore the fedtion DFKMS is an hyperbola,
of w'hich KH is a tranfverfe diameter, and FM an or¬
dinate to that diameter, (2 cor. 19. Part III.).
SECT. II.
OF THE CURVATURE OF THE CONIC
SECTIONS.
Definitions.
I. A circle is faid to touch a conic fedlion in any
point, when the circle and conic fediion have a com¬
mon tangent in that point.
II. If a circle touch a conic fedtion in any point, fe
that no other circle touching it in the fame point can
pais between it and the conic fedlion on either fide of
the point of contadl, it is faid to have the fame curva¬
ture with the conic fedlion in the point of contadl, and
it is called the Circle of Curvature.
Lemma.
Let PL be any chord in a circle, PX a tangent at Fig. 80.
one of its extremities, and LK a diameter paf-
fing through the other extremity : draw any
chord G g parallel to the tangent PX, meeting
PL in E, and from its extremities draw GH,
g h perpendicular to the diameter, meeting PL
in N and n •, the fquare of GE is equal to the
redtangle contained by PE and LN, and the
fquare of g E is equal to the re&angle contain¬
ed by PE and L n.
From G and g draw the ftraight lines GP, g P,
GL, g L, and let LM a perpendicular to the diame¬
ter, and therefore a tangent to the circle at L, meet
the tangent PX in M. The triangle NGE is evi¬
dently fimilar to the triangle LMP, and LM—MP,
therefore NGrrGE •, hence the angles GNL, GEP
are equal. Now the angle PGE is equal to the alter¬
nate angle GPX, that is, to the angle GLN in the al¬
ternate fegment of the circle (32. 3. E.), therefore
the triangles PGE, GLN are fimilar, and
PE : EG :: GN or EG : NL,
therefore GE*=PE • NL,
Scholium.
From the four preceding propofitions it appears,
that the only lines which can be formed by the com¬
mon fe&ion of a plane and the furface of a cone, are
thefe five. I. A ftraight line, or rather two ftraight
lines interfefling each other in the vertex of the cone,
and forming with the ftraight line which joins the
points in which they meet the bafe a triangle. II. A
circle. III. An ellipfe. IV. A parabola. V. An
hyperbola. The two firft of thefe, however, viz. the
' Vol. VI. Part II.
In the fame way it may be demonftrated that ng=gE,
and that the triangles P g E, g L « are fimilar, and
therefore that
PE ; Eg :: gn or Eg : n L,
and hence g E*=PE ' n L.
Prop. I.
If a circle be deferibed touching a conic fe&ion,
and cutting off from the diameter that pafles
3 Z through
l
I
CONIC S E
tlirough the point of, contact a fegment greater
than the parameter of that diameter, a part of
the circumference on each fide of the point of
contact will be wholly without the conic fec-
tion $ but if it cuts off from the diameter a feg¬
ment lefs than the parameter, a part of the cir¬
cumference on each fide of the point of conta£l
will be wholly within the conic fe&ion.
u Let P/> be the diameter of a conic fe£lion •, let a
Sj( §4.’ ’circle GP ^ touch the feftion in P the vertex of the
diameter, and cut off from it a fegment PL, \vhich is
either greater or lefs than the parameter of the diame-
Itar} in the former cafe a part GP g of the circumfe¬
rence of the circle on each fide of P the point of con¬
tact will be wholly w?ithout the conic fefkion, as in
fig. 81. and fig. 82. and in the latter a part GP^- of the
circumference on each fide of P will be wholly within
the feftion, as in fig. 83. and fig. 84.
Through L draw LK a diameter of the circle 5 let
DE d an ordinate to the diameter of the fedtion meet
the circle in G and g, fo that the points G, P, g may
be on the fame fide of LK the diameter of the circle,
and draw GH, g h, PO perpendicular to LK, the two
former lines meeting LP in N and From L to¬
wards P place LR in the diameter equal to its para¬
meter } then in the former cafe the point R will fall
between L and P, as in fig. 81. and 82. } and in the
latter it will fall in LP produced, as in fig. 82. and
83-
Case I. Firft, let the fedlion be a parabola (fig.
81.83.)
ThenDE% alforfTPirrPE'RL (Cor. prop. 9. of Part I.)
Now GE^PE-LNl x
and ‘j E’—PE-L if (Le,mma)-
CTIONS. Pan],,
Therefore DE* : GE* :: LR : LN, Of the j
and ^ E* : p- E* :: LR : L n. vatui \
the C j
Now if the ordinate D be fuppofed to approach to Se&i !
the tangent at the vertex, the points G, £ will ap-'—“V'
proach to P, the lines GH, g h to the line PO, and
the points N, n to the vertex P, where they will at
laft coincide j hence it is evident, that the ordinate
DE d may be at fuch a diftance from the tangent
that tile points N, w, and the vertex P, may be all on
the fame fide of the point R j in this pofition of the
ordinate if the fegment cut off by the circle be greater
than the parameter, as in fig. 81. then LR will be
lefs than either LN, or L «, and therefore DE* lefs
than GE*, alfo d E* lefs than g E*, fo that the points
G, g are both without the parabola. If the ordinate
be fuppofed to approach nearer to the tangent, as the
points N, n will alfo approach nearer to P, the line
LR will fiill be lefs' than either LN, or L w, and
therefore DE* lefs than GE* , and </E* lefs than
^ E*. Hence it follows, that every point in the arch
GP g, which lies on each fide of the point of contact
is without the parabola.
If the fegment cut off by the circle be lefs than the
parameter (fig. 83.), and therefore LR greater than
either LN or L n, then, reafoning as before, it will
appear that DE* is greater than GE*, and dJL1 great¬
er thang E*, fo that the points G, g are within the
parabola j and as the fame will hold for every other
pofition of the ordinate nearer to the tangent, the
arch GP g which lies on each fide of the point of eon-
taft is wholly within the parabola.
CASE' II. Next, let the feftion be an ellipfs, or an
hyperbola (fig. 82. 84.) (a). Take V a point in LR,.
fo that
/> P : /> E :: LR : LV,
and therefore Pp : LR :: /> E : LV :: p E'EP : LV EPi
Rut Pp : LR :: /> E-EP : DE* or //E * (13. Part II. and 21. Part HI.),’
therefore DE*, alfo d E*~LV EP.
therefore E)E* : GE* :: LV : LN,
and E* •: g E* :: LV ; L/z.
Nowr as P p and RL are fimilarly divided at E and V,
if the point E approach to P, the point V will ap¬
proach to R, and as E may come nearer to P than
any aflignable line, fo V may come nearer to R than
any aflignable line •, but as in the fame circumftances
GH and g h approach to PO, and N and n approach
to P, it is evident that the ordinate T) d may have
fnch a pofition that the points N, w, and the vertex P,
may be all on the fame fide of V, and the fame thing
have place for every other pofition of the ordinate
nearer to the tangent) therefore, in thefe circumftan¬
ces, when LP the fegment cut off from the diameter
is greater than LR the parameter (fig. 82.), LV will
be lefs than either LN or L and confequently DE*
lefs than GE*, alfo d E* lefs than E* ; thus the points-
G, g, as well as every other point in the arch GV g
which lies on both fides of the vertex, are without the
ellipfe or hyperbola.
On the contrary, when LP is left than LR the pa¬
rameter (fig. 84.), LV will be greater than either
LN or L », and therefore DE* greater than GEL al¬
fo d E* greater than ,§■£*; and therefore the points
G, g, as well as every other point in the arch GP gr.
are within the ellipfe or hyperbola.
Cor. i. If a circle touch a conic fe&ion, and cut
off from the diameter that paffes through the point of
contadl a fegment equal to its parameter, it will have
the fame curvature with the conic feftion in the point
of
(a) As the reafoning applies alike to the ellipfe and hyperbola, to avoid a number of figures,, thofe for the
* hyperbola are omitted.
IV.
0 O N I C S E
i Cur-of contact, for it a greater circle be defcribed it will
";of cut off from the diameter a fegment greater than its
mic parameter, therefore a part of its circumference on
, each fide of the point of contact will be wholly with¬
out the conic feftion \ and as it will alfo be without the
former circle, it will not pafs between that circle and
the conic feftion at the point of contaft. If, on the
other hand, a lefs circle be defcribed, it will cut off
from the diameter a fegment lefs than its parameter,
therefore a part of its circumference on each fide of
the point of contadl will fall within the conie feftion j
and as it will be within the former circle, it will not
pafs between that circle and the conic feftion at the
point of contaft. Hence (Def. 2.), the circle which
cuts off a fegment equal to the parameter is the circle
of curvature.
Cor. 2. Only one circle can have the fame curva¬
ture with a conic feflion in a given point.
Prop. II.
i-e The circle of curvature at the vertex of the axis of
(;I11, a parabola, or at the vertex of the tranfverfe
axis of an ellipfe or hyperbola, falls wholly with¬
in the conic fe&ion •, but the circle of curvature
at the vertex of the conjugate axis of an ellipfe
falls wholly without the conic fedlion.
1 5,86, Let P/> be the axis of the parabola (fig. 85.), and
7 *• PGL^ the circle of curvature at its vertex, which
therefore cuts off from the axis a fegment PL equal to
the parameter of the axis ; becaufe the tangent at the
vertex is common to the parabola and circle, the cen¬
tre of the circle is in P />. Let DE d an ordinate to
the axis meet the circle in G and g ; it may be ftiewn
as in laff propofition that
DE1 : GE* :: LP : LE.
But in every pofition of the ordinate LP is greater
than LE, therefore DE* is always greater than GE*,
and </E* greater than g E* j therefore the circle is
wholly v'ithin the parabola. Next let P/> be the
tranfverfe axis of an ellipfe or hyperbola (fig. 86, 87.),
or the conjugate axis of an ellipfe (fig. 88.), and
PGL.y the circle of curvature, then as in the para¬
bola the centre of the circle w ill be in the axis. Draw
Tid an ordinate to the axis meeting the circle in G,^,*
and take.a point V in PL, fo that
p P : /> E :: LP : LV $
then it will appear as in laft prop, that
DE* : GE* :: LV : LE.
Now, when P/> is the tranfverfe axis of an ellipfe,
(fig. 86.) as P/> is greater than LP, and P/> : PL ::
PE : PV, therefore PE is greater than PV, and hence
LV is alwrays greater than LE, therefore DE* is
greater than GE*, alfo dH? greater than^E*, fo that
the circle falls wholly wdthin the ellipfe.
Again, when Pp is the tranfverfe axis of an hy¬
perbola (fig. 87.), as /> E is greater than /> P, there¬
fore LV is greater than LP, and confequently greater
alfo than LE 5 hence DE* is greater than GE, and
</E* is greater than .gE1, and the circle is wholly
Within the hyperbola.
Laftly, When P/> is the conjugate axis of an el-
c TI o N s. 547
lipfe (fig. 88.) as P/> is lefs than LP, and P/> : LP :;Ofthe£ur_
PE :: PV, therefore, PE is lefs than PV j hence LV
is lefs than LE, and confequently DE* is lefs than se(qjoris.
GE*, alfo */E* lefs than g E*, therefore the circle is  y——'
wholly w ithout the ellipfe.
Prop. III.
The circle of curvature at the vertex of any dia¬
meter of a conic fe£Uon, which is not an axis,
meets the conic fedlion again in one point on¬
ly ; and between that point and the vertex of
the diameter the circle falls wholly within the
conic fedlion on the one fide, and wholly with¬
out it on the other.
Case I. Let the conic fe&ion be a parabola, of 90.
which P/i is a diameter (fig. 89,) and PLK the cir¬
cle of curvature at the vertex, cutting off from the dia¬
meter a fegment PL equal to its parameter. Draw
LK a diameter of the circle, and draw PO perpendi¬
cular to LK, this line will neceffarily meet the circle
again, let it meet the circle in I •, draw IS parallel to
the tangent at P, meeting the chord PL in S 5 then,
becaufe IP is perpendicular to LK,
IS*—PS'PL (Lemma) j
hence (Cor. Prop. 9. Part I.) I is a point in the parabola.
Let DE d an ordinate to the diameter P/> meet the
arch PLI anywhere in G ; draw GH perpendicular
to LK, meeting PL in N, then becaufe LP is equal
to the parameter, as in Prop. I. Cafe I.
DE* : GE* :: LP : LN :: LO : LH.
But w herever the point G be taken in the arch PL I,
LO is greater than LH, therefore DE* is alfo greater
than GE* •, thus the arch PGLI falls wholly within
the parabola.
Let the ordinate DE d now meet the arch PKI any¬
where, as at g, draw gh perpendicular to LK, meeting
LP in n, then it will appear as before that
dYS : gE* :: LP : L« :: LO : Li;
but LO is lefs than L h, and therefore </E* lefs than
g E*, thus the arch P g K I fails wholly without the
parabola.
Case II. Let the conic feftion be either an el¬
lipfe or hyperbola (fig. 90.) of which P/> is a diame¬
ter, and PLK the circle of curvature at its vertex,
cutting off PL equal to its parameter. Draw LK the
diameter of the circle and LQ perpendicular to LK,
and let pQ, a tangent to the conic fe&ion in />, meet
LQ in Q. Join P£), this line will neceffarily meet
the circle again *, let it meet the circle in I 5 and
draw IS, IT parallel to £)/>, QL, meeting PL inS,T.
Becaufe of the parallels,
pP : pS :: QP : QI :: LP : LT,
hence pP : LP ::/>S : LT :: pSSP : LT-SP;
but LT-SPmIS* (Lemma),
therefore p P : LP :: p S'SP : SI* j
hence I is a point in the ellipfe or hyperbola (13. Prop.
Part II. and 21. Prop. Part III.).
Let DE d an ordinate to the diameter Pp meet the
arch PLI anywhere in G, if the point L is between
3Z2 P
548' CONIC SECTIONS. Part]
Of the Cur-P and or the arch PIL, if L is in P/> produced,
vature of Let Ineet pj draw QH perpendicular to
^Sedtions!" meeting PL in N, and PI in Z, and draw YV
v—-v—parallel to GN meeting LP in V. Becaufe EY,/>£)
are parallel, alfo VY, L£),
(Q.P : ^Y ::) LP : LV j
now LP being the parameter, we have, as in Cafe II.
Prop. I.
DEl : GE2 :: LV : LN :: QY : QZ;
but wherever the point G be taken in the arch PGI,
QYis greater than QZ, therefore alfo DE* is greater
than GE2; thus the arch PGI falls wholly within the
conic fedlion.
Let the ordinate DE^/ now meet the other arch
I anywhere in g; draw g h perpendicular to LK
meeting LP in «, and IP in z, then it will in like
manner appear that
</E2 : ^-E2 :: LV : L« :: QY : Qs •,
and fince in this cafe QY is lefs than Qz, therefore
</E2 is lefs than g E2 ; hence the arch P^ I is wholly
■without the conic lediion.
Prop. IV.
Of the ,
Prop. V. vatur |
thet.
The radius of the circle of curvature at the vertex J
of any diameter of an ellipfe, or hyperbola, is
a third proportional to the perpendicular drawn
from the centre upon the tangent, and half the
conjugate diameter ; and the chord which is
drawn from the point of contadt through the
focus is a third proportional to the tranfverfe
axis, and conjugate diameter.
Let PL be the chord cutoff from the diameter, Fig. cl
and PFH the chord pafling through F the focus j draw
PM the diameter of the circle, and from the centre O
draw OR perpendicular to PL, which will bifedt PL
in R •, join HM, and draw the conjugate diameter
QC y meeting PH in N and PM in S, then PS is
equal to the perpendicular from the centre C upon the
tangent. The triangles PSC, PRO are fimilar, there¬
fore,
PS : PC :: PR : PO,
but PC : CQ :: CQ : PR (Def. of param.)
therefore PS : CQ :: CQ : PO.
Secondly, the triangles PSN, PHM are fimilar,
The chord of the circle of curvature which is
drawn from the point of contact through the
focus of a parabola is equal to that which is cut
off from the diameter; and half the radius of
the circle is a third proportional to the perpen¬
dicular from the focus upon the tangent, and
the diftance of the point of contact from the
focus.
Fig- 91,
Let PL be the chord cut off from the diameter,
and PFH the chord paffing through F the focus j
draw PM the diameter of the circle, join HL, HM,
and draw FK perpendicular to the tangent at P. Be¬
caufe the lines PFH, PL make equal angles with the
tangent at P (3. Part I.), the angles PHL, PLH are
equal (32. 3. E.) hence PHrrPL. Secondly, the
triangles FKP, PHM, being manifeftly fimilar,
FK : FP :: PH, or 4PF : PM,
hence FK : FP :: FP : £ PM, or ^ the radius.
2FP2
Cor. I. Hence the radius is equal to
2FK3
Cor. 2. The radius is alfo equal to where
AF is the diflance of the focus from the vertex of the
FK*
parabola} for — ^II* ^>ar^
Cor. 3. Hence alfo the radius is equal to
* T
lil } where L denotes the parameter of the axis,
FK3
2FP2 _ 2APFP3 _ ^L-FP3
forTir” AF-FP-FK~ FK3 ’
therefore PN : PS :: PM : PH}
but PS : CQ:: (CQ: PO::)Qy: PM,
therefore PN : CQ :: Qy : PH,
or, fmee PN=AC (Cor. 17. Part II. and Cor. 25.
Part III.),
Aa : Q.? :: 0.7 : PH-
Cor. 1. Hence the radius of curvature is equal to
CQ
PS
, and the chord paffing through the focus is equal
to
aCQ
AC ’
Cor. 2
CQ3
AC-BC’
III.).
. The radius of curvature is alfo equal to
A G-TtC
for PS— — (15. Part II. and 23. Part
Cor. 3. Draw FK from the focus perpendicular
to the tangent, and let L denote the parameter of the
tranfverfe axis} the radius of curvature is alfo equal to
1 T v FP3
-—— . For the triangles PFK, NPS are mam-
FK3
fellly fimilar, therefore
FK : FP :: PS : PN, or AC :: BC : CQ}
FP
hence CQ=p^-xBC,
, CQ3 FP3 w BC*  FP3
and AGBC- FK3 X AC “ FK3 Xir
This expreflion for the radius of curvature is the fame
for all the three conic feftions.
CONICHTHY ODONTES,
C ONI C
SECTIONS.
FLATE CLVI.
ft' fabaZ/i.
7/
E
W— /,
SL^- 
/d
Fu] 39-
XX.
tn
Xi
e
''--'-Xu \
a! f/ i
° /
(t
h s'
l
H
f -j-y/
f'
y* 1
Q V^ONs
i
x>
40.
X’ j A C
a
XX
Fur 33. /
A/
/
:d
X
>' T5 X. (' • f
h ”
SJ
fy-
K
A/
<,>
t
yy
R
F
IE «'
i c
1
 St
COPTIC SECTIONS.
Fig. 47.
PLATE < 'JJX.
Fig. 51
Fig. 45.
Fig. 45
Scul,,'
COKIC SECTIONS. PLATE CLX.
.J
Fig. 66.
B N. /
« \ c
CONIC SECTIONS.
PLATE CLXI.
CONI
SECTIONS
PLATE CLXE
WArcTuhal(l ScnJj).
T^f / \
/\ 7 / iA
/o\ / r /
y
^ v \t
l Vy c y
‘J?\ \
4 ' '
O O NIC SEC T T ONS. PLA TE ( LXlll.
Fig. 87.
Fig. S'f.
Fig.SS.
cia.92.
*
y*
JtfA: rh ibet 2d Sc?/1/ • *
c
O N
t 549 J
CON
CONICHTHYODONTES, or Plectronit^,, in
Natural Hijlary, a name by which the foffil teeth of
fillies are fometimes diftinguilhed.
CONIFER A, in Botamj, an order of plants in the
Fragrnenta methodinaturahs of Linnaeus, containing the
following genera, viz. cupreffus, ephedra, equifetum,
juniperus, pinus, taxus, thuja. See Botany Index.
CONIFEROUS trees, fuchas bear bard dry feed-
veflels of a conical figure 5 confining of feveral woody
parts, being moftly fcaly, adhering clofe together, and
leparating when ripe.
CONIMBRICA, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Lufitania, on the fouth fide of the river Monda ;
from the ruins of which arofe Coimbra, in its neigh¬
bourhood, a city of Portugal. W. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat.
40. 16.
CONINGSECK, a town of Suabia in Germany,
and capital of a county of the fame name, 20 miles
north of Conftance. E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 47. 50.
CONJOINT, in a general fenfe, fignifies united or
connected.
CONJOINT Degrees, in Mujic, two notes which follow
each other immediately in the order of the fcale, as ut
and re.
CONJOINT Tetrachords, two tetrachords, or fourths,
where the fame chord is the higheft of one and the
loweft of the other.
CONISSALiE, an old term in natural hiftory, fig-
nifying a clafs of foflils, which were faid to be naturally
and effentially compounded, not inflammable, nor fo-
luble in water, found in detached mafles, and formed of
cryftalline matter debafed by earth. It included land
and gritty fubftances.
CONJUGATE diameter, or Axis of an Ellipjis,
the (horteft of the two diameters, or that bife&ing the
axis.
CONJUGATION, in Grammar, a regular diftri-
bution of the feveral inflexions of verbs in their differ¬
ent voices, moods, tenfes, numbers, and perfons, fo as
to diftinguilh them from one another. See Grammar
and Language.
CONIUM, Hemlock. See Botany Index.
CONJUNCT, in a general fenfe, fignifies conjoined,
concurrent, or united.
CONJUNCT Rights, in Scots Law, fuchas are granted
to two or more perfons. See Law Index.
Conjunct, or Confidant Perfons, in Scots Law, fuch
as are about the perfon of another, or employed by him.
See Law Index.
CONJUNCTION, in Afironomy, the meeting of
two or more liars or planets in the fame degree of the
zodiac.
Conjunction, in Grammar, an indeclinable word
or particle, which ferves to join words and lentences
together, and thereby Ihows their relation or depend¬
ence upon one another. See Grammar.
CONJURATION, magic words, charaXers, or
ceremonies, whereby evil fpirits, tempefb, &c. are
luppofed to be raifed, or driven away. I he Romilh
priefts pretend to expel devils, by preparing holy wa¬
ter in a particular manner, and fprinkling it over the
poffeffed, with a number of conjurations and exor-
cifms.
Some authors make the difference between conju¬
ration and witchcraft to confill in this j that the for¬
mer effeXs its end by prayers and invocation of God s Gonjur..
name, &c. to compel the devil to do what is defired •,
fo that the conjuror is fuppofed to be at war with the
devil, and that evil fpirit to aX merely out of con-
ffrnint: whereas the latter attains its end by an im¬
mediate application to the devil himfelf : and the de¬
vil’s complaifance is fuppofed to be the confequence of
fome compaX between them, fo that the devil and the
witch have a good underftanding together. Both thefe,
again, differ from inchantment and forcery 5 in that
thefe latter operate fecretly and Howdy by fpells, charms,
&c. without ever calling on the devil, or having any
conference with him.
CONN. See Cond.
CONNAUGHT, one of the four provinces of Ire¬
land, bounded on the call by that of Leinfter, on the
weft by the ocean, on the north and north-weft by
part of the ocean and province of Ulfter, and on the
fouth and eaft by Munfter. It is about 130 miles in
length, and 84 in breadth. It has no rivers of any
great note befides the Shannon. It has feveral con-,
venient bays and creeks, and is fertile in many places.
It had feveral dangerous bogs, overrun with woods,
which are now in fome meafure cleared away. This
province produces abundance of cattle, ftieep, deer,
hawks, and honey j but the inhabitants being lazy, it
is the leaft cultivated of all the four provinces. It con¬
tains 1 archbilhopric, 5 biftioprics, 6 counties, 7 mar¬
ket-towns, 8 places of trade, 10 boroughs that lent
members to the Irifti parliament, 47,256 houfes, 24 old
caftles, befides fortreffes that have been ereXed of late,
and 330 parilhes. The principal town is Galway.
CONNARUS, Ceylon Sumach. See Botany
Index.
CONNECTICUT, a large river in New England,
which gives name to one of the five colonies of that
province (fee the next article). It rifes in a fwamp
on the height of land, in N. Lat. 45. 10. W. Long. 71.
After a fleepy courfe of eight or ten miles, it tumbles
over four feparate falls, and turning weft keeps clofe
under the hills which form the northern boundary of
the vale through which it runs. The Amonoofuck
and Ifrael rivers, two principal branches of ConneXi-
cut river, fall into it from the eaft, between the lati¬
tudes 440 and 450. Between the towns of Walpole
on the eaft, and Weftminfter on the weft fide of the
river, are the great falls. The whole river, compref-
fed between twm rocks fcarcely 30 feet afunder, Ihoots
with amazing rapidity into a broad bafon below'. Over
thefe falls, a bridge 160 feet in length w'as built in
1784, under w-hich the higheft floods may pafs without
detriment. This is the firft bridge that was ever ereX¬
ed over this noble river. Above Deerfield in Maffa-
chufets it receives Deerfield river from the weft, and
Miller’s river from the eaft, after which it turns wefter-
ly in a finuous courfe to Fighting-falls, and a little af¬
ter tumbles over Deerfield falls, which are impaffable
by boats. At Windfor in ConneXicut it receives Far¬
mington river from the weft, and at Hartford meets the
tide. From Hartford it paffes on in a crooked courfe,
until it falls into Long Ifland found between Saybrook
and Lyme.
The length of this river, in a ftraight line, is near¬
ly 300 miles. Its general courfe is feveral degrees weft
of fouth. It is from 80 to 100 roods wide, 130 miles
from
CON t 5SO ]
Gonnecli- fr0in Its mouth. At its mouth is a bar of fand which 72 miles in length.
t Cl^t confiderably obftru£ts the navigation. Ten feet water " --- --
at full tides is found on this bar, and the fame depth
to Middleton. The diltance of the bar from this
place, as the river runs, is 36 miles. Above Middle-
ton are feveral (hoals which ftretch quite acrofs the ri¬
ver. Only fix feet v/ater is found on the flioal at high
tide, and here the tide ebbs and flows but about eight
inches. About three miles below Middleton the river
is contracted to about 40 roods in breadth by two high
mountains. Almoft everywhere elfe the banks are
low, and fpread into fine extenfive meadows. In the
fpring floods, which generally happen in May, thefe
meadows are covered with water. At Hartford the
water fometimes riles 20 feet above the common fur-
face of the river, and having all to pafs through the
above-mentioned firait, it is fomelimes two or three
weeks before it returns to its ufual bed. Thefe floods
add nothing to the depth of water on the bar at the
mouth of the river: this bar lying too far off in the
found to be affeCted by them.
’ On this beautiful river, whofe banks are fettled al-
moft to its fource, are many pleafant, neat, well-built
towns. On its weftern bank, from its mouth north¬
ward, are the towns of Saybrook, Haddam, Middle-
ton, Weathersfield, Hartford, Windfor, and Suffield,
in Connecticut •, Weft Springfield, Northampton, Hat¬
field, and Deerfield, in Maffachufets 5 Guilford, Brat-
tleborough, in which is Fort Dummer, Weftminfter,
Windfor, Hartford, Fairlee, Newbury, Brunfwitk,
and many others in Vermont. Crofting the river into
New Hampfhire, and travelling on the eaftern bank,
you pafs through Woodbury nearly oppofite to Brunf-
wick, Northumberland, the Coos country, Lyman,
Qrford, Lyme, Hanover, in which is Dartmouth Col-
lege, Lebanon, Cornifh, Clermont, Charlefton, or
N° 4, Chefterfield, and many others in New Hamp-
fliire; Sunderland, Hadley, Springfield, Long Meadow,
in Maffachufets j and in Connecticut, Enfield, Eaft
Windfor, Eaft Hartford, Glaftenbury, Eaft Haddam,
and Lyme.
Fhis river is navigable to Hartford, upwards of 50
miles from its mouth, and the produce of the country
for 2zo miles above is brought thither in boats. The
boats which are ufed in this bufinefs are flat-bottomed,
long and narrow, for the convenience of going up
ftream, and of fo light a make as to be portable in
carts. They are taken out of the river at three differ¬
ent carrying-places, all of which make 15 miles.
Sturgeon, falmon, and fhad, are caught in plenty
in their feafon, from the mouth of the river upwards,
excepting fturgeon, which do not afcend the upper
falls ; befides a variety of fmall fifli, fuch as pike, carp,
perch, &c.
irom this river are employed three brigs of 180
tons each, in the European trade ; and about 60 fail
from 60 to 130 tons, in the Weft India trade ; befides
a few fifhermen, and 40 or 50 coafting veflels.
Connecticut, one of the five ftates of New Eng¬
land in America j bounded on the north by Mafiachu-
lets } on the eaft by Rhode Ifland ; on the fouth by the
found which divides it from Long Ifland } and on the
weft by the province of New York.
Ihe divifional line between ConneClicut and Maf-
fachufets, as fettled in 1728, was found to be about
4
CON
The line dividing Conneaicut Com
from Rhode Ifland was fettled in 1728, and found to be a
about 45 miles. The fea coaft, from the mouth ofv—
Paukatuk river, which forms a part of the eaftern
boundary of Conhefticut, in a direCt fouthweftwardly
line to the mouth of Bryam river, is reckoned at about
90 miles. The line between Connecticut and New
York runs from latitude 41. o. to latitude 42. 2.; 72
miles. Connefticut contains about 4674 fquare miles $
equal to about 2,960,000 acres.
This ftate is watered by feveral fine rivers, the prin- Rive'
cipal of which are, Conne&icut dcfcribed in the pre¬
ceding article, Houfatonik, and the Thames. One
branch of the Houfatonik rifes in Lanefborough, the
other in Windfor, both in Berkfhire county in Maf¬
fachufets. It paffes through a number of pleafant
towns, and empties into the found between Stratford
and Milford. It is navigable 12 miles, to Derby. A
bar of fhells, at its mouth, obftrufts its navigation for
large veflels. In this river, between Salifbury and Ca¬
naan, is a catarafl, where the water of the whole river,
which is 150 yards wide, falls about 60 feet perpendi¬
cularly, in a perfeflly .white fheet. A copious mift
a rifes, in which floating rainbows are feen in various
places at the fame time, exhibiting a fcene exceedingly
grand and beautiful.
The Thames empties into Long Ifland found at
New London. It is navigable 14 miles, to Norwich
Landing. Here it lofes its name, and branches into
Shetucket on the eaft, and Norwich or Little River on
the weft. The city of Norwich ftands on the tongue
of land between thefe rivers. Little River, about a
mile from its mouth, has a remarkable and very ro¬
mantic cataradL A rock 10 or 12 feet in perpendi¬
cular height, extends quite acrofs the channel of the
river. Over this the whole river pitches, in one entire
fheet, upon a bed of rocks below. Here the river is
comprefled into a very narrow channel between two
craggy cliffs, one of which towers to a confiderable
height. The channel defcends gradually, is very crook¬
ed, and covered with pointed rocks. Upon thefe the
water fwiftly tumbles, foaming with the moft violent
agitation, 15 or 20 rods, into a broad bafon which
fpreads before it. At the bottom of the perpendicu¬
lar falls, the rocks are curioufly excavated by the con-
ftant pouring of the water. Some of the cavities, which
are all of a circular form, are five or fix feet deep. The
fmoothnefs of the water above its defeent, the regularity
and beauty of the perpendicular fall, the tremendous
roughnefs of the other, and the craggy, towering cliff
which impends the whole, prefent to the view of the
fpedtator a fcene indefcribably delightful and majeftic.
On this river are fome of the fineft mill feats in New
England, and thofe immediately below the falls, occu¬
pied by Lathrop’s mill, are perhaps not exceeded by
any in the world. Acrofs the mouth of this river is a
broad, commodious bridge, in the form of a wharf,
built at a great exp^nce.
Shetucket river, the other branch of the Thames,
four miles from its mouth, receives Quinnabog, which
has its fource in Brimfield in Maffachufets •, thence
pafling through Sturbridge and Dudley in Maffachu¬
fets, it croffes into Connefticut, and divides Pom fret
from Killingly, Canterbury from Plainfield, and Lifbon
from Prefton, and then mingles with Shetucket. In
pafling
CON .[ 55
eli- pafling through this hilly country, it tumbles over
many falls, and affords a vaft number of mill feats.
The fource of the Shetucket is not far from that of
Quinnabog. It has the name of Willamantik while
palling through Stafford, and between Tolland and
Willington, Coventry, and Mansfield. Below Wind¬
ham it takes the name of Shetucket, and empties as
above. Thefe rivers are fed by numberlefs brooks
from every part of the adjacent country. At the
mouth of Shetucket is a bridge of timber i 24 feet in
length, fupported at each end by pillars, and held up
in the middle by braces on the top, in the nature of an
arch.
ours. The two principal harbours are at New London and
New Haven. The former opens to the fouth. From
the light-houfe, which Hands at the mouth of the har¬
bour, to the town, is about three miles; the breadth is
three quarters of a mile, and in fome places more. The
harbour has from five to fix fathoms water, a clear
bottom, tough ooze, and as far as one mile above the
town is entirely fecure and commodious for large
fiiips. New Haven harbour is greatly inferior to that
of New London. It is a bay which fets up northerly
from the found about four miles. Its entrance is about
half a mile wide. It has very good anchorage, and two
and a half fathoms at low w ater, and three fathoms and
four feet at common tides. The whole of the fea
coaft is indented with harbours, many of which are fafe
and commodious, but are not fufliciently ufed to merit
a defcription.
e Connecticut, though fubjeCt to the extremes of heat
d and cold in their feaforjs, and to frequent hidden
changes, is very healthful. As many as one in 46
of the inhabitants of Connecticut, who were living in
1774? were upwards of 70 years old. From accurate
calculation it is found, that about one in eight live
to the age of 70 years and upwards 5 one in 13 to
the age oi 80 years, and one in about 30 to the age
of 90.
In the maritime towns the iveather is variable, ac¬
cording as the wind blows from the fea or land. As
you advance into the country, the fea breezes have lefs
effeCt upon the air, and confequently the weather is
lefs variable. The Ihorteft day is 8 hours and 58
minutes, and the longeft 13 horns. The north-weft
winds, in the winter-feafon, are often extremely fevere
and piercing, occafioned by the great body of fnow
which lies concealed from the diffolving influence of the
fun in the immenfe forefts north and north-weft. The
clear and ferene temperature of the fky, however,
makes amends for the feverity of the weather, and is
favourable to health and longevity. Connecticut is ge¬
nerally broken land, made up of mountains, hills, and
valleys 5 and is exceedingly well watered. Some fmall
parts of it are thin and barren. It lies in the fifth and
fixth northern climates, and has a ftrong fertile foil.
Its principal productions are Indian corn, rye, wheat
in many parts of the ft ate, oats, and barley, which are
heavy and good, and of late buck-wheat, flax in large
quantities, fome hemp,- potatoes of feveral kinds, pump¬
kins, turnips, peafe, beans, &c. &c. fruits of all kixids,
which are common to the climate. The foil is very
well calculated for pafture and mowing, which enables
the farmers to feed large numbers of neat cattle and
i ] CON
horfes. Actual calculation has evinced, that any given Cortnech-
quantity of the belt mowing land in Connecticut, pro- , (Ut''
duces about twice as much clear profit as the fame
quantity of the heft w'heat land in the ftate of New
York. Many farmers, in the eaftern part of the ftate,
have lately found their advantage in railing mules,
which are carried from the ports of Norwich and New
London to the Weft India iftands, and yield a hand-
fome profit. The beef, pork, butter, and cheefe, of
Connecticut, are equal to any in the world. ^
The trade of ConneCHcut is principally with the Trade.
Weft India iflands, and is carried on in veffels from 60
to 140 tons. The exports confift of horfes, mules,
oxen, oak ftaves, hoops, pine boards, oak planks, beans,
Indian corn, fifh, beef, pork, &c. Horfes, live cattle
and lumber, are permitted in the Dutch, Daniih, and
French ports. Beef and fifh are liable to fuch heavy
duties in the French iflands, as that little profit arifes
to the merchant who fends them to their ports. Pork
and flour are prohibited. As the ordinance making
free ports in the French Weft India illands extends to.
all foreigners, the price of molaffes and other articles
has been greatly enhanced by the Englifh purehafers
for Canada and Nova Scotia •, fo that the trade of Con¬
neCHcut with the French Weft India illands is not pro¬
fitable. Cotton, cocoa, indigo, and lugars, are not
permitted to be brought away by Americans^ The
feverity with which thefe prohibitory laws-are ad-
miniftered is fuch, as that thefe articles cannot be
fmuggled.
ConneCHcut has a large number of coafting veffels
employed in carrying the produce of the ftate to other
ftates.—To Rhode Ifland, Maffachufets, and New
Hampfhire, they carry pork, wheat, corn, and rye.
To North and South Carolinas and Georgia, butter,
eheefe, falted beef, cyder, apples, potatoes, hay, &e>.
and receive in return rice, indigo, and money. But
as New' York is nearer, and the ftate of the markets
always w'ell known, much of the. produce of Connec¬
ticut, efpecially of the Weftern parts, is carried there j
particularly pot and pearl afhes, flax:-feed, beef, pork,
cheefe, and butter in large quantities. Mcft of the
produce of Connecticut river, from the parts of Maf¬
fachufets, New’ Hamplhire, and Vermont,, as w'ell as
of ConneCHcut, which are adjacent, goes to the fame
market. Canfiderable quantities of the produce of the
eaftern parts of the ftate are marketed at Bofton and
Providence.
The value of the whole exported produce and com¬
modities from this ftate, before the year 1774, w'as
then eftimated at about 200,000!. lawful-money annual¬
ly. Since this time no accurate eftimate. has been made,
fo that it is impoflible to tell whether the amount has
fince been increafed or dimimfbed.
In 1774, the number of . (hipping in ConneCHcut
was 189 5 their tonnage 10,317 j leafaring men 11625
befides upwards of 20 fail of coafting veffels, which
employed about 90 feamen. This ftate is not yet fully
recovered from the eonfufion in which it was involved
by the late war y fo that the number of (hipping, &e,
has not, at any period fince 1774, been afeertained
with accuracy. It is probable, however, confidering
the Ioffes fuftained by the war, the decay of the fliip-
building bufinefs, and the number of unfortunate (hip-
wrecks, .
CON
Conneifli- wrecks, and lofles by hurricanes in the Weft Indies,
cu’~ i that the (hipping and feamen are not now fo numerous
^ _l ' as in 1774.
The number of (hipping from the port of New Lon¬
don employed in 1788 in the European and Weft In¬
dia trade, was four drips, one fnow, 54 brigantines, 3 2
fchooners, and 45 (loops. The- number of horfes and
cattle exported from the diftrift round New London,
from the 10th of January 1787, to the 10th of Janu¬
ary 1788, was 6917 *, belides jack-affes importeci and
exported, not included. From 1786 to 17^7* ^ie
number was 6671 ■, fo that the lal't year exceeded the
other 246. From March 17^? to JanuaiT I7^^> I459
horfes, 780 oxen, and 23 cows, were exported from the
, port of Middleton.
Manufac- The farmers in Connefticut and their families are
tures. moftly clothed in plain, decent, homefpun cloth. Tiheir
linens and woollens are manufactured in the family
way 5 and although they are generally of a coarfer
kind, they are of a (Longer texture, and much more
durable, than thofe imported from France and Great
Britain. Many of their cloths are fine and hand-
fome.
In New Haven is a linen manufactory which flou-
rifhes, and one for cotton is about to be eftablithed.
In Eaft Hartford is a glafs-work, a fnuff and powder
mill, and an iron-w'ork and flitting mill. Iron-works
are eftablifhed alfo at Saliftmry, Norwich, and other
parts of the (late. At Stafford is a furnace at which
are made large quantities of hollow ware and other
ironmongery, iuflicient to fupply the whole (late. Pa¬
per is manufactured at Norwich, Hartford, New Ha¬
ven, and in Litchfield county. Nails of every fize are
made in almoft every town and village in Connecticut 5
fo that confiderable quantities can be exported to the
neighbouring dates, a»id at a better rate than they can
be had from Europe. Ironmongery, hats of the bed
kinds, candles, leather, (hoes, and boots, are manu¬
factured in this ftate. We mud not omit to mention
wooden difties and other wooden ware, which are
made in vaft quantities in Suffield and fome few other
places, and fold in almoft every part of the eaftern
dates. Oil mills, of a new' and very ingenious con-
ftruCtion, have been ereCted in feveral parts of the
ftate.
It appears from experiments made formerly in this
ftate, that a buftiel of fun-flower feed yields a gallon
of oil ; and that an acre of ground planted with the
feed at three feet apart, wdll yield between forty and
fifty bufhels of the feed This oil is as mild as fweet
oil, and is equally agreeable with falads, and as a me¬
dicine. It may, moreover, be ufed with advantage in
paints, varnifties, and ointments. From its being ma-
nufaftured in our own country, it may always be pro¬
cured and ufed in a fre(h ftate. The oil is preffed from
the feed in the fame manner that cold-drawn linfeed
oil is drawn from flax-feed, and with as little trouble.
Sweet olive oil fells for fix (hillings a quart. Should
the oil of the fun-flower fell for only two-thirds of that
price, the produce of an acre of ground, fuppofing it
to yield only 40 buftiels of the feed, will be 32I.
a fum far beyond the produft of an acre of ground in
any kind of grain. The feed is raifed with very little
trouble, and grows in land of moderate fertility. It
CON
may be gathered and (helled, fit for the extradicn of Corn,-,'
the oil, by women and children. cut.I
Connecticut is divided into eight counties, viz. Hart-
ford, New Haven, New London, Fairfield, Windham,-,6,. -
Litchfield, Middlefex, and Tolland. The counties fionsar,!|
are fubdivided into upwards of 80 town thins ; each efpopulat
which is a corporation, invefted with power to hold
lands, choofe their own town-officers, to make pruden¬
tial laws, the penalty of tranfgreffion not to exceed
20s. and to choofe their own reprefentatives to the ge¬
neral affembly. The townftups are generally divided
into two or more pariflaes, in each of which is one cr
morfe places of public worfhip.
Connecticut is the merit populous, in proportion to
its extent, of any of the thirteen dates. It is laid out
in (mail farms from 50 to 30c or 400 acres each, which
are held by the farmers in fee-fimple $ and are gene¬
rally cultivated as well as the nature of the foil will
admit. The ftate is chequered with innumerable roads
or high-ways, crofting each other in evei-y direction.
A traveller in any of thefe roads, even in the moft un¬
fettled parts of the date, will feldom pafs more than
two or three miles without finding a houfe or cottage,
and a farm under fuch improvements as to afford the
neceffaries for the fupport of a family. The whole
ftate refembles a well-cultivated garden j which, with
that degree of induftry that is requifite for happinefs,
produces the neceffaries and conveniences of life in
great plenty.
In 1759, the number of inhabitants in ConneClicut
was 130,611 j in 1774, there were 197,856 fouls. In
18 years, the increafe was 67,245*, from 1774 to
1782, the increafe was but 11,294 perfons. This com¬
paratively fmall increafe of inhabitants may be fatis-
faCIorily accounted for from the deftruftion of the war,
and the numerous emigrations to Vermont, the weftern |
parts of New Hamplhire, and other dates.
The inhabitants are almoft entirely of Englifti de-
feent. There are no Dutch, French, or Germans, and
very few Scotch or Irilh people, in any part of New
England.
In addition to what has been already faid on thefe ctar;j|i
particulars under New England, it may be obferved, manr*
that the people of ConneClicut are remarkably fond of&c- 1
having all their difputes, even thofe of the moft tri¬
vial kind, fettled according to law. The prevalence
of this litigious fpirit affords employment and fupport
for a numerous body of lawyers. The number of ac¬
tions entered annually upon the feveral dockets in the
ftate, juftifies the above obfervations. That party
fpirit, however, which is the bane of political happi¬
nefs, has not raged with fuch violence in this ftate as
in Maffachufets and Rhode Ifland. Public proceed¬
ings have been conducted, generally, and efpecially
of late, with much calmnefs and candour. The
people are well informed in regard to their rights,
and judicious in the methods they adopt to fecure
them.
The clergy, who are numerous, and, as a body,
very refpeCtable, have hitherto preferved a kind of
ariftocratical balance in the very democratical govern¬
ment of the ftate 5 which has happily operated as a
check upon the overbearing fpirit of republicanifin.
It has been lamented that the unhappy religious dif¬
putes
C 552 1
CON [ 553 ] CON
;011c'Yi- putes willed have too much prevailed among Tome of
[ the clergy, and the too great attention that others
H w have paid to their temporal concerns, to the neglefl
of their flocks, and an inattention to the qualifica¬
tions of thofc who have been admitted to the facred
office, have, heretofore, confiderably diminiffied their
influence. It is a pleafing circumftance that tlie rage
for theological difputation is abating ; and greater
ftri&nefs is obferved in the admiffion of candidates to
the miniftry. Their influence is on the increafe ^ and
it is no doubt to be attributed, in part, to their in-
creafing influence, that an evident reformation in the
manners of the people of this date has taken place
fince the peace. In regard to learning and abilities,
the clergy, at the prefent day, are equal to their pre-
deceflbrs at any former period,
j; As to ecclefiaftical government and difeipline, each
church is a feparate jurifdi&ion, and claims aythority
to choofe their own minifter, to exercife government,
and to enjoy gofpel ordinances within itfelf. The
churches, however, are not independent of each other;
they are affociated for mutual benefit and convenience.
The afloeiations have power to licenfe candidates for
the miniftry, to confult for the general welfare, and
to recommend meafures to be adopted by the churches,
but have no authority to enforce them. When dif-
putes arife in churches, councils are called, by the par¬
ties, to fettle them j but their power is only advifory.
There are as many affociations in the ftate as there
are counties j and they meet twice in a year. Thefe
are all combined in one general affociation, who meet
annually.
All religions that are confiftent with the peace of
fociety are tolerated in Connedlicut ; and a fpirit of
liberality and catholicifm is increafing. There are
very few religious fetfts in this ftate ; the bulk of the
people are Congregationalifts. Befides thefe there are
Epifcopalians and Baptifts j and formerly there Avas
a fociety of Sandimanians at New-Haven ; but they
are now reduced to a very fmall number. The Epif-
copalian churches are refpe&able, and are under the
fuperintendence of a biftiop. There were 29 con¬
gregations of the Baptifts in 1784. Thefe congrega¬
tions, with thofe in the neighbouring ftates, meet in
ailociations, by delegation, annually,
e' There are a great number of very, pleafant towns,
r both maritime and inland, in Connecticut. It con¬
tains five incorporated towns or cities. * Two of thefe,
Hartford and New-Haven, are the capitals of the ftate.
The general aflembly is holden at the former in May,
and at the latter in October, annually. See Hart¬
ford and Nezu-HAVEN.
4, In no part of the world is the education of all ranks
' ^ of people more attended to than in Connecticut. Al-
a s,moft every town in the ftate is divided into diftriCts,
and each diftriCt has a public fchool kept in it a greater
or lefs part of every year. Somewhat more than one
third of the money arifing from a tax on the polls and
rateable eftate of the inhabitants, is appropriated to the
fupport of fehools, in the feveral towns, for the educa¬
tion of children and youth. The law dire&s that a
grammar fchool {hall be kept in every country town
through the ftate.
There is a grammar fchool at Hartford, and ano¬
ther atvNew-Haven, fupported by a donation of Go-
Vol. VI. Part II.
vernor Hopkins. This venerable and benevolent gen- Connedl?.
tleman, in his laft will, dated 1657, ^ ^ hands cut-
of I heophilus Eaton, Efq. and three others, a legacy " v
of 1324I. <c as an encouragement, in thefe foreign
plantations, of breeding up hopeful youths both at
the grammar fchool and college.” In 1664, this le¬
gacy was equally divided between New-Haven and
Hartford ; and grammar fchools were erected, which
have been fupported ever fince.
At Greenfield there is a refpeftable academy, un¬
der the care and inftruCtien of the Rev. Dr Dwight.
At Plainfield is another, under the care of the Rev.
Mr Benedict. This academy has flouriftied for feve¬
ral years, and furniftied a number of ftudents for Yale
and Dartmouth colleges. At Norwich and Windham,
likewife, are academies furniftied with able inftruCtors j
each of thefe academies has 60 or 70 feholars.
Yale College was founded in 1700, and remained
at Killingworth until 1707—then at Saybrook until
1716, when it was removed and fixed at New-Haven.
See New-IIAVEA1.
On the bank of Connecticut river, two miles from Mines, mi-
Middleton, is a lead mine, v’hich was wrought during nera^5 and
the war at. the expence of the ftate, and was produe-k®13,
tive. It is too expenfive to work in time of peace.
Copper mines have been difeovered and opened in fe¬
veral parts of the ftate, but have proved unprofitable,
and aie much negleCted. Iron mines are numerous
and produaive. Steel ore has been found in the
mountains, between Woodbury and New Milford,
laics of various kinds, white, brown, and chocolate
coloured cryftals, zinc or fpeltzer, a femimetal, and
feveral other Mils and metals, nave been found in Con-
nedicut.
. freeholders in the ftate are required by lawr to Mode of
give in lifts of their polls and rateable eftate, to per- levying
fons appointed in the refpedive towns to receive thero,taxes’
on or before the 20th of Auguft annually. Thefe are
valued according to law, arranged in proper order, and
fent to the general aflembly annually in May.
1 he fum total of the lift of the polls and rateable
eftate of the inhabitants of Connecticut, as brought
into the general aflembly in May 1787, were as fol¬
lows :
Sum total of the Angle lift L.1,484,901 6 4I
A fleflments 47,790 2 9
One quarter of the fourfolds 1,176 o 4
Total L.i,533,867 18 si
On this fum taxes are levied, fo much on the
pound, according to the fum propofed to be raifed.
A tax of tv'Q-pence on the pound would raife 12 782I
4s* /
"l he ordinary annual expences of government be¬
fore the war ^amounted to near 4000!. fterling, ex-
clufive of- that which was appropriated to the fupport
of fehools. The expences have fince increafed.
At Stafford is a medicinal fpring, which is faid to Mineral
be a fovereign remedy for fcorbutic, cutaneous, andfpnngs.
other diforders. At Guilford is a fpring, whofe wa¬
ter, it is faid, when feparated from the fountain, will
evaporate even when put into a bottle and tmhtlv
corked. 0 7
It is difficult to fay what is the conftitution of this
4 A ftate.
CON [ 554 ] CON
Cornell- ftate. Contented with the form of government which
tut- originated from the charter of Charles II. granted in
w"v ' 1662, the people have not been difpofed to run the
Conftitu- hazard of framing a new conftitution fmce the defla¬
tion and ration of independence. They have tacitly adopt-
courts of e(l their old charter as the ground of civil govern-
juftice. ment, fo far as it is applicable to an independent
people.
Agreeable to this charter, the fupreme legiflative
authority of the date is veiled in a governor, deputy-
governor, twelve afliilants or counsellors, and the re¬
presentatives of the people, ftyled the GeneralAJJembty.
The governor, deputy-governor, and affiftants, are an¬
nually chofen by the freemen in the month of May.
The reprefentatives (their number not to exceed two
from each town) are chofen by the freemen twice
a-year, to attend the two annual fefiions, on the Second
Thurfday of May and Oftober. This affembly has
power to erefl judicatories, for the trial of caufes civil
and criminal, and to ordain and eftabliih laws for Settling
the forms and ceremonies of government. By thefe
laws the general affembly is divided into two branches,
called the upper and lower houfes. The upper houfe
is comppfed of the governor, deputy-governor, and af¬
fiftants • the lower houfe, of the reprefentatives of the
people. No law can pafs without the concurrence of
both houfes. The judges of the Superior court hold
their offices during the pleafure of the general affembly.
The judges of the county courts, and juftices, are an¬
nually appointed. Sheriffs are appointed by the go¬
vernor and council, without limitation of time. The
governor is captain-general of the militia, the deputy-
governor lieutenant-general. All other military offi¬
cers ?re appointed by the affembly, and commiffioned
by the governor.
The mode of elefting the governor, deputy-gover¬
nor, affiftants, treafurer, and Secretary, is as follows :
The freemen in the Several towns meet on the Monday
next after the firft Tuefday in April, annually, and
give m their votes for the perfons they choofe for the
faid offices refpe&ively, with their names written on a
piece of paper, which are received and Sealed up by a
conftable in open meeting, the votes for each office by
themfelves, with the name of the town and office writ¬
ten on the outfide. Thefe votes, thus Sealed, are fent
to the general affembly in May, and there counted by
a committee frem both houfes. All freemen are eli¬
gible to any office in government. In choofing affift¬
ants, twenty perfons are nominated, by the vote of
each freeman, at the freemen’s meeting for choofing
reprefentatives in September annually. Thefe votes
are Sealed up, and fent to the general affeinbly in Oc¬
tober, and are there counted by a committee of both
houfes, and the twenty perfons who have the molt
votes ftand in nomination j out of which number the
twelve who have the greateft number of votes, given
by the freemen at their meeting in April, are in May
declared affiftants in the manner above mentioned.
The qualifications of freemen are, maturity in years,
quiet and peaceable behaviour, a civil converfetion, and
freehold eftate to the value of forty (hillings per annum,
or forty pounds perfonal eftate in the lift, certified by
the feleft men of the town; it is neceffary alfo that
they take the oath of fidelity to the ftate. Their
lames are enrolled in the town clerk’s office, and they
continue freemen for life, Unlefs disfranchised by fen- Cormei
tence of the fuperior court, on convi&ion of mifde- cut|
meaner. U"'V
The courts are as follows : The juftices of the peace,
of whom a number are annually appointed in each
town by the general affembly, have authority to hear
and determine civil aftions, where the demand does
not exceed four pounds. If the demand exceeds forty
Shillings, an appeal to the county is allowed. They
have cognizance of fmall offences, and may puniSh by
fine not exceeding forty Shillings, or whipping ml ex-
ing ten Stripes, or Sitting in the Stocks. There are
eight county courts in the State, held in the Several
counties by one judge and four juftices of the quorum, j
who have jurisdiction of all criminal cafes, arifing with- |
in their refpeCtive counties, vffiere the punishment does
not extend to life, limb, or banishment. They have
original jurifdiCtion of all civil aCtions which exceed
the jurifdiCtion of a juftice. Either party may appeal
to the fuperior court, if thei demand exceeds twenty
pounds, except on bonds or notes vouched by two wit-
neffes.
There are feveral courts of probate in each county,
confilting of one judge. The peculiar province o£
this court, is, the probate of wills, granting administra¬
tion of inteftate eftates, ordering distribution of them,
and appointing guardians for minors, &c. An appeal
lies from any decree of this court to the fuperior
court.
The fuperior court confifts of five judges. It has
authority in all criminal cafes extending to life, limb
or banishment, and other high crimes and mifdemea-
nors, to grant divorces, and to hear and determine all
civil aCtions brought by appeal from the county courts,
or the court of probate, and to correCt the errors of all
inferior courts. This is a circuit court, and has two
Stated feffions in each county annually. The fuperior
and county courts try matters of fad by a jury, or
without if the parties will agree.
There is a fupveme court of errors, confifting of the
deputy-goveruor and the twelve affiftants. Their foie
bufinefs is to determine writs of error brought on
judgments of the fuperior court, where the error com- j
plained of appears on the record. They have two !
Stated feffions annually, viz. on the Tuefdays of the
weeks preceding the Stated feffions of the general af¬
fembly.
The county court is a court of chancery, empowered ;
to hear and determine cafes in equity, where the mat¬
ter in demand does not exceed one hundred pounds.
The fuperior court has cognizance of all cafes where
the demand exceeds that fum. Error may be brought !
from the county to the fuperior court, and from the
fuperior court to the fupreme court of errors, on judg¬
ment in cafes of equity as well as of law.
The genera] affembly only have power t© grant par¬
dons and reprieves, to grant commiffions of bankruptcy,
or protect the perfons and eftates of unfortunate
debtors.
The common law of England, fo far as it is appli¬
cable to this country, is confidered as the common
law of this ftate. The reports of adjudication in the
court of king’s bench, common pleas, and chancery, «
are read in the courts of this ftate as authorities j yet ]
the judges do not confider them as conclufively bind- I
ing, 1
CON
ing, unlefs founded on folid reafons which will apply in
this ftate, or fandtioned by concurrent adjudications of
their own courts.
The feudal fyftem of defcents was never adopted in
this ftate. All the real eftate of inteftates is divided
equally among the children, males and females, except
that the eldeft fon has a double portion. And all
eftates given in tail muft be given to fome perfon then
in being, or to their immediate iflue, and fhall become
fee-fimple eftates to the iffue of the firft donee in tail.
The widow of an inteftate is entitled to a third part of
the perfonal eftate for ever, and to her dower, or third
part of the houfes and lands belonging to the inteftate
at the time of his death, during her life.
0f The practice of law in this ftate has more fimplieity,
but lefs precifion, than in England. Afliftants and
judges are empowered to iffue writs through the ftate,
and juftices through their refpedlive counties. In
thefe writs, the fubftance of the complaints or the de¬
clarations muft be contained j and if neither of the
parties ftiow good reafon for delay, the caufes are heard
and determined the fame term to which the writs are
returnable. Few of the fiftions of law, fo common
in the Englilh pfaftice, are known in this ftate.
The plaintiff has always his ele&ion to attach or fum-
mon the defendant. Attorneys are admitted and qua¬
lified by the county courts. Previous to their ad-
miflion to the bar, they muft ftudy two years with a
praftifing attorney in the ftate, if they have had a col-,
lege education, and three years if they have not; their
morals muft be good, and their chara&ers unblemilhed j
and they muft fuftain an examination by the attorneys
of the court of the county where they are admitted,
and be by them recommended to the court. When
admitted to the county court, they can pra£life with¬
out other qualifications, in any court in the ftate.
There are upon an average about thirteen attorneys to
each county, one hundred and four in the ftate j a very
great proportion for the real exigencies of the people.
Yet from the litigious fpirit of the citizens, the moft
of them find employment and fupport. There is no
attorney general, but there is one attorney to the ftate
in each county.
The prefent territory of Connefticut, at the time of
the firft arrival of the Englilh, w as poffeffed by the Pe-
quot, the Mohegan, Podunk, and many other fmaller
tribes of Indians.
The Pequots were numerous and warlike. Their
country extended along the fea coaft from Paukatuk
to Connecticut river. About the year 1630, this
powerful tribe extended their conquefts over a confi-
derable part of Connecticut, over all Long Ifland, and
part of Narraganfett. Saffacus, who was the grand mo¬
narch of the whole country, was king of this nation.
The feat of his dominions was at New London j the
ancient Indian name of which was Pequot.
The Mohegans were a numerous tribe, and their
territory extenfive. Their ancient claim, which was
iurveyed and fettled by commiflioners from Queen
Anne in 1705, comprehended all New' London county,
except a narrow flrip of about eight miles w ide, on the
fea-coaft, almoft the whole of the county of Windham,
and a part of the counties of Tolland and Hartford.
Uncas, diftinguilhed for his friendftiip to the Englilh,
vas the fachem of this tribe.
G O N
The Podunks inhabited Eaft Hartford, and the cir- Connecfti-
cumjacent country. The firft fachem of this tribe, ^ut'
of w hom the Englilh had any knowledge was Tatani- v' ^
moo. He was able to bring into the field more than
200 fighting men.
The firft grant of Connecticut was made by the Ply¬
mouth council to the earl of Warwick, in 1630, and
confirmed by his majefty in council the fame year.
This grant comprehended all that part of New Eng¬
land w hich lies weft from Narraganfett river, 1 20 miles
on the fea-coaft, from thence in latitude and breadth
aforefaid to the South fea. The year following, the
earl aftigned the grant to Lord Say and Sele, Lord
Brook, and nine others.
No Englilh fettlements w-ere attempted in ConneCli-
cut, until the year 1633, w^en a number of Indian
traders, having purehafed of Zequaffon and Natawanute,
two principal fachems, a trad; of land at the mouth of
Little river in Windfor, built a houfe and fortified it,
and ever after maintained their right of foil upon the
river.
I he fame year, a little before the arrival of the
Englilh, a company of Dutch traders came to Hart¬
ford, and built a houfe which they called the Hirfe of
Good Hope, and erefted a fmall fort, in which they
planted two cannon. The remains of this fettlement
are ftill vifible on the bank of ConneCHcut river. This
was the only fettlement of the Dutch in Connecticut
in thefe ancient times. The Dutch, and after them
the province of New York, for a long time claimed as
far eaft as the weftern bank of Connecticut river. It
belongs to the profeffed hiftorian to prove or difprove
the juftice of this claim. Douglas fays, “ The parti¬
tion line between New York and Connecticut, as
eftablilhed December 1. 1664, runs from the mouth
of Memoroncok river, a little weft of Byram river,
N. N. W. and was the ancient eafterly limits of New
York, until November 23. 1683, w'hen the line was
run nearly the fame as it is now fettled.” If Douglas
is right, the New York claim could not have been well
founded.
In 1634, Lord Say and Sele, &c. fent over a fmall
number of men, who built a fort at Saybrook, and held
a treaty with the Pequot Indians, who in a formal
manner gave to the Englilh their right to ConneClicut
river and the adjacent country.
In 1635, the Plymouth council granted to the duke
of H milton, all lands between Narraganfett and Con¬
necticut rivers, and back into the country as far as
Maffachufets fouth line. This covered a part of the
earl of Warwick’s patent, and occafioned fome difputes
in the colony. There wrere feveral attempts to revive
the Hamilton claim, but they were never profecuted.
In OCtober of this year, about fixty perfons from
Newton, Dorchefter, and Watertown, in Maffachufets,
came and fettled at Hartford, Wethersfield, and Wind¬
for, in Connecticut j and the June following the famous
Mr Hooker and his company catne and fettled at Hart¬
ford, and w'as a friend and father to the colony to the
day of his death.
The firft court held in Connecticut was at Hartford,
April 26. 1636.
The year 1637 was diftinguilhed by the w'ar with
the Pequots. This Warlike nation had, for fome time,
been troublefome neighbours. They folicited the Nar-
4 A 2 raganfetts
[ 555 1
CON [ 55<> ] CON
ConnerK- raganfetts to join them in extirpating the Englifli.
cut. They had furprifed and killed feveral of the Englilh
' "r" Up0n Connecticut river. Thefe threatening appearan¬
ces and aCtual hoftilities induced the three' colonies
•of Maffachufets, Plymouth, and Connecticut, to com¬
bine their forces, to carry the war into their country,
and to attempt the entire deltruCtion of the whole
tribe. Myantonomo, the Narranganfett fachem, and
Uncas, fachem of the Mohegans, fent to the Englilh
and offered their fervice to join with them againlt the
Pequots. Forces wrere accordingly raifed in all the
colonies $ but thofe of Connecticut, on account of
their vicinity to the enemy, were firff in aCtion. Cap¬
tain Mafon, with 80 Englilh and ICO Indians from
Connecticut river, proceeded by water to the Narra-
ganfetts country, where 200 of that tribe joined him.
On the 24th of May, they began their march for Saf-
facus fort on Pequot, now Thames river. They af¬
terwards determined firft to affault Myftic fort, which
was fituated between them and Pequot river. On the
morning of the 26th of May the attack was made.
The Indians, after a midnight revel, were buried in a
deep deep. At the moment of their approach, the
fentinel happened to be gone into a wigwam to light
his pipe. The barking of a dog gave the alarm. The
Indians awroke, feized their arrows and began their
hideous yell. They were joined in their tremendous
noife by the Indians in the Englilh army, who were
in, the rear and afraid to approach. The battle was
warm and bloody, and the viClory complete. The
fort was taken—about 70 wigwams burnt—50 or 60
of the Indians were killed—many were wounded and
taken, and the reft efcaped. Saffacus and his warriors
at Pequot, ftruck with terror at the news of this de¬
feat, demolilhed their principal fort, burnt their wig¬
wams, and fled to the weftward. Captain Stoughton,
with 160 men from Maffachufets, had by this time
arrived at Saybrook. He with his forces joined Cap¬
tain Mafon and purfued the Indians, and overtook and
furrounded them in a great fwamp near Fairfield. A
fachem and 99 w'omen and children came out and
delivered themfelves up to their pur fixers. Terms
of peace wrere offered to the reft : but after a Ihort
parley they determined, that as they had lived they
would die together. There were about 80 who made
this refolution. Part of thefe efcaped by means of
the darknefs of the night. The reft were either kil¬
led or taken. In this aCIion the Indians had guns,
which is the firft account of their having ufed them.
Saffacus fled to the Mohawks, by whom it is reported
he was murdered ; but it is moft probable that he and
his company incorporated with them. Many of the
Indian captives wrere unjuftifiably fent to Bermudas and
fold for Haves. The Pequot tribe was wholly extin-
guilhed. This fuccefsful expedition ftruck the Indians
that remained with fuch terror, as reftrained them from
open hoftilities for near forty years after.
The Englilh thus obtained the country eaft of the
Dutch fettlements, by right of conqueft. The pur-
fuit of the Indians led to an acquaintance with the
lands on the fea-coaft from Seabrook to Fairfield. It
wras reported to be a very fine country. This favour¬
able report induced Meffrs Eaton and Hopkin?, two
very refpeflable London merchants, and Mr Daven¬
port, a man of diftinguilhed piety and abilities, with
their company, who arrived this year (1637) from Conned
London, to think of this part of the country as the cut'
place of their fettlement. Their friends in Maffachu-
lets, forry to part with fo valuable a company, dif-
fuaded them from their purpofe. Influenced, how¬
ever, by the promifmg profpedts which the country af¬
forded, and flattering themfelves that they Ihould be
out of the jurifdiftion of a general governor, with
which the country was from time to time threatened,
they determined to proceed. Accordingly, in March
1638, with the confent of their friends on Connefticut
river, they fettled at New Haven, and laid the founda¬
tion of a flourilhing colony, of which Quinnipiak, now
New Haven, was the chief town. The firft public
worlhip in this new plantation, w as attended on Lord’s
day, April 18. 1638, under a large fpreading oak.
The Rev. Mr Davenport preached from Mat. iii. r.
on the temptations of the wildernefs. Both colonies,
by voluntary compatt, formed themfelves into diftinft
commonwealths, and remained fo until their union in
1665.
In 1639, the three towms on Conne&icut river, al¬
ready mentioned, finding themfelves without the li¬
mits of any jurifiliftion, formed themfelves into a body
politic, and agreed upon articles of civil government.
Thefe articles were the foundation of Connedlicut
charter which was granted in 1662. The fubftance
of the articles, fo far as they refpeft the holding of
affemblies, the time and manner of electing magiftrates
and other civil officers (except that in the old con¬
federation no perfon wras to be chofen governor more
than once in two years), and the extent of legiflative
powers ■was transferred into, and eftabliflxed in faid
charter.
The firft church was gathered in New' Haven this
year, and confifted of feven members. Thefe were
chofen by the fettlers after Mr Davenport had preach¬
ed from the w'ords of Solomon, ‘ Wifdom hath builded
her houfe, ffie hath hew'ed out her feven pillars.’
Thefe men were indeed the pillars of the church, to
W'hom the reft were added as they became qualified.
They were alfo the court to try all civil actions.
The firft fettlers in New Haven had all things com¬
mon } all purchafes were made in the name and for the
ufe of the whole plantation 5 and the lands w'ere appor¬
tioned out to each family, according to their number
and original ftock.
At their firft ele&ion, in Oflober 1639, Mr Theo-
philus Eaton was chofen governor for the firft year.
Their eleftions, by agreement, were to be annual ; and
the word of God their only rule in conducting the af¬
fairs of government in the plantation.
In 1643, the articles of confederation between the
four New' England colonies, mentioned under the arti¬
cle New England, were unanimoufly adopted by the
colonies of New Haven and Connecticut.
The Engliffi fettlement on Delaware, which was
under the jurifdiftion of New Haven, was furprifed
by the Swedes, and the people put in irons, under a
falfe pretence that they were entering into a confpiracy
with the Indians to extirpate the Swedes.
The general court of New Haven, this year, efta-
blilhed it as a fundamental article not to be difputed,
That none be admitted as free burgeffes but church
members, aad that none but fuch fhould vote at elec¬
tions.
CON [ 557 ] CON
r »<fH- tions. They alfo ordained, That each town choofe fat down together j and Uncas with a hoop called in
Fit. from among themfelves judges (church members) to be his men, and the battle ceafed. Doubtful what to do , cl‘
« a court, to have cognizance of all civil aftions not ex- with the royal prifoner, Uncas and his warriors, in
ceeding twenty pounds $ and of criminal caufes, w'here council, determined to carry him to the governor and
the punifhment was fitting in the flocks, whipping, council at Hartford, and be advifed by them. 1 hither
and fining not exceeding five pounds. There was li- he was accordingly conduced. I he governor having
berty of appeal from this to the court of magiftrates. advifed with his council, told Uncas, that the Englilh
The court of magiftrates confifted of all the magi- were not then at war with the Narraganfetts, and of
ftrates throughout the colony, who were to meet twice courfe that it was not proper for them to intermeddle
a-year at New Haven, for the trial of all capital in the matter. Uncas was left to do with him as he
caufes. Six made a quorum. The general court was pleafed. Myantonomo was conduced back to the plain
to confift of the governor, deputy-governor, magiftrates, where he was taken, and put to death by Uncas him-
and two reprefentatives-from each town. The annual felf. The tragic fcene did not end with his death,
eleftion of officers of government was at this time efta- Uncas, after the manner of the Indians, w ith his toma-
bliffied, and has ever fince continued. hav’k cut off a large piece of fleffi from the ffioulder of
The unfettled ftate of the colony had hitherto pre- his ilaughtered enemy, broiled and ate it, faying, with
vented their eftablilhing a code of laws. To fupply an air of favage triumph, ‘ It is the fweeteft meat I
this defedt, the general court ordered, ‘ That the ju- ever ate. It makes me have a flout heart.’ His body
dicial laws of God, as they were delivered to Mofes, wras afterw'ards buried, and a pillar eredled over it,
and as they are a fence to the moral, being neither the remains of which are vifible to this day.
typical nor ceremonial, nor having any reference to The Narraganfetts were greatly enraged at the death
Canaan, ffiall be accounted of moral equity, and gene- of their prince, and refolved to take vengeance on the
rally bind all offenders, and be a rule to all the courts Mohegans. The united colonies interpofed to pre¬
in this jurifdidtion in their proceedings againft offen- vent a war between them, but in vain. The Narra-
ders, until they be branched out into particulars here- ganfetts refolutely declared, they would continue the
after.’ wrar until they had Uncas’s head. But as Uncas had
About this time a war broke out between the Mo- ever been a friend to the Engliffi, they joined him
began and Narraganfett Indians. A perfonal quarrel againft his enemies, and w ere victorious. Such, how'-
between Myantonomo fachem of the Narraganfetts, ever, was the enmity of the Narraganfetts to the Eng-
and Uncas fachem of the Mohegans, was the founda- liffi, that they afterwards fent fome of their men to
tion of the war. Myantonomo raifed an army of 900 Uncas, with large prefents, to induce him to join with
w'arriors, and marched towards the Mohegan country. them in a war with the colonies, Uncas replied,
Uncas by his fpies received timely notice of their ap- “ Go tell your kingj that I will go to Norwich, and
proach. His feat of refidence was in fome part of advife w ith Major John Mafon and Mr Fitch ; if they
Norwich. He quickly collected 600 of his braveft tell me to join him and fight againft the Englilh, I
warriors, and told them, ‘ The Narraganfetts muft will join him.” In the war that happened foon after,
not come into our town-, we muft meet them.’ They Uncas affifted the Englilh, and the Narraganfetts were
accordingly marched about three miles to a large plain, fubdued, and never after were formidable,
where the twro armies met, and halted within bow-lhot In confideration of the fuccefs and increafe of the
of each other. A parley was propofed by Uncas, and Newr England colonies, and that they had been of no
agreed to by Myantonomo. The fachems met, and charge to the nation, and in profpeCt of their being
Uncas addreffed his enemy as follows. ‘ You have a in future very ferviceable to it, the Enghlh parlia-
great many brave men : fo have I. You and I have ment, March 10. 1643, granted them an exemption
quarrelled j but thefe warriors, what have they done ? from all cuftoms, fubfidies, and other duties, until fur^
Shall they die to avenge a private quarrel between us? ther order.
No. Come like a brave man, as you pretend to be, In 1644, the ConneClicut adventurers purchafed of
and let us fight. If you kill me, my men lhall be Mr Fenwick, agent for Lord Say and Sele, and Lord
your’s : if I kill you, your men ftrall be mine.’ Myan- Brook, their right to the colony of Connecticut, for
tonomo replied: ‘ My men came to fight, and they 1600I.
lhall fight.’ Uncas, like an experienced warrior, The hiftory of Connecticut is marked with traces
aware, of the refult of the conference from the fuperior of the fame fpirit which has been mentioned as
force of his enemy, had previoufly fignified to his men, charaCteriftic of the Maffachuffets, in different ftages
that if Myantonomo refufed to fight him in fingle of their hiftory. Indeed, as Maffachufets w'as the
combat, he would immediately fall, which was to be flock whence Connecticut proceeded, this is to be ex-
the fignal for them to begin, the attack. As foon peCted.
therefore as Myantonomo had finiffied his laconic The colonies of Connecticut and New Haven, from
fpeech, Uncas dropped : his men inftantly obeyed the their firft fettlement, increafed rapidly : traCts of land
fignal, and poured in a Ihower of arrow's upon the un- w-ere purchaled of the Indians, and new towns fettled
fufpeCting Narraganfetts, and rulhing on with their from Stamford to Stonington, and far back into the
horrid yells and favage fiercenefs, put them to flight, country, when, in 1761, Major John Mafon, as agent
Many w’ere killed on the fpot, the reft were clofely for the colony, bought of the natives all lands which
purfued, and feme were precipitately driven down had not before been purchafed by particular towns,
craggy precipices, and dalhed in pieces. At a place and made a public furrender of them to the colony, in
called, from this event, Sachem's plain, Uncas over- the prefence of the general affembly. Having done
took and feized Myantonomo by the ftiouldcr. They thefe things, the colonies petitioned King Charles II.
CON [ 558 ] CON
for a cliarter, and their petition was granted. His
majefty, on the 23d of April 1662, iflued his letters
patent under the great feal, ordaining that the colony
of Connecticut fhould for ever hereafter be one body
corporate and politic, in fa£t and in name, confirming
to them their ancient grant and purchafe, and fixing
their boundaries as follows, viz. “ All that part of his
Majefty’s dominions in New England, in America,
bounded eaft by Narraganfett river, commonly called
Narraganfett bay, where the river falleth into the fea j
and on the north by the line of Maffachufets planta¬
tion, and on the fouth by the fea, and in longitude as
the line of the Mafiachufets colony, running from eaft
to weft, that is to fay, from the faid Narraganfett bay
on the eaft, to the South fea on the wreft part, with
the iflands thereunto belonging.” This charter has
ever fince remained the bafis of the government of
Connefticut.
Such was the ignorance of the Europeans refpeft-
ing the geography of America, when they firft affumed
the right of giving away lands which the God of na¬
ture had long before given to the Indians, that their
patents extended they knew not where 5 many of them
were of doubtful conftrudlion, and very often covered
each other in part, and have produced innumerable
difputes and mifchiefs in the colonies, fome of w'hich
are not fettled to this day. Connefticut conftrued her
charter literally, and palling over New York, which
was then in pofleflion of the fubjedts of a Chriftian
prince, claimed, in latitude and breadth mentioned
therein, to the South fea. Accordingly purchafes
were made of the Indians, on the Delaware river, weft
of the weftern bounds of New' York, and within the
fuppofed limits of Connecticut charter, and fettle-
ments were made thereon by people from, and under
the jurifdidtion of, Connecticut. The charter of Penn-
fylvania, granted to William Penn, in 1681, covered
thefe fettlements. This laid the foundation for a dif-
pute, which for a ‘long time was maintained with
warmth on both fides. The matter w'as at laft fub-
mitted to gentlemen chofen for the purpofe, who de¬
cided the difpute in favour of Pennfylvania. Many,
however, ftill afleft the juftice of the Connecticut
claim. The ftate of Connecticut has lately ceded to
Congrefs all their lands w eft of Pennfylvania, except a
referve of 20 miles fquare. This ceflion Congrefs have
accepted, and thereby indubitably eftablilhed the right
of Connecticut to the referve.
The colony of New Haven, though unconnected
with the colony of Connecticut, was comprehended
within the limits of their charter, and, as they con¬
cluded, within their jurifdiCtion. But New Haven
remonftrated againft their claim, and refufed to unite
with them until they ftiould hear from England. It
was not until the year 1665, when it was believed
that the king’s commiflioners had a defign upon the
New' England charters, that thefe two colonies formed
a union, which has ever fince amicably fubfifted be¬
tween them.
In 1672, the laws of the colony were reyifed, and
the general court ordered them to be printed ; and al-
fo, that “ every family Ihould buy one of the law
books*, fuch as pay in filver, to have a book for I2d.
fuch as pay in wheat, to pay a peck and a half a book :
and fuch as pay in peafe, to pay 2s. a book, the peafe
1
at 3s. the bufiisl.” Perhaps it is owing to this early CoucefiM
and univerfal fpread of law books, that the people of
Connecticut are to this day fo fond of the law. In
17 50, the laws of Connecticut were again reviled and
publiihed in a finall folio volume of 258 pages. Dr
Douglas obferves, that they were the moft natural,
equitable, plain, and concife code of laws for planta¬
tions hitherto extant. There has been a revifion of
them fince the peace, in which they were greatly and
very judicioufly fimplified.
The years 1675 and 1676 wrere diftinguilhed by
the wars with Philip and his Indians, and with the
Narraganfetts, by which the colony was thrown into
great diftrefs and confufion. The inroads of the en¬
raged favages were marked with cruel murders, and
with fire and devaftation.
In 1684, the charters of Maflachufets Bay and Ply?
mouth v'ere taken away, in confequence of Quo
warrantos which had been iffued againft them. Tfee
charter of ConneClicut would have lhared the fame fate
had it not been for —■- Wadfworth, Efq. who,
having very artfully procured it when it was on the
point of being delivered up, buried it under an oak
tree in Hartford, where it remained until all danger
was over, and then was dug up and reaffumed.
ConneClicut has ever made rapid advances in popu¬
lation. There have been more emigrations from this
than from any of the other ftates, and yet it is at pre-
fent full of inhabitants. This increafe, under the di¬
vine benediClion, may be afcribed to feveral caufes.
The bulk of the inhabitants are induftrious, fagacious
hulbandmen. Their farms furnilh them with all the
neceffaries, moft of the conveniences, and but few of
the luxuries of life. They of courfe are generally tem¬
perate, and, if they choofe, can fubfift with as much
independence as is confiftent with happinefs. The fub-
fiftence of the farmer is fubftantial, and does not de¬
pend on incidental circumftances, like that of moft
other profeflions. There is no neceflity of ferving an
apprenticeihip to the bufinefs, nor of a large (lock of
money to commence it to advantage. Farmers, who
deal much in barter, have lefs need of money than any
other clafs of people. The cafe with which a com¬
fortable fubfiftence is obtained, induces the hufband-
man to marry young. The cultivation of his farm
makes- him ftrong and healthful. He toils cheerfully
through the day—eats the fruit of his own labour with
a gladfome heart—at night devoutly thanks his boun¬
teous God for his daily bleflings—retires to reft, and
his fleep is fweet. Such eircumftances as thefe have
greatly contributed to the amazing increafe of inhabi¬
tants in this ftate.
Befides, the people live under a free government,
and have no fear of a tyrant. There are no overgrown
eftates, with rich and ambitious landlords, to have an
undue and pernicious influence in the eleCtion of civil
officers. Property is equally enough divided, and muft
continue to be fo as long as eftates defcend as they now
do. No perfon is prohibited from voting, or from be¬
ing eleCted into office, on account of his poverty. He
who has the moft merit, not he who has the moft mo¬
ney, is generally chofen into public office. As inftances
of this, it is to be obferved, that many of the citizens
of Connecticut, from the humble walks of life, have
arifen to the firft offices in the ftate, and filled them
CON
e<fti- with dignity and reputation. That hafe bufinefs of
lt eleftioneering, which is fo diredtly calculated to intro-
^ duce wicked and defigning men into office, is yet but
' little known in Connedticut. A man who wiffies to be
chofen into office, a£ts wdfely for that end, when he
keeps his defires to himfelf.
A third: for learning prevails among all ranks of
people in the date. More of the young men in Con-
nedticut, in proportion to their numbers, receive a
public education, than in any of the dates. Dr Frank¬
lin and other literary charadters have honoured this
date by faying, that it is the Athens of America.
The revolution, which fo effentially affedted the go¬
vernments of mod of the colonies, produced no very
perceptible alteration in the government of Connedti-
cut. While under the jurifdidtion of Great Britain,
they eledted their own governors, and all fubordinate
civil officers, and made their own laws in the fame
manner and with as little controul as they now do.
Connedlicut has ever been a republic, and perhaps as
perfedl and as happy a republic as has ever exided.
While other dates, more monarchical in their govern¬
ment and manners, have been under a neceffity of un¬
dertaking the difficult talk of altering their old, or
forming new conditutions, and of changing their mo¬
narchical for republican manners, Connedticut has un¬
interruptedly proceeded in her old track, both as to
government and manners j and by thefe means has
avoided thofe convulfions which have rent other dates
into violent parties.
CONNECTION, or Connexion, the relation or
dependence of one thing upon another.
Connection, or Continuity, in the drama, confids
in the joining of the feVeral fcenes together.
The connection is faid to be obferved, when the
fcenes of an adt fucceed one another immediately,
and are fo joined as that the dage is never left
empty.
CONNECTIVES, in Grammar, one of the four
fpecies under which, according to Mr Harris, all
words may be included. They are of two kinds :
and as they connedt fentences or words, are called by
the different names of conjunElions and prepofitions. See
Grammar.
CONNIVENT valves, in Anatomy, thofe wrin¬
kles, cellules, and vafcules, which are found in the in-
ddes of the two intedines ilium and jejunum. See A-
NATOMY, N° 93. et feq.
CONNOISSEUR, a French term, of late ufed in
Engliffi : it literally denotes a perfon well verfed in any
thing ; being formed of the verb connoitre, “ to knowf,
underdand.” Hence it comes to be ufed in our lan¬
guage for a critic, or perfon who is a thorough judge
or mader in any way, particularly in matters of paint¬
ing and fculpture.
CONNOR, Bernard, a learned phydcian, was
born in the county of Kerry, in Ireland, about the
year 1666, Having determined to apply himfelf to
the dudy of phydc, he w’ent to France, and redded
fome time in the univerdty of Montpelier. After¬
wards he went to Paris j where he obtained great Ikill
m medicine, anatomy, and chemidry. From thence
he travelled to Venice, with the two fons of the high-
chancellor of Poland ; and then taking a tour through
great part of Germany, went to Waifaw, where he
CON
was made phydcian to King John Sobielki. In 1695, Connor
he came to England, read a courfe of leftures in Lon- If
don and Oxford, and became member of the Royal C011'!116**-
Society and College of Phydcians ; afterwards, being
invited to Cambridge, he read public lectures there,
and made various experiments in chemidry. He has
rendered himfelf memorable for a philofophical and
medical treatife in Latin, entitled Evangelium Me-
diet, i. e. “ the Phydcian’s Gofpel j” tending to ex¬
plain the miracles performed by Chrid as natural
events, upon the principles of natural philofophy.
He wrote alfo a hidory of Poland j and died in 1698,
aged 3 2.
Connor, a city of Ireland, in the county of An¬
trim, and province of Ulder. W. Long. 6. 30. N.
Lat. 54. 50.
CONOCARPUS, Button-wood. See Botany
Index.
CONOID, in Geometry, a folid body, generated by
the revolution of a conic feftion about its axis. See
Conic Se&ions.
CONOIDES, in Anatomy, a gland found in the
third ventricle of the brain, called pinealis, from
its refemblance to a pine apple. See Anatomy
Index.
CONON, the renowned Athenian general and ad¬
miral, flouriffied 394 years before Chrid. See At¬
tica, N° 162, 163. After his defeat by Lyfander, he
fled to Evagoras king of Cyprus ; after which he put
himfelf under the prote&ion of Artaxerxes king of
Perda } with whofe army he delivered Athens from
the oppreffion of drangers, and rebuilt its walls. In
the 360th year of Rome, he beat the Lacedaemonians
in a fea-dght near Cnidus upon the coad of Ada, de¬
prived them of the fovereign rule they had on fea ever
dnee the taking of Athens, and had fome other cond^
derable advantage over them : but falling into the
hands of Teribazus a Perdan, who envied his glory, he
was put to death.
CONOPS, in Zoology ; a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to the order diptera. See Entomology Index.
CONOVIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town cf the
Ordovices, in Britain. From its ruins arofe, at the
didance of four miles, Aberconwey, the mouth of the
Conwey, in Caernarvonfhire j and on the fpot where
Conovium dood is an hamlet, called Caerhean, the old
town (Camden).
CONQUEST, in civil jurifprudence, is the ac-
quidtion of property in common by a number of per-
fons.
In fome countries they confound acquidtion with
conqued ; but, according to the mod general accep¬
tation, acquidtion is the gaining of unappropriated
goods before the edablidiment of a community :
whereas by the term conquejl, is ordinarily intended
whatever is acquired by a number cf perfons in com¬
munity or by fome one for all the others. As it is
more efpecially in the union of perfons by marriage
that a community of property takes place •, fo it is in
reference to them that we frequently ufe the word'
conqueji. There are neverthelefs conqueds alfo among
other perfons who are in a tacit community or fociety j
fuch as obtain by particular local cudoms. Accord¬
ing to this fenfe of the word, it has been contended by
feveral, that William I. claimed this kingdom; that
I 5'59 1
CON [ 560 1 CON
Cer.q-i.-ft, jSj not by right of arras, but by right of conqueft or
Conrad. acqUeq . uncler promife of fuccefhon made by Edward
1 Confeffor, and a contract entered into by Harold
to fupport his pretentions to that fucceffion •, and by
old writers, conqucjlus, acqwfitio, and perqujjitio, are
frequently ufed as fynonymous terms.
CoKQUEST, in the law of nations, is the acquifition
of fovereignty by force of arms, by fame foreign prince ;
who reduces the vanquished under his empire. The
right of conqueft is derived from the laws of war ; and
when a people is fubjefted, the conduft of the conque¬
ror is regulated by four kinds of law. Firft, the law
of nature, which didates whatever tends to felf-prefer-
vation ; fecondly, our reafon, which teaches us to ufe
Others as we would be treated ourfelves 5 thirdly, the
laws of political fociety, to which nature has not align¬
ed any precife boundary ; laftly, the law which is de¬
rived from the particular cirCumftances attending the
eonqueft. Thus, a date conquered by another will be
treated in one of the four methods following : Either
the conqueror will continue it under its own laws, and
will only claim the exercife of civil and eccleiiaftical fo¬
vereignty *, or he will impofe a new form of govern¬
ment •, or he will deftroy the frame of their fociety, and
incorporate the inhabitants with others} or he will ex¬
terminate them.
CONRAD II. elected emperor of Germany in 1004.
-He was.obliged to take the field againft molt of the
German dukes who had revolted from him 5 and he
put Erneft duke of Suabia under the ban of the empire.
This being one of the earlieft inltances of fuch a pro-
fcription, the formula is inferted here for its fingularity.
“ We declare thy wife a widow, thy children orphans ;
and we fend thee, in the name of the devil, to the four
corners of the world.” It was in the reign of this prince
that the German fiefs became hereditary. He died in
-■1039.
Conrad III. emperor of Germany in 1338. The
duke of Bavaria oppofed his election ; and being put
under the ban of the empire, and deprived of his du¬
chy, he could not furvive his difgrace. The margrave
of Auftria was ordered by the emperor to take pof-
feflion of Bavaria ; but Welft, uncle to the deceafed
duke attacked him, and was defeated near the caftle
of Winfburgh j the battle fought upon this occafion is
famous in hiftory, as having given rife to the party
names of Guelphs and Gibbelines, afterwards affumed in
Italy. The parole of the day with the Bavarians was
Weljli, from the name of their general; that of the Im-
perialifts Werblingcn from a fmall village where Fre¬
deric duke of Suabia, their commander, had been
jiurfed : by degrees thefe names ferved to diftinguilh
the two parties 5 and the Italians, who could not ac-
euftom themfelves to fuch rough words, formed from
them their Guelphs and Gibbelines. He died in
1152*
Conrad of Lichtenau, or Abbas Ufpergenfis, was
author of an Univerfal Chronology from the creation
to 1229, continued by an anonymous writer to Cha. V.
He collecled a fine library, and died about the year Conrad
124°. ' if
CONRADIN, or Conrad junior, fon of Con-
rad IV. was acknowledged emperor by the Gibhe-. "'jf
lines, who received him in triumph at Rome : but
Pope Alexander IV. had publiihed a crufade againfi;
this orphan-, and Urban VII. his fucceffor, gave the
empire to Charles of Anjou, brother to Louis IX.
king of France j and the unfortunate youth, though
powerfully fupported even by the Turks, loft a battle,
in which he was taken prifoncr, and was beheaded, by
order of his bafe opponent, publicly at Naples in 1229,
in the 18th year of his age. In him ended the race of
the dukes of Suabia, which had produced feveral kings
and emperors.
CONSANGUINITY, or Kindred, is defined by
the writers on thefe fubjecls to be, vinculum psrfona-
rum ab eodem JUpite defcendentium ; u the connexion or
relation of perfons defcended from the fame ftock or
common anceftor.” This confanguinity is either lineal
or collateral.
Lineal confanguinitij is that which fubfifts between
perfons of whom one is defcended in a direct line from
the other j as between John Sriles (the propojitus in
the table of confanguinity)- and his father, grandfa¬
ther, great grandfather, and fn upwards in the direct
afcending line ; or between John Stiles and his fon,
grandfon, great grandfon, and fo downwards in the
direift defcending line. Every generation in this di¬
rect lineal confanguinity, conftitutes a different de¬
gree, reckoning either upwards or downwards : the
father of John Stiles is related to him in the firft de¬
gree, and fo likewife is his fon j his grandfire and
grandfon, in the feeond 5 his great grandfire and great-
grandfon in the third. This is the only natural way of
reckoning the degrees in the diredt line ; and therefore
univerfally obtains, as well in the civil and canon, as in
the common law.
The doctrine of lineal confanguinity is fufficiently
plain and obvious ; but it is, at the firft view, aftonifti-
ing to confider the number of lineal aneeftors which
every man has, within no very great number of de¬
grees : and fo many different bloods is a man faid fo
contain in his veins, as he hath lineal aneeftors. Of
thefe he hath two in the firft afcending degree; his
own parents : he hath four in the fecond ; the parents
of his father, and the parents of his mother : he hath
eight in the third, the parents of his tw-o grandfathers,
and of his two grandmothers; and by the fame rule of
progreffion, he hath 128 in the feventh •, 1024 in the
tenth ; and at the 2Cth degree, or the diftance of 20
generations, every man hath above a million $f an-
ceftors, as common arithmetic will demonftrate (a).
This lineal confanguinity, we may obferve, falls ftridtly
within the definition of vinculum per/onarum ab eodem
Jiipite defcendentium; fince lineal relations are fuch as
defcend one from the other, and both of courfe from
the fame common anceftors.
Collateral kindred anfwers to the fame defcriptics:
collateral
(a) This will feem furprifing to thofe who are unacquainted with the increafing power of progreffive num¬
bers ; but it is palpably evident from the following table of a geometrical progreflion, in which the firft term
43 2 and the denominator alfo 2 ; or, to ipeak more intelligibly, it is evident, for that each of us has .two ac-
a ceftors
CON [ 561 ] CON
fcjngui-collateral relations agreeing witk the lineal In this,
||ty- that they defeend from the fame ilock or anceftor j
u >'^Jbut differing in this, that they do not defeend the one
from the other. Collateral kinfmen, then, are fuch as
lineally fpring from one and the fame anceftor, who is
the Jlirps, or “ root,” the Jlipes. “ trunk,” or common
flock, from whence thefe relations are branched out.
As if John Stiles hath two fens, who have each a nu¬
merous iffue ; both thefe iffues are lineally defeended
from John Stiles as their common anceftor 5 and they
are collateral kinfmen to each other, becaufe they are
all defeended from this common anceftor, and all have
a portion of his blood in their veins, which denominates
them confanguineous.
We muft be careful to remember, that the very be¬
ing of collateral confanguinity conftfts in this defeent
from one and the fame common anceftor. Thus Ti-
tius and his brother are related ; why ? becaufe both
are derived from one father: Titius and his fhft cou-
fm are related \ why ? becaufe both defeend from the
fame grandfather-, and his fecond couftn’s claim to
confanguinity is this, that they are both derived from
one and the fame great-grandfather. In ftiort, as
many anceftors as a man has, fo many common flocks
he has from which collateral kinfmen may be derived.
And as we are taught by holy writ, that there is one
couple of common anceftors belonging to us all, from
whom the whole race of mankind is defeended, the
obvious and undeniable confequence is, that all men
are in fome degree related to one another. For, in-
Vol. VI. Part II.
deed, if we only fuppofe each couple of cur ancettors Cor.ftnrui.
to have left, one with another, two children j and, iutJ'
each of thoie children to have left, on an average, two 1 *"""~
more (and without fuch a fuppefition the human fpe-
cies muft be daily diminiftiing) ; we fhall find that all
of us have now fubfifting near 270 millions of kindred
in the 15th degree, at the fame diftance from the feve-
ral common anceftors as we ourfelves are ; befides thole
that are one or two degrees nearer to our father from
the common flock, who may amount to as many
more (b). And if this calculation (hould appear in¬
compatible with the number of inhabitants on the earth,
it is becaufe, by intermarriages among the feveral de-
feendants from the fame anceftor, a hundred or a thou-
fand modes of confanguinity may be confolidated in one
perfon ; or he may be related to us a hundred or a thou-
fand different ways.
The method of computing thefe degrees in the ca¬
non law, which we have adopted, is as follows. We
begin at the common anceftor, and reckon downwards j
and in whatfoever degree the two perfons, or the
moft remote of them, is diftant from the common an¬
ceftor, that is the degree in which they are related to
each other. Thus, Titius and his brother are related
in the firft degree} for from the father to each of
them is counted only one : Titius and his nephew are
related in the fecond degree $ for the nephew is two
degrees removed from the common anceftor, viz. his
own grandfather, the father of Titius : or (to give
a more illuftrious infiance from the Englifti annals)-
4 King
ceftors in the firft degree, the number of whom is doubled at every remove \ becaufe each of our anceftors has alfo-
two immediate anceftors of his own.
1 2
2 4
3 8
4
7 128
8 256
9 512
10 1024
11 2048
12 4096
13 8192
14 16384
15 32V68
16 65536
17 131072
18 262144
19 524288
20 1048576
A fhorter way of finding the number of anceftors at any given degree, is by fquaring the number of anceftors at
half that number of degrees. Thus 16, the number of anceftors at 4 degrees, is the fquare of 4, the number of
anceftors at 2 ; 256 is the fquare of 16 ; 65536 of 256 j and the number of anceftors at 40 degrees would be the
fquare of 1,048,576, or upwards of a million of millions.
(b) This will fw-ell more confiderably than the former calculation : for here, though the firft term is but 1, the
denominator is 4 ; that is, there is one kinfman (a brother) in the firft degree, who makes, together with the
propojitus, the two defeendants from the firft couple of anceftors j and in every other degree, the number of kin¬
dred muft be the quadruple of thofe in the degree which immediately precedes it. For fince each couple of
anceftors*
CON [ s6_2
Confangui- King Henry VII. who flaw Richird III. in the battle
c iUty‘ , of Bofworth, was related to that prince in the fifth
degree Let the prapofuus, therefore, in the table of
confanguinity, reprefent King Richard III. and the
clafs marked E, King Henry VII. Now their com¬
mon flock or anceftor was King Edward III. the aba-
vus in the fame table : from him to Edmund duke of
York, the prcavus, is one degree ; to Richard earl of
Cambridge, the avus, two j to Richard duke of York,
the pater, three j to King Richard III. the propojitus,
four 5 and from King Edward III. to John of Gaunt
(a) is one degree ; to John earl of Somerfet (b) two ;
to John duke of Somerfet (c) three; to Margaret
countefs of Richmond (d) four; to King Henry VII,
(e) five. Which lad-mentioned prince, being the far-
thed removed from the common dock, gives the deno¬
mination to the degree of kindred in the canon and
municipal law. Though according to the computation
of the civilians (who count upwards from either of the
perfons related, to the common dock, and then down¬
wards again to the other $ reckoning a degree for each
perfon both afeending and defeending) thefe two
princes were related in the ninth degree: for from
King Richard III. to Richard duke of York is one
degree j to Richard earl of Cambridge two j to Ed¬
mund duke of York three j to King Edward III. the
] CON
common ancedor, four •, to John of Gaunt five; to ConfanjJ
John earl of Somerfet fix; to John duke of Somerfet [
feven ; to Margaret couMefs of Richmond eight j to ^0Rfc‘en(|
King Henry VII. nine. Seethe Table of Confangui-W"v'‘
nity (Plate CLXIV.), wherein all the degrees of col¬
lateral kindred to the propojitus are computed, as far
as the tenth of the civilians and the feventh of the ca-
nonids inclufive 5 the former being diftinguifhed by the
numeral letters, the latter by the common ciphers.
Consanguinity and Jjjfinity, degrees of, forbidden
in marriage. See P^arriage and Law Index.
Consanguinity and Affinity, an objeftion againft
a judge or a witnefs. See Law Index.
CONSCIENCE, a fecret tedimony of the foul,
whereby it gives its approbation to things that are j
naturally good, and condemns thofe that are evil. See
Moral Philosophy.
A man of integrity wall never liden to any reafon, or
give way to any meafnre, or be mided by any induce¬
ment, againft confcience.—The inhabitants of a great
town offered Mardial de Turenne 100,000 crowns,
upon condition he would take another road, and not
march his troops their way. He anfwered them, “ As
your town is not in the road I intend to march, I
cannot accept the money you offer me.”-—The earl
of Derby, in the reign of Edward III. making a de-
feent
ancedors has two defeendants who increafe in a duplicate ratio, it will follow, that the ratio in which all the
defeendants increafe downwards, mud be double to that in which the ancedors increafe upwards : but we have
feen, that the ancedors increafe in a duplicate ratio : therefore, the defeendants mud; increafe in a double duplicate j
that is, in quadruple ratio.
Collateral Degrees. Number of Kindred.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
14
*5
16
17
18
*9
20
4
16
64
256
1024
4096
16384
65536
262144
1048576
4194304
16777216
67108864
268435456
io7374i824
4294967296
17179869184
68719476736
274877906944
This calculation may alfo be formed by a more compendious procefs, viz. by fquaring the couples, or half
the number of ancedors, at any given degree j which will furnifti us with the number of kindred we have in
the fame degree, at equal didance with ourfelves from the common dock, befides thofe at unequal dtdances.
Thus in the tenth lineal degree, he number of ancedors is 1024; its half, or the couples, amounts to 512; the
number of kindred in the tenth collateral degree amounts therefor* to 262144, or the fquare of 512. And, if
we will be at the trouble to recollefl the date of the feveral familie* within our own knowledge, and obferve how
far they agree with this account j that is, whether, on an average, every man has not one brother or fider, four
firft-coufins, fixteen fecond coufins, and fo on, we (hall find, that the prefent calculation is very far from being
overcharged
CON
C 56.-? ]
CON
isnce.
Aol.
401.
fcent in Guienne, carried by ftorm the town of Ber¬
gerac, and gave it up to be plundered. A Welch
knight happened by chance to light upon the receiver’s
office. He found there fuch a quantity of money
that he thought himfelf obliged to acquaint his gene¬
ral with it, imagining that fo great a booty naturally
belonged to him. But he was agreeably furprifed
when the earl told him, with a pleafant countenance,
that he wilhed him joy of his good fortune > and that
he did not make the keeping of his word to depend
upon the great or little value of the thing he had pro-
mifed.—In the liege of Falifci by Camillas general of
the Romans, the fchoolmafter of the town, who had
the children of the fenators under his care, led them
abroad under the pretext of recreation, and carried
them to the Roman camp, laying to Camillus, that
by this artifice he had delivered Falilci into his hands.
Camillus, abhorring this treachery, obferved, “ That
there were laws for war as well as for peace and
that the Romans were taught to make war with inte¬
grity not lefs than with courage.” He ordered the
fchoolmafter to be llripped, his hands to be bound be¬
hind his back, and to be delivered to the boys to be
laftied back into the town. The Falerians, formerly
obftinatc in refiftance, ftruck with an aft of juftice fo
illuftrious, delivered themfelves up to the Romans j
convinced that they would be far better to have the
Romans for their allies than their enemies.
It is a faying, That no man ever offended his own
confcience, but firft or laft it was revenged upon him.
The power of confcience indeed has been remarked in
all ages, and the examples of it upon record are innu¬
merable. The following is related by Mr Fordyce,
in his Dialogues on Education *, as a real occurrence
which happened in a neighbouring ftate not many
years ago. A jeweller, a man of good charafter and
confiderable wealth, having occafion in the way of his
bufinefs to travel at lome diftance from the place of
his abode, took along with him a fervant, in order to
take care of his portmanteau. He had with him fome
of his beft jewels, and a large fum of money, to which
his fervant was likewife privy. The mafter having oc¬
cafion to difmount on the road, the fervant watching
his opportunity, took a piftol from his mafter’s faddle
and (hot him dead on the fpot ; then rifled him of his
jewels and money, and hanging a large ftone to his
neck, he threw him into the neareft canal. With this
booty he made oft to a diftant part of the country,,
where he had reafon to believe that neither he nor his
mafter was known. There he began to trade in a
very low way at firft, that his obfeurity might fereen
him from cbfervation, and in the courfe ot a good
many years feemed to rife, by the natural progrefs of
bufinefs, into wealth and connderation ; fo that his
good fortune appeared at once the effeft and reward
ef induftry and virtue. Of thefe he counterfeited the
appearance fo well, that he grew into great credit,
married into a good family, and by laying out his hid¬
den ftores difcreetly, as he law occafion, and joining
to all an univerfal affability, he was admitted to a
flrare of the government of the town, and rofe from-
one poft to another, till at length he was chofen chief
magiftrate. In this office he maintained a fair cha¬
rafter, and continued to fill it with no finall applaufe,
both as a governor and a judge 3 till one day as he fat
on the bench with fome of his brethren, a criminal Confcieuce
was brought before him who was accufed of murder- Qonf|)cra_
ing his mafter. The evidence came out full, the jury tjon>
brought in their verdift that the prifoner was guilty,
and the whole affembly waited the fentence of the pre-
fident of the court (which he happened to be that
day) with great fufpenfe. Meanwhile he appeared
to be in unufual diforder and agitation of mind, and
his colour changed often 3 at length he arofe from his
feat, and coming down from the bench, placed him¬
felf juft by the unfortunate man at the bar. “ You
fee before you (faid he, addreffmg himfelf to thofe
who had fat on the bench with him), a ftriking in-
ftance of the juft rewards of heaven, which this day,
after 30 years concealment, prefents to you a greater
criminal than the man juft now found guilty.” Then
he made an ample confeffion of his guilt, and of all
its aggravations. “ Nor can I feel, (continued he)
any relief from the agonies of an awakened confcience,
but by requiring that juftice be forthwith done againft
me in the moft public and folemn manner.^ We may
eafily fuppofe the amazement of all the affembly, and
efpecially of his fellow-judges. However, they pro¬
ceeded, upon this confeflion, to pafs fentence upon
him, and he died with all the fymptoms of a penitent
mind.
Courts of Conscience, are courts for recovery of
fmall debts, conftituted by aft of parliament in Lon¬
don, Weftminifter, &c. and other populous and trading
di ft rifts.
CONSCIOUSNESS. Metaphyficians, in lieu of
the word confcience, which feems appropriated to theo-r
logical or moral matters, ordinarily ufe that of con-
feioufnefs ; whereby they mean an inner fen lime nt of a
thing, whereof one may have a clear and diftinft no¬
tion. In this fenfe they fay that we do not know
our own foul, nor are allured of the exiftence of our
own thoughts, otherwife than by felf-confcioufnefs*
See Metaphysics.
CONSCRIPT, in Roman antiquity, an-appellaticn
given to the fenators of Rome, who were called con-
ferifit fathers, on account of their names being all en¬
tered in one regifter,
CONSECRATION, the aft of devoting any thing
to the fervice and worlhip of God. The Mofaical
law ordained, that all the firft-born, both, of man and
beaft, Ihould be fanftified or confecrated to God. We
find alfo that Jofinua confecrated the Gibeonites, as
Solomon and David did the Nethinims, to the fervics
of the temple 3 and that the Hebrews fometlmes confer
crated their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which
they were-no longer in their power.
Among the ancient Chriftians, the confecration of
churches was performed with a great deal of pious fc->
lemnity. In what manner it was done for the three
firft: age0,,- is uncertain 3 the authentic accounts reach¬
ing no higher than the fourth, when, in the peaceable
reign of Conftantine, churches were everyvvlxere built,
and dedicated with great folemnity. Some think the
confecration confifted in fetting up the fign of the
crofs, or in placing a communion table in the church 3
and others, that no more was done than preaching a
panegyrical fermon i^ commemoration of the founder,
and that then they proceeded to prayers, one of which
was compofcd on purpofe for the church to be- con fin
4. B 2 crated...
Confecra
tion
CON t 56+ ]
The Romanics have a great deal of pious fop- of crying.
crated.
pery in the ceremonies of confecration -7 which they be-
Conlent. ^.ow on almoft every thing, bells, candles, books, water,
==“'v—■—> oil, alhes, palms, fwords, banners, pictures, crcffes, ag-
nus dei’s, rofes, children’s clouts, &c.
In England, churches have been always confecrated
with particular ceremonies, the form of which was left
to the difcretion of the bithop. That obferved by Bi-
fliop l.aud, in confecrating St Catherine Creed church,
ia London, gave great offence.
Consecration, is particularly ufed for the benedic¬
tion of the elements in the eucharift.
Consecration, among medaliils, is the ceremony of
the apotheofts of an emperor, or his tranllation into
heaven and reception among the gods. On medals the
confecration is thus reprefented : on one fide is the em¬
peror’s head, crowned Xvith laurel, fometimes veiled ;
and the infcription gives him the title of J/vus: on
the reverie is a temple, a buftum, an altar, or an eagle
taking its flight towards heaven, either from off the
altar, or from a cippus : at other times the empe¬
ror is feen in the air, borne up by the eagle ; the in¬
fcription always, confecratio. Theie are the ufual fym-
bols : yet on the reverfe of that of Antoninus is the
Antonine column. In the apotheofis of empreffes, in-
ffead of an eagle there is a peacock. As to the ho¬
nours rendered thefe princes after death, they were ex¬
plained by the words confecratio, pater^ divas, and deus.
Sometimes around the temple or altar are put, memoria
feiix, or tnemorue ceternae: for princeffes, ceternitas
and Jidenbus recepta : on the one fide of the head, dea,
or
^ CONSENT, in a
fame with Assent.
Consent of Parts, in the animal economy, an agree¬
ment or fympathy, whereby when one part is imme¬
diately affefted, another at a diftance becomes affe&ed
in the fame manner.
This mutual accord or confent is fuppofed to be ef-
fe£led by the commerce of the nerves, and their artful
cifiribution and ramification throughout the body.
The effefl: is fo fenfible as even to come under the
phyfician’s cognizance : thus, the Hone in the bladder,
by vellicating the fibres there, will pain and draw them
fo much into fpafms, as to affeft the coats of the bowels,
in the fame manner, by the intermediation of nervous
threads, and make a colic there j and alfo extend their
twitches lometimes as far as the ftomaeh, and occafion
grievous vomitings j the remedy, therefore, in fuch
cafes, is to regard the part originally affe&ed, how re¬
mote and grievous foever may be the confequences and
fymptoms in other places.
The fifth conjugation of nerves branched to the parts
of the eye, the ear, thofe of the mouth, cheeks, praecor-
dia, and parts adjacent, &c. is fuppoled by natu-
ralifts to be the inftrument of that particular' and ex¬
traordinary confent between thofe parts. Hence it
is, that a favoury thing feen or fmelled excites the
appetite, and affe&s the glands and parts of. the
mouth $ that a lhameful thing feen or heard affedts
the cheeks with blufhes : on the contrary, if it pleafes,
it aftefts the praecordia, and excites the mufcles of the
mouth and face to laughter; ;f it grieve, it affedts
the glands of the eyes, fo as to occafion tears, and
the mufcles of the face, putting them into an afpedt
general fenfe, denotes much the
CON
Dr Wilhs, quoted by Mr Derham, im¬
putes the pleafure of killing, and its effedts, to this
pair oi nerves 5 which being branched both to the lips
and the genital parts, when the former are affedled
an irritation is occafioned in the latter. See Sympa¬
thy.
CONSENT ES, the name which the Romans gave
to the 12 fuperior gods, the Dii tnajorum gentium.
I he word fignifies as much as confermentes; that is,
who coniented to the deliberations of Jupiter’s council.
They were twelve in number, whofe names Ennius has
briefly expreffed in thefe lines,
fa, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars,
Mercunus, fovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.
^ CONSEQ UENCE, in Logic, the conclufion or
what reliilts Irom reafon or argument. See Conclu¬
sion.
Ine confequence is that other propofition in which
the extremes or premifes of a fyllogilfn are joined, or
feparated ; and is gained from what was afferted in the
premifes.
1 his word, in a more reftrained fenfe, is ufed for the
relation or connedtion between two propofitions, where¬
of one is inferred from the other.
CONSEQUENT, fomething deduced or gathered
from a former argumentation. But, in a more precife
fenfe, it is uied for the propofition which contains the
conclufion, confidered in itlelf, without any regard to
the antecedent: in which fenfe the confequent may be
true, though the confequence be falfe. See the preced¬
ing article.
CONSERVATOR, an officer ordained for the fe-
curity and prefervation of the privileges of fome cities
and communities, having a commiflion to judge of and
determine the differences among them.
In moft catholic univerfities there are two' conferva-
tors j the confervator of royal privileges, or thoie
granted by kings ; and the confervator of apofiolscal
privileges, or thofe granted by the pope. The firft
takes cognizance of perfonal and mixed caufes between
the regents, Undents, &c. and the latter of fpiritual
matters between ecclefiaftics.
Anciently there were appointed confervators of trea¬
ties of peace between princes; which confervators
became judges of the inflations made on a treaty,
and were charged with procuring fatisfation to be
made. Thefe were ufually the feudatories of the le-
veral powers. In lieu of confervators, princes now
have recourfe to other indifferent princes to guarantee
their treaties.
Con serf 47 or of Scots Privileges, at Campvere, was
an officer belonging to the royal boroughs of Scotland,
who took care of the mercantile affairs of Scotland,
agreeable to the ftaple contraft between them and the
States-General.
Conservator of the Peace, in the ancient Englilh
culloms, was a perfon who had an efpecial charge, by
virtue of his office, to fee the king’s peace kept. Till
the ereftion of juftices of the peace by King Ed¬
ward III. there were feveral perfons who by common
law were interefted in keeping the fame : fome having
that charge as incident to other offices ; and others
limply, or of itfelf, called cufodes, or confervators of
the peace. The chamberlain of Chefttr is ftill a con¬
fervator
Confen
o 'I
Ccmferv
tor,
CON [5
vatorfervator in that county', and petty cohftables are, by
the common law, contervators, &c. in the firft fenfe,
:>en' within their own jurifdicuan : fo are alfo the coroner
, and the theriff within their own county. The king is
the principal confervator of the peace within ail his do¬
minions ; the lord chancellor, lord treafurer, lord high
fteward, lord marfhal, lord high condable, all the jui-
tices of the court of king’s bench, by their office, and
the mafter of the rolls, by prefcriprion, are general con-
fervators of the peace through the whole kingdom, and
may commit breakers of the peace, and bind them in
recognifances to keep it.
Conservator of the Truce, and Safe ConduRs, was
an officer appointed in every fea port, under the king’s
letters patent. His charge was to inquire of all of¬
fences committed again ft the king’s truce, and fafe
eonduSs upon the main fea, out of the franchifes of
the cinque-ports, as the admirals were wont to do,
and fuch other things as aie declared anno 3 Hen. V.
cap. 6.
CONSERVATORIOS, are mufical fchools efta-
hliffied for the inftruflion of children in the profeffion
of muiic. There are four of thefe at Venice, defigned
for the education of girls, and three at Naples, for the
education of boys. It has been fuggefted that the
operation of caftration was performed in the conferva-
torios *, but the practice is abfolutely prohibited : and
the young caftrati are brought from Lucia in Pug¬
lia : but before that operation is performed, their voices
are tried in a confervatorio. The fcholars oi the Ve¬
netian confervatorios have been chiefly celebrated for
tafte and neatnefs of executionj and thofe of Naples
have had the reputation of being the firft contrafiuntifls,
or compofers, in Europe.
CONSERVATORY, a term fomedmes ufed for a
green-houfe or ice-houfe.
CONSERVE, in Pharmacy, a form of medicine
contrived to preferve the flowers, herbs, roots, or
fruits of feveral fimples, as near as poffible, to what
they are when frefh gathered. See Pharmacy.
CONSIGNMENT, in Law, the depofiting any
fum of money, bills, papers, or commodities, in good
hands ; either by appointment of a court of juftice, in
order to be delivered to the perfons to whom they are
adjudged •, or voluntarily, in order to their being re¬
mitted to the perfons they belong to, or fent to the
places they are defigned for.
Consignment of Goods, in Commerce, is the de¬
livering or making them over to another } thus, goods
are faid to be configned to a faflor, when they are fent
to him to be fold, &c. ; or when a faflor fends back
goods to his principal, they are faid to be configned to
im.
CONSISTENCE, in Phyfics, that ftate of a body
wherein its component particles are fo connefted or
entangled among themfelves, as not to feparate or
recede from each other. It differs from continuity in
this, that it implies a regard to motion or reft, which
continuity does not, it being fufficient to denominate
a thing continuous that its parts are contiguous to each
other.
• CONSISTENTES, in cburch-hiftory, a kind of pe¬
nitents who were allowed to affift at prayers, but who
could not be admitted fo receive the facrament.
65 1 C O N
CONSISTORY (Vonfforium), fignifies as much Conflftory
as prcetcrium, a tribunal: it is commonly ufed for a
council-houfe of ecclefiaftical perfons, or place of ju¬
ftice in the fpiritual court; a feflion or aiTembly of pre¬
lates. And every archbifhop and billiop of every dio-
cefe hath a confiftory court held before his chancellor
or commififary in his cathedral church, or other conve¬
nient. place of his diocefe, for ecclefiaftical caufes. The
biihop’s chancellor is the judge of this court, fuppofed
to be {killed in the civil and canon law ; and in places
of the diocefe far remote from the bifhop’s confiftory,
the bifhop appoints a commiffiary to judge in all caufes
within a certain diftrl£l, and a regifter to enter his de¬
crees, Sec.
Coksistory, at Rome, denotes the college of cardi¬
nals, or the pope’s fenate and council, before whom ju¬
diciary caufes are pleaded. Du Cange derives the word
from confiforium ; i. e. locus uhi conjijhtur ; ufed chiefly
for a veftibule, gallery, or anti-chamber, where the
courtiers wait for admiffion : and fb called a confjlente
multitudine.
The confiftory is the firft court, or tribunal of
Rome : it never meets but when the pope pleafes to
convoke it: the pope prefides in it in perfon, mounted
on a magnificent throne, and habited in his pontifi¬
calia; on the right are the cardinal-bilhops and priefts,
and on the left the cardinal-deacons. The place where
it is held, is a large hall in the apoftolical palace,,
where princes and ambaffadors of kings are received.
The other prelates, prothonotaries, auditors of the ro¬
ta, and other officers, are feated o.; the fteps of the
throne : the courtiers fit on the ground •, ambaffadors
on the right, and confiftorial and fifcal advocates behind
the cardinals.
Befides the public confiftory, there is alfo a private
one, held in a retired chamber, called the chamber
papegay ; the pope’s throne here being only raifed two
fteps high. Nobody is here admitted but the cardi¬
nals, whofe opinions are collefted, and called fentences.
Here are firft propofed and paffed all bulls for bifhop-
ricks, abbeys, &c. Hence biffiopricks and abbeys
are faid to be confiftorial benefices ; in regard they mutt
be propofed in the confiftory, the annates be paid to the
pope, and his bulls taken. Anciently they were elec¬
tive ; but by the concordat, which abolifhes elettions,
they are appointed to be collated by the pope alone, on
the nomination of the prince.
Consistory was alfo the name of a court under
Conftantine, vftbere he fat in perfon, and heard caufes :
the members of this court -were called comitcs.
Consistory is alfo ufed among the reformed, for
a council or affembly of minifters and elders, to regulate
their affairs, discipline, &c.
Consistory, or Court Chrifilan, in the Englifh laws,
is a council of ecclefiaftical perfons, or the place of
juftice in an ecclefiaftical or fpiritual court. Every
archbiftiop and bifhop has a confiftory-court, held be¬
fore his chancellor or commiffary, either in his cathe¬
dral, in feme chapel, aifte, or portico, belonging there¬
to ; or in fome other convenient place of his diccefe, for
ecclefiaftical caufes. The fpiritual court was anciently,
in the time of the Saxons, joined with the county cr
hundred court; and the original of the confiftoiy*court,
as divided from thofe courts, is found in a law of the
conqueror,
5
CON
Confiftory conqueror, quoted by Lord Coke. From this court
Conftable t^lerc ^es an aPp-2al to the archbilhop of each province
> _ 'i refpefiively.
CONSOLATION, one of the places in rhetoric,
wherein the orator endeavours to abate and moderate
the grief or concern of another.
CONSOLE, in At'chite&ure, an ornament cut upon
the key of an arch, which has a proje&ure, and on
occafion ferves to fupport little corniches, figures, bulls,
and vales!
CONSOLIDATION, in Law, the combining and
uniting two benefices into one. The term is borrowed
from the civil law 5 where it properly fignifies an union
of the poffellion, or occupation, with the property.
I hus, if a man have by legacy ufam fruEium fundi, and
afterwards buy the property, or fee-fimple, of the
heir ; this is called a cohfolidation.
Consolidation, in Medicine, the action of uniting
broken bones, or the lips of wounds, by means of con-
fohdating remedies, as they are called } which cleanfing
with a moderate heat and force, taking corruption out
•of the wounds, and preferving the temperature of the
parts, caufe the nourxthment to be fitly applied to the
part affefled.
Among the many inftances of the confolidating
power of blood and raw flelh, We have a very re¬
markable one in Bartholine’s Medical Obfervations.
A man being condemned to have his nofe cut off by
the hand of the common executioner, the friends, who
were to be prefent, provided a new loaf of warm bread,
which was cut in the middle, and the nofe received in
it as it fell from the face : the nofe was after this nicely
placed on the face again ; and being fewed on, the
whole in time 'Confolidated, and left no other marks
•of the ignominy than the fear round the whole nofe,
and the traces of the Hitches.
CONSONANCE, in Mufc. See Interval.
CONSONANT, a letter that cannot be founded
without feme fingle or double vowel before or after it j
as b, c, d, &c.
CONSORT, ^ueen Comsoxt. See Queen.
CONSPIRACY, in L/uo, fignifies an agreement be¬
tween two or more, falfely to indiid, or procure to be
indicted, an innocent perfon, of felony.
CONSPIRATORS are, by ftatute, defined to be
fuch as bind themfelves by oath, covenant, or other al¬
liance, to afiift one another falfely and malicioufly to
indict perfons, or falfely to maintain pleas
Confpirators in treafon, are thofe that plot againft
the king and the government.
CONSTABLE, according to fome, is a Saxon
word, compounded of coning, “ king,” and Jletple which
fignifies the “ flay or fupport of the king.” But as
we borrowed the name as well as the office of Corftable
from the French, Sir William Blackftone fs rather in¬
clined to deduce it, with Sir Henry Spelman and Dr
Cowel, from that language j wherein it is plainly de¬
rived from the Latin comes Jlabuli, an officer well
known in the empire 5 fo called, becaufe, like the-
great ccnflable of France, as well as the lord high
conftable of England, he was to regulate all matters
cf chivalry, tilts, tournaments, and feats of arms, which
were performed on horfeback.—The
Lord High Const ails of England is the feventh
great officer of the crown 3 and he, with the carl
[ 565 ]
CON
marfhal of England, were formerly judges of the court Conftab f
of rhivalrv rnllprl in ICinn- T-TLnru IV ’c tl.-rx. v.n»  
of chivalry, called in King Henry IV.’s time Curia
Militaris, and now the court of honour. It is the
fountain of the martial law, and anciently was held in
the king’s hall. The power of the lord high con¬
ftable was formerly fo great, and of which fo improper
a ufe was made; that fo early as the 13 th of King Rich¬
ard II. a ftatute paffed for regulating and abridgina-
the fame, together with the power of the earl msrftuft
of England 3 and by this ftatute, no plea could be tri¬
ed by them or their courts, that could be tried by the
common law of the realm. The office of conftable
cxifted before the conqueft. After the conqueft, the
office went with inheritance, and by the tenure of the
manors of Harlefield, Newman, and Whitenhurft, in
Gloucefterlliire, by grand ferjeanty in the family of
the Bohuns earl of Hereford and Effcx, and afterwards
in the line of Stafford as heirs-general to them 3 but
in 1521, this great office became forfeited to the king
in the perfon of Edward Stafford duke of Bucking¬
ham, who was that year attainted for high treafon; and
in confideration of its extenfive power, dignity, and
large authority, both in time of war and peace, it has
never been granted to any perfon, otherwife than hac
vice, and that to attend at a coronation, or trial by
combat. In France, the fame office was alfo fuppreffed
about a century after by an edift of Louis XIII ;
though it has been exercifed, in the command of the
Marshals-, by the fir ft officer in the army.
Lord high conftable of Scotland was an office of
great antiquity and dignity. The firft upon record is
Hugo de Morvelle in the reign of David I. He had
two grand prerogatives, viz. F;rft, The keeping of the
king’s fwerd, which the king, at his promotion, when
he fwears fealty, delivers to him naked. Hence the
badge of the conftable is a naked fword.—Second, The
abfolute and unlimited command of the king’s armies
while in the field, in the abfence of the king ; but
this command does not extend to cattles and garrifons.
He was likewife judge of all crimes committed within
txvo leagues of the king’s houfe, which preeinfV was
called the Ckalmer of Peace : though his jurifdiftion
came at laft to be exercifed only as to crimes during
the time of parliament, which lome extended likewife
to all general conventions. This office was conferred
heritably upon the noble family of Errol, by King Ro¬
bert Bruce ; and with them it ftill remains, being ex-
pfefsly referved by the treaty of union.
Inferior Constables. From the great office of high
conftable is derived that inferior order, fince called the
conftables of hundreds and franch fes; thefe were fivft or¬
dained in the 13th year of Edward I. by the ftatute
of Winchefter ; which, for the confervation of the
peace, and view of armour, appointed that two ccnfta-
bles fhould be chofen in every hundred and franebile.
Thefe are what we now call conjlabularii capitales, or
high csnfalks; becaufe continuance of time, and in-
creafe of people, &c. have occafioned others of like;
nature, but inferior authority, in every town, called
petty confables, or fub-confabidarii, firft inftituted about
the reign of Edward III.
The former, or modern high confables, are appoint¬
ed at the court-leets of the Iranchife or hundred over
which they prefide; or, in default of that, by the
juftices at their quarter-feffions ; and are removeable
6 Vy
•t
CON [ 5^7 ] CON
abl& by the fame authority that appoints them. The prtttj Constables to ’juJUces of (ho Peace, in Scotland, CwifUhH
confables have two offices united in them, the one an- are the proper officers for executing their orders. ^onf,..nc^
cient, and the other modern. Their ancient office is They have powers to fupprds tumults, and to ap-
that of head-borough, tithing-man, or borffiolder ;
which is as ancient as the time of King Alfred : then-
more modern office is that of conflable merely } which
was appointed fo lately as the reign of Edward III.
in order to affift the high condable. And in general
the ancient head-boroughs, tithing-men, and borffiold-
ers, were made ufe of to fervc as petty con Rabies j
though not fo generally, but that in many places they
ftill continue diftindh officers from the conftables.
They are all chofen by the jury at the court-leet; or,
if no court-leet be held, are appointed by trvo jullices
of the peace.
The general duty of all conftables, both high and
petty, as well as of the other officers, is to keep the
king’s peace in their feveral diftridls j and to that pur-
pofe they are armed with very large powers of ar-
refting and imprifoning, of breaking open houfes, and
the like: of the extent of which powers, confidering
what manner of men are for the moft part upon
thefe offices, it is perhaps very well that they are ge¬
nerally kept in ignorance. One of their principal
duties arifing from the ftatute of Winchefter, which
appoints them, is to keep watch and wrard in their re-
fpedlive jurifdi&ions. Ward, guard, or cnftodia, is
chiefly intended of the day-time, in order, to appre¬
hend rioters, and robbers, on the highways $ the man¬
ner of doing which is left to the difcretion of the juf-
tices of the peace and the conftable : the hundred be¬
ing, however, liable for all the robberies committed
therein by day-light, for having kept negligent guard.
Watch is properly applicable to the night only (being
called among the Saxons wachPt or voadu) } and it be¬
gins when ward ends, and ends w’hen that begins :
for, by the ftatute of VYinchefter, in walled towns the
gates ffiall be ciofed from fun-fetting to fun-rifing :
and watch ffiall be kept in every borough and town,
efpecially in the fummer feafon, to apprehend all
rogues, vagabonds, and night-walkers, and make them
give an account of thernfelves. The conftable may
appoint watchmen at his difcretion, regulated by the
cuftom of the place j and thefe, being his deputies,
have, for the time being, the authority of their prin¬
cipal.
There are alfo conftables denominated from parti¬
cular places, as conftable of the Tower, of Dover
caftle, of Windfor caftle, of the caftle of Caernarvon
and many other of the caftles of Wales wffiofe office
is the fame with that of the caftellani, or governors of
caftles.
Constables of London. The city of London is di¬
vided into 26 wards, and the wards into precin&s, in
each of which is a conftable. They are nominated by
the inhabitants of each ptecinft on St Thomas’s day,
and confirmed, or otherwife, at the court of wardmote.
After confirmation, they are fworn into their offices
at a court of aldermen, on the next Monday after
Xwefth day. Such as are chofen into the office, are
obliged to place the king’s arms, and the arms of the
city, over their doors; and if they refide in alleys, at
the ends of fuch alleys toward the ftreets, to fignify
that a conftable lives there,’ and that they may be the
more eafily found when wanted.
prebend delinquents and thole rvho can give no good
account of themielves, and carry them to the next
juftice.
CONSTANCE, a ftrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, with a bifhop’s fee, wffiofe bilhop is a
prince of the empire. It has a handfome bridge, and
feveral fine ftrudlures, as well facred as profane. It
Carries on a great trade, and is rvell fortified : and
though it pretends to be an imperial town, the Auf*
trians keep a garrifon here. It is famous for a coun¬
cil held here in 1514, when there were three popes-,
but they were all depofed, and Marlin V. was elected
in their room. This council caufed Jerome of Prague
and John Hufs to be burnt, tbcbgh the emperor Sigif-
mund had given them a fafe condudt; ; in purfuance of
this maxim, “ that no faith is to be kept with here¬
tics.” They likewife condemned the dodfrine of
Wickliff, and ordered his bones to be burned 40 years
after he was dead. However, the inhabitants now are
Proteftants. It is feated on a lake of the fame name.
E. Long. 9. 10. N. Lat. 47. 38.
Constance, one of the mott confiderable and beau¬
tiful lakes of Switzerland, which feparates it from Sua¬
bia, except that part where the city of Conftance is
feated on its fide. - It is divided into three parts} the
upper or largeft part is called Boden fee, the middle
Bodmer fee, and the lower part Zeller fee. The firft:
is 37 miles long, and its greateft breadth 15 miles, it
is deeper in fummer than in winter.
CONSTANCY, in a general fenfe, denotes immu¬
tability, or invariablenefs. In ethics, or when applied
to the human mind, the term implies refolution or
fteadinefs, particularly under lufferings and the trials
of adverfity.
It w?as the faying of a heathen philofopher, That
there cannot be imagined upon earth a fpeflacle more
worthy the regard of the Creator intent on his works,
than a brave man fuperior to his bufferings. Nothing
indeed can be more noble or honourable than to have
courage enough to execute the commands of reafon
and confcience j to maintain the dignity of our na¬
ture, and the ftation affigned us ; and to be proof
againft poverty, pain, and death itfelf, fo far as not to
do any thing that is fcandalous or fmffil to avoid them.
To be thus, is to be great above title or fortune. This
argues the foul of a heavenly extraction, and is worthy
the offspring of the Deity.
Of this virtue the following example, related in
Engliffi hiftory, is here feleCted, as fuperior perhaps,
all circumftances confidered, to any other upon re¬
cord.
Sir William Affiew of Kelfay, in Lincolnffiire, had
feveral daughters. His fecond, named Anne, had re¬
ceived a genteel education ; which, with an agreeable
figure and good underftanding, rendered her a very-
proper perfon to be at the head of a family. Her fa¬
ther, regardlefs of his daughter’s inclination and hap-
pinefs, obliged her to marry a gentleman who had no¬
thing to recommend him -but his fortune, and who was
a moft bigotted Papift. No fooner was he convinced
of his wife’s regard for the doftrines of the reformair.
tisn from popery, than, by the inftigation of his
C O N
piicOs, violently drove he^ from his houfe, though
Ihe had born him two children, and her conduft was
unexceptionable. Abandoned by her hufband, Hie
came up to London, in order to procure a divorce, and
to make herfelf known to that part of the court who
either profeffed or were favourers of Proteftantifm ;
but as Henry VilL with confent of parliament, had
juft enabled the law of the fix articles, commonly called
the bloody Jlatute, (lie was cruelly betrayed by her own
liulhand $ and. upon his information, taken into cufto-
dy, and examined concerning her faith. The a cl above
mentioned denounced death agatnft all thofe who
fliould deny the doctrine ot iranfubjlantialion ; or that
the bread and wine made life of in the facrament was
not converted after confecration into the real body
and blood of Chrift ; or, maintain the necefiity of re¬
ceiving the Lcrament u both kinds-, or affirm, that it
was lawful for priefts to marry ; that the vows of ce¬
libacy might be broken ; that private maffes were of no
avail j and that r.uricular confeffion to a prieft tvas not
neceffary to falvatton. Upon thefe articles fh- was
examined by the inquiutor, a prieft, the lord-mayor of
London, and the biffiop’s chancellor; and to all their
queries gave proper and pertinent anfwers; but not
being fuch as they approved, (he was fent back to pvi-
fen, where (lie remained eleven days to ruminate alone
on her alarming fituation, and was denied the fmall
confolation of a friendly vifit. The king’s council
being at Greenwich, ftie was once more examined by
Chancellor Wriothefiey, Gardiner biftiop of Winche-
fter, Dr Cox, and Dr Robinfon j but not being able
to convince her of fuppofed errors, fire w-as fent to
the Tower. Mr Strype, from an authentic paper,
gives us the following ffiort account of her examina¬
tion, which may not, perhaps, be unentertaining or
ufelefs to the reader : “ Sir Martin Bowes (lord
mayor) fitting with the council, as moft meet for his
wifdom, and feeing her ftand upon life and death, I
pray you, quoth he, my lords, give me leave to talk
to this woman ? Leave was granted. Lord Mayor.
Thou foolifh woman, fayeft thou that the prieft can¬
not make the holy body of Chrift ? Si. sljlew. I fay fo,
my lord : for I have read that God made man j but
that man made God I never read ; nor I fuppofe ever
ftiall read it. Lord Mayor. No! Thou foolifh wo¬
man, after the words of confecration, is it not the
Lord’s body ? AJkcvo. No : it is but confecrated
bread, or facramental bread. I.ord Mayor. What if
a moufe eat it after confecration what fhall become of
this moufe ? what fayeft: thou, thou fooliffi woman ?
A. Afktvo. What ftiall become of her, fay you, my
lord ? Lord Mayor. I fay, that the moufe is damned.
-A. Ajkeiv. Alack, poor moufe !” Perceiving that
fame could not keep in their laughing, the council
proceeded to the butchery and flaughter that they in¬
tended before they came there. It was ftrongly lu-
Ipefled that Mrs Afkew wras favoured by fome ladies
of high rank ) and that fhe carried on a religious cor-
refpondence with the queen fo that the chancellor
Wriothefiey, hoping that he might difeover fomething
that would afford matter of impeachment againft that
princefs, the earl of Hertford, or his countefs, who
all favoured reformation, ordered her to be put to the
rack ; but her fortitude in fuffering, and her refolution
mt to betray her friends, was proof againft that dia-
L 563 1
CON
boheal invention. Not a groan, not a word, could be Cdnftancv
extorted from her. The chancellor, provoked with
what he called her obftinacy, augmented her tortures
with his own hands, and with unheard-of violence : but
her courage and conftancy were invincible ; and thefe
barbarians gained nothing by their cruelties but ever-
lafting difgrace and infamy. As foon as (he was taken
from the rack, (he fainted away ; but being recovered,
flie .was condemned to the flames. Her bones were dif-
located in fuch a manner, that they were forced to car.
ry her in a chair to the place of execution. While fhe
was at the flake, letters were brought her from the lord
chancellor, offering her the king’s pardon if flie would
recant. But fhe refufed to look at them ; telling the
meflenger, that “ (he came not thither to deny her
Lord and Mafter.” The fame letters were alfo ten¬
dered to three other perfons condemned to the fame
fate } and who, animated by her example, refufed to ac¬
cept them. Whereupon the lord-mayor commanded
the fire to be kindled j and with favage ignorance cried
out, Fiat jujlitia, “ Let juftice take its courfe.” The
faggots being lighted, (lie commended her foul, with the
utmoft ccmpofure, into the hands of her Maker j and,
like the great founder of the religion (he profeffed, ex-
pired, praying for'her murderers, July 16. 1546, about
the 25th year of.her age.
CONSTANTIA, a diftrift at the Cape of Good
Hope, confiding of two farms, which produce the
well-known wine fo much prized in Europe, and
known by the name of Cape or Conjlantia wine. This
place is fituated at the diftance of a mile and a half
from Alphen, in a bending formed by and nearly un¬
der the ridge of hills, which comes from Meuifen-
mountain, and juft where it ftrikes off towards Hout-
bay. One of thefe farms is called Little Conjfantia*
Here the white Conftantia wine is made. The other
produces the red. According to M. de la Cail’s ac¬
count, not more than 60 figgars of red and 90 of the
white Conftantia wine are made, each figgar being
reckoned at 600 French pints, or about 150 Swedith
cans j fo that the whole produce amounts to 22,500
cans. As the company are ufed to keep one-third
of this for themfelves, the remainder is always be-
fpoke by the Europeans long before it is made. At
the Cape this wine is feldom feen at table, partly be-
caufe it is dear, and partly becaufe it is the produce
of the country. The red Conftantia wine fells for
about 60 rixdollars the half awin 3 but the white is
ufually to be purchafed at a more reafonable rate.
The genuine Conftantia wine is undeniably a very
racy and delicate deffert wine, and has fomething pe¬
culiarly agreeable in the flavour of it. That its fupe-
riority, however, is not owing to any thing peculiar
in the manner of procuring it, feems extremely pro¬
bable 3 for then, without douot, a great deal more of
it would be made. In faft, Dr Sparmann informs us,
that the genuine wine can only be produced from
particular foils. The diftrifts that lie next to thefe.
yield merely the common Cape wine, notvvithftatiding
that they have been planted with vine flocks taken
from this, as well as with fome brought from the
banks of the Rhine, whence it is fuppofed that the
true Conftantia fort originally comes 3 nay, even though
all the vineyards about Coisftantia feem to have the
fame foil. We have inftances at the Cape, as well as
?
CON [ 569 ] CON
t- in Europe, that good grapes fametlmes produce a
bad wine j while, on the other hand, bad grapes
will yield a good fort of wine : therefore, towards
making wine of a certain quality, hefides finer ma-
terials, there muft be certain conditions and circum*
fiances, which, by a diligent and rational invefligation,
might probably be explored to the great benefit of man*
kind.
Such as are apprifed in what quantities Conftantia
wine is confumed in Europe, svill perhaps think the
above calculation of the produce too limited. This,
however, Dr Sparmahn affures us, is by no means the
cafe •, the overplus being the produce of avarice, which,
goaded on by the defire of gain, will always Kit upon
feme method of fatisfying the demands of luxury and
fenfuality. The votaries of thefe, accuflorned to be
put crtT with empty founds, do not feldom drink with
the higheft relilh an imaginary Coriftantia, with which,
however, this liquor has nothing in common befides
the mere name. It is therefore advifabie, even at
the Cape itfelf, to take care, that w'hilft one has a ge¬
nuine fample given one to tafle, one is not made to
pay far a made-up red Conftantia, which otherwife is
in general fold for half the price. The rich quality
of this wine is, according to Barrow, owing partly
to the fituation and foil, and partly to the care in the
manutStfhire j for ripe fruit only is ufed, and always
entirely freed From the (talks.
CONST AN TINA, a llrong and confiderable town
of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers, and capital of a
territory of the fame name. It is the largeft and
flrongeft place in all the eaflern parts •, and it is feated
on the top of a great rock. There is no way to it
but by fteps cut out of the rock j and the ufual way
of punifhing criminals here is to throw them down
the cliff. Here are a great many Roman antiquities,
particularly a triumphal arch. E. Long. 7. 12. N.
Lat. 36. 4.
Constanttna, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, and
capital of a fmall territory of the fame name, with a
callle feated on a mountain. W. Long. 5. 35. N.
Lat. 37. 40.
CONSTANTINE, a kingdom of Barbary of that
name, in Africa. It is bounded on the north by the
Mediterranean, on the call by the kingdom of Tunis,
on the fouth by Bildulgerid, and on the weft by the
river Sufegmar, which feparates it from the kingdom
of Bugia. The country is the New Numidia of the
ancients, and had its own king; but it is now a pro¬
vince of Algiers.
Constantine the Great, the firft emperor of the
Romans who embraced Chriftianity. His father, Con-
ftantius Chlorus, rendered himfelf famous by his vic¬
torious expeditions to Germany and Britain : upon the
abdication of Dioclefian, he (hared the Roman empire
with Galenas Maximinus in 365, and was at that time
at York, where he died in 306; having firft caufed
his fon Conftantine the Great to be proclaimed empe¬
ror by his army, and the Englifti. Galerius at firft
refuted to admit Conftantine to his father’s (hare in the
imperial throne ; but after having loft feveral battles,
he confented in 308. Maxentius, who fucceeded Ga-
icrius, oppofed him : but was defeated, and drowned
himfelf in the Tyber. The fenate then declared
Conftantine chief or firft Auguftus, and Licinius his
Vojl. VI. Part II.
fecond affociute in the empire, in 412. Thefe princes Conftan-
publdhed an edidl, in their joint names, in favour of t“ie‘
the Chriftians; but foon after Licinius, jealous of Con-
ftantine’s renown, conceived an implacable hatred a-
gainft him, and renewed the perfecutions againtt the
Chriftians. This brought on a rupture between the
emperors, and a battle, in which Conftantine was
victorious. A Ihort peace enfued : but Licimus h?.V’
ing (hamefully violated the treaty, the war was re¬
newed ; when Conftantine totally defeating him, ha
fled to Nicomedia, where he was taken prifoner ana
ftrangled in 323. Conftantine, now become ible m2,
fter of the weftern and eaftern empires, immediately
formed the plan of eftablilhing Chriftianity as the relir
gion of the (late; for which purpole, he convoked fe¬
veral ecclefiaftical councils : but finding he was like¬
ly to meet with great oppofition from the Pagan inte-
reft at Rome, he conceived the defign of founding a
new city, to be the capital of his Chriftian empire ; fee
Constantinople. The glory Conftantine had ac¬
quired by eftablilhing the Cln jftian religion, was tar-
nifned by the part he took in the perfecutions carried
on by the Arians, towards the clofe of his reign,
againft their Chriftian brethren who differed from
them : feduced by Eufebius of Nicomedia, he banilhed
feveral eminent prelates; foon after which, he died in
337, the 66th year of his age, and 3.1ft of his reign.
As to the character of Conftantine, he was chafte,
pious, laborious, and indefatigable; a great general,
fuccefsful in war, and deferving his fuccefs by his
(Inning valour and by the brightnefs of his genius ; a
proteCfor of arts, and an encourager of them by his
beneficence. If we compare him with Auguftus, we
(hall find that he ruined idolatry, by the fame precau¬
tions and the fame addrefs that the other ufed to de?
(troy liberty. Like Auguftus, he laid the foundation
of a new empire ; but pofleffed of lefs political (kill, he
could not give it the fame (lability : he weakened the
body of the date by adding to it, in ibrne meafure, a
fecond head in the foundation of Conftahdnople ; and
tranfporting the centre of motion and ftrength too
near the eaftern extremity, he left without heat, and
almoft without life, the weftern parts, which foon be¬
came a prey to the barbarians. The Pagans were
too much his enemies • to do him juftice. Eutropius
fays, that in the former part of his reign he was equal
to the rr.oft accomplilhed princes, and in the latter to
the meaneft. The younger ViCtor, who makes him
to have reigned more than 31 years, pretends, that in
the firft: 10 years he was a hero; in the 12 fucceeding
ones a robber; and in the 10 laft a fpendthrift. It is
eafy to perceive, with refpeft to thefe two reproaches
of Victor’s, that the one relates to the riches which
Conftantine took from idolatry, and the other to thofe
with which he loaded the church.
Constantine, emperor of the Eaft in 912, left
the care of the empire to his wife Helena, who loaded
the people with taxes, and fold all the offices in church
and (late to the higheft bidders; while the emperor
employed himfelf in reading, writing, and the fine arts,
till he became as good an architeft and painter as he
was a bad prince : he wrote feveral biographical and
geographical works, which would have done honour to
his name, if he had not neglected his duty to compofe
them. Pie died in 959.
4 C Constantin e,
CON [,570 J CON
C^a?" Constantine, Dracojes, the Ton of Emmanuel Ta- divided the empire among his children and nephews Coto |
Conttan- |e0^0gus» v,’as pliaCf:C; on the throne by Sultan Amurath in the following manner. Conftantine his eldelt fon', tinopolit 1
tinople. ^1448. But Mahomet II. his fucceflor, refolving had Gaul, Spam, and Britain: Coailantius, the fe- hiltor} 1
“—v' 'to dethrone him, laid hege Lo Ccnftantinople by fea cond, had Alia, Syria, and Egypt; and Conllans, the*—v'* '
and land, and took it by affault in 1453, after it had youngeft, Illyricum, Italy, and Africa. To his ne-Hisdltl I
held^out 58 days. Ihe unfortunate emperor feeing pherv Dalmatius, he gave Thrace, Macedon, and^dkii I
the^ Turks^enter, the breaches, threw himfelf into the Achaia ; and to King Annibalianus, his other nephew, oftllee“ '
midft of. the. enemy, and w»as cut to pieces ; the chil- Armenia Minor, Pontus, Cappadocia, and the city of ^
drca of the imperial houfe were maffacred by the fol- Csefarea, which he defrred might be the capital of his
diers; and the women referved to gratify the lull of kingdom.
the conqueror; and thus terminated the dynafty of After the death of Conftantine, the army and ferrateAI4U 1
the Conftantines, 1123 years after its eftablilhment at proclaimed his three fons emperors, without taking anyhtiomnn (
Conuantiupple. notice of Ins two nephews, w ho were loon after murder-^
Constantine, Robert, a learned phyftcian. born at ed, with Julius Conftantius the late emperor’s brother,^1® i
Caen, taught polite literature in that city; and acquired and all their friends and adherents. Thus the familyandtwf J
great reputation by his {kill in the Greek language, in of Conftantine was at once reduced to his three lbns,r>eplitv,
Liftory, and in medicine. He died in 1603 aged 103. and two nephews Gallus and Julian, the fons of Julius
He wrote a dictionary in Greek and Latin, and other Conftantius; and of thefe the former owred his life to a
3 works, which are elteemed.
Bemovinjr ' CONSTANTINOPLE, the modern name of the
•lie imperi- city of Byzantium in Thrace. It was enlarged and
anea^t0 beautified by the Roman emperor Conftantine the Great,
the caufe oft^ie year 33°‘ ^ ^le k1*16 ^rae transferred
the decline-thither the feat of the empire ; and this removal is gene-
«f the welt- rally thought to have been one of the principal caufes
em empire. 0f the focklen decline of the weftern empire after this
2 period.
Conftantine Li the year 332, the Sarmatians implored Conftan-
defeatf. the tine’s afllftance againll the Goths, who had made an
Goths, irruption into their territories, and deftrcyed every
thing with fire and fword. The emperor readily
granted their requeft, and gained a complete victory.
Near 100,000 of the enemy perilhed, either in the
battle, or after it with hunger and cold. In confe-
quence of this overthrow’, the Goths were obliged to
xue for peace ; but the ungrateful Sarmatians no fooner
found themfelves delivered from their enemies, than they
turned their arms again!! their benefaCtor, and ravaged
3 the provinces of Madia and Thrace. The emperor,
and the receiving intelligence of this treachery, returned with
Sannatians. expedition, cut great numbers of them in
pieces, and obliged the reft to fubmit to what terms he
4 was pleafed to impofe.
Is highly Conftantine feems to have been a prince very highly
reipedted, reipeCled, even by far diftant nations. In 333, ac¬
cording to Eufebius, ambafladors arrived at Conftanti¬
nople frm the Blemyes, Indians, Ethiopians, and Per¬
sians, courting his friendlhip. They were received in
a moft obliging manner; and learning from the ambaf-
fadors of Sapor king of sPerfia, that there -were great
numbers of Chriftians in their mafter’s dominions,
Conftantine wrote a letter in their behalf to the Perfian
monarch.
Next year, the Sarmatians being again attacked by
the Goths, found themlelves obliged to fet at liberty
and arm their Haves again!! them. By this means
they indeed overcame the Goths: but the victorious
Haves turning their arms again!! their mafters, drove
He takes a them out ot the country. This misfortune obliged
number of them, to the number of 300,000, to apply for relief to
the Roman emperor, who incorporated with his le-
amy gions fuch as were capable of fervice ; and gave fettle-
rnents to the reft in Thrace, Scythia, Macedon, and
Italy. This was the laft remarkable adlion of Ccn-
H an tine the Great. He died on May 15. 337, having
malady, from which no one thought he could recover;
and the latter to his infancy, being then at moft about i
feven years of age. The three brothers divided among . q
themfelves the dominions of the deceafcd princes; but ■ • :i||
did not long agree together. In 340, Conftantine % 1
having in vain folicited Conftans to yield part of Italy Conftan. i
to him, railed a confiderable army; and under pretence1™1
of marching to the nflitlance of his brother Conftantius,^ ^ )
who was then at war with the Perfians, made hinsfclf™^^ 1
mailer of feveral places in Italy. Hereupon Conftans
detached part of his army again!! him ; and Conftantine,
being drawn into an ambuicade near Aquilcia, was cut 9
oft with his whole forces. His body was thrown intoIsi
the river Anfa ; but being afterwards difcoveied, -was ;■
fent to Conftafitinople, and interred there near the totob
of his father.
10 n
By the defeat and death-of his brother, Conftamconftans
remained foie mafter of all tire weftern part of the foie mail
empire, in the quiet po He Hi on of which he continued ott“?’
till the year 350. This year Magnentius, the fon of.|i|n:
one Magnus, a native of Germany, finding Conftans
defpifed by the anny on account of his indolence andagaiaCr
inad!ivity, refolved to murder him, and fet up for him-him- !
felf. Having found means to gain over the chief
cfticers of the army to his defigns, he felzed on the
imperial palace at Autun, and diftributed among the
populace‘what firms he found there ; which induced not
only the city, but the neighbouring country, to efpoufe
his cau!e. But Conftans being informed of what had
palTed, and finding himfelf unable to refift the ufurper,
fled towards Spain. He was overtaken, how-ever, by
Gaifb, whom Magnentius had fent after him with a ebb- 1
fen body of troops, and defpatched with many wounds,
at Helena, a fmall village fituated near the foot of the
Pyrenees. n I
Thus Conftantius acquired a right to the whole C0nfta.1l
Roman empire; though one-half of it was feized byinur“er,J
Magnentius after the murder of Conftans. The former
had been engaged in a war with the Perfians, in
which little advantage was gained on either fide ; but
the Perfians now giving no more difturbance, the em¬
peror marched again!! the ufurpers in the weft. Be*
Aides Magnentius, there were at that time two other 13*
pretenders to the wefttrn empire. Veteranio, general Three pB
of the foot in Pannonia, had, on the fir!! news o! the t*n‘iers H
death of Conftans, cruled himfelf to be proclaimed r
emperor by the legions undei his command. He was 9
a
& g m
.nd
[f of
tius
! font'
I the
-C O N [ 5
a native of Upper Mccfia, and advanced in years when
he ufurped the fbvercignty *, but fo illiterate, that he
then firtl learned to read. The third pretender was
Flavius Popilius Nepotianus, fon of Eutropia, the lifter
of Conftantine the Great. Having a&mbled a com¬
pany of gladiators and men of defperate fortunes, he
affumed the purple on the 3d of .10116350, and in
that attire prefented himfelf before the gates of Rome.
The petfedi Anicetus, who commanded there for Mag-
nentius, failied out againft him with a body of Ro¬
mans, who were foon driven back into the city. Soon
after Nepotianus made himfeif mafter of the city it-
felf, which he filled with blood and,(laughter. Mag-
nentius being informed of what had happened, fent
againft this new competitor his chief favourite and
prime minifter Marcellinus. Nepotianus received him
with great refolution ; a bloody battle enfued between
the foldiers of Magnentius and the Romans who had
efpoufed the caufe of Nepotianus j but the latter being
betrayed by a fenator, named Heraclitus, his men were
put to Sight, and he himfelf killed, after having enjoy¬
ed the fovereignty only 28 days. Marcellinus ordered
his head to be carried on the point of a lance through
the principal ftreets of the city ; put to death all thofe
who had declared for him 5 and under pretence of pre¬
venting difturbances, commanded a general mafiacre
of all the relations of Conftantine. Soon after, Mag¬
nentius himfelf came to Rome, to make the neceffary
preparations for refilling Conftantius, who was exert¬
ing himfeif to the utmoft in order to revenge the
death of his brother. In the city he behaved
tyrannically, putting to death many perfons of dif-
timftion, in order to feize their eftates; and obliged
the reft to contiibute half of what they were worth
towards the expence of the war. Having by this
means railed great firms, he afiembled a mighty army
compofed of Romans, Germans, Gauls, Franks, Bri¬
tons, Spaniards, &c. At the fame time, however,
dreading the uncertain iffues of war, he difpatched
ambafladors to Conftantius with propofals of accom¬
modation. Conftantius fet out from Antioch about the
beginning^of autumn ; and, palling through Conftanti-
nople, arrived at Heraclea, where he was met by the
deputies from Magnentius, and others from Veteranio,
who had agreed to fupport each other in cafe the em¬
peror would hearken to no terms. The deputies of
Magnentius propofed in his name a match between him
and Conftantia, or rather Conftantina, the lifter of
Confiantius, and widow of Annibalianus ; offering, at
the fame time, to Conftantius the filter of Magnentius.
At firff the emperor would hearken to no terms ; but
afterwards, that he might not have to oppofe two ene¬
mies at once, concluded a feparate treaty with Vetera¬
nio, by which he agreed to take him for his partner
an the empire. But when Veteranio afeendsd the tri-
hunal along with Conftantius, the foldiers pulled him
down from thence, crying out, That they would ac¬
knowledge no other emperor than Conftantius alone.
On this Veteranio threw himfelf at the emperor’s feet,
and implored his mercy. Conftantius received him
with great kindnefs, and fent him to Pruffia in Bithynia,
where he allowed him a maintenance fuitable to his
quality.
Conftantias, now mafter of all lilyricum, and of
the army commanded by Veteranio, refolved to march
]
C O N
,invade
and Guui.
/
againft MagnPntms without delay. Lithe mean time, Cfoib---
however, on advke that the Perfians were preparing
to invade the eaftern provinces, he married' his fifte’r, a-~or)-
Conftantina to his coufin-german Gallus •, created'
him Ccefar on the 15th of March; and allotted him
for his (hare not only all the Eaft, but likewifo
Thrace and Conftantinople. About the fame time
Magneritius gave the title of Caefar to his brother
Decentius, whom he difpatched into Gaul to defend
that country againft the barbarians who had invaded
it; for Conftantius had not only iKrred up the Franks Conftantius
and Saxons to break into that province, by promifingfth'3 UP
to relinquifh to them all the places they Ihould
quer, but had fent them large fupplies of men
arms for that pufp*'£* On this encouragement
barbarians invaded C with a mighty army, over¬
threw Decentius in a jfttched battle, committed every¬
where dreadful ravages, and reduced the country to
a moft deplorable fituation. In the mean time Mag¬
nentius having affembled a numerous army, left Italy,
and crofting the Alps, advanced into the plains of
Pannoma, where Conftantius, whole main ftrengih
confifted in cavalry, vras waiting for him. Magnetic
tius hearing that his competitor was encamped at a
finall diftance, invited him by a meffenger to the ex-
tenfive plains of Scifcia on the Save, there to decide
which of them had the beft title to the empire. Thisp, defeated
challenge was by Conftantius received with great joy ;by Mag.
but as his troops marched towards Scifcia in diforder, nenfius;
they fell into an ambufeade, and were put to flight
with great (laughter. With this fuccefs, Magnentius
was fo elated, that he rejected all terms of peace, which
were now @ffered by Conftantius ; but after feme time, ,,
a general engagement enfued at Murfa, in which Mag-Magiwn-
nentius was entirely defeated, with the lofs of 24,000 ft113 de-
men. Conftantius, though vi&or, is faid to have lqft^ate^ at
30,000, wfoich feems improbable. All authors, how- ' t!n^
ever, agree, that the battle at Murfa proved fatal to This hatti*
the weftem empire, and greatly contributed to its fpeedyfatal'to the
decline. empire.
After his defeat at Murfa, Magnentius retired into
Italy, where he recruited his lhattered forces as well
as he could. But the beginning of the following year,
352, Conftantius, having -ffe nbled his troops, furpri-
fed and took a ftrong caltl? on the Julian Alps, belong¬
ing to Magnenlius, without the lofs of a man. After
this the emperor advanced in order to force the reft ;
upon which Magnentius was ftruck with fuch terror,
that he immediately abandoned Aquileia, and ordered
the troops that guarded the other paffes of the Alps to
follow him. Thus Conftanlius entering Italy wiihoqt
oppofition, made himfelf mafter of Aquileia. From
thence he advanced to Pavia, where Magnentius gain¬
ed a confiderable advantage over him. Notwith-
ftanding this lofs, however, Conftantius reduced the
whole country bordering on the Po, and Magnentius’s
men deferted to him in whole troops, delivering tip
to him the places they had garrifoned ; by which the
tyrant was fo dilheartened, that he left Italy, and retir¬
ed with all his forces into Gaul. Soon after this, A-
£rica, Sicily, and Spain, declared for Conftantius; upon
which Magnentius fent a fenator, and after him fome
bilhops, to treat of a peace : but the emperor treated
tire fenator as a fpy, and fent back the biftiops with¬
out any anfwer. Magnentius now finding his affairs
4 C 2 defperatc,
m
Q O N [ 572 j CO N
Conftan- defperate, and that there were no hopes of pardon,
t-^tan recruited his army in the beft manner he could, and
, iU ^ry‘ , dil’patched an affaflin into the call to murder Gallus
Csefar j hoping that his death: would oblige the empe¬
ror to withdraw his forces from Gaul, and march in
23 perfon to the defence of the eaftern provinces, which
Magmin- were threatened by the Perfians. The affaflin gained
tempts to over forne °f Gallus’s guards j but the plot being difco-
get Gallus vered before it could be put in execution, they were all
murdered, feized and executed as traitors.
In 353, the war againft Magnentius was carried on
tius defeat- more vigour than ever, and at laft happily ended
ed a fecond by a battle fought in the Higher Hauphiny. Magnen-
time; kills tius, being defeated, took fhelter in Lyons j but the
mil^and" ^ew ^°^’ers who attended h'5 u’-:defpairing of any fur-
Hmfcif ther fuccefs, refolved to purc^Ce e the emperor’s favour
by delivering up to him his rivlU, the author of fo cala¬
mitous a war. Accordingly they furrounded the houfe
where he lodged j upon which the tyrant, in defpair,
flew with his own hand bis mother, his brother Defide-
rius tvhom he had created Caefar, and fuchof his friends
and relations as were with him : and then fixing his
fword in a wall, threw himfelf upon it, in order to
avoid a more fhameful death w'hich he had reafon to
apprehend.
After the death of Magnentius, his brother Decen-
tius Caefar, who was marching to his affiftance, and
had already reached Sens, finding himfelf furrounded
on all fides by the emperor’s forces, chofe rather to
ftrangle himfelf than fall alive into the hands of his
•, enemies. Thus Conftantius was left foie mafter of
foie mafter R°man empire. His panegyriffs tell us, that after
of the em- his vidtory he behaved with the greateft humanity,
pire forgiving and receiving into favour his greateft ene¬
mies j but other hiftorians differ confiderably from
them, and tell us that Conftantius now became haugh¬
ty, imperious, and cruel, of which many inftances are
,, 20 . This year the empire was fubiefted to very grie-
vouscala- vous calamities. Gaul was ravaged by the barbarians
jooities. beyond the Rhine, and the difbanded troops of Mag¬
nentius. At Rome, the populace rofe on account of
a fcarcity of provifions. In Afia, the Ifaurian rob¬
bers overran Lycaonia and Pamphylia 5 and even laid
fiege to Seleucia, a city of great ftrength ; which, how¬
ever, they w'ere not able to make themfelves mafters
of. At the fame time the Saracens committed dread¬
ful ravager in Mefopotamia, the Perfians alfo invaded
the province of Anthemufia on the Euphrates. But
the eaftern provinces were not fo much harafl’ed by
the barbarians as by Gallus Caffar himfelf, who ought
to have protedied them. That prince was naturally
of a cruel, haughty, and tyrannical difpofition; but
being elated with his fuccefles againft; the Perfians, he
at laft behaved more like a tyrant and a madman than
a governor. His natural cruelty is faid to have been
e/callu'' heightened by the inftigations of his wife Conftantina,
who is by Ammianus ftyled the Megcera, or “ fury of
hex fex and he adds, that her ambition was equal to
her cruelty. Thus all the provinces and cities in the
e.aft were filled with blood and flaughter. No man,
however innocent, was fine to live or enjoy his eftate
a whole day ; for Gallus’s temper being equally fufpi-
cious and cruel, thofe who had any private enemies
took care to accufe them of crimes againft the. flate,
and with Gallus it tvas the fame thing to be accufed fenfe
and condemned. At laft the emperor being informed
from all quarters of the evil condudl of his brother-in-, ^otl
law, and being at the fame time told that he afpired j
to the fovereignty, refolved upon his ruin. For this
end he wrote letters to Gallus and Conftantina, invit¬
ing them both into Italy. Though they had both fuf-
ficient reafon to fear the worth, yet they durft not
venture to difobey the emperor’s exprefs command.
Conftantina, who was wTell acquainted with her bro¬
ther’s temper, and hoped to pacify him by her artful
infinuations, fet out firft, leaving Gallus at Antioch : f
but fne had fcarce entered the province of Bithynia,
when fhe wras feized with a fever which put an end
to her life. Gallus now defpairing of being able to j i
appeafe his fovereign, thought of openly revolting j 1
but moll of his friends deferted him on account of his ’
inconftant and cruel temper, fo that he was at laft ob¬
liged to fubmit to the pleafure of Conftantius. He ad¬
vanced, therefore, according to his orders : but at Pe-
tavium was arrefted, and ftripped of all the enfigns of
his dignity. From thence he was carried to Fianona,
now Fianone, in Dalmatia, where he was examined by
two of his moft inveterate enemies. He confeffed
moft of the crimes laid to his charge ; but urged as an jj f|
excufe the evil counfels of his wife Conftantina. The He is p |j
emperor, provoked at this plea which refledled on histodeatl |
fitter, and inftigated by the enemies of Gallus, figned
a warrant for his execution, which was performed ac- I
cordingly. (j .
All this time the emperor had been engaged in a War w I
■war with the Germans: he had marched againft them the Geil
in perfon : and though he gained an advantage, themans‘
barbarians thought proper to make peace with him.
This, however, was but Ihort lived. No fooner was
the Roman army withdrawn, than they began to make
new inroads into the empire. Againft them Con¬
ftantius defpatched Arbetio with the flower of the
army j but he fell into an ambufeade, and was put to
flight with the lofs of a great number of men. This
lofs, however, -was foon retrieved by the valour of
Arinthseus, who became famous in the reign of Va-
lens, and of two other officers, who falling upon the
Germans, without waiting the orders of their general,
put them to flight, and obliged them to leave the Roman
territories.
The tranquillity of the empire, which enfued on
this repulfe of the Germans, was foon interrupted by
a pretended confpiracy, by which in the end a true
one was produced. Sylvanus, a leading man among
the Franks, commanded in Gaul, and had there per¬
formed great exploits againft the baibarians. He had
been raifed to this poll .by Arbetio ; but only with a ,1
defigh to remove him from the emperor’s prefence, Sylvan!
in order to accomplifli his ruin, which he did in the.betray*
following manner : One Dynamos, keeper of the empe*'^lbet'l
ror’s mules, leaving Gaul, begged of Sylvanus letters
of recommendation to his friends at court) which
being granted, the traitor erafed all but the fubferip-
tion. He then inferted directions to the friends-of
Sylvanus for the carrying on a confpiracy; and de¬
livering thefe forged letters to the prefeft Lampi- 31
dins, they were by him fliown to the emperor. ThusHeisl
Sylvanus was forced to revolt, and caufe himfelf to beccl.! u
proclaimed emperor by the troops under his command.
In
CON [ 573 ] CON
isn-
i titan
o*y.
13
rava-
y the
rians.
Ju i
led
r.
55
I its out
aul.
36
ats the
arians.
In the mean time, however, Bynames having thought
proper to forge another letter, the fraud was diico-
vered, and an inquiry fet on foot, w'hich brought to
light the whole matter. Sylvanus wTas now declared
innocent, and letters fent to him by the emperor con¬
firming him in his poll j but thefe were fcarce gone,
when certain news arrived at the court of Sylvanus ha¬
ving revolted, and caufed himfelf be proclaimed em¬
peror. Conflantius, thunderllruck at this news, dif-
patched againft him Urficinus, an officer of great in¬
tegrity, as well as valour and experience in war ; who
forgetting his former character, pretended to be Syl-
vanus’s friend, and thus found means to cut him off by
treachery.
The barbarians, who had been hitherto kept quiet
by the brave Sylvanus, no fooner heard of his death,
than they broke into Gaul with greater fury than
ever. They took and pillaged above forty cities, and
among the reft Cologne, which they levelled with
the ground. At the lame time the Quadi and Sarma-
tians entering Pannonia, deftroyed every thing with
fire and fword. The Perfians alfo, taking advantage
of the abience of Urficinus, overran, without oppofi-
tion, Armenia and Mefopotamia $ Profper and Mau-
fonianus, who had fucceeded that brave commander in
the government of the eaft, being more intent upon
pillaging than defending the provinces committed to
their care. Conftantius not thinking it advifable to
leave Italy himfelf, refolved at laft to raife his coufin
Julian, the brother of Gallus, to the dignity of Caefar.
Julian feems to have been a man of very extraordinary
talents; for though before this time he had been en¬
tirely buried in obfeurity, and converfed only with
books, no fooner wras he put at the head of an army
than he behaved with the fame bravery, condutt, and
experience, as if he had been all his life bred up to the
art of war. He was appointed governor of Gaul; but
before he fet eut, Conftantius gave him in marriage
his fifter Helena, and made him many valuable prefents.
At the fame time, however, the jealous emperor greatly
limited his authority ; gave him written inftruflions how
to behave ; ordered the generals who ferved under him
to watch all his aftions no lefs than thofe of the enemy;
and ftridlly enjoined Julian himfelf not to give any
largeffes to the foldiery.
Julian fet out from Milan on the firft of December
355, the emperor himfelf accompanying him as far as
Pavia, from whence he purfued his journey to the Alps,
attended only by 360 foldiers. On his arrival at Turin
he was firft acquainted with the lofs of Cologne, which
had been kept concealed from the emperor. He arriv¬
ed at Vienne before the end of the year, and was re¬
ceived by the people of that city and the neighbourhood
with extraordinary ioy.
In 356, the barbarians befieged Autun; to relieve
which place, Julian marched with what forces he
could raife. When he came there, he found the liege
raifed : on which he w'ent in purfutt of the barbarians
to Auxere, croffing with no fmall danger thick woods
anl forefts, from Auxerre to Troiex. On his march
he was lurrounded on all tides by the barbarians, who
moved about the country in great bodies; but he put
them to flight with a handful of men, cut great num¬
bers of them in pieces, and took fome prifoners. From
Xroies he haftened to Rheims, where the main body
5
of the army, commanded by Marcellus, waited his Conftan-
arrival. Leaving Rheims, he took his route towards tinopolitin
Decempagi, now Dieune, on the Seilie in Lorrain,, }llftory~ ,
with a delign to oppofe the Germans who were bufy 4
in ravaging that province. Eut the enemy attacking
his rear unexpectedly, would have cut off two legions,
had not the reft of the army, alarmed at the hidden
nolle, turned back to their affiftance. A few days
afterwards he defeated the Germans, though with
great lofs to his own army; the victory, however,
opened him a way to Cologne. This city he found
abandoned by the barbarians. They had negleCted
to fortify it: but Julian commanded the ancient forth t{,e
fications to be repaired with all poffible expedition, fortifica-
and the houfes to be rebuilt; after which he retired tions of Go¬
to Sens, and there took up his winter-quarters, ThislooJiC'
year alfo Conftantius entered- Germany on the fide of
Rhaetia, laid wafte the country far and wide ; and
obliged the barbarians to fue for peace, which was
readily granted. The fame year he enaCted two laws ; Ido]a3t? r c:e
by one of which it was declared capital to facrifice, or dare/capi-
pay any kind of worlhip, to idols ; the other, granting tal by Con-
the effeCts of condemned perfons to belong to their chil- ftantius.
dren and relations within the third degree, except in
cales of magic and treafon ; but this laft one he revoked
two years after.
In the beginning of the year 357, the barbarians be¬
fieged Julian a whole month in Sens ; Marcellus, the-
commander in chief, never once offering to aflift him.
Julian, however, fo valiantly defended himfelf with
the few forces he had, that the barbarians at laft re¬
tired. After this, Conftantius declared Julian com¬
mander in chief of all the forces in Gaul; appointing
under him one Severus, an officer of great experience,
and of a quite diffeirent difpofition from Marcellus.
On his arival in Gaul, Julian received him with great
joy, raifed new troops, and fupplied them with arms
which he luckily found in an old arfenal. The em¬
peror, refolving at all events to put a flop to the ter¬
rible devaftations committed by the barbarous nations,
chiefly by the Alemans, wrote to Julian to march tii-
reCtly againft them. At the fame time he fent Bar-
batio, who had been appointed general in place of Syl-
yanus, with a body of 25 or 30,000 men, out of Italy,
in order to inclofe the enemy between two armies.
The Leti, however, a German nation, palling between
the armies, advanced as far as Lyons, hoping to fur-
prile that wealthy city ; but meeting with a warhier
reception than they expected, contented themfelves
with ravaging the country all round it. On the firft
notice of this expedition, Julian detached ftrong par¬
ties to guard the paffages through which he knew the
barbarians mull return. Thus they were all cut officei^tf
except thofe who marched near the camp of Barbatio ; cut off by
who was fo far from cutting off their retreat, that he Julian,
complained by a letter to Conftantius of fome officers
for attempting it. Thefe officers, among wffiom -was *
Valentinian afterwards emperor of the weft, were,
by the orders of Conftantius, caflnered for their dif-
obedience. The other barbarians either fortified them¬
felves in the countries which they had feizsd, flop¬
ping up all the avenues with huge trees, or took ftiel-
ter in the illands formed by the Rhine. Julian re¬
folved firft to attack the latter; and with this view
demanded fome boats of Barbatio; but he, inftead
complying.
CON
4°
He forces
the barba
tians to a
- the Rhine.
. 41
Entirely
defeats
them at
Strafourg.
Comban- complying v,kh his juft requeft, immediately burnt all
l.nopoa.an j.,js boats, as he did on another occafion the provifions
1 ^ which had been fent to both armies, after he had plen¬
tifully fupplied his own. Julian, not in the leaft dif-
heartened with his unaccountable conduct, perfuaded
fome of the moft refoiute of his men to wade over
to one of the iilands. Here they killed all the Ger¬
mans who bad taken (belter in it. They then feized
ban don the their boats, and puriued the dtughter in feveral other
Hands of i(land's, till the enemy abandoned them all, and retired
to their refpeclive countries with their wives and
what bttoty they could carry. On their departure,
Barbatio attempted to lay a bridge of boats over the
Rhine ; but the enemy, apprifed of his intention,
threw a great number of huge trees into the rtvpr,
which being carried by the ((ream againft the boats,
funk feveral of them, and parted the reft. The Ro¬
man general then thought proper to retire, but the
barbarians falling unexpectedly upon him in his re¬
treat, cut great numbers of his men in pieces, took
moft of his baggage, laid wafte the neighbouring coun¬
try, and returned in triumph loaded with booty. E-
lated with this fuccefs, they affbmbled in great num¬
bers under the command of Chnodmiarius, a prince of
great renown among them, and fix other kings. They
encamped in the neighbourhood of Strafburg. Here
they were encountered by Julian *, who put them to
flight, with the lofs of 6000 or 8000 of their men (lain
in the field, and a vaftly greater.number drowned in
the river ; while Julian himfelf loft only 243 private
men and four tribunes. In this aflion Chnodomarius
was taken, and fent to Rome, where he loon after
died.
After the battle, Julian advanced with all his army
to Mayence, where he built a bridge over the Rhine
and entered Germany, having with difficulty prevailed
upon his army to follow him. Here he ravaged the
country till the time of the autumnal equinox, when
being prevented by fnow from advancing any further,
thebarba- ^egan f° repair the fort of Trajan, by fome fuppo-
rians. fed to be the caftle of Cromburgh, about three or four
leagues from Frankfort. The barbarians were now
fo much alarmed, .that they fent deputies to treat of a
peace ; but this Julian refufed to grant them upon
any terms. He confented, however, to a truce for fe-
ven months, upon their promifing to ftore with provi¬
fions the fort he was building in their country. This
Re’nf k C'ondantius made fome remarkable laws. By one
able laws of puniihed with confifeation fuch as renounced the
Confrantius. Chriftian for the Jewifh religion ; and by another, ad-
dreffed to Felix bithop of Rome, he exempted all mer-
chandifing ecclefiaftics, with their wives, children, and
domeftics, from every impofition ordinary and extraor¬
dinary : fuppofing the gains they made to be applied
by them to the relief of the poor.
In 3 i;8, as foon as the feafon was fit for a£Hon, Ju¬
lian took the field againft the Franks, with a defign to
conquer them before the truce he had concluded with
the Alemans was expired. The Franks were at that
time divided into leveral tribes, the moft powerful of
which were the Salii and Chamavi. The firft of thefe
fent deputies, intfeating that he would fuffer them to
remain as friends to the empire in the country they
pofieffed. But Julian, without pdying any regard to
ibis deputation, entered their country, and obliged
4*
He enters
Germany
and con¬
cludes a
truce with
. 44
Julian con¬
quers the
Franks.
4 ] CON
them to fubmit; after which he alloted them lands
in Gaul, incorporating great numbers of them into his tincpaliti®
cavalry. He next marched againft the Chamavi, whom
he defeated and obliged to retire beyond the Rhine.'
Afterwards he rebuilt three iorts on the river Meufe,
which had been deftroyed by the barbarians ; but want¬
ing provifions in a country fo often ravaged, he order¬
ed 600 or 800 veffels to be built in Britain for the con¬
veying corn from thence into Gaul. Julian continued
in the country of the Chamavi till the expiration of
his truce with the Alemans 5 and then laying a bridge
of boats over the .Rhine, he entered their country, put¬
ting all to fire and (word. At laft two of their kings 45
came in perfon to him to me for peace : which Julian
granted, upon their promifing to fet at liberty the cap^the Ger.
lives they had taken •, to fupply a certain quantity of mans,
corn when required; and to furnilh wood, iron, and
carriages, for repairing the cities they had ruined. The ft
prifoners whom he at this time releafed, amounted to
upwards of 20,000.
Soon after the vernal equinox of this year, 3.5.8, Con-^xpJifcra,
ftantius marched in perfon againft the Quadi and Sar- of (Jonlhn-
matians, whofe country lay beyond the Hanube. Htw t‘us aSa'n^
croffed that river on a bridge of boats, he laidlome
man 112.
VUlg
waite the territories of the Sarmatians; who thereupon tlon.
came in great numbers, together with the Quadi, pre¬
tending to fue for peace. Their true defign was to
furprife the Romans; but the latter fufpefling it, fell
upon them fvvord in hand, and cut them all in pieces.
This obliged the reft to fue for peace in good earned,
which was granted on the delivery of hoftages. The
emperor then marched againft: the Limigantss, that is, }
the (laves who, in 334, had driven the Sarmatians out
of their country, and feized it for ihcmfelves *. They *
ufed the fame artifice as the Sarmatians and Ouadi had
done, coming in great numbers under pretence of fub-
mitting, but prepared to fall upon him unexpectedly
if opportunity offered. The emperor, obferving their
furly looks, and diftrufting them, caufed his troops fur-
round them infenfibiy while he was fpeaking. The Li-
migantes then difpleafed with the conditions he offered
them, laid their hands on their fwords: on which
they were attacked by the Roman foldiers. Finding
it impoffible to make their efcape, they made with
great fury towards the tribunal, but were repulled by
the guards forming themfelves into a wedge, and every '
one of them cut in pieces. After this, the emperor He expels
ravaged their country to fuch a degree, that they were the Limi-
in the end obliged to fubrr.it to the only condition he£ante*r ■
thought proper to allow them, which was to quit their ;
country, and retire to a more diftant place. The coun¬
try was then reftored to the Sarmatians, who were its
original poiTefibrs. H 4S
This year is alfo remarkablee for a very haughty Haughty
embafly from Sapor king of Perfia. The ambaffa-embafiy
dor, named Narfes, brought a letter, in which the Per-^rfm.^Por
fian monarch Ityled himfelf “ king of kings, brother
of the fun and moon,” &c. He acquainted the em¬
peror, that he might lawfully infill on having all the
countries beyond the river Strymon in Macedon deli-.
vered up to him ; but left: his demands fhould feem
unreafonable, he would be contented with Armenia
and Mefopotamia, which had been moft unjuftly taken
from his grandfather Narfes. He added, that unlefs
juftice was done him, he was refolved to aftert his • '
*;-y* ut ur.s . •' *y . right
1
CON [ 575 ] CON
c aan- right by force of arms. This letter Was preferred to
■lyutaii Conftantius wrapped up in a piece of white filk > but
J °r>' , he, without entering into any negotiation with the
ambafifadpr, wrote a letter to Sapor, in which he told
him, that as he had maintained the Roman dominions
in their full extent, when he w-as poffciTed only of the
eaft, he could not fuffer them to be curtailed now
when he was mafter pf the whole empire. In a few
days, however, he fent another letter, with rich pre-
fents ; being very defirous at lead to put off the war
till he had fecured the northern provinces againft the
incurfions of the barbarians, that he might then employ
rdl the forces of the empire againft fo formidable an
enemy. This embafly proved unfuccefsful, as did al-
fo another which was fent foon after. The laft am-
% .9 baffadors were ixnprifoned as fpifs, but afterwards dif-
Al^a- miffed unhurt. By a law of Conitantius dated in 358,
gi! rna- all magicians, augurs, aftrologers, and pretenders to
gu ,, £tc. ar^ divination, veere declared enemies to man-
• kind ; and fuch of them as were found in the court
- either of the emperor or of Julian, he commanded to
be put to the torture, and fpecined what torments they
1 were to undergo.
I 359) Juhan continued his endeavours for reliev¬
ing the province of Gaul, which had iuffered fo much
from the incurfions of the barbarians. He eredted
magazines in different places, yifited the cities which
had fuffered moft, and gave orders for repairin'? their
walls and fortifications properly. He then croifed the
Rhine, and purfued the w\ar in Germany with great
fuccefs, infomuch that the barbarians fubmitted to fuch
terms as he pleafed to impofe. In the mean time, the
emperor, having received intelligence that the Limi-
gantes had quitted the country in which he had placed
them, haflened to the banks of the Danube, in order
to prevent their entering Pannonia. On his arrival
he fent deputies, defiring to know what had induced
them to abandon 'the country which had been allotted
them. The Limigantes anfwered, in appearance with
the greateft fubmixfion imaginable, that they were will¬
ing to live as true fubje&s of the empire in any other
place ; but that the country he had allotted them was
quite uninhabitable, as they could demonftrate if they
were but allowed to crofs the river, and lay their com¬
plaints before him. This requeft was granted 5 but
while he afeended his tribunal, the barbarians unex-
peftedly fell upon his guards fwerd in hand, killed
feveral of them, and the emperor with difficulty faved
himfeif by flight. The reft of the troops, however,
fodn took the alarm, and lurrounding the Limigantes,
ea ^jern ah ofi to a man. H his year Conftantius in-
■blcruel-^tutec* a court inquifition againft all thofe who
y hi. confulted heathen oracles. Paulas Catena, a noted
W and cruel informer, was dlfpatched into the eaft to
profecute them ; and Modeltus, then count of the eaft,
and equal’/ remarkable for his cruelty, was appointed
judge. His tribunal was erefred at Scythopolis in Pa-
leftine, whither perfons of both fexes, and of every rank
and condition, rvere daily dragged in crowds from all
parts, and either confined in dungeons, or torn in pieces*
in a moft cruel and barbarous manner by racks, or pub¬
licly executed.
359) Sapor king of Perfia began hcftilities, be-
encouraged tKereto by the abfence of Urficinus,
wriOm the emperor had recalled, and appointed in his
;o
kery
Li-
•n 1
-fl are
t off.
room one Sabxnianus, a perfon very unfit for fuch an Conftan-
office. During this campaign, however, he made duppofitim
very little progrefs} having only . taken two Roman < ^T"i:ory- i
forts, and deftroyed the city of Amida, the fiege of
which is faid to have coft him 30,000 men. On the
firft news of the Perfian invafion, Conftantius had
thought proper to fend Urficinus into the eaft $ but Iris
enemies prevented him from receiving the fupplies
neceffary for carrying on the war } fo that he found
it impoffible to take any effectual means for flopping
the progrefs of the Periians. On his return, he was
unexpectedly charged with the lofs of Amida, and all
the difafters that had happened during the campaign.
Two judges were appointed to inquire into his con¬
duct j but they, being creatures of his enemies, left
the matter doubtful. On this Urficinus was fo much
exafperated, that he appealed to the emperor, and in
the heat of paflion let fall fome unguarded exprel-
fions, which being immediately carried to the em¬
peror, the general was deprived of all his employ¬
ments.
Conftantius refolved to march next year in perfon Conftantiur
againft the Perfians j but in the mean time, dreading iria|ic^es in
to encounter fo formidable an enemy, he applied him-
felf wholly to the affembling of a mighty army, by°
which he might be able fully to cope with them. For
this purpofe he wrote to Julian to fend him part of
liis forces, without confidering that by fo doing he
left the province of Gaul expofed to the ravages of
the barbarians. Julian refolved immediately to com¬
ply with the emperor’s orders; but at the fame time
to abdicate the dignity of Caefar, that he might not
be blamed for the lofs of the province. Accordingly
he fuffered the belt foldiers to be draughted out of his --
aimy. 1 hey were, however, very unwilling to leave Julian pro—
him, and at laft proclaimed him emperor. Whether c^me^
this was done abfolutely againft Julian’s confent or not <-'mFror*
is uncertain y but he wrote to the emperor, and perfua
ded the whole army alfo to fend a letter along with his,
in which they acquainted Conftantius with what had
happened, and entreated him to acknowledge Julian as
his partner in the empire. But this was poiiiiveiy re¬
filled by Conftantius, who began to prepare fer war.
Julian then, defigning to be before-hand with the em¬
peror, cauled his troops take an oath of allegiance to
himfeif, and with furprifing expedition made himfeif
mafter of the 1 ’-ole country of Illyricum, and the
important pafs feparating that country from Thrace.
Conftantius rvas thunderftruck -with this yiew$; but
hearing that the Perfians had retired, he marched
with all his force againft his competitor. On his ar¬
rival at Tarfus in Cilicia, he was feized with a feverifh
diftemper, occafioned chiefly by the uneafinefs.and per- _0-
plexity of his mind, tie purfued his march, however, Conftantius
to Mofucrene, a place on the borders of Ciiici?, at themareflesa-
foot of Mount Taurus. Here he was obliged lo flop gainft h2nB
by the violence of his dilbrder, which increafed every but dies,
day, and at laft carried him cff.on th^ luih .of Novem¬
ber 361, in the 45th year of. his age.
By the death of Conftantius, Julian now became Julian Re¬
mailer of loe whole Roman empire without a rival, ftores the
He had been educated in the Chi Lilian religion-j .buti|e?tllcr*
fecretly apoftatized from it long before, and'as foon ashgl9n’
he faw himfeif mafter of Ulyricuro, openly avowed
his appftafy, and .caufed the temples of the gods, to be
opened.
CON [ 576 ] CON
Gonftan-
finopolitan
hiftory.
S3
Condemns
fome of the
late empe¬
ror’s mini-
fters.
r 59
Reforms
the court.
60
Recals the
philofo-
phers, ma¬
gicians, Sec.
61
Marches
sgainft the
Perfians.
opened. When the meffengers arrived at Naifius in
Illyricum, where he then was, to acquaint him with
his being foie mafter of the empire, they found him
confulting the entrails of vidlims concerning the event
of his journey. As the omens were uncertain, he was
at that time very much embarrafled and perplexed -,
but the arrival of the nieffengers put an end to all his
fears, and he immediately fet out for Conftantinople.
At Heraclea he was met by almoit all the inhabitants
of this metropolis, into which he made his public en¬
try on the nth of December 361, being attended by
the whole fenate in a body, by all the magiftrates, and
by the nobility magnificently dreffed, every one tefti-
fying the utmoft joy at feeing fuch a promifing young
prince raifed to the empire without bloodlhed. He was
again declared emperor by the fenate of Conllantinople;
and as foon as that ceremony was over, he caufed
the obfequies of Conftantius to be performed with great
pomp.
The firft care of Julian was to inquire into the con-
du£l of the late emperor’s minifters. Several of thefe
having been found guilty of enormous crimes, were
condemned and executed particulary the noted in¬
former Paulus Catena, and another named slpodamus,
were fentenced to be burnt alive. Along with thefe,
however, was put to death one Urfula, a man of un¬
exceptionable charadler, and to whom Julian him-
felf was highly indebted. He had been lupplied
with money by Urfula, unknown to the emperor, at
the time when he was fent into Gaul with the title of
Caifar, but without the money necefiary for the fup-
port of that dignity. For what reafon he was now
put to death, hitfcorians do not acquaint us. Julian
himfelf tells us, that he was executed without his know¬
ledge.
The emperor next fet about reforming the court.
As the vail number of offices was in his time become
an intolerable burden, he difeharged all thofe whom
he thought ufelefs. He reduced, among the reft, the
officers called agentes in rebus, from 10,000 to 17 j
and difeharged thoufands of cooks, barbers, See. who
by their large falaries drained the exchequer. The
curioji, whofe office it was to inform the emperor of
what had paffed in the different provinces, were all
difeharged, and that employment entirely fuppreffed.
Thus he was enabled to eafe the people of the heavy
taxes with which they were loaded: and this he did by
abating a fifth part-of all taxes and impofts throughout
the kingdom.
As to. religious matters, Julian, as before obferved,
■was a Pagan, and immediately on his acceffion to the
throne reftored the heathen religion. He invited to
court the philofophers, magicians, See. from all parts ;
neverthelefs, he did not raife any pcrfecution againft
the Chriftians. On the contrary, he recalled from ba-
niffiment all the orthodox biffiops who had been fent
into exile during the former reign; but with a de-
fign, as is obferved both by the Chriftian and Pagan
writers, to raife difturbances and fow diffenfions in the
church.
As the Perfians were now preparing tb carry on
the war with vigour, Julian found himfelf under a
neceffity of marching againft them in perfon. But
before he fet out, he enriched the city of Conftanti¬
nople with many valuable gifts. He formed a large
harbour to (belter the (hips from the fouth wind, built
a magnificent porch leading to it, and in another porch tinopoiiq
a (lately library, in ivhich he lodged all his books. In , hlftoiq
the month of May, A. D. 362, he fet out for Antioch I
and on the firft of January renewed in that city the
facrifices to Jupiter for the fafety of the empire, which
had been fo long omitted. During his day'in this city,
he continued his preparations for the Perfianwar, erect¬
ing magazines, making new- levies, and above all cori-
fulting the oracles, arufpices, magicians, See. The
oracles of Delphi, Delos, and Dodona, affured him of
victory. The arufpices, indeed, and mod of his cour¬
tiers and officers, did all that lay in their porver to
divert him from his intended expedition j but the de¬
ceitful anfwers of the oracles and magicians, and the
defire of adding the Perfian monarch to the marly
kings he had already feen humbled at his feet, prevailed
over all other confideraticns. Many nations fent depu¬
ties to him, offering their affiftance but thele offers he
reje&ed, telling them that the Romans were to aflift
their allies, but flood in no need of any affiftance from
them. He likewife rejected, and in a very difobliging
manner, the offers of the Saracens $ anfwering them,
when they complained of his (lopping the penfion paid
them by other emperors, that a warlike prince had fteel,
but no gold ; which they refenting, joined the Perfians,
and continued faithful to them to the laft. However,
he wrote to Arfaces king of Armenia, enjoining him to
keep his troops in readinefs to execute the orders he
(liould foon tranfmit to him. ^
Having made the neceffary preparations for fo im-CroflestU
portant an enterprifa, Julian fent orders to his troops Euphrati j
to crofs the Euphrates, defigning to enter the enemy’s
country before they had the lead notice of his march
for which purpofe he had placed guards on all the
roads. From Antioch he proceeded to Litarba, a place
about 15 leagues diftant, which h^ reached the fame
day. From thence he went to Beraea, where he halted
a day, and exhorted the council to reftore the worfhip
of the gods: but this exhortation, it feems, was com¬
plied with but by few. From Beraea he proceeded to
Batnae j and was better pleafed writh the inhabitants of
the latter, becaufe they had, before his arrival, re¬
ftored the worffiip of the gods. There he offered fa¬
crifices ; and having immolated a great number of vic¬
tims, he purfued the next day his journey to Hiera-
polis, the capital of the province of Euphratefiana,
which he reached on the 9th of March. Here he
lodged in the houfe of one for whom he had a par¬
ticular efteem, chiefly becaufe neither Conftantius nor
Gallus, who had both lodged irt his boufe, had been
able to make him renounce the worftrip of his idols.
As he entered this city, 50 of his foldiers were killed
by the fall of a porch. He left Hierapolis on the 13 th
of March j and having palled the Euphrates on a brjdge
of boats, came to Batnse a fmall city of Ofrhoene,
about 10 leagues from Hierapolis; and here 50 more of
his foldiers were killed by the fall of a (lack of draw.
From Batnae he proceeded to Carrhae ; where, in the
famous temple of the moon, it is faid he facrificed a
woman to that planet. ^
While Julian continued in this city, he received ad-jnvades Jj
vice that a party of the enemies, horfe had broke intoPerfe' j
the Roman territories. On this he refolved to leave
an army in Mefopotamia, to guard the frontiers of the
empire
CON [ 577 ] CON
m« empire on that fide, while he advanced on the other
flitch into the heart oi the Perfian dominions. This army
l^j confifted, according to forme, of 20,000, according to
nJ others, of 30,000 chofen troops. It was commanded
by Procopius, and Sebaftian a famous Manichean who
had been governor of -Egypt, and had perfecuted there,
with the utmoit cruelty, the orthodox Chriftians.
Thefe two were to join, if pofljble, Arlaces king of
Armenia, lo lay watte the fruitful plains of Media,
and meet the emperor in Atfyna. To Arfaces Julian
himfelf wrote, but in the moil difobliging manner ima¬
ginable, threatening to treat him as a rebel if he did
not execute, with the utmoft pun&uality, the orders
given him : and at the conelufion told him, that the
God he adored would not be able to fcreen him from his
indignation.
There were two roads leading from Carrhae to Per-
fia; the one to the left by Nifibisj the other to the
right through the province of AlTyria, along the banks
ot the Euphrates. Julian, chofe the latter, but caufed
magazines to be ere&ed on both roads ; and, after
having viewed his army, let out on the 25th of March.
He paffed the Abora, which feparated the Roman and
Periian dominions, near its conflux with the Euphrates j
after which he broke down the bridge, that his troops
nfight not be tempted to defert, feeing they could not re¬
turn home. As he proceeded on his march, a foldier
and two horfes were {truck dead by a dafti of lightning j
and a lion of an extraordinary fize prefenting himfelf to
the army, was in a moment difpatched by the foldiers
with a fiiower of darts. Thefe omens occafioned great
diiputes between the philofophers and arufpices : the
latter looking upon them as inaufpicious, advifed the
emperor to return j but the former refuted their
arguments with others more agreeable to Julian’s tem¬
per.
Lav!
W)
Idv
oC
sd,
jftc Having paffed the Abora, Julian entered Affyria,
which he found very populous, and abounding with all
the neceflaries of life •, but he laid it watte far and near,
dettroying the magazines and provifions which he could
not carry along with him 5 and thus he put it out of his
power to return the fame way he came} a ftep which
es was judged very impolitic. As he met with no army
in the field to oppofe him, he advanced to the walls of
Ctefiphon, the metropolis of the Perfian empire : hav¬
ing reduced all the ftrong holds that lay in his way.
Here, having caufed the canal to be cleared, which
was formerly dug by Trajan between thefe two rivers,
he conveyed his fleet from the former to the latter. On
the banks of the Tigris he was oppofed by the ene¬
my. But Julian patted that river in fpite of their ut¬
moft efforts and drove them into the city wnth the lofs
of a great number of their men, he himfelf, in the mean
time, lofing only 70 or 75.
his Julian had now advanced fo far into the enemy’s
but country, that he found it neceflary to think of a re-
;ea treat, as it was impoflible for him to winter in Per¬
ris. ^or reafon he made no attempt on Ctefi¬
phon, but began to march back along the banks of
the Tigris, foon after he had paffed that river. In
the mean time the king of Perfia was affembling a
formidable army, with a defign to fall upon the Ro¬
mans in their march ; but being defircus of putting an
end to fo deftrudtive a war, he font very advantage¬
ous propofals of peace to Julian. Thefe the Roman
Vol. VI. Part II.
emperor very imprudently rejected j and foon after, Conitan-
deceived by treacherous guides, he quitted the river,tinoP^tan
and entered into an unknown country totally laid watte t 1
by the enemy ; and where he was continually harafled
by ftrong parties, who in a manner furrounded his ar¬
my, and attacked him fometimes in the front, and .
fometimes in the rear. A ftill worfe ftep he was per-
fuaded to take by the treacherous guides already men¬
tioned : and this was to burn his fleet, left it ftiould fall
into the hands of the enemy. As foon as the fleet was
fet on fire, the whole army cried out, that the emperor
was betrayed, and that the guides were traitors em¬
ployed by the enemy. Julian ordered them immedi¬
ately to be put to the rack, upon which they confefied
the treafon 5 but it was too late. The fleet was al¬
ready in flames; they could by no means be extinguifti-
ed j and no part was faved except 12 veffels, which
were defigned to be made ufe of in the building of
bridges, and for this purpofe were conveyed over land
in waggons.
The emperor thus finding himfelf in a ftrange coun¬
try, and his army greatly difpirited, called a council
of his chief officers, in which it was refolved to pro¬
ceed to Corduene, which lay fouth of Armenia, and
belonged to the Romans. With this view they had
not proceeded far, when they were met by the king
of Perfia, at the head of a very numerous army, at¬
tended by his two fons, and all the principal nobility of
the kingdom. Several (harp encounters happened,
in which, though the Perfians were always defeated,
yet the Romans reaped no advantages from their vic¬
tories, but were reduced to the laft extremity for want gy
of provifions. In one of thefe ikirmifhes, when the Is mortally
Romans were fuddenly attacked, the emperor, eager to
repulfe the enemy, haftened to the field- of battle
without his armour, when he received a mortal wound tiie
by a dart, which, through his arm and fide, pierced hisfians
very liver. Of this wound he died the fame night, the
26th of June 363, in the 32d year of his age, after
having reigned fcarce 20 months from the time he be¬
came foie matter of the Roman empire. ^
As Julian had declined naming any fucceffor, thejovian
choice of a new emperor devolved on the army. They railed to
unanimoully chofe Jovian, a very able commander,the empire,
whofe father had lately refigned the poft of comes </«-
mejlicorum, in order to lead a retired life. The va¬
lour and experience of Jovian, however, were not
fufficient to extricate the Roman army from the diffi¬
culties in which they had been plunged by the impru¬
dence of his predeceffor. The famine raged in the
camp to fuch a degree, that not a fingle man would
have been left alive, had not the Perfians unexpedtedly
fent propofals of peace. Thefe were now received 69
with the utmoft joy. A peace was concluded for 30 Concludi^
years ; the terms of which were, that Jovian ftrould^?^^
reftore to the Perfians the fine provinces which had perfians!
been taken from them in the reign of Dioclefian, with
feveral caftles, and the cities of Nifibis and Singara.
After the conclufion of the treaty, Jovian purfued his
march without moleftation. When he arrived at An¬
tioch, lie revoked all the laws that had been made in
the former reign againft Chriftianity and in favour of
Paganifm. He efpoufed alfo the caufe of the ortho¬
dox Chriftians againft the Allans j and he called all thofe
who had been formerly banifoed, particularly Athana-
4 H fius,
CON [ 578 j CON
Conftan- fins, to whom he wrote a very obliging letter, with
t'hift)^tan own ^an^• generally believed alio that Atha-
!. ‘ ^ ■ nafius, at the delire of Jovian, now compofed the creed
which Hill goes by his name, and is fu'bfcribed by all
the bifhops in Europe. But this emperor did not live
70 to make any great alterations, or even to vilit his capi-
His death. ja| as ernperor ; for in his way to Conftantinople he was
found dead in his bed, on the 16th or 17th of February
364, after he had lived 33 years, and reigned feven
-yj months and 40 days.
Valentini- After the death of Jovian, Valentinian was chofen
an chpfen emperer. Immediately on his acceffion, the loldiers
choofcsVa muhn*cc^j and with great clamour required him to
lens for his choofe a partner in the fovereighty. Though he did
partner. not inftantly comply with his demand, yet in a few
days he chofe his brother Valens for his partner •, and,
as the empire was threatened on all lides with an in-
vafion of the barbarous nations, be thought proper to
divide it. This famous partition was made at Median a
in Dacia. Valens had for his (bare the whole of Alia,
Egypt, and Thrace } and Valentinian all the Weft ;
that is, Illyricum, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and
7a Africa.
Procopius After this partition, Valens returned to Conftanti-
yevolts. nople ; where the beginning of his reign was diffurbed
by the revolt of Procopius, a relation of Julian. On
the death of that emperor, he bad fled into Taurica
Cherfonefus for fear of Jovian ; but not trailing the
barbarians who inhabited that country, he returned in
difguife into the Roman territories, where having
gained over an eunuch of great wealth, by name Eu-
genius, lately disgraced by Valens, and fome officers
who commanded the troops fent againfl the Goths,
be got himfelf proclaimed emperor. At fir ft -be was
joined only by the loweft of the people, but at length
he was acknowledged by the whole city of Conftanti¬
nople. On the news of this revolt, Valens would
have abdicated the fovereignty, bad he not been pre¬
vented by the importunities of his friends. Fie there¬
fore difpatched fome troops againft the ufurper j but
thefe were gained over, and Procopius continued for
fome time to gain ground. It is probable he would
finally have fucceeded, bad he not become fo much elat¬
ed with his good fortune that he grew tyrannical and
73 infupportable to his own party. In confequence of this
Is defeated alteration in his difpofition, he was firft abandoned by
and put to fome 0f his principal officers •, and foon after defeated
<ieat^ in battle, taken prifoner, and put to death.
Wat with This revolt produced a war betwixt Valens and the
the Gethi. Gpths. The latter, havipg been folicited by Proco¬
pius, had fent 3000 men to his affiftance. On hear¬
ing the news of the ufurper’s death, they marched
back j but Valens detached againft them a body of
troops, who took them all prifoners notwithftanding
the vigorous refiftance they made. Athanaric, king
of the Goths, expoftulated on this proceeding with
Valens 5 but that emperor proving obilinate, both
parties prepared for war. In 367 and 3^9» Valens
gained great advantages over his enemies 5 and ob¬
liged them to fue for peace, which was concluded up¬
on terms very advantageous to the Romans. 7 he
reft of his -reign contains nothing remarkable, except
the cruelty with which Valens perfecuted the ortho¬
dox clergy. The latter fent 80 of their number to
him, in order to lay their complaints before him j but.
he, inftead of giving them any relief, determined to Conit,t 1
put them all to death. But the perfon wrho was or- hnopolit (
dered to execute this fentence, fearing left the pub-, ^w?| j
lie execution of fo many ecclefiaftics might raife dif-
turbanceS, ordered them all to be put on hoard a ffiip, Eightye
pretending that the emperor had ordered them only tothodoxt
be fent into banifhment •, but when the veffel was atc'el!a®e
fome diftance from the land, the mariners fet fire to it,
and made their own efcape in the boat. The ffiip was ^
driven by a ftrong wind into a harbour, where it wasMagiein
confumed and all that were in it. A perfecution wasPer^cutt
alfo commenced againft magicians, or thofe who had
books of magic in their cuftody. This occafioned the
deftrudlion of many innocent perfons 5 for books of this
kind were often conveyed into libraries, unknown to
the owners of them, and this was certainly followed by
death and confifcation of goods. Hereupon perfons of
all ranks were feized with fuch terror that they burnt
their libraries, left books of magic ffiould have been
fecretly conveyed in amongft the others. In 378, the
Goths, whom Valens had admitted into Thrace, advan¬
ced from that province to Macedon and Thefialy,
where they committed dreadful ravages. They af- ^
terwards blocked up the city of Conftanlinople, plun-Valemi i
dered the fuburbs, and at laft totally defeated and kil-k^3 to
led the emperor himfelf. The day after the battle,
hearing that an immenfe treafure was lodged in Adria-
nople, the barbarians laid fiege to that place : but be¬
ing quite ftrangers to the art of befieging towns, they
were repulfed with great flaughter ; upon which they
dropped that enterprife, and returned before Conftanti¬
nople. But here great numbers of them were cut in
pieces by the Saracens, whom Maria their queen had
fent to the affiftance of the Romans ; fo that they were
obliged to abandon this defign likewife, and retire fiom
the neighbouihood of that city.
By the death of Valens the empire once more I
into the hands of a fingle perfon. This was Gratian,^^ J|
who had held the empire of the Weft, after the death ^ pm
of Valentinian. He repulfed many barbarous nations
who threatened the empire at that time with diffolu-
tion ; but finding himlelf preffed on all fides, he loon
refolved to take a colleague, in older to eafe him of
fome part of the burden. Accordingly on the 19th of I1
January 379, he declared Theodofius his paitner in
the empire, and committed to his caie all the provinces
which had been governed by Valens.
Theodofius is greatly extolled by the hiftorians of
thofe ages on account of his extraordinary valour and
piety : and for thefe qualifications has been honoured
with the furname of the Great. From the many perfe-
cuting law's, however, made in his time, it would feem
that his piety was at leaft very much mifguided ; and
that if he was naturally of a humane and compaHionate
difpolkion, fuperftition and paffion had often totally
obfeured it. He certainly was a man of great con-
dud!: and experience in war ; and indeed the prefent
ftate of the empire called for an exertion of all his abi- 71 j
lities. The provinces of Dacia, Thrace, and Rlyri- erjM
cum, were already loft 5 the Goths, iaifali, -^ans’empire: J
and Huns, were mafters of the greateft part of thefeJj
provinces, and had ravaged and laid wafte the reffifion.
The Iberians, Armenians, and Perfians, were likewife
up in arms, and ready to take advantage of the drf-
tradled ftate of the empire. The few foldiers who
had
Cor:
nop*
hift
!
"he ths
efea by
'heo ius.
Jrat
ran ;d
yJ :i-
ims,
m l.
radi he
Ion ons
and
aiai
CON [ 579 ]
tad furvlved the late defeat, kept within the ttrong dox Chnftlans
holds of Thrace, without daring fo much as to look
abroad, much lels face the victorious enemy, who mo¬
ved about the country in great bodies. But notwith-
ftanding this critical fituation, the hiftorians of thofe
times give us no account of the tranfaitions of the
year 379. Many great battles indeed are faid to
have been fought, and as many viftories obtained by
Theodofius j but the accounts of thefe are fo con-
fufed and contradidlory, that no ftrefs can be laid upon
them.
In the month of February 380, -Theodofms was feized
with a dangerous malady, lb that Gratian found himlelf
obliged to carry on the war alone. This emperor, ap¬
prehending that the neighbouring barbarians might break
into fonae of the provinces, concluded a peace with the
Goths, which was confirmed by Theodofius on his re¬
covery. The treaty was very advantageous to the bar¬
barians } but they difregarding all their engagements,
no fooner heard that Gratian had left Illyricum, than
they pafled the Danube, and breaking into Thrace and
Pannonia, advanced as far as Macedon, deftroying .all
with fire and fword. Theodofius, however, drawing
together his forces, marched againft them j and, ac¬
cording to the molt refpeftable authorities, gained a
complete vi&ory j though Zofimus relates, that he was
utterly defeated.
The following year, Athanaric, the moft powerful
of all the Gothic princes, being driven out by a faction
at home, recurred to Theodofius, by whom he was
received with great tokens of friendlhip. The empe¬
ror himfelf went out to meet him, and attended him
with his numerous retinue into the city. The Gothic
prince died the fame year j and Theodofius caufed him
to be buried after the Roman manner with fuch pomp
and folemnity, that the Goths, who attended him in
his flight, returned home with a refolution never to mo-
left the Romans any more. Nay, out of gratitude to
the emperor, they took upon them to guard the banks
of the Danube, and prevent the empire from being in¬
vaded on that fide.
In 383, one Maximus revolted againft: Gratian in
Britain ; and in the end, having got the unhappy em¬
peror into his powrer, caufed him to be put to death,
and affumed the empire of the Weft himlelf. Gra¬
tian had divided his dominions with his brother Va-
lentinian, whom he allowed to reign in Italy and Weft
Illyricum, referving the reft to himfelf. Maximus,
therefore, immediately after his ufurpation, fent de¬
puties to Theodofius, alluring him that he had no de-
iigns on the dominions of Valentinian. As Theodofius
at that time found 4nmfelf in danger from the barba¬
rians, he not only forbore to attack Maximus after
this declaration, but even acknowledged him for his
partner in the empire. It was not long, however, be¬
fore the ambition of the ufurper prompted him to
break his promife. In 387, he pafled the Alps on a
fudden ; and meeting with no oppofition, marched to
Milan where Valentinian ufually refided. The young
prince fled firft to Aquileia $ and from thence to Fhef-
‘ falonica, to implore the proteftion of Iheodofius.
The latter, in anfwer to Valentinian’s letter, inform¬
ed him, that he was not at all furpnfed at the pro-
grefs Maximus had made, becaufe the ufurper had
protefted, and Valenlinian had perfecuted, the ortho-
C O N
    w...At laft he prevailed on the young Conftaa-
prince to renounce the Arian herefy which he had hi-
therto maintained ; after which Theodofius promifed 1 1
to affift him wbh all the forces of the Eaft. At firft,
however, he fent meflengers to Maximus, earneftly
exhorting him to reftore the provinces he had taken
from Valentinian, and content himfelf with Gaul,
Spain, and Britain. But the ufurper would hearken S3
to no terms. This very year he befieged and took His fuccefs.
Aquileia, Ouaderna, Bononia, Mutina, Rhegium, Pla¬
centia, and many other cities in Italy. The following
year he was acknowledged in Rome, and in all the
provinces of Africa. Theodofius, therefore, finding a
war inevitable, fpent the remaining months of this and
the beginning of the following year in making the ne-
ceflary preparations. His army confifted chiefly of Goths,
Huns, Alans, and other barbarians, whom he was glad
to take into the fervice in order to prevent their raifing g4
difturbances on the frontiers. He defeated Maximus Defeated
in two battles, took him prifoner, and put him to death. Put t*
The ufurper had left his fon Victor, whom he created
Auguftus, in Gaul, to awre the inhabitants in his ab-
fence. Againft him the emperor defpatched Arboga-
ftes, who took him prifoner after having difperfed the
troops that attended him, and put him to death. The
victory was ufed afterwards by Theodofius with great
clemency and moderation.
In 389, Theodofius took a journey to Rome •, and,
according to Prudentius, at this time converted the g.
fenate and people from idolatry to Chriftianity. XhcThetem-
next year was remarkable for the deftruftion of theP^esin-^-
celebrated temple of Serapis in Alexandria j which,
according to the defeription of Ammianus Marcellinus, throUghout
furpafled all others in the world, that of Jupiter Capi-all Egypt
tolinus alone excepted. The reafon of its being now deitreyed.
deftroyed was as follows. Theophilus, bilhop of Alex¬
andria, having begged and obtained of the emperor
an old temple, formerly confecrated to Bacchus, but
then ruined and forfaken, with a delign to convert it
into a church, the workmen found among the rubbiih
feveral obfeene figures, which the bilhop, to ridicule
the fuperftition of the Heathens, caufed to be expofed
to public view. This provoked the Pagans to fuch a
degree, that they flew to arms ; and tailing unexpec¬
tedly upon the Chriftians, cut great numbers of them
in pieces. The latter, however, loon took arms in
their own defence 5 and being fupporttd by the few
foldiers who were quartered in the city, began to re¬
pel force by force. Thus a civil war was kindled,
and no day paffed without fome encounter. The Pa¬
gans uftd to retire to the temple of Serapis j and
thence Tallying out unexpeftedly feized on fuch Chri¬
ftians as they met, and dragging them into the tem¬
ple, either forced them by the moft exquifite torments
to facrifice to their idol, or, if they refufed, racked
them to death. As focn as they expedled to be at¬
tacked by the emperor’s troops, they chofe a philolb-
pher named Olympus for their leader, with a defign to
defend themfelves to the laft extremity; The emperor,
however, would not fuffer any punifhment to be inflift-
ed upon them for the lives of thofe they had taken
away, but readily forgave them ; however, he ordered
all the temples of Alexandria to be immediately pulled
down, and commanded the bilhop to fee his orders put
in execution. The Pagans no fooncr heard that th*
4 D 2 emperor
CON [ <
Ckmftan- emperor was acquainted with their proceedings than
tj hri-r r3 1 ahandoned the temple, which was in a (hort time
«- * ^ deftroyed by Theophilus; nothing being left except
the foundations, which could not be removed on ac¬
count of the extraordinary weight and fize of the
ftones. Not fatisfied with the deftrudtion of the Alexan¬
drian temples, the zealous bifhop encouraged the people
to pull down all the other temples, oratories, chapels,
and places fet apart for the worlhip of the Heathen
gods throughout Egypt, and the ftatues of the gods
themfelves to be either burnt or melted down. Of the
innumerable ftatues which at that time were to be
found in Egypt, he is faid to have fparcd but one,
viz. that of an ape, in order to expofe the Pagan reli¬
gion to ridicule. On his return to Conftantinople, Theo-
dolius ordered fuch temples as were yet ftanding to be
thrown down, and the Arians to be everywhere driven
86 out of the cities.
^ murder- In 39 2’ Valentinian, emperor of the Weft, was
edbyArboItre2C^erou^y murdered by Arbogaftes his general;
gaftes, who w^°» though he might afterwards have eafxly feized
raifesEu- on the fovereignty himfelf, chofe to confer it upon
gemus to one Eugenius, and to reign in his name. This new
10 empire. ufurper> though a Chriftian, was greatly favoured by
the Pagans, who were well apprifed that he only bore
the title of emperor, while the whole power lodged in
Arbogaftes, who pretended to be greatly attached to
their religion. The arufpices began to appear anew,
and informed him that he was deftined to the em¬
pire of the whole world; that he would foon gain
a complete victory over Theodolius, who was as much
hated as Eugenius was beloved by the gods, &c. But
though Eugenius feemed to favour the Pagans, yet in
the very beginning of his reign he wrote to St Am-
brofe. The holy man did not anfwrer his letter till
. he was preffed by fome friends to recommend them to
the new prince; and then he wrote to this infamous
nfurper with all the refpeft due to an emperor. Soon
after bis acceflkm to the empire, Eugenius fent depu¬
ties to Theodofius ; and they are faid to have been re¬
ceived by him in a very obliging manner. He did
not, however, intend to enter into any alliance with
this ufurper, but imtnediately began his military pre¬
parations. In 394, he fet out from Conftantinople,
and was at Adriancple on the 15th of June that year.
He bent his march through Dacia, and the other pro¬
vinces between Thrace and the Julian Alps, with a
defign to force the pafles of thefe, mountains, and break
into Italy before the army of Eugenius was in a con¬
dition to oppofe him. On his arrival at the Alps, he
found thefe pafles guarded by Flavianus prefect of Ita¬
ly, at the head of a confiderable body of Roman troops.
Thefe were utterly defeated by Theodofius, who
thereupon crofted the Alps and advanced into Italy.
He was foon rpet by Eugenius; and a bloody battle
enfued, without any decifive advantage on either fide.
The next day the emperor led his troops in perfon
gy againft the enemy, utterly defeated them, and took
lug enius their camp. Eugenius was taken prifoner by his own
defeated, men, and brought to Theodofius, who reproached him
foner1 and the murc,er Va‘entinian, with the calamities
put to351 had brought on the empire by his unjuft ufurpa-
dcatk and with putting his confidence in Hercules,
and not in the true God; for on his chief ftandard he
had difplayed the image of that fabulous hero. Euge-
j CON
nius begged earneftly for his life : but while he lay pro- (W 1
ftrate at the emperor’s feet, his own foldiers cut *
his head, and carrying it about on the point of a fpear hiiW J
ftiowed it to thofe in the camp, tvho had not yet fub-L *
mitted to Theodofius. At this they were all thunder-
ftruck j but being informed that Theodofius was ready
to receive them into favour, they threw down their as
arms and fubmitted. After this, Arbogaftes, defpair-Arbol
ingot pardon, fled to the mountains; but being in-bysvk
formed that diligent fearch was made for him, he laid ^ut ^
violent hands on himfelf. His children, and thofe oi™ ^
Eugenius, took fan&uary in churches ; but the empe¬
ror not only pardoned, but took the opportunity of
converting them to Chriftianity, reftored them to their
paternal eftates, and railed them to confidcrable em¬
ployments in the ftate. Soon after this, Theodofius
appointed his fon Honorius emperor of the weft, af-
figning him for his (hare Italy, Gaul, Spain, Africa,
and Weft Illyncum. The next year, as he prepared
for his return to Conftantinople, he was feized with a
dropfy, owing to the great fatigues he had undergone
during the war. As foon. as he perceived himfelf to Theodofia
be in danger, he made his will ; by which he be-^ks.
queathed the empire of the eaft to Arcadius, and con¬
firmed Honorius in the poffeflion of the weft. He
likewife confirmed the pardon which he had granted
to all thofe who had borne arms againft him, and re¬
mitted a tribute which had proved very burdenfome to
the people ; and charged his two fons to fee thefe
points of his will executed. He died at Milan on the
17th of January 395, in the 16th year of his reign and
50th of his age.
From the. time of Theodofius to the time when the Empire
Roman empire in the weft was totally deftroyed by ufurped
the Goths, we find but very little remarkable in theEafllifcus' ,
hiftory of Conftantinople. At this time the eaftern
empire was ufurped by Bafilifcus, who had driven out
Zeno the lawful emperor; being aflifted in his confpi-
racy by the emprefs Verina his fifter. Zeno fled in¬
to Ifauria, whither he was purfued by Ulus and Tre-
condes, two of the ufurper’s generals; who having
eafily defeated the few troops he had with him, for¬
ced the unhappy prince to {hut himfelf up in a caftle,
which they immediately invefted. But in a Ihort
time Bafilifcus having difobliged the people by his cru¬
elty, avarice, and other bad qualities, for which he was
no lefs remarkable than his predeceffor had been, his
generals joined with Zeno, whom they reftored to the
throne. After his reftoration, Zeno having got Bafi¬
lifcus into his power, confined him in a caftle of Cap- ^
padocia together with his wife Zenonides, where they Is ftarveJ
both perilhed with hunger and cold. This happenedt0 ^eat^ j
in the year 467, after Bafilifcus had reigned about 20
months. During the time of this ufurpation a dreadful $12
fire happened at Conftantinople, which confumed greatGreat ^
part of the city, with the library containing 120,coo at
volumes; among which were the works of Homer,tin°Pe\ j
written, as is faid, on the great gut of a dragon 120
feet long.
The misfortunes which Zeno had undergone did
not work any reformation upon him. He ftill conti¬
nued the fame vicious courfes which had given ®cca-
fi.on to the ufurpation of Bafilifcus. Other confpira-
cies were formed agaift him, but he had the good
fortune to eicape them. Pie engaged in a war with
the
& sn-
tini* >ta»
hi 7-
)ecl of
he. nan
:mp to
vha1 a'-
ng-
tre es
nde uf-
n a Juf.
inia
iftii i’s
ar h
ie I .
ms.
CON [ 58
the Oftrogoth*, in which he proved unfuccefsful, and
was obliged to yield the provinces of Lower Dacia
and Mafia to them. In a fhort time, however, Theo-
doric their king made an irruption into Thrace, and
advanced within 15 miles of Conftantinople, with a de-
fign to befiege that capital: but the following year,
485, they retired in order to attack Odoacer king of
Italy t of which country "Ihcodoric was proclaimed
king m 493. The emperor Zeno died in the year
491, in the 65th year of his age, and 17th of his
reign.
JL he Roman empire had now for a long time been
on the decline: the ancient valour and military difci-
pline which had for fuch a long time rendered the Ro¬
mans fuperior to other nations, had greatly degenera¬
ted } fo that they were now by no means fo powerful
as formerly. The tumults and diforders which had
happened in the empire from time to time by the many
ufurpatrons, had contributed alfo to weaken it very
much. But what proved of the greateft detriment
was the allowing vaft (warms of barbarians to fettle
in the different provinces, and to ferve in the Roman
empire in feparate and independent bodies. This had
proved the immediate caufe of the diffolution of the
weftern empire; but as it affefted the eaftern parts
lefs, the Conftantinopolitan empire continued for up¬
wards of 900 years after the weftern one was totally
diffolved. I he weak and imprudent adminiftration of
Zeno, and Anaftafius who fucceeded him, had reduced
the eaftern empire ftill more; and it might poflibly
have expired in a ftiort time after the weftern one,
had not the wife and vigorous conduct of Juftin, and
his partner Juftinian, revived in feme meafure the an¬
cient martial fpirit which had originally raifed the Ro¬
man empire to its higheft pitch of grandeur.
Juftin afeended the throne in 518. In 521 he en¬
gaged in a war with the Perfians, who had all along
• been, very formidable enemies to the Roman name.
Againft them he employed the famous Belifarius ; but
of him we hear nothing remarkable till after the accef-
fion of Juftinian. This prince was the nephew of
Juftin., and was by him taken as his partner in the em¬
pire in 527; and the fame year Juftin died, in the
77^ year of his age and 9th of his reign. Juftinian
being now foie mafter of the empire, bent his whole
force againft the Perftans, The latter proved fuccefs-
ful in the firft engagement ; but were foon after utterly
defeated by Belifarius on the frontiers of Perfia, and
likewife by another general named Dorotheus in Ar¬
menia. Ihe war continued with various fuccefs du¬
ring the fiift five years of Juftinian’s reign. In the
fixth year a peace was concluded upon the following
terms: 1. lhat the Roman emperor fliould pay to
Cofrhoes, the king of Perfia, 1000 pounds weight of
gold. 2. That both princes fhould reftore the places
they had taken during the wars. 3. That the com¬
mander of the Roman forces fhould no longer refide
at Daras on .the Perfian frontiers, but at a place called
Conjiantina in Mefopotamia, as he had formerly done.
4* P^at the Iberians, who had fided with the Romans,
fhould be at liberty either to return to their own coun¬
try or to remain at Conftantinople. This peace, con¬
cluded in 532, was ftyled eternal; but in the event
proved of very fhort duration.
About this time happened at Conftantinople the
]
CON
greateft tumult mentioned in hiflory. It began among Conftan-
the different faftions in the circus; but ended in an tinopolitan
open rebellion. The multitude, highly diilatisfied with , ^uioiy- _
the conduft of John the prefeBus pr&torio, and of Tre- (,5
bonianus then queftor, forced Hypatius, nephew to the Great tu-
emperor Anaftaftus, to accept the empire, and pro-niuhin
claimed him with great fblemnity in the forum. As^”^n'
the two above-mentioned minifters were greatly ab-th   
horred by the populace on account of their avarice,
Juftinian immediately difeharged them, hoping by
that means to appeafe the tumult: but this was fo far
from anfwering the purpofe, that the multitude only
grew the more outrageous upon it ; and moft of the
fenators joining them, the emperor was fo much alarm¬
ed, that he had thoughts of abandoning the city and
making his efcape by fea. In this dilemma the em-
prefs Theodora encouraged and perfuaded. him rather
to part with his life than the kingdom ; and he at laft
refolved to defend himfelf to the utmoft, with the few
fenators who had not yet abandoned him. In the
mean time, the rebels having attempted in vain to
force the gates of the palace, carried Hypatius in tri¬
umph to the circus; where, while he was beholding
the fports from the imperial throne, amidft the (bouts
and acclamations of the people, Belifarius, who had
been recalled from Perfia, entered the city with a
confiderable body of troops. Being then apprifed of
the ufurpation of Hypatius, he marched ftraight to the
circus ; fell fword in hand upon the difarmed multi¬
tude ; and with the afliftance of a band of Heruli,
headed by Mundus governor of Illyricum, cut about
30,000 of them in pieces. Hypatius the ufurper, and
Pompeius another of the nephews of Anaftafius, were
taken prifoners and carried to the emperor, by whofe
orders they were both beheaded, and their bodies call
into the fea. Their eftates were confifeated, and like¬
wife the eftates of fuch fenators as had joined with
them ; bat the emperor caufed great part of their
lands and effefts to be afterwards reftored, together
with their honours and dignities, to their children.
. Juftinian having now no other enemy to contend
with, turned his arms againft the Vandals in Africa,
and the Goths in Italy; both wThich provinces he re¬
covered out of the hands of the barbarians*. But be- * See Bar-
fore his general Belifanus had time to eftablifh fully and
the Roman power in Italy, he was recalled in order toGoths-
carry on the war againft Cofrhoes king of Perfia, i>7
who, in defiance of the treaty formerly concluded inAriothfr
532, entered the Roman dominions at the head of
powerful army. The fame year, however, a peacefians..
was concluded between the trvo nations upon the fol¬
lowing conditions: 1. That the Romans fhould, with¬
in two months, pay to the Perfian king 5000 pounds
rveight of gold, and an annual penfion of 500. 2. That
the Perfians fhould relinquifh all claim to the fortrefs of
Daras, and maintain a body of troops to guard the
Cafp.ian gates, and prevent the barbarians from break¬
ing into the empire. 3. That upon payment of the
above-mentioned fum, Cofrboes thould immediately
withdraw his troops from the Roman dominions. The
treaty being figned, and the ftipulated fum paid, Cof¬
rhoes began to march back again; but by the way-
plundered feveral cities as if the war had ftill conti¬
nued. Hereupon Juftinian refolved to purfue the war
with the utrooft vigour; and for that purpofe def-
patched.
'I
CON
fariut.
99
Decline of
the empire
<5onftaa« palcned Bellfarius into the eail. But Toon after he
t*hiftortan waS 0':t^ge<^ to him in order to oppofe the Goths
i ulL^ ' i who had gained great advantages in Italy after his de-
9S parture. The Perfian war was then carried on with
Pence con- indifferent fuccefs till the year 558, when a peace was
eluded. concluded upon the emperor again paying an itnmenfe
hum tp the enemy. The fame year the Huns, paf-
fing the Danube in the depth of winter, inarched in
two bodies diredlly for Conftantinople; and laying
wafte the countries through which they paffed, came,
without meeting the lead oppofition, within 150 fur¬
longs of the city. But Belifarius marching out againft
them with a handful of men, put them to flight; the
emperor, however, to prevent them from invading the
empire anew, agreed to pay them an annual tribute,
upon their promifmg to defend the empire againlt all
other barbarians, and to ferve in the Roman armies
when required. This was the lafl: exploit performed
by Belifarius, who on his return to Conftantinople was
difgraced, ftripped of all his employments, and con¬
fined to his lioufe, on pretence of a confpiracy againft
f- the emperor *. In the year 565 a real confpiracy was
formed againft Juftinian, which he happily efcaped, and
the confpiratofs were executed ; but the emperor did
net long furvive it, being carried off by a natural death
in 566, in the 39th year of his reign.
During the reign of Juftinian, the majefty of the
Roman empire feemed to revive. He recovered the
provinces of Italy and Africa out of the hands of the
barbarians, by whom they had been held for a number
of years ; but after his death they were foon loft, and
the empire tended faft to diffolution. In 569 Italy
after juftx- was conquered by the Lombards, who held it for the
fpace of 200 years. Some amends, however, was
made for the lofs by the acquifition of Perfarmenia;
the inhabitants of which, being perfecuted by the Per-
fians on account of the Chriftian religion which they
profeffed, revolted to the Romans. This produced a
war between the two nations, who continued to weak¬
en each other, till at laft the Perfian monarchy was
utterly overthrown, and that of the Romans greatly
f See Ara- reduced by the Saracens -f. Thefe new enemies at-
tacked the Romans in the year 632, and purfued their
conquefts with incredible rapidity. In the fpace of
four years they reduced the provinces of Egypt, Sy¬
ria, and Paleftine. In 648 they were alfo "mafters of
Mefopotamia, Phoenicia, Africa, Cyprus, Aradus, and
Rhodes; and having defeated the Roman fleet, com¬
manded by the emperor Conftans in perfon, they con¬
cluded a peace on condition of keeping the vaft extent
of territory they had feized, and paying for it 1000
nummi a-year.
An expedition againft the Lombards was about this
time undertaken, but with very little fuccefs, a body
tion againft of 20,000 Romans being almoft entirely cut off by one
bards'0111” t^e -^om^ar^ generals. In 671 the Saracens ra-
101 vaged feveral provinces, made a defeent in Sicily, took
Conftanti- and plundered the city of Syracufe, and overran the
nople be- whole ifland, deftroying every thing with fire and
the Sara" ^worc^ manner they laid wafte Cilicia ; and
scens. having paffed the winter at Smyrna, they entered
Thrace in the winter of the year 672, and laid fiege
to Conftantinople itfelf. Here, however, they were
repulfed with'great lofs: but next fpring they renexv-
ed their attempt, in which they met with the fame
6
1 582 ]
CON
100
Unfuccefs-
ful expedi-
bad fuccefs; many of their (hips being burnt by the Confhn.
fen-fire, as it was called, becaufe it burnt under water; tinopoiitan
and in their return home their fleet was wrecked off,
the Scyllaean proinontory. At laft a peace was con-
eluded for 30 years, on condition that the Saracens
ftiould retain all the provinces they had feized ; and
that they fhould pay to the emperor apd his fucceffors
3000 pounds weight of gold, 50 Haves, and as many
choice horfes.
This peace was fcarce concluded, when the empire Empire k,
was invaded by a new enemy, who proved very trou-vadedk
blefome for a long time. Thefe were the Bulgarians :
who breaking into Thrace, defeated the Roman armynins
lent againft them, and ravaged the country far and
wide. The emperor confented to pay them an annual
pennon, rather than continue a doubtful war ; and al-
lowed them to fettle in Lower Moefia, which from them
was afterwards called Bulgaria. In 687, they were at¬
tacked by Juftinian II. who entered their country
without provocation, or regarding the treaties former¬
ly concluded with them. But they falling fuddenly
upon him, drove him out of their country, and obli¬
ged him to reftore the towns and captives he had ta¬
ken. In 697, this emperor was depofed; and in his
exile fled to Trebelis king of the Bulgarians, by whom
he was kindly entertained, and by whofe means he was
reftored to his throne ; but foon forgetting this fa¬
vour, he invaded the country of the Bulgarians, with
a defign to wreft from them thofe provinces which he I0.
had yielded to them. He was attended in this expe-Tlicyde-
dition by no better fuccefs than his ingratitude defer-feat Mi.
ved, his army being utterly defeated, and he himfelfnianI^
obliged to make bis efcape in a light veffel to Conftan¬
tinople. The Bulgarians continued their inroads and
ravages at different times, generally defeating the Ro¬
mans who ventured to oppofe them, till the year 800,
the feventh of the reign of Nicephorus, when they fur-
prifed the city of Sardica in Moefia, and put the whole
garrifon, confifting of 6000 men, to the fword. The
emperor marched againft them with a confiderable ar¬
my : but the enemy retired at his approach ; and he,
inftead of purfuing them, returned to Conftantinople. i°4
Two years after he entered Bulgaria at the head of^®1^”
a powerful army, deftroying every thing with fire and ^vaged bj
fword. The king offered to conclude a peace with Nicepho-
him upon honourable terms ; but Nicephorus, rejeft-fus¬
ing his propofals, continued to wafte the country, de¬
ftroying the cities, and putting all the inhabitants
without diftinflion of fex or age, to the fword. The
king wras fo much affeded with thefe cruelties which
•were exercifed on his fubjedts, that he fent a fe-
cond embaffy to Nicephorus, offering to conclude
a peace with him upon any terms, provided he would I0.
quit his country. But Nicephorus difmiffing the am- Who is cuj
baffadors xvith fcorn, the Bulgarian monarch attacked off with h i
unexpedledly the Roman camp, forced it, and cut cffw!iolc ar‘
almoft the xvhole army, with the emperor himfelf, andmy'
a great number of patricians. His fucceffor Michael
likewife engaged in a wTar with the Bulgarians ; but
being utterly defeated, he was fo grieved that he re-
figned the empire. After this the Bulgarians conti¬
nued to be very formidable enemies to the empire, till . 10s
the year 979, when they were attacked by Bafilius II.Theircout
The Bulgarians -were at that time, governed by a king try'nvalie'
named Samuel} who having ravaged the Roman tern-
tories, 1
Ci tan-
tin 'litan
i ^y-
>7
Hi; on-
ftr( cru¬
ck'
. >S
Th oun-
try j(1u-
«d.
lbs is
alo holds
*ut
taken
by trata-
&
CON [583
tones, as was the common pra&ice of his nation, Ba-
filius fent againft him one Nicephorus Uranus at the
head of a powerful army. Uranus, leaving his bag¬
gage at Lariffa, reached by long marches the Sper-
cbius, and encamped with his whole army over againft
the enemy, who lay on the oppofite bank. As the ri¬
ver was greatly fwelled with the heavy rains that had
lately fallen, Samuel, not imagining the Romans would
attempt to pafs it, fuftered his troops to roam in large
parties about the country in queft of booty. But Ura¬
nus having at length found out a place where the river
was fordable, paifed it in the dead of the night with¬
out being perceived. He then fell upon the Bulgari¬
ans who were left in the camp, and lay for the moft
part alleep j cut great numbers of them in pieces j
took, a great number of prifoners, with all their bag¬
gage 5 and made himfelf mafter of their camp. Sa¬
muel and his fon were dangeroully wounded; and
would have been taken, had they not all that day con¬
cealed themfelves among the dead. The next night
they Itole away to the mountains of Aitolia, and from
thence made their efcape into Bulgaria. The follow¬
ing year the emperor entered Bulgaria at the head of
a numerous and well-difciplined army; defeated Sa-
muel in a pitched battle, and took feveral ftrong ci¬
ties. The emperor himfelf, however, at laft, nar¬
rowly efcaped being cut off with his whole army j be¬
ing unexpectedly attacked by the Bulgarians in a nar¬
row pafs. From this danger he was relieved by the
arrival of Nicephorus Xiphias, governor of Philippopo-
lis, with a confiderable body of troops ; who falling
upon the enemies rear, put them to flight. Bafilius
purfued them clofe -} and having taken an incredible
number of captives, caufed their eyes to be pulled out,
leaving to every hundred a guide with one eye, that
he might conduct them to Simuel. This fliocking
fpeftacle fo affeCted the unhappy king, that he fell in¬
to a deep fwoon, and died two days after. The Ro¬
man emperor purfued his conquefts, and in the fpace
of two years made himfelf mafter of moft of the ene¬
mies ftrong holds. He defeated alfo the fucceffor of
Samuel in feveral engagements ; and having at lait
killed him in battle, the Bulgarians fubmitted them¬
felves without referve. The vaft treafures of their
princes were by Bafilius diitributed among his fol-
diers by way of donative. Soon after, the widow
of the late king, with her fix daughters and three of
her fons, furrendered themfelves to the Roman empe¬
ror, by whom they were received with the utmoft civi¬
lity and refpeCf. This obliging behaviour encouraged
the three other fons of the late king, and moft of the
princes of the blood, who had taken fhelter in the
mountains, to fubmit, and throw themfelves in the
emperor’s mercy.
Ibatzes, however, a perfon nearly allied to the royal
family, who had diftinguifhed himfelf in a very emi¬
nent manner during the whole courfe of the war, re-
fufed to fubmit, and fled to a deep and craggy moun<
tain with a defign to defend himfelf there to the laft
extremity. Bafilius endeavoured, to caufe him fubmit
by fair means, but he equally defpifed both threats and
promifes. At laft Euftathius Daphnomeius, whom
Bafilius had lately appointed governor of Achridus,
the chief city of Bulgaria, undertook to fecure him
by a moft defperate and improbable fcheme. Without
] - con;
communicating his defign to any, he repaired, with Conftan-
two perfons in whom he could confide, to the moun- ltan
tain on which Ibatzes had fortified himfelf. He ho-1 T°ry ■»
ped to pafs undifcovered among the many ftrangers
who flocked thither to celebrate the approaching feaft
of the Virgin Mary, for whom Ibatzes had a particu¬
lar veneration. In this he found himfelf miftaken j for
he was known by the guards, and carried before the
prince. To him he pretended to have fomething ef im¬
portance to communicate j but as foon as Ibatzes had
retired with him into a remote place, Daphnomeius
threw himfelf fuddenly upon him, and with the aflift-
ance of the two men whom he had brought with him,
pulled out both his eyes, and got fafe to an abandoned
caftle on the top of the hill. Here they were imme¬
diately furrounded by the troops of Ibatzes; but
Daphnomeius exhorting them now to fubmit to the
emperor, by whom he affured them they would be well
received, they congratulated Daphnomelus cn his fuc-
cefs, and fullered him to conduct the unhappy Ibatzes
a prifoner to Bafilius. The emperor was no lefs fur-
prifed than pleafed at the fuccefs of the bold attempt ;
and rewarded Daphnomeius with the government of
Dyrrhachium, and all the rich moveables of his pri¬
foner. After this, having accomplifhed the entire re-
dudlion of Bulgaria, he returned to Conftantinople
with an incredible number of captives, where he was
received by the fenate and people with all poffibie de-
monftrations of joy. IXI
All this time the Saracens had at intervals invaded The em-
the Roman diminions, and even attempted to makePhe mva-
themfelves mailers of Conftantinople. Their internalt^e‘
divifiuns, however, rendered them now much lefs for- ■ Iia
midable enemies than they had formerly been ; fo that Account of
feme provinces were even recovered for a time out oUh®111"
their hands 5 though the weak and diftradted ftate of
the empire rendered it impoffible to preferve fuchxon-
quefts. But in 1041, the empire was invaded by an
enemy, not very powerful at that time indeed, but rvho
by degrees gathered ftrength fufficient to overthrow
both the Roman and Saracen empires. Thefe were the
Turks 5 who having quitted their ancient habitations
in the neighbourhood of Mount Caucafus, and paffed
the Cafpian ftraits, fettled in Armenia Major, about
the year 844. There they continued an unknown and
defpicable people, till the inteftine wars of the Saracens
gave them an opportunity of aggrandizing themfelves,, .
About-the year 1030, Mohammed the fon of Sambrael
fultan of Perfia, not finding himfelf a match for Pila¬
ris fultan of Babylon, with whom he was at war, had
recourfe to the Turks, who fent him 3000 men under
the command of Tangrolipix, a leading man amorrg
them. By their afliftance Mohammed defeated his ad-
verfary j but when the Turks defired leave to return
home, he refufed to part with them. Upon this they
withdrew without his confent to a neighbouring de-
fert ; and being there joined by fcveral difeontented
Perfians, began to make frequent inroads into the
fultan’s territories. Againft them Mohammed imme¬
diately difpatched an army of 20,000 men ; who be¬
ing furprifed in the night, were utterly defeated by
Tangrolipix. The fame of this victory drew multi¬
tudes to him from all parts j fo that in a ftiort time
Tangrolipix law himfelf at the head of 50,000 men;
Upon this Mphammed marched againft them in per-
foa.
Conftjin-
tinopolitan
hiitory.
113
Tliey de
feat the Ro-
CON [ 584
Ton, but was thrown from his horfc in the beginning of
the engagement, and killed by the fall; upon which
his men threw down their arms, and fubmitted to Tan-
grolipix.
After this vi&ory the Turkilh general made war
upon the fultan of Babylon ; whom he at length flew,
and annexed his dominions to his own. He then fent
his nephew, named Cutlu-Mofesy againft the Arabians j
but by them he was defeated, and forced to fly to¬
wards Media. Through this province he was denied
a pafiage by Stephen the Roman governor; upon which
Cutlu-Mofes was obliged to force a paffage by en¬
countering the Roman army. Thefe he put to flight,
took the governor himfelf prifoner, and without any
further oppofition reached the confines of Perfia,
where he fold Stephen for a flave. Returning from
thence to Tangrolipix, he excufed, in the bell manner
he could, his defeat by the Arabians j but at the fame
time acquainted him with his vi&ory over the Romans
in Media, encouraging him to invade that fertile coun¬
try, which he faid might be eafily conquered, as it was
inhabited. by none but zvomtn, meaning the Romans.
At that time Tangrolipix, did not hearken to his ad¬
vice, but marched againfl: the Arabians at the head of
a numerous army. He was, however, attended with
better fuccefs than his nephew had been ; and
1
CON
114
A Turkilh
army en¬
tirely cut
off.
115
They again
invade the
empire.
116
An obfti-
nate en¬
gagement.
no
therefore began to refleft on what he had told him.
Soon after he fent Alan his brother’s fon with an army
of 20,000 men to reduce Media. Purfuant to his or¬
ders, the young prince entered that country, and
committed everywhere dreadful ravages ; but being in
the end drawn into an ambufh by the Roman generals,
he was cut off with his whole army. Tangrolipix, no
way difcouraged by this misfortune, fent a new army
into Media near 100,000 ftrong j who, after having ra¬
vaged the country without oppofition, laid fiege to
Artza a place of great trade, and therefore reckoned
the moft wealthy in thofe parts. Not being able to re¬
duce it by any other means, they fet it on fire; and
thus in a Ihort time it was utterly deftroyed: the
buildings being reduced to alhes, and 150,000 of the
inhabitants perilhed either by the flames or the fword.
After this Abraham Halim, half-brother to Tangro-
lipix, hearing that the Romans, reinforced with a bo¬
dy of troops under the command of Liparites governor
of Iberia, had taken the field, marched againft them,
and offered them battle ; which they not declining,
the two armies engaged with incredible fury. The
vi&ory continued long doubtful; but at length inclined
to the Romans; who neverthelefs did not think pro¬
per to purfue the fugitives, as their general Liparites
was taken prifonev. The emperor, greatly concerned
for the captivity of Liparites, difpatched ambaffadors
with rich prefents, and a large fum of money to re¬
deem him, and at the fame time to conclude an al¬
liance with Tangrolipix. The fultan received the pre¬
fents ; but generoufly returned them together with the
money to Liparites, whom he fet at liberty without
any ranfom ; only requiring him, at his departure, ne¬
ver more to bear arms againft the Turks. Not long
after, Tangrolipix fent a perfon of great authority
among the Turks, with the charafter of ambafiador,
to Conftantinople ; who having arrogantlv exhorted
the emperor to fubmit to his mailer, and acknowledge
5 • '
himfelf his tributary, was ignominioufly driven out of fonftij
the city. tinopgtj
Tangrolipix, highly affronted at the reception his t ^01i
ambaffador had met with, entered Iberia while the ^
emperor Conftantine Monomachus was engaged in a The Tt
war with the Patzinacse, a Scythian nation. Havingheaegc
ravaged that country, he returned from thence to Me-RIlntz''
dia, and laid fiege to Mantzichierta, a place defendeder a’
by a numerous garrilon, and fortified with a triple wall
and deep ditches. However, as it was fituated in an
open plain country, he hoped to be mafter of it in a
ftiort time. But finding the befieged determined to de¬
fend themfelves to the laft extremity, he refolved to
raife the fiege, after he had continued it 30 days. One
of his officers, however, named Alcan, prevailed on him
to continue it but one day longer, and .to commit the
management of the attacks to him. This being grant¬
ed, Alcan difpofed his men with fuch fkill and ib en¬
couraged them by his example, that, notwithftanding
the vigorous oppofition they met with, the place would
have probably been taken, had not Alcan been fiain as
he was mounting the wall. The befieged, knowing
him by the richnefs of his armour, drew him by the
hair into the city, and cutting off his head threw it ni
over the wall among the enemy ; which fo difhearten-Thefo
ed them, that they gave over the affault and retired.raifed-
The next fpiing Tangrolipix returned, and ravaged
Iberia with the utmoft cruelty, fparing neither fex nor
age. But on the approach of the Roman army he
retired to Tauris, leaving 30,000 men behind him to
infeft the frontiers of the empire. " This they did with
great fuccefs, the borders being through the avarice
of Monomachus unguarded. Till the time of this em¬
peror, the provinces bordering on the countries of
the barbarians had maintained, at their own charge,
forces to defend them; and were on that account ex¬
empted from paying tribute ; but as Monomachus ex¬
acted from them the fame Turns that were paid by
others, they were no longer in a condition to defend
themfelves. n j
In 1062 died the emperor Conftantine Ducas, ha-The eb
ving left the empire to his three fons, Michael, An-P^jj
dronicus, and Conftantine; but as they were all very
young, he appointed the emprefs Eudocia, regent du-thatM
ring their minority, after having required of her an will nil
oath never to marry; which oath was with great fo-marr''
lemnity lodged in the hands of the patriarch. He like-
wife obliged the fenators folemnly to fwear that they
would acknowledge none for their fovereign but his
three fons. No fooner, Tiowever, was he dead, than
the Turks, hearing that the empire was governed by
a woman, broke into Mefopotamia, Cilicia, and Cap¬
padocia, deftroying all with fire and fword. The em¬
prefs was no way in a condition to oppofe them, the
greater part of the army having been dilbanded in her
hufband’s life-time, and the troops that were ftill on
foot being undifciplined, and altogether unfit for fer-
vice. The concern which this gave the emprefs was
aggravated by the feditious fpeeches of a difcontented
party at home, who repeated on all occafions that the
prefent ftate of affairs required a man of courage and
addrefs at the helm, inflead of a weak and helplefs
woman ; and as they imagined the emprefs would ne¬
ver think of marrying, in confequence of the cath fhe
had
II
teri -
irs t
titii m
iicl
tsc
ine<
bi-
ls! 1a-
BI ^c-
s.
Pi
r a
b d ats
W b.
CON [ 5g
had taken, they hoped by thcfe fpeeclies to induce the
people to I'evolt, and choofe a new emperor. This Eu-
docia was aware of 5 and therefore determined to pre¬
vent the evils that threatened herfelf and her family,
by marrying fome perfon of merit who was capable of
defeating her enemies both at home and abroad. At
this time one Romanos Diogenes, a perfon of a meft
beautiful afpeft, extraordinary parts, and illuftrious
birth, being accufed of afpiring to the empire, tried
and convifted, w'as brought forth to receive fentence
of death. But the emprels, touched with compafTion
at his appearance, gently upbraided him with his am¬
bition, fet him at liberty, and foon after appointed
him commander in chief of all her force?. In this Ra¬
tion he acquitted himfelf fo well, that the emprefs re-
foived to marry him if fhe could but recover the wri¬
ting in which her oath was contained cut of the hands
of the patriarch. In order to this, {lie applied to a fa¬
vourite eunuch 5 who going to the patriarch, told him
that the emprefs was fo taken with his nephew named
Bardnfs} that {he was determined to marry and raife
him to the empire, provided the patriarch abfolved
Sier from the oath {he had taken, and convinced the
fenate of the lawfulnefs of her marriage. The pa¬
triarch, dazzled with the profpedt of his nephew’s
promotion, readily undertook to perform both. lie
firil obtained the confent of .the fenate by rep re fen ting
to them the dangerous ftate of the empire, and ex¬
claiming againft the rafli oath which the jealoufy of
the late emperor had extorted from the emprefs. He
then publicly difeharged her from it ) reftored the
writing to her 5 and exhorted her to marry fome de-
ferving objeff, who being entrulltd with an abfolute
authority, might be capable of defending the empire.
The emprefs, thus difeharged from her oath, married
a few days after Romanus Diogenes 5 who was there¬
upon proclaimed emperor, to the great difappointment of
the patiiarch.
As the new emperor rvas a man of great a&ivity
and experience in war, he no fooner faw himfelf veft-
ed with the fovereign power, than he took upon him
the command of the army, and paffed over into Afia
with the few forces he could affemble, recruiting and
inuring them on his march to military difeipline, which
had been utterly neglefted in the preceding reigns.
On his arrival in that continent, he was informed that
the Turks had furprifed and plundered the city of Neo-
caefarea, and wTere retiring with their booty. On this
news he haflened after them at the head of a chofen
body of light-armed troops, and came up with them
on the third day. As the Turks were marching in
difordef, without the lead: apprehenfion of an ene¬
my, Romanu$ cut great numbers of them in pieces,
and eafiiy recovered the booty $ after which he pur-
fued his march to Aleppo, which he retook from their,
together with Hierapolis, where he built a fir on g
cattle.
As he was returning to join the forces he had left
behind him, he was met by a numerous body of Turks
who attempted to cut off his retreat. At firft he pre¬
tended to decline an engagement through fear; but
attacked them afterwards with fuch vigour when they
lead expected it, that he put them to flight at the firfl
onfet, and might have gained a complete victory had
he thought proper to purfue them. After this, feve-
Vol. VI. Part II.
I ] CON
ral towns fubmitted to him $ but the feafon being new
far fpent, the emperor returned to Condantmople. I he
following year he paffed over into Alia early in the
fpring j and being informed that the lurks had lacked
the rich city of Iconium, befldes gaining other con-
dierable advantages, he marched in perfon againd T#
them. But the Turks, not thinking it advifable to They are
wait his coming, retired in great hade. The Arme-
nians, however, encouraged by the approach of the11'
emperor’s army, fell upon the enemy in the plains of
Tarfuc, put them to flight, and dripped them both of
their baggage and the booty they had taken. The
fpring following the emperor once more entered Afni
at the head of a confiderable army which he had railed,
and with incredible pains difciplined during the win¬
ter. When the two armies drew near to each other,
Axan, the Tutkifh fultan, and {’on of the famous
Tangrolipix, fent propofals to Romanus for a lading I2<J
and honourable peace. Thefe were imprudently re-TheKo-
jefled, and a deiperate engagement enfued, when, in mans de-
fpite of the utmod efforts of the emperor, his army ar^
was routed, and he himfelf wounded and taken pri- ^
foner. When this news was brought to Axan, he
could fcarcely believe it j but being convinced by the
appearance of the royal captive in his prefence, he ten¬
derly embraced him, and addreffed him in an affec¬
tionate manner : u Grieve not (faid he), mod noble
emperor, at your misfortune $ for fuch is the chance
of war, fometimes overwhelming one, and fometimea
another ; you {hall have no occaiion to complain of
your captivity 5 for I will not ufe you as my prifoner,
but as an emperor.” The Turk wxis as good as his
word. He lodged the emperor in a royal pavilion j
atfigned him attendants with an equipage fuitable to
his quality j and difeharged fuch prifenersr as he de-
fired. After he had for fome days entertained his
royal captive with extraordinary magnificence, a per¬
petual peace wfes concluded betwixt them, and the
emperor difmifled with the greated marks of honour
imaginable. He then fet out with the Turkifh am-
baffador for Condantinople, where the peace W'as to
be ratified ; but by the way he was informed that Eu-Eudocia de-
docia had been driven from the throne by John thepofld and
brother of Condantine Ducas, and Pfellus a leading confint3<fm
man in the fenate, who had confined her to a mona-a)ri0“1?' e~
dery, and proclaimed her elded fon, Michael Ducas, ' ’
emperor. On this intelligence, Romanus retired to
a drong cadle near Theodofiopolis, where he hoped in
a diort time to be joined by great numbers of hi$
friends and adherents. But in the mean time John,
who had taken upon him to act as guardian to the
young ptince, defpatched Andronicus with a conlide-
vable army againd him. Andronicus having ealily de¬
feated the fmall army which Romanus had with him,
obliged him to fly to Adana a city in Cilicia, where
he was clofely befieged, and at lad obliged to furren-
der. Andronicus carried his prifoner into Phrygia,
where he fell dangeroufly ill, being, as w'as fulpecled,
fecretly poifoned. But the poifon being too flow in Romanus
its operation, John ordered his eyes to be put out*,put to
which was done with fuch Cruelty that he died foon after, <*eara*
in the year 1067, having reigned three years and eight
months. _ Th^Turks
Axan was no fooner informed of the tragical end °f again ir-*
his friend and ally, than he refolved to invade the vude the
4 F, empire empire.
CON
r
137.
tcry.
Conftan- empire anew ; and that not with a defign only to plun-
C^fc;r as formerly, but to conquer, and keep what he
■ v- 1 ^la<f once conquered. The emperor difpatched againd
131 him Ifaac Comnenas, with a conliderable army ; but
They de- he was utterly defeated and taken prifoner by Axan.
fe«t the xlo- Another army was quickly fet off under the com¬
mand of John Ducas the emperor’s uncle. He gained
at firft fomc advantages, and would probably have put
a ftoo to their conquefts, had not one Rufelius, or
Urfelius, revolted with the troops he had under his
command, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed emperor,
and reduced leveral cities in Phrygia and Cappadocia.
Againff him John marched with all his forces, fuf-
fering the Turks in the mean time to purfue their con-
quefts ; but coming to an engagement with the rebels,
his army w’as entirely defeated and himfelf taken pri-
They gain a foner. Notwithftanding this viftory, Rufelius was fo
fecond vie- much alarmed at the progrefs of the Turks, that he not
only releafed his prifoner, but joined with him againft
the common enemy, by whom they were both defeat¬
ed and taken prifoners. Axan, however, was for feme
time prevented from purfuing his conqueff by Cutlu-
Mofes, nephew to the late Tangrolipix. He had re¬
volted againfi: his uncle; but being defeated by him in
a pitched battle, had taken refuge in Arabia, whence
he now returned at the head of a confiderable army
in order to difpute the fovereignty with Axan. But
while the two^. armies were preparing to engage, the
caliph of Babylon, who was ftill looked upon as the fuc-
ceffor of the great prophet, interpofed his authority.
He reprefented the dangers of their intefline diffen-
irbns } and by his mediation, an agreement was at laft
concluded, on condition that Axan fhould enjoy undif-
turbed the monarchy lately left him by his father, and
Cutlu-Pvlofes (houid poffefs Inch provinces of the Ro¬
man empire as he or his fons ihould in procefs of time
conquer.
After this agreement, both the Turkifh princes
turned their forces againfi: the empire •, and before the
year 1077, made themfelves mailers of all Media, Ly-
caonia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia^ fixing the capital
city of their empire at Nice in the latter province.
During all this time, the emperors of Conffantinople,
as v*reil as their fubjefls, feemed to be in a manner
infatuated. No notice was taken of the great pro¬
grefs made by thefe barbarians. The generals were
ambitious only of feizing the tottering empire, which
ieemed ready to fall a prey to the Turks 5 and, after
it was obtained, fpent their time in opprefling their
fubjefls, rather than in making any attempts to repulfe
the enemy.
At laft Alexius Comnenus, having wrefled the em¬
pire from Nlcephorus Botoniates, in 1077, began to
prepare for oppofmg fo formidable an enemy. But
before he fet out, as his foldiers had committed great
outrages on his acceflion to the empire, he refolved
to make confeflion of his fins, and do open penance
for thafe he had fuffered his army to commit. Ac¬
cordingly he appeared in the attire of a penitent be¬
fore the patriarch and feveral other ecclefiaftics, ac¬
knowledged himfelf guilty of the many diforders that
had been committed by his foldiers, and begged of
the patriarch to impofe upon him a penance fuitable
to the greatnefs of his crimes. The penance enjoined
him and his adherents by the patriarch was to faff, lie
5
133
They con¬
quer feve-
ral provin¬
ces.
, *34
Alexius
^'ornnenus
stops their
progrefs.
86 ] CO N
upon the ground, and praclife feveral other aufterities Cenflor !i
for the fpace of 40 days. This command was religioul- tinopojl
ly obeyed, and the emperor thfen began to prepare for ,
war with fo much vigour, that Solyman, the Turkilh * - -II
fultan, fon and fbcceffor to Cutlu-Mofes, difpatched am-
baffadors to Alexius with propofals of peace. Thefe
were at firft r^jedled j but the emperor was at laft glad
to accept them, on certain advice that Robert Guifchard,
duke of Puglia and Calabria, w»as making great pre¬
parations againft him in the weft.
To this expedition Robert was incited by Michael
Ducas. That prince had been depofed by Nicepho- GuifchJ 5
rus Botoniates, and towards the end of the ufurper’s exP«Iitic
reign fled into the weft, where he was received byagainftt
Robert, who was prevailed upon to favour his caufe.™^101,1
lor this purpofe, Robert made great preparations ;
and ihefe were continued even after the depofilion of 136
Botoniates. He failed wfith all his forces from Brun-^6 PaSe I
dufium ; and landing at Buthrotum in Epirus, made°verintc
himfelf mafter of that place, while his fon Bohemondp^™ j
with part of the army reduced Aulon, a celebrated DynLc !
port and city in the country now' called Albania^-
From thence they advanced to Dyrrhachium, wEich
they invefted both by fea and land ; but met with a
moft vigorous oppofition from George Paleologus,
whom the emperor had entrufted with the defence of
that important place. In fpite'of the utmoft efforts of
the enemy, this commander held out till the arrival of
the Venetian fleet, by whom Robert’s navy, command¬
ed by Bohemond, was utterly defeated, the admiral
himfeif having narrowly efcaped being taken prifoner.
After the victory, the Venetians landed without lofs
of time, and being joined by Paleologus’s men, fell up- j ji
on Robert’s troops with fuch fury, that they deftroy-
ed their works, burnt their engines, and forced them
back to their camp in great diforder. As the Vene¬
tians were now mafters at fea, the befieged were fup-
plied with plenty of provifions, while a famine began
to rage in the camp of the enemy ; and this calamity
was foon followed by a plague, which in the fpace of
three months is faid to have deftroyed ten thoufand
men. Notwithftanding all thefe difafters, however,
Robert did not abandon the fiege : having found means
to fupply his famifhed troops with provifions, he con¬
tinued it with fuch vigour, that the courage of the be¬
fieged began at laft to fail them ; and Paleologus fent
repeated meffages to the emperor, acquainting him
that he would be obliged to furrender unlefs very
fpeedily aflifted. On this Alexius marched in perfon
to the relief of the city, but was defeated with great
lofs by Robert. The whole right wing of Alexius’s
army, finding themfelves hard preffed by the enemy,
fled to a church dedicated to St Michael, imagining
they would there find themfelves in a place of fafety
but the victorious army purfuing them, fet fire to the
church, which was burnt to allies with all who were
in it. The emperor himfelf with great difficulty made
his efcape, leaving the enemy mafters of his camp and ^
all his baggage. Soon after this defeat, the city fur-
rendered 3 and Alexius being deftitute of refources for
carrying on the war, feized on the wealth of churches,
and monafteries, which gave much offence to tlxe clergy,
and had like to have occafioned great diftuibances in
the imperial city. At the fame time, Alexius enter¬
ing into an alliance with Henry emperor of Germany,
periuaded
7
G ° N [ 587 ] .
nj m- perfuaded him to invade the dominions of Robert in Notwithflanding this
H‘tan Italy. At firft Henry met with great fuccefs j but
lu was ^oon overcome) and driven out of that country by
Bf Robert. Bohemond, in the mean time, reduced fe-
veral places in lilyricum ; and, having deleated Alexius
in two pitched battles, entered ThelTaly, and fat down
before Lariffa. This place, being defended by an offi¬
cer of great courage and experience in war, held out
till the emperor came to its relief. Soon after his
arrival, he found means to draw' a ftrong party of
Bohemond’s men into an ambufcade, and cut them off
almoft entirely. However, in the battle which was
fought a few days after, Bohemond had the advantage ;
but his troops mutinying and refuting to carry on the
war, he was obliged to return to Italy. Alexius
taking advantage of his abfence,recovered feveial cities;
and being informed that Robert was making great
preparations againft him, he had reconrfe once more
to the Venetians. By them he was aflilled with a
powerful fleet, which defeated that of Robert in two
engagements; but being foon after furprifed by him,
they were defeated with the lofs of almoll their whole
navy. Robert is faid to have ufed his victory with
great barbarity, putting many of his prifoners to death
with unheard-of torments. The Venetians equipped
a fecond fleet; and joining that of the emperor, fell
unexpeftedly upon Robert’s navy, wrho were riding
without the leaf! apprehenfions in Buthrotum, funk
inolf of his fhips, and took a great number of prifoners,
his wife and younger fons having narrowly efcaped
falling into their hands. Robert made great prepara¬
tions to revenge this defeat; but urns prevented by
fdeath from executing his defigns; and, after his
1 ‘deceafe, his fon Roger did not think proper to purfue
fo dangerous and expenfive a wTar. He therefore re¬
called his troops, and the places which had been con¬
quered by Robert and Bohemond fubmitted anew to
the emperor.
This war was fcarce ended, when the Scythians
pafling the Danube laid wafte great part of Thrace,
committing everywhere the greatell barbarities. Againft
them the emperor difpatched an army under the com¬
mand of Pacurianus and Branas. The latter in ft tied
upon engaging the enemy, contrary to the opinion of
his colleague ; and his raflmefs caufed the lofs of the
greater part of the army, who were cut off by the Scy¬
thians, together with the two generals. Tulicim, an
officer w'ho had fignalized himfelf on many occafions,
was appointed to command the army in their room.
He fell upon the enemy as they lay fecurely in the
neighbourhood of Philippopolis, cut great numbers of
them in pieces, and obliged the reft to retire in great
confufion. The following fpring, however, they re¬
turned in fuch numbers, that the emperor refolved to
march againft them in perfon. Accordingly he let
out for Adrianople, and from thence to a place called
Lardea. Here, contrary to the advice of his beft
ofiicers, he ventured a battle; in which he w'as utterly
defeated with the lofs of vaft numbers of his men, he
himfelf efcaping with the utmoft difficulty. The next
year he was attended with no better fuccefs, his army
being entirely defeated with the lofs of his camp and
baggage. In the year following, 1084, the emperor
Conftan-
idijby
[tot
59
:y-
var.
40
: Io¬
nia de-
fea ,
4i
at
.■feat
gthi- retrieved his credit; and gave the Scythians fuch an
overthrow, that very few efcaped the general (laughter.
CON
difafter, however, they again
invaded the empire in 1093. To this they W’ere
encouraged by an impoftor called Zeo, wrho pretended ■  i
to be the eldeft fon of Romanus Diogenes. The young
prince had been llain in a battle with the Turks; but
as the Scythians only wanted a pretence to renew the
war, they received the impoftor with joy. By a
ftratagem, howTever, Leo was murdered; and the
Scythians being afterwards overthrown in two great
battles, were obliged to fubmit on the emperor’s own
terms. I42
Since the year 1083, the war had been carried on The Holy
with the Turks with various fuccefs; but now an^'2*-
affociation was formed in the weft againft thefe infidels,
which threatened the utter ruin of the Turkifh nation.
This was occafioned by the fuperftition of the Chrifti-
ans, who thought it a meritorious aftion to venture
their lives for the recovery of the Holy Land, poflef-
fed at that time by the Turks and Saracens. Had the
weftern princes been properly aflifted by the empe¬
rors of the Eaft in this undertaking, the Turks had
undoubtedly been unable to refill them ; but fo far
from this, the Latins were looked upon by them as
no lefs enemies than the Turks •, and indeed whatever
places they took from the infidels, they never thought
of reftcrir.g to the emperors of Conftantinople, to
whom they originally belonged, but erefted a number
of {’mall independent principalities ; which neither ha
ving fufficient ftrength to defend themfelves, nor be¬
ing properly fupported by one another, foon became
a prey to the Turks. In the year 1203, happened a Dreadful
dreadful fire at Conftantinople, occafioned by fame fire C°n-
Latin foldiers. Thefe had plundered a mofque, which^ant‘noP^c‘
the Turks refiding in Conftantinople had been fuffered
to build there. For this reafon they were attacked
by the infidels ; who being much fuperior to them in
number, the Latins found themfelves obliged to fet
fire to fome houfes, in order to make their efcape with
fafety. The flame fpreading in an inftant from ftreet
to ftreet, reduced in a fhort time great part of the city
to affies, with the capacious ftcre-houfes which had
been built at a vaft expence on the quay. The late
emperor Ifaac Angelus who had been reftored to his
throne by the Latins, died foon after their departure
from Conftantinople, leaving his fon Alexius foie mailer
ot the empire. The young prince, to difeharge the
large lums he had promifed the French and Venetians
for their aflrftance, was obliged to lay heavy taxes
on his fubjedls ; and this, with the great efteem and
hiendthip ffrowed to his deliverers, railed a general dif-
content among the people of Conftantinople, who were
fworn enemies to the Latins. This encouraged John
Ducas, furnamed Murtwiphlus, from his joined and
thick eyebrows, to attempt the fovereignty. Unhappily
he found means to put his treacherous defigns in
execution; and ftrangled the young prince with his
own hands. After this he prefented himfelf to theMurtzu-
people ; told them what he had done, which he pretend- phlus itran-
ed was in order to fecure their liberties; and earne lHy the
intreated them to choofe an emperor who had courage * , T'r<'r-
enough to defend them againft the Latins that were
ready to opprefs and emffave them. Oil this he was
inftantly faluted emperor by the inconftant multitude ;
but this ufurpation proved the ruin of the city. The
Latins immediately refolved to revenge the death of
4 L 2 the
CON
*45
The city
taken and
[ 5S8
Conllan- the young prince $ and, as they had been fo often be-
t''hlito'tan trayed and retarded in their expeditions to the Holy
c-JJ. 1 Land by the emperors of Conftantinople, to make
themfelves mailers of that city, and feize the empire for
themfelves. In confequence of this refolution they
muftered all their forces in Aha, and Living croffed the
flraits, laid fiege to Conftantinople by fea and land.
The tyrant, who was a man of great courage and
experience in war, made a vigorous defence. The
Latins, however, after having battered the walls for
feveral days together with an incredible number of
engines, gave a general affault on the 8lh of April
1204. The attack lafted from break of day till three
in the afternoon, when they were forced to retire, after
having loft fome of their engines, and a great number
of men. The affault was neverthelefs renewed four days
after j when, after a warm difpute, the French planted
bv'theTa ftandai‘d on one of the towers j which the Vene-
tjns, tians obferving, they quickly made themfelves mafters
of four other towers, where they likewife difplayed
their enfigns. In the mean time three of the gates
being broken down by the battering rams, and thofe
who had fcaled the walls having killed the guards, and
opened the gates between the towers they had taken,
the whole army entered, and drew up in baltle array
between the walls. The Greeks fled up and down in
the greateft confufion ; and feveral parties were by the
Latins difpatched to fcour the ftreets, who put all they
met to the fword, without diftinflion of age or condition.
Night put a flop to the dreadful Ikughter, when the
princes founding the retreat, placed their men in diffe¬
rent quarters of the city, with orders to be upon their
guard, not doubting but they fliould be attacked early
next morning. They were furprifed, however, at that
time by the entire fubmiflion of the Greeks ; to whom
they promifed their lives, but at the fame time ordering
them to retire to their houfes, they gave up the city to
be plundered by the foldiers for that day. They
ftriftiy enjoined their men to abftain from flaughter,
to preferve the honour of the women, and to bring the
whole booty into one place, that a juft dillribution
might be made according to the rank and merit of each
individual. The Greeks had undoubtedly concealed
their molt valuable eftefts during the night j many
perfcns of the firft rank had efcaped, and carried along
with them immenfe treafures j the foldiers had prppably,
as is ufual in all fuch cafes, referved things of great
value for themfelves, notwithftanding all prohibitions to
the contrary ; and yet the booty, without the ftatues,
ptclures, and jewels, amounted to a fum almoft incredi¬
ble. As for Murtzuphlus, he made his efcape in the
night j embarking in a fmall veffel with Eupltrofijne, the
wife of Alexius Atigelus a late ufurper, and her daughter
Eudoxia, for whole fake he had abandoned his lawful
wife.
Conftantinople continued fubje£l to the Latins till the
year 1261, when they were expelled by one Alexius
Strategopulus. He w'as a perfon of an illuftrious family •,
and, for his eminent fervices, diftinguilhed with the title
of Cafar. He had been fent againft Alexius Angelas
defpot of Epirus, who now attempted to recover feme
places in Theffaly and Greece from Michael Paleologus,
cne of tire Greek emperors, that fince the capture of
346
The Latins
expelled.
] CON
try whether he could on his march furprife the imperial C».f; nt
city itfelf. Alexius, having palled the ftraits, encamped Spoilt;, ?J
at a place called Rhegium, where he was informed by the t ^oti ®
natives that a ftrong body of the Latins had been fent V
to the fiege of Dapknuja, that the garrifon was in great
want of provifions, and that it would be no difficult
matter to furprife the city. Hereupon the Greek
general refolved at all events to attempt it : in which he
was encouraged by fome of the inhabitants, who, com¬
ing privately to his camp, offered themfelves to be his
guides. He approached the walls in the dead of the
night, which fome of his men fcaled without being
obferved ; and, killing the fentries, whom they found
afleep, opened one of the gates to the reft of the
army. 'I lie Greeks rufhing in, put all they met to the
Ivvord •, and at the fame time, to create more terror, fet
fire to the city in four different places. The Latins,
concluding from thence that the enemy’s forces were
far more numerous than they really were, did not fo
much as attempt either to drive them out or to ex-
tmguifh the flames. In this general confufion, the
emperor Baldwin, quitting the enfigns of majefty, fled
with Juftinian the Latin patriarch, and fome of his
intimate friends, to the fea-fide ; and there, embarking
in a fmall veffel, failed firft to Euboea, and afterwards
to Venice, leaving the Greeks in full poffeffion of Con¬
ftantinople. When news of this furprifing and altogether
unexpected fuccefs of Alexius were firft brought to
Paleologus, he could fcarce give credit to it j but
receiving foon after letters from Alexius himfeif, with a
particular account of fo memorable an event, he ordered
public thanks to be returned in all the churches, appear¬
ed in public in his imperial robes, attended by the nobi¬
lity in their belt apparel, and oidered couriers to be
difpatched with the agreeable news into all parts of the
empire. _ ,47
Soon after, having fettled his affairs at Nice, he fet Entry of
out for Conftantinople with the emprefs, his fon An-Mk!ia(’1
dronicus, the fenate, and nobility," to take poffeffion
QopftanUnople, had kept their court at Nice j and to
of the imperial city, and fix his refidcnce in that placecity.
that had originally been defigned for the feat of the
eaftern empire. Having paffed the ftraits, he ad¬
vanced to the golden gate, and continued forne days
without the wails, wdrile the citizens were bufied in
making the neceffary preparations to receive him with
a magnificence fuitable to the occafion. On the day
appointed, the golden gate, which had been long fhut
up, was opened, and the emperor entering it amidft
the repeated acclamations of the multitude, marched
on foot to the great palace. He was preceded by the
bifhop of Cy%icus, who carried an image of the Virgin
Mary, fuppofed to have been done by St Luke, and
followed by all the great officers, nobility, and chief
citizens, pompoufly dreffed. Public thanks were again
returned in the church of St Sophia, at which the em¬
peror affifted in perfon, with the clergy, the fenate,
and nobility. Thefe exercifes were facceeded by all
forts of rejoicings • after which the emperor carefully
furveyed the imperial city. This furvey greatly al-He reiblvt I
layed his joy. He faw the ftately palaces and other10 h*1.011
magnificent buildings of the Roman emperors lying in t0^ts ^.
ruins; the many capacious buildings that had been^rg
ere£led by his predeceffors, at an immenfe charge,
c. eft roved by fire, and other unavoidable accidents of
148
war;
Cot n-
inoj.
llffl r-
CON [ 589 ] CO
feveral ftreets abandoned by tbe inhabitants, and reign with a more popular afl.
N
>
ire di-
mr ices
ccj ned
y ■
:ry
D
Jni of
lie ek
"d tin
hu: es.
illl cd,
war
choked up with rubbilh, &c. Thefe objrfts gave the
emperor no fmall concern, and kindled in him a defirc
of reftoring the city to its former luftre. In the mean¬
time, looking upon Alexius as the reftorer of his coun¬
try, he caufed him to be clad in magnificent robes •,
placed with his own hand a crown on his head j or¬
dered him to be conducted through the city, as it were
in triumph j decreed that for a whole year the name
of Alexius (hould be joined in the public prayers with
his own ; and to perpetuate the memory of fo great
and glorious an aftion, he commanded his ftatue to be
ereftcd on a ftately pillar of marble before the church
of the Apoftles. His next care was to re-people the
city, many Greek families having withdrawn from it
while it was held by the Latins, and the Latins
now preparing to return to their refpeflive countries.
The former were recalled home j and the latter, in
regard of the great trade they carried on, wrere al¬
lowed many valuable privileges, which induced them
not to remove. The Greeks were allowed to live in
one of the moil beautiful quarters of the city, to be
governed by their own laws and magiftrates, and to
trade without paying cuiloms or taxes of any kind.
Great privileges were likewife granted to tbe natives
of Venice and Pifa, which encouraged them to lay
afide all thoughts of removing ; and the trade they car¬
ried on proved afterwards highly advantageous to the
(late.
It was not long, however, before thefe regulations
were altered. The emperor being foon after informed,
that Baldwin, lately expelled from Conftantinople, had
married his daughter to Charles king of Sicily, and
given him, by way of dowry, tbe imperial city itfelf,
he ordered the Genoefe, who were become very nu¬
merous, to remove firft to Heraclia, and afterwards to
Galata, where they continued. As for the Pifans and
Venetians, wrho were not fo numerous and wealthy,-,
they were allowed to continue in the city. PBeolo-
gus, though he had caufed himfelf to be proclaimed
emperor, and was poffeffed of absolute fovereignty, was
as yet only guardian to the young emperor John Laf-
caris, then about 3 2 years of age. But having now fet¬
tled the ftate, and having gained the affe£Hons both of
natives and foreigners, he began to think of fecuring
himfelf and his pofterity in the full enjoyment of the
empire ; and for this reafon cruelly ordered the eyes of
the young prince to be put out, pretending that none
but himfelf had any right to the city or empire of Con- .
ftantinople, which he alone had recovered out of the
hands of the Latins.
This piece of treachery and inhumanity involved him
in great troubles. The patriarch immediately excom¬
municated him : and he would in alt probability have
been efriven from the throne by a combination of the
weftern princes, had he not engaged-Pope Urban IV.
to efpoufe his caufe, by promijing to fubmit himfelf and
his dominions to the Latin church. Thus, indeed, he.
diverted the prefent ftormy but this proceeding caufed.
the greatell difturbances, not only in Cdnllantinople,
but throughout the whole empire, nor was Paleologus
able to reconcile his fubjedls to this union.
In 1283 Michael died, and was fucceeded by his fon
Andronicus. His firfl llep was to reflcre tbe ancient
Greek ceremonies, thinking he could net Lgin his
But thus he involved Conitan..
himfelf in difficulties ftill greater than belore. i hough
Michael had not been able fully to reconcile his Greek. u l°T7' ±
fubjedts to the Latin ceremonies, yet he had in fome
degree accompliffied his purpofe. The Latins had got
a confiderable footing in the city, and defended their
ceremonies with great obftinacy j fo that the empire
was again thrown into a ferment by this imprudent
ftep. ... iS*-
All this time the Turks had been continuing their War with
encroachments on the empire, which, had it not been the Turks
for the crufades publiffied againft them by the pope,
they would in all probability have made themfelves
mailers of before this time. They were now, how¬
ever, very fuccefsfully oppofed by Conftantine the
emperor’s brother : but his valour rendered him fuf-
pedfed by the emperor j in confequence of which he was
thrown into prifon, along with feveral perfons of great
dillindlion. On the removal of this brave commander,
the Turks, under the famous Othoman, made them¬
felves mailers of feveral places in Phrygia, Caria, and
Bithynia j and, among the reft, of the city of Nice.
To put a Hop to their conquefts, the emperor difpatch-
ed againft them Philanthropenus and Libadarius, two-
officers of great experience in war. The former
gained fome advantages over the enemy 5 but being
elated with his fuccefs, caufed himfelf to be proclaim¬
ed emperor. This rebellion, however, was foon fup-
preffed, Philanthropenus being betrayed by his own
men 5 but the Turks taking advantage of thefe intef-
tine commotions, not only extended their dominions
in Alia, but conquered moft of the ifiands in the Me¬
diterranean •, and, being mailers at fea, infefted the
coafts of the empire, to the utter ruin of trade and .
commerce..
From this time the Roman- empire tended, fall to
diflblution. After the revolt of Philanthropenus, the
emperor could no longer trull his fubjefts, and there¬
fore hired the Mafiagetes to affiit him: but they, be¬
having in a carelefs manner, were fit'll defeated by
their enemies, and afterwards turned their arms a-
gainft thofe they came to affift.. He next applied to
the Catalans, who behaved in the fame manner; and
having ravaged the few places left the emperor in
Alia, returned into Europe, .and called the Turks to
their affillance. 1
This happened in the year 1292, and was the firllTheir firft-
appearance of the Turks in Europe. This enterprife,?PPearance
however, was unfuccefsful. . Having loaded themfelves111
with booty, they offered to depart quietly if-they were
allowed a fafe paflage, and (hips to trantport them to
Afia. To this the emperor,, willing to get rid of fuch
troablefome guefts, readily confented, and ordered the
vefiels to be got ready with all poffible expedition.
But tbe Greek officers obferving the immenfe booty
with which they were loaded, refolved to fall upou
them in the night, and cut them all oil at once. This
fcheme, however, was not managed with luch fecrecy
but that the Turks had notice of it,, and therefore pre¬
pared for their defence. They firft furptifed a llrong
caftie in the neighbourhood, and then found means to
acquaint their countrymen in Afia with their danger¬
ous fituation. Their brethren, enticed with the hopes
of booty, were not long in coming to their affiftance j ..
srd. having crofied the Hellefpont in great numbers,
ravaged d
I54
They are
all cut in
pieces or
taken.
G ° N . [ s
Conit an- ravaged the adjacent country, making excurfions to
' I'hltory'111 t^e ver/ gates Conftantinople. At laft the emperor
r’ , determined to root them out ■, and accordingly march¬
ed againft them with all his forces, the country people
flocking to him from all quarters. The Turks at firit
gave themfelves over for loft j but finding the Greeks
negligent of difeipline, they attacked their army unex-
peftedly, utterly defeated it, and made themfelves ma¬
ilers of the camp. After this unexpected victory, thev
continued for two years to ravage Thrace in the molt
terrible manner. At lait, however, they were defeated ;
and being afterwards fhut up in the Cherfonefus, they
were all cut in pieces or taken.
Soon after new commotions took place in this un¬
happy empire, of which the Turks did not fail to take
the advantage. In 1327 they made themfelves mafters
of molt of the cities on the Mteander; and, among
the reft, of the ftrong and important city of Prufa
in Bithynia. The next year, however, Oihoman,
who may juftly be ftyled the founder of the Turkilh
monarchy, being dead, the emperor laid hold of that
opportunity to recover Nice, and fome other impor¬
tant places, from the infidels. But thefe were loft
the year following, together with Abydus and Ni-
comedia *, and in 1330 a peace was concluded upon
condition that they Ihould keep all their conquefts.
This peace they obferved no longer than feived their
own purpofes ; for new commotions breaking out in
the empire, they purfued their conquefts, and by the
year 1357 had reduced all Afia. They next palled the
Hellefpont under the conduCt of Solyman the fon, or,
as others will have it, the brother of Orchane, the fuc-
ceffor of Othoman, and feized on a ftrong caftle on the
European fide. Soon after the Turkilh fultan died, and
was fucceeded by Amu rath. Pie extended the con¬
quefts of his predeceflbrs, and in a (hort time reduced all
Thrace, making Adrianople the feat of his empire. A-
murath was Haiti by treachery in a little time after, and
was fucceeded by his fon Bajazet. This prince greatly
enlarged his dominions by new conquefts. In a ftiort
time he reduced the countries of Theflaly, Macedon,
Phocis, Peloponnefus, Myfia, and Bulgaria, driving
cut the defpots or petty princes who ruled there. Ela¬
ted with his frequent victories, he began to look upon
the Greek emperor, to whom nothing was now left but
the city of Conftantinople and the neighbouring coun¬
try, as his vaffal. Accordingly he fent him an arrogant
and haughty melfage, commanding him to pay a yearly
tribute, and fend his fon Manuel to attend him in his
military expeditions. This demand the emperor was
obliged to comply with, but died foon after, in the year
1392.
Manuel no fooner heard of his father’s death than
he haftened to Conftantinople, without taking leave of
the fultan, or acquainting him with the reafon of his
Bajazet be- fudden departure. At this Bajazet was fo highly of-
beges Con- fen(]e(j that he palled with great expedition out of
Bitnyraa into j brace, ravaged the country adjoining
to Conftantinople, and at laft invefled the city itfelf,
both by fea and land. In this extremity Manuel had
recourfe to the weftern princes j Who fent him an army
of 130.000 men, under the command of Sigifmund
king of Hungary, and John count of Nevers. But
though the weftern troops proved at firft fuccefsful,
they were in the end defeated with great flaughter
155
Adrianople
taken by
the Turks.
I5<’
90 ] CO N
by Bajazet, who then returned to the fiege with Confh-.
greater vigour than ever. As he found, however,tino.politan
that the citizens were determined to hold out to the, hifto1?'
laft, he applied to John, the Ion of Manuel’s elder bro-^ ^
ther, who had a better title to the crown than Manuel
himfelf. With him he entered into a private agree¬
ment, by virtue of which Bajazet was to place John
upon the throne of Conftantinople ; on the other hand,
John was to deliver up the city to the Turks,, and re¬
move the imperial city to Pelcponnefus, which the ful¬
tan promifed to relinquifti to him and his pofteritv. At
the fame time, he fent deputies to the inhabitants of
Conftantinople, offering to withdraw his army, and ceafe
from further hoftilities, provided they expelled Manuel
and placed John upon the throne. This propofal rent
the city into two factions j but Manuel prevented the
mifehiefs which wTere ready to enfue, by a voluntary re-
fignation, upon condition that he fhould be allowed to
retire to whatever place he thought proper with his wife
and children.
With this condition John readily complied; and
Manuel having received him into the city, and con-
dufted him to the palace, fet fail for Venice. From
thence he went to the courts of all the weftern prin¬
ces, to folicit their afliftance againft the Turks, wbofe
power was grown formidable to all Europe. He was
everywhere received with the greateft demonftra-
tions of efteem, and promifed large fupplies; all Chri-
ftendom being now alarmed at the progrefs of the in¬
fidels.
In the mean time, Bajazet did not fail to put John
in mind of his promiie ; but the citizens refufing to
comply with fuch a fcandalous treaty, the fiege was re¬
newed, and the city affaulted with more fury than ever.
When it was already reduced to the laft extremity,
news were brought the fultan that Tamerlane, the vic¬
torious Tartar, having overrun all the eaft with in¬
credible celeiity, had now turned his arms agffinft the
Tuiks, and was preparing to break into Syria. Baja¬
zet, alarmed at the danger that threatened him, railed
the fiege in great hafte, and advanced againft Tamerlane He is de-
with a very numerous and well-difciplined army ; butfeated and
the Tartar totally defeated and took him prifoner, afterPri*
having cut molt of his men in pieces: and thus Con-
ftaniinople was preferved for the prefent. I5S ‘ ‘ ’
But this relief was of ftiort duration. In 1424 theAmurath
city was again befieged by Amurath II. The inhabiAefieges
tants defended themfelves with great bravery ; but
mult in the end have fubmitted, had not the emperor*
prevailed upon the prince of Caramania to counte¬
nance an impoftor and pretender to the Turkilh throne. JS9
I his obliged Amurath to raife the fiege, and march The fiege
with all his forces againft the ufurper, whom he foon railed,
reduced. Having then po other enemies to contend
with, he entered Macedon at the head of a powerful
army ; and having ravaged the country far and near,
he took and plundered Theffalonica, as he did alfo
molt of the cities of AEtolia, Phocis, and Boeotia.
Prom Greece he marched into Servia ;.which country
he foon reduced. Pie next broke into the dominions,
of the king of Hungary, and befieged the ftrong ciiy
of Belgrade ; but here he met with a vigorous repulfe,
no fewer than 15,000 Turks being (lain by the Chri-
ftians in one fally, which obliged the fultan to drop the
enterprife and retire.
. GonltanU-
r.ople.
In
CON [5
(•( an* Iii his retreat lie was attacked by the celebrated
tint !ltan John Hunniades, who cut great numbers of his men in
J] n]_j pieces, and obliged the reit to fly with precipitation.
^J0 Not long after he gained a ftill more complete vic-
Suc , of tory over the enemy in the plains of Tranfylvania, with
Jell Ian- the lots of only 3000 of his own men, whereas 20,000
!Uat tah‘e of the Turks were killed on the field of battle, and
almolt an equal number in the purfuit. Amurath, who
was then at Adrianople, fent an army into Tianfyl-
vania far more numerous than the former 3 but they
were attended with no better fuccefs, being cut off
j. almoft to a man by the brave Hungarian. He gain-
He: tlaft«d feveral other viefories no lefs remarkable 3 but was
defe d. at laft entirely defeated in 1448 5 and with this defeat
ended all hopes of preferving the Roman empire.
The unhappy emperor was now obliged to pay an
annual tribute of 300,000 afpers to the fultan ; and to
yield, up to him tome flrong holds which he Hill held
on the Euxine fea. However, as he doubted not but
Amurath would foon attempt to become mailer of the
city itfelf, he renewed the union between the Greek
and Latin churches, hoping that this would induce
the weftern princes to aflift him in the defence of the
city againll the lurKs. This union produced great
dilturbances, which the emperor did not long furvive,
but died in 1448, leaving the empire, now confined
within the walls of Conftantinople, to his brother Con*
llantine.
Amurath the Turkilh fultan died in 1450, and w^as
fucceeded by his fon Mohammed. In the beginning
of his reign he entered into an alliance with Conftan-
tine, and pretended a great delire to live in friend-
Ihip with him and the other Chriflian princes 3 but no
fooner had he put an end to a war in which he was
engaged with Ibrahim king of Caramania, than he
built a llrong fort on the European fide of the Bofpho-
rus, oppofite to another in Afia 3 in both of which he
placed ftrong garrifons. Thefe two caflles command¬
ed the llraits : and the former being but five miles
from the city, kept it in a manner blocked up. This
foon produced a mifunderltanding between him and
. the emperor, which ended in the fiege of the city.
'onl ‘d- The fiege commenced on the fixth of April 1453,
Mohammed’s numerous forces covering the plains be-
rlofcbJ ^ore it on tiie land-fide, and a fleet of 300 fail block-
;ed. mg it rip by fea. The emperor, however, had taken
care to fecure the haven, in which were three large
flops, 20 fmall ones, and a great number of galleys,
by means of a chain drawn acrofs the entrance. Mo¬
hammed began the fiege by planting batteries as near
the city as he could, and railing mounts in feveral pla¬
ces as high as the walls themfelves, whence the be-
ileged were inceffantly galled with Ihowers of arrows.
He had in his camp a piece of ordnance of prodigious
lize, which is faid to have carried a ball of 100 pounds
weight made of hard black ftone brought fiom the
Euxine lea. With this valt piece the enemy made
feveral breaches in the walls 3 which, however, were
repaired with incredible expedition by the befieged.
But Mohammed, the better to carry on the fiege,
caufed new levies to be made through bis extenfive
dominions, by which his army was loon incre.aled to
near 400,000 men 3 while the garrifon confifled only
of 9000 regular troops, viz. 6cco Greeks and 3000
Genoefe and Venetians., As the enemy continued to
91 ] CON
batter the walls day and night without intermiflion, a Conftan-
great part of them was at laft beaten down 3 but while Bnopolitan
the Tuiks were bufy in filling up the ditch, in order , 111 ,
to give the aflault, a new wall was built. This threw
the tyrant into a prodigious rage, which was greatly
heightened when he faw his whole fleet worfted by five
Ihips, tour of which were laden with corn from Pefp-
ponnefus, and the other with all manner of provifions
from the ifie of Chios. Thefe opened themfelves a
way through the whole Turkilh fleet 3 and, to the in-
expreflible joy of the Chriftians, at lafl got fafe into the
harbour.
The Turks attempted feveral times to force the ha-He conveys
ven ; but all their efforts proving ineffeftual, Moham- So
med formed a defign of conveying 80 galleys over land
for the fpace of eight miles into it. This he accom-veri.
plilhed by means oi certain engines, the contrivance of
a renegado 3 and having then either taken or funk all
the Ihips contained in it, he caufed a bridge to be built
over it with furpriling expedition. By this means the
city was laid open to an aflault from that fide like-
wife. The place was now aflaulted on all fides 3 and
Conflantine being well apprifed that he could not long
hold out again!! fuch a mighty fleet and fo numerous
an army, fent deputies to Mohammed offering to ac¬
knowledge himfelf his vaffal, by paying him yearly
what tribute he fliould think proper to impofe, pro¬
vided he raifed the fiege and withdrew. The tyrant
anfwered that he was determined at all events to be¬
come mailer of the city : but if the emperor delivered
it up forthwith, he would yield up to him Peloponne-
fus, and other provinces to his brothers, which they
Ihculd enjoy peaceably as his friends and allies : but if
he held out to the laft extremity, and fuffered i,t to be
taken by affault, he would put "him and the whole no¬
bility to the fword, abandon the city to be plunder¬
ed by his foldiers, and. carry the inhabitants into capti¬
vity.
This condition was raftfly reje&ed by the emperor 3
who thereby involved himfelf and all his fubjecls m the
moft tenible calamity. The fiege was renewed with
more vigour than ever, and continued till the 25th of
May 5 when a report being fpread in the Turkilh camp r i6a
that a mighty army was advancing in full march to then,
relief of the city under the condufl of the celebrated Turkilh
John Hunniades, the common foldiers, feized with aoaii:iP-
panic, began to mutiny, and prefs Mohammed in a
tumultuous manner to break up the fiege. Nay, they
openly threatened him with death, if he did not imme¬
diately abandon the enterprife and retire from before
the city, which they defpaired of being able to.reduce
before the arrival of the fuppofed fuccours. Moham¬
med was upon the point of complying with their de¬
mand, when he was advifed by Z'agan, a Turkilh of¬
ficer of great intrepidity, and an irreconcileable enemy
to the Chriflian name, to give without lofs of tirne a
general affault. To this he faid the foldiery, however
mutinous, would not be averfe, provided the fultan fo~
lemnly promiled to abandon the city to be plundered
by them. As fuch an advice beft fuited the humour of
Mohammed, he readily embraced it 3 and caufed a
proclamation to be publiftred throughout the camp, de¬
claring that he gave up to his foldiers all the wealth
of that opulent city, requiring to himfelf only the empty
houfes.
The
v>9
165
A gener?.l
affault gi-
ven.
CON [
Conran- The defire of plunder foon got tlie better of that
tinopolitan fear which had feized the TurklQi array ; and they una-
ainor>. n'imou(|y defired to be led on to the attack. Here¬
upon Conftantine was fummoned for the laft tune to
deliver up the city, with a proraife of his life and li¬
berty, but to this he anfwered, that lie was unalter¬
ably determined either to defend the city or to perifh
with it. The attack began at three in the morning
on Tuefdiy the 29hr of May 5 fuch troops were firlf
employed as the fultan valued lead, and defigfied them
for no other purpofe than to tire the Chrillians, who
made a prodigious havock of that diforderly multi¬
tude. After the carnage had lalled fome hours, the
Janizaries and other frelh troops advanced in good or¬
der, and renewed the attack with incredible vigour.
The Chrillians, fummoning all their courage and re-
folution, twice repulfed the enemy : but being in the
end quite fpent, they were no longer able to ftani
their ground ; fo that the enemy in feveral places
broke into the city. In the mean time Juiliniani, tlm
commander of the Gencefe and a felecl body of
Greeks, having received t'.vo wounds, one in the
thigh, and the other in the hand, was fo dilheartened,
that he caufed himfelf to be conveyed to Galata, where
he foon after died of grief. His men, difmayed at
the hidden flight of their general, immediately quitted
their pods and fled in the utmotl confufion. How¬
ever, the emperor, attended with a lew of the moft re-
folute among the nobility, (fill kept his poll, driving
with unparalleled refolution to oppofe the multitude
of barbarians that now broke in from every quarter.
But being in the end overpowered with numbers, and
feeing all his friends lie dead on the ground, “ What !
(cried he aloud) is there no Chridian left alive to drike
off my head ?” He had fcarce uttered thefe words,
when one of the enemy, not knowing him, gave him
a deep cut acrofs the face with his fabre ; and at the
fame time, another coming behind him, with a blow
on the back part of his head laid him dead on the
ground. After the death of the emperor, the few
Chridians that wTere left alive betook themfelves to
166
Bravery of
the empe¬
ror.
}61. ,
He is kill¬
ed.
168
The town
plundered,
habitants111"> and the Turks, meeting with no further oppo-
Hiaflacred. filioni entered the city, wdrich they filled with blood
and {laughter. They gave no quarter, but put all they
met to the fword, without didinftion. Many thou-
fands took refuge in the church of St Sophia, but they
were all maffacred in their afylum by the enraged bar¬
barianswho, prompted by their natural cruelty, the
defire of revenge, and love of booty, fpared no place
nor perfon. Mod of the nobility were, by the fultan’s
orders, cut off, and the red kept for purpofes more
grievous than death itfelf. Many of the inhabitants,
among whom were fome men of great learning, found
means to make their efcape while the Turks were bu¬
lled in plundering the city. Thefe embarking on five
Ihips then in the harbour, arrived fafe in Italy j where,
with the dudy of the Greek tongue, they revived the
liberal fciences, which had long been neglefted in the
wed. After the expiration of three days, Moham¬
med commanded his foldiers to forbear all further hof-
tilities on pain of death : and then put an end to as
Cruel a pillage and maffacre as any mentioned in hi-
ftory. The next day he made his public and trium¬
phal entry into Condantinople, and chafe it for the feat
2 ] CON
of the Turkuh empire, which it has continued to be ever Conaan,
fine;. tinopoiltaa
This city is now called by the Turks IJlampol, and
by the Greeks IJlampoli or Stampoli, It is (eated at <
the eadern extremity of Romania, on a frnail neck of ^
land which advances towards Natolia, from which it Prefect
is feparated by a channel of a mile in breadth. Theftate t!>
fea of Marmora wadies its wails on the fouth, and •'
gulf of the channel of Conftantinople does the fame
on the north. It is delightfully fituated between the
Black fea and the Archipelago, from whence it is fup-
plied with all neceilaries. The grand feignior’s pa¬
lace, called the Seraglio, is feated on the fea-fide, and
is furrounded with walls flanked with towers, and fc-
parated from the city by canals, it is faid the har¬
bour will eafily hold 1200 {hips. The number of
__ houfes muff needs be prodigious, fince one fire has burnt
down 30,000 in a day, without greatly changing the
afpett of the city. However, in general, they are
but mean, efpecialiy on the ontfide, where there are
few or no windows; and the ftreets being narrow,
glve^j them a melancholy look. They reckon that
there are 3770 ftreets, fmall and great: but they are
feldom or never clean ; and the people are infefted
with the plague almoft every year. The inhabitants
are half Turks, two-thirds of the other half Chriftiang
and the reft Jews. Here are a great number of an¬
cient monuments ftill remaining, and particularly the
fuperb temple of Sophia, which is turned into a mofque,
and far furpaffes all the reft. The ftreet called jlchi*
anople is the longeft and broadeft in the city ; and the
bazars, or belteins, are the markets for felling all
forts of merchandife. The old and the new are pretty
near each other ; and are large fquare buildings, co¬
vered with domes, and fupported by arches and pila-
fiers. The new is the heft, and contains all forts of
goods which are there expofed to fale. The market
for {laves of both fexes, is not far off; and the Jews
are the principal merchants, who bring them here to
be fold. There are a great number of young girls ,
brought from Hungary, Greece, Candia, Ruffxa, Min- \
grelia, and Georgia, for the fervice of the Turks,
who generally buy them for their fergglios. The great
fquare, near the mofque of Sultan Bajazet, is the place
for public diverfions, where the jugglers and mounte¬
banks play a great variety of tricks. The circumfe¬
rence of this city is by fome faid to be 15 miles, and
by Mr Tournefort 23 miles; to which if we add the
fuburbs, it may be 34 miles in compafs. The fuburb
called Pera is charmingly fituated j and is the place
where the ambaffadors of England, France, Venice,
and Holland refide. This city is built in the form of
a triangle j and as the ground rifes gradually, there is
a view of the whole town from the fea. The public
buildings, fuch as the palaces, the mofques, bagnios,
and caravanfaries for the entertainment of ftrangers,
are many of them very magnificent. E. Long. 29. 20.
N. Lat. 41. 4.
CONSTAT, in Law, the _ name of a certificate
which the clerk of the pipe and auditors of the ex¬
chequer make at the requeft of any perfon who intends
to plead or move in that court for the difeharge ol any
thing } and the effedft of it is, the certifying what does
confiare upon record touching the matter in queflion.
—A
6
CON [ 593 ] CON
fl.at —A conftat is held to be fuperior to a certificate j
becaufe this may err or fail in its contents 5 that can-
ltu‘ not, as certifying nothing but what is evident upon re»
n. i
- i cord,
Aifo the exemplification under the great feal of the
inrolment of any letters patent is called a conftat.
CONSTELLATION, in /IJlrononuj, a fylfem of
feveral ftars that are feen Jn the heavens near to one
another. Aftronomers not only mark out the ftars,
but, that they may better bring them into order, they
diftinguilh them by their fituadon and pofition in re-
fpedf to each other j and therefore they diftribute
them into afterifms or conftellations, allowing feveral
ftars to make up one conftellation : and for the better
diftinguifhing and obferving them, they reduce the
conftellations to the forms of animals, as men, bulls,
bears, &c.; or to the images of fome tilings known, as
of a crown, a harp, a balance, &c.; or give them the
names of thofe whofe memories, in confideration of fome
notable exploit, they had a mind to tranfmit to future
ages.
The divifion of the ftars by images and figures is of
great antiquity, and feems to be as old as aftronomy it-
felf: for in'the moft ancient book of Job, Orion, Arc-
turus, and the Pleiades, are mentioned : and v,x meet
with the names of many of the conftellations in the writ¬
ings of the firft poets, Homer and Hefiod.
The ancients, in their divifion of the firmament,
took in only fo much as came under their notice, dif-
tributing it into 48 conftellations; but the modern
aftronomers comprehend the whole ftarry firmament,
dividing it into three regions. See Astronomy
Index.
CONSTERNATION is defined by ethical writers
to be an excefs of horror, owing to the ill government
of our admiration and fear : or fuch an immoderate de¬
gree of fear as confounds the faculties, and incapacitates
a perfon for confultation and execution.
CONSTIPATION, in Medicine, a hardnefs of the
beiiv, with great coftivenefs. See Cost-iveness.
CONSTITUENT PART, in Phyjiology, an effen-
tial part in the compofition of any thing, differing
little from what is otherwife called element or prin¬
ciple.
CONSTITUTION, in matters of policy, fignifies
the form of government eftabliftied in any country or
kingdom.
Constitution alfo denotes an ordinance, decifion,
regulation, or law, made by authority of any fuperior,
ecclefiuftical or civil.
Apq/iolical Constitutions, a colle&ion of regulations,
attributed to the Apoftles, and fuppofed to have been
collefted by St Clement, whofe name they likewife
bear.
It is the general opinion, however, that they are
fpurious, and that St Clement had no hand in them.
They appeared firft in the 4th age, but have been
much changed and corrupted fince that time. They
Vol. VI. Part II.
are divided into eight books, confifting of a great num- Conftitu-
ber of rules and precepts, relating to the duties of Chri-^
ftians, and particularly the ceremonies and difeipline of, ‘
the church. Mr Whifton, in oppofitjon to the general
opinion, afferts them to be a part of the facred writings,
didlated by the Apoftles in their meetings, and written
down from their own mouths by St Ciement ; and in¬
tended as a fupplement to the New Teftament, or ra¬
ther as a fyftem of Chriftiart faith and polity. The rea-
fon why th* Conftitutions are fufpecled by the orthodox,
and perhaps the reafon alfo why their genuinenefs is de¬
fended by Mr Whifton, is, that they feem to favour A-
rianifin. '
Constitution, in a phyfical fenfe, fignifies the parti¬
cular temperature of the body.
It is curious to obferve, fays Dr Percival, the revo¬
lution which hath taken place, within this century, in
the conftitutions of the inhabitants of Europe. Inflam¬
matory difeafes more rarely occur, and, in general,
are much lefs rapid and violent in their progrefs than
formerly (a) ; nor do they admit of the fame antiphio-
giltic method of cure that was praflifed with fuccefs
100 years ago. The experienced Sydenham makes 40
ounces of blood the mean quantity to be drawn in the
acute rheumatifm ; whereas this difeafe, as it now ap¬
pears in the London hofpitals, will not bear above half
that evacuation. Vernal intermittents are frequently
cured by a vomit and the bark, without venefe&ion j
which is a proof that at prefent they* are accompanied
with fewer fymptoms of inflammation than they were
wont to be. This advantageous change, however, is
more than counterbalanced by the introdu&ion of a
numerous clafs of nervous ailments, in a great mea-
fure unknown to cur anceftors} but which now prevail
univerfally, and are complicated with almoft every
other diftemper. The bodies of men are enfeebled
and enervated 5 and it is not uncommon to obferve
very high degrees of irritability, under the external
appearance of great ftrength and lobuftnefs. The
hypochondria, palfies, cachexies, dropfies, and all thofe
difeafes which arife fiom laxity and debility, are in
our days endemic everywhere \ and the hyfterics,
which ufed to be peculiar to the women, as the name
itfelf indicates, now attack both fexes indiferiminate-
1\'. It is evident that fo great a revolution could not
be effirdfed without a concurrence of many caufes; but
among!! thefe (according to Dr Percival), the pre¬
fent general ufe of tea * holds the firft and principals see Tex.
rank. The fecond place may perhaps be allowed to
excefs in fpirituous liquors. This pernicious cuftom,
in many inftances at leaft, owes its rife to the former,
which, by the lownefs and depreflion of fpirits it oc-
cafions, lenders it almoft necelfary to have recourfe to
fomething cordial and exhilarating. And hence pro¬
ceed thofe odious and difgraceful habits of intempe¬
rance, with which many of the fofter fex are now, alas!
chargeable.
CONSTRICTOR, an appellation given to feveral
4 F mufcles,
(a) The decreafe in the violence of inflammatory difeafes may perhaps in part be aferibed to the prefent im¬
proved method of treating them. Moderate evacuations, cool air, acefcent diet, and the liberal ufe of falme and
antimonial medicines, are better adapted to check the progrefs of fevers, than copious bleedings, ftimulaling pur¬
gatives, and profufe fweats excited by theriaca and mithridate.
C O N [• 594 ] CON
Conftri&or nnufcles, on account of their coniiringing or doling
II fome of the orifices of the body.
,Con{-iaha-, CONSTRUCTION, in Geometry, is the drawing
fuch lines, fuch a figure, &c. as are previcufiy necefiary
for making any demonftration appear more plain aiid
undeniable.
Construction of Equations. See Equations.
Construction, in Grammar; fyntax, or the ar¬
ranging and connecting the words of a fentence accord-
ing to the rules of the language. See Grammar and
Language.
The conftruftion is generally more Ample, eafy, and
direft, in the modern tongues than in the ancient: we
have very few' of thole inverfions which occafion fo
much embarraffment and obfeurity in the Latin 5 our
thoughts are ufuaily delivered in the fame order where¬
in the Imagination conceives them : the nominative (tafe,
for inftance, always precedes the verb, and the verb
goes before the oblique cates it governs.
The Greeks and Latins, M. St Evresnont obferves,
ufually end their periods, where, in good fenle and
reafon, they (liould have begun j and the elegance of
their language confiils, in fome meafure, in this capri¬
cious arrangement, or rather in this tranfpofal and dif-
order of the words. See Language.
Construction of Statutes, among lawyers. See Law
Index.
CONSUALIA, in antiquity, feafts which were
held among the ancients, in honour of the god Confus,
i. e. Neptune ; different from thofe other feafls of the
fame deity called Neptunalia. They were introduced
with a magnificent cavalcade, or proceffion on horfe-
back ; becaufe Neptune way reputed to have firtf
taught men the ufe of horfes j whence his furname of
'IsTTruis, Equefris.
Evander is faid to have firft inftituted this feaft : it
was re-eftablitlied by Romulus, under the name of
Confus; becaufe it was fome god under the denomina¬
tion of Confus that fuggefled to him the rape of the
Sabines. It is faid, that it was with a view to this
rape that he made that eftablifhment. This, however,
is certain, that it was to this feaft all his neighbours
were invited ; when, taking advantage of the foiem-
nities and facrifices, he feized the women. To draw
the greater concoune of people, he gave out, that he
had found an altar hid under ground, which he intend¬
ed to confecrate, with facrifices to the god to whom
it had been originally eredfed. Thofe who take upon
them to explain the myfteries of the heathen theology,
fay, that the altar hid under ground is a fymbol of
the fecret defign of Romulus to feize his neighbours
wives.
The confualia were of the number of feafts called
facred ; as being confecrated to a divinity. Original¬
ly they were not dlftinguiftied from thofe of the cir¬
cus ; whence it is, that Valerius Maximus fays, that the
rape of the Sabines was effe&ed at the games of the
circus.
Plutarch obferves, that during the days of this So¬
lemnity, horfes and afles were left at reft, and were
drafted up with crowns, &c. on account of its being
the feaft of Neptunus Equeftris. Feftus fays, the ca¬
valcade was performed with mules; it being an opi¬
nion, that this was the firft animal ufed to draw the
car. 5.
Servius gives us to underhand, that the confualia fell Confe;
on the 13th of Auguft ; Plutarch, in the life of Romu- || >
lus, placed them on the 18th, and the old Roman ka-, j
lendar on the 21ft of that month.
CGNSUBSTANTIAL, in Theology, a term of
like import with co-eftenlial j denoting fomething of
the fame fubftance with another. The orthodox be¬
lieve the Son of God to be confubftantial with the Fa¬
ther.
The term eftouo-us, cotfuffantial, was firft adopted by
the fathers of the councils of Antioch and Nice, to ex-
prefs the orthodox doftrine the more precifely, and to
ferVe as a barrier and precaution againft the errors and
fubtlcties of the Arians •, who owned every thing ex¬
cepting the confubftantiality.
The Arians allowed, that the Word was God, as
having been made God j but they denied that he was
the lame God, and of the fame iubftance with the Fa¬
ther : accordingly they exerted tbemi’elves to the ut-
moft to abolilh the ufe of the word. The emperor
Conftantine ufed all his authority with the bilhops to
have it expunged out of the lymbols; but it ftiil
maintained itfelf, and is at this day, as it was then, the
diftinguilhing ciiterion between an Athanafian and an
Arian.
Sandius will have it, that the word confubftantial
was unknown till the lime of the council of Nice j but
it is certain it had been before propofed to the council
of Antioch, wherein Paulus Samofatenus had been con¬
demned j though it had there the fortune to be vejefi-
ed. Curcellteus, on the other hand, maintains that it
was an innovation in doftrine in the council of Nice,
to admit nn exprefilon, the ufe whereof had been abo-
lilhed by the council of Antioch.
According to St Athanafius, the word confubftan-
tial was only condemned in the council of Antioch,
inafmuch as it implied the idea of a pre-exiftent mat¬
ter, prior to the things formed thereof; now, in this
fehfe, it is certain, the Father and the Son are not
confubftantial, there having been no pre-exiftent mat¬
ter.
CONSUBSTANTIATION, a tenet of the Lu¬
theran church with regard to the manner of the change
made in the bread and wine in the eucharift. The di¬
vines of that profefhon maintain, that after confecra-
tion, the body and blood of our Saviour are fubftan-
tially prefent, together with the fubftance of the bread
and wine, which is called confubfantiation, cr irnpana-
tion.
CONSUL, the chief magiftraie of the Roman com¬
monwealth, invefted with regal authority for the fpace
of one year. They were two in number, called confuls
a corfulendo, and annually chofen in the Campus Mav-
tius. The two firft confuls were L. Jun. Brutus, and
L. Tarquinius Collatinus, chofen in the year of Rome
244, after the expulfion of the Tarquins. In the firft
times of the republic the two confuls were always cho¬
fen from patrician families or nobleman, but the peo¬
ple obtained the privilege in the year of Rome 388,
of elefling one of the canfuls from their own body,
and fometimes both were plebeians. The firft; conful
among the plebeians was L. Sextius. It was required
that every candidate for the confulfhip fhould be 43
years of age, called legitimum tempus. He was always
to appear at the election as a private man without a
retinpe,
CON' [
|<! reunue, and it was requidte before he canvaiTed
J the ofiice to have difeharged the fun&ions of quEedor,
edile, and ptfetor. S-ometimes thefe qualifications
were difregarded. Val. Corvirms was made a conlal
in his 23d year, and Scipio in his 24th. Young Ma¬
rius, Pornpey, and Auguftus, were alio under the pro¬
per age, when they were invefted with the office, and
Pompey had never been quaefior or prsetor. The power
of the confuls was unbounded, and they knew no
ffioeiior but the gods and the laws j but after the ex¬
piration of their office their conduct was minutely feru-
tinized by the people, and mifbehaviour was often pu-
niftied by the laws. 'J’he badge of their office was
the preetexta, a robe fringed with purple, afterwards
exchanged for the toga pitta or palmata. i hey were
preceded by 12 lidlors carrying the fafees or bundles of.
flicks, in the middle of which appeared an axe. The
axe, as being the charafteriflic rather of tyranny than
of freedom, was taken away from the fafees by Vale¬
rius Popiicola, but it was reftored by his fucceffor.
They took it by turns monthly to be preceded by the
Ji&ors while at Rome, left the appearance of two per-
fons with the badges of royal authority ftiould raife
apprehenfions in the multitude. While one appeared
publicly in date, only - a crier walked before the other,
and the liciors followed behind without the fafees.
Their authority was equal •, yet the Valerian law gave
the right of priority to the older, and the Julian law
to hirn who had moll children j and he rvas general:y
called cartful major or prior. As their power was ab»
folute, they prelided over the fenate, and could con¬
vene and difniils it at pleafure. I’he fenators were
their counfellors; and among the Romans the manner
of reckoning their years was by the name of the con¬
fuls, and by M. Tull. Cicerone et L. Antonio Confulibus,
for inftance, the year of Rome 689 was always under¬
flood. This cuitorn lafted from the year ot Rome 244
till 1294, or the 541ft year or the Chriftian era. In
public affemblies the confuls iat in ivory chairs, and
held in their hand an ivory wand called fcipio eburneus,
which had an eagle on its top as a fign of dignity and
power. When they had draven by lot the provinces
over which they were to prefide during their conful-
ihip, they went to the capitol to offer their prayers to
the gods, and intreat them to protect the republic ;
after this they departed from the city arrayed in their
military drefs and preceded by the lictors. Sometimes
the provinces were affigned them without drawing by
lot, by the will and appointment of the fenators. At
their departure they were provided by the ftate with
whatever was reejuifite during their expedition. In
their provinces they were both attended by the 12 lie-
tors, and equally invefted with regal authority. Ihey
were not permitted to return to Rome without the
fpecial command of the fenate j and they always re¬
mained in the province till the arrival of their luccef-
for. At their return they harangued the people, and
foktnnly protefted that they had done nothing againft
the laws or intereft of their country, but had faith¬
fully ana diligently endeavoured to promote the great-
nefs and welfare of the ftate. No man could be con-
fal two following years *, yet this inftitution was- forqe-
tmies broken, and we find Marius re-ele£ted conful
atter the expiration of his office during the Cimbnan
war. The office of ccnful, fo dignified during the
Conful
595 1 CON _
for times of the commonwealth, became a mere title uncer
the emperors, and retained nothing of its authority but corit:j„jotu
the ufelefs enfigns of original dignity. Even the dura-
tion of the office, which was originally annual, was re¬
duced to two or three months by Julius Casfar", but they
who were admitted on the firft of January denominated
the year, and were called ordinarn. Their fucceffors
during the year were diftinguiflved by the name of fuf-
fetti. Tiberius and Claudius abridged the time of the
confulfhip ; and the emperor Commodus made no lefs •«
than 25 confuls in one year. Conftantine the Great re¬
newed the original inftitution, and permitted them to
be a whole year in office.
Consul, at prefent, is an officer eftablifhed tty vir¬
tue of a commiffion from the king and other princes,
iii all foreign countries of any confiderable trade, to
facilitate and difpatch bufinefs, and prote£! the mer¬
chants of the nation. The coniuls are to keep up a
correfpondence with the minifters of England refiding'
in the courts whereon their confulate depends. Ihey
are to fupport the commerce and the intereft of the
nation ; to difpofe of the firms given and the prefents
made to the lords and principals of places, to obtain
their prot§<5tion, and prevent the infults of the natives
on the merchants of the nation-
CONSUMMATION, the end, period, or comple¬
tion of any work. Thus, we fay, the confummation of
all things, meaning the end of the world. By the in¬
carnation, all the prophecies are iaid to be confurnmated.
See Prophecy and Accomplishment.
Consummation of Marriage, denotes the laft a£t of
marriage, which makes its accomplifhment *, or the
moft intimate union between the married pair, &c.
CONSUMPTION, in Medicine, a word of very
extenfive fignification, implies all diiorders last bring
any decay or wafte upon the conftitution j but is molt
commonly ufed for the phthijis pulmonahs. See Medi¬
cine Index.
Consumption, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
CONSUS, the pagan god of counfel. He had an
altar under ground in-the great circus at Rome, to
fhow that counfel ought to be kept iecret. See CoN-
SUALIA.
CONTACT, is when one line, plane, or body, is
made to touch another j and the parts that do thus
touch are called the points or places of contatt.
CONTAGION, in Thyjic, the communicating- a
difeafe from one body to another. In fome difeafes
it is only effected by an immediate contadf or touch,
as in fyphilis ; in others it is conveyed by infe&ed
clothes \ and in others it is fuppofed to be tranfmitted
through the air at a confiderable diftance, by means
of fleams or effluvia ai*ifiing from the fick, as in the
plague and other peftilential djforders, in which cafe
the air is faid to be contagious, though this has been
difputed.
No attempts -which have yet been made to invefti-
gate the nature of contagion, or to afeertain the pro¬
perties of contagious matter, have proved fuccefsful.
But from the means which have been effectually em¬
ployed either to abate its virulence or to deftroy it
entirely, this matter may be fairly inferred to be of a
chemical nature. We have already detailed the effefls
of the fumes of muriatic acid in purifying the cathedral
of Dijon, which were fuccefsfully ufed by Morveau in
4F2 1773-
CON [596
Contagion, 1773. Purfutng this hint, no doubt, Dr Carmichael
v Smyth propofed the fumes of nitric acid. This was
tried on board different ffiips at Sheemeis about the
year 1796 5 and being found to anfwer the purpofe
of deftroying the contagion which then prevailed, Dr
Smyth afterwards received a liberal reward from go¬
vernment for his difcovery. Thefe experiments were
conducted on board the Union hofpital (hip by Mr
Menzies furgeon of the Difcovery, and Mr Baffan fur-
/ geon of the Union. The wards at this time were
very much crowded with patients 5 and of 200 fick
on board, 150 were in different ffages of a malignant
contagious ferer, which made a very rapid pragrefe,
and produced very fatal dte&s on the attendants and
ihip’s company.
The materials and apparatus employed in the procefs
were the following: A quantity of fine fand, two dozen
quart earthen pipkins, as many common tea-cups, fome
long flips of glafs to be ufed as fpatulas, a quantity of
concentrated fulphuric acid, and a quantity of faltpetre
(nitrate cf potalh).
The procefs was conducted in the following manner ;
iff, All the ports and fcuttles were (hut up 5 the fand,
previoufiy heated in iron pots, was fcooped out into
the pipkins with an iron laddie 5 and in this heated fand,
in each pipkin, a fmall tea-cup was immerfed, contain¬
ing about half an ounce of fulphuric acid, to which,
after it had acquired a proper degree of heat, an equal
quantity of nitrate cf potaffi in powder was gradually
added, and the mixture ftirred with a glafs fpatula till
the vapour arofe from it in confiderable quantity. The
pipkins were then carried through the wards by the
mvrfes and convalescents, who kept walking about with
them in their hands, occafionally putting them under
the cradles of the fick, and in every corner where any
foul air was fufpeCled to lodge. In this manner they
continued fumigating, until the whole fpace between
decks, fore and aft, w'as filled with the vapour, which
appeared like a thick haze.
The vapour at firft excited coughing atnong the pa¬
tients, which gradually .ceafed as it became more ge¬
nerally diffufed through the wards : part of this effeft,
however, was to be attributed to the inattention cf
thofe who carried the pipkins, in putting them too near
the faces of the fick 5 which caufed them to inhale
the ftrong vapour as it immediately iffued from the
cups.
The body-clothes and bed clothes of the fick were,
as much as poffible, expofed to the nitrous vapour du¬
ring the fumigation ; and all the foul linen removed
from them was immediately immerfed in a tub of cold
water, afterwards carried on deck, rinfed out, and hung
up till nearly dry, and then fumigated before it was
taken to the wafh-houfe : a precaution extremely necef-
lary in every cafe of infeflious diforder. Proper at¬
tention was alfo paid to cieanlinefs and ventilation.
Three hours were at firft found neceflary to fu¬
migate the (hip. In about an hour after, the va¬
pour having entiiely fubfided, the ports and fcuttles
were thrown open for the admifflon of frelh air. It
could plainly be perceived that the air of the hofpital
was greatly fweetened even after this firft fumigation.
The procels was repeated again next morning 5 and
the people employed, being now more expert, finifhed
ike whole in about an hour’s time. In an hour after-
6
] CON
wards, the vapour having entirely fubfided, the freih
air was freely admitted into the hofpital as before.
Fewer pipkins were employed for the evening fumiga¬
tions than for thoie of the mornings, as the freih air
could not be admitted fo freely after the former as the
latter.
The pleafing and immediate effedl of the fumigation
in deftroying the offenfive and difagreeable fmell, arifing
from fo many fick crowded together, was now very
perceptible, even to the attendants 5 the confequence
of which was, that they began to place fome degree
of confidence in its efficacy, and approached the cradles
of the infefted with lefs dread of being attacked with
the diforder : thus the fick were better attended, and
the duty of the hofpital was more regularly and more
cheerfully performed.
From the 26th of November 1795, when the fumi¬
gation was firft reforted to, till the 25th of December,
not a perfon on board was attacked with the fever,
though, in the three months preceding, more than one-
third of all the people in the ffiip had been feized with
the diftemper, and of thefe more than one in four
were carried off by it 5 and the probability is, that the
ficknefs and mortality would have gone on, increafing
in proportion to the diffufion of the contagion, and
to the increafing defpondency of the people, who con-
fidered themielves as fo many devoted vifffim?.
The advantage of the fumigation was not felt by the
fill p’s company and attendants alone, whom it pieferved
from the baneful effe&s of the fever : the fick and con-
valefcents derived almoft an equal benefit from it. The
fymptoms of the difeafe became milder, and loft much
of their malignant appearance 5 and the advantage of a
pure and fweet air to convaleicents rauft be obvious.
Great confidence is always dangerous. It proved fo
on the prefent occafion. On the 17th of December
they imagined themfelves fo fecurc, that they difeon-
tinued the cuftom of fumigating morning and evening,
thinking that once a-day was fufficient. On the 25th,
one of the nurfes fuffered a flight attack 5 and on the
26th a marine, who, for a week before, had been in a
ftate of intoxicatisn, was feized with the fever, and
died. Thefe two accidents gave immediate alarm:
they returned again to the practice of fumigating twice
a-day ; and from that time to the extermination of the
diforder, there was not an inilance of a perfon fuffering
from contagion on board the ffiip.
The fuccefs of the experiment was not confined to
the Union : the power of the nitrous vapour to deftroy
contagion was equally difplayed on board fome Ruf¬
fian (hips then in the Downs. The fafety, too, with
which it may be employed, in any fituation, without
inconvenience or riik of fire, is another great recom¬
mendation in its favour.
It wdll not be difficult from this defeription to em¬
ploy this kind of fumigation. It is only neceffary to
obferve, for the fake of thofe who may not be verfant
in chemical purfuits, that the ingredients ought to be
pure, and neither metal veffels nor rods (hould be ufed.
Any kind of metal getting among the ingredients
wtould caufe the vapour to be very noxious inftead of
falutary. The fumes that rife (hould be white } if
they are of a red colour, there is reafon to fufpedl the
purity of the ingredients.
The importance cf this difeevery need not be iufiffed
Contai
** '
CON [ 597 1
am ion on : it is equally applicable to every fpecies of putrid able figure in
contagion, even to the plague itfelf. It fhould there-
iion ?nce. fore [jg upe(j jn ap[ hofpitals and parifh workhoufes ; and
u*’' fhould be conftantly reforted to by the proprietors of all
large works, on the firll appearance of infe£lious difeafe
among the people employed in them:—indeed, it
fhould be employed even as a preventive in all fitua-
tions where a number of people, from the nature of
their bufinefs, are obliged to be crowded together, or
where, from local circumflances, there are reafons for
fufpe&ing that the purity of the air is injured by
noxious exhalations or other caufes. If there be any
circumflances in which its utility may be called in
queftion, it can only be in cafes of inflammatory dif-
eafes : for, in fuch, fuper-oxygenation has been found
hurtful,
CONTEMPLATION, an aft of the mind, rvhere-
by it applies itfelf to confider and rcfleft upon the works
of God, nature, &c.
CONTEMPORARY, or Cotemporary, a per-
fon or thing that exifted in the fame age with another.
Thus, Socrates, Plato, and Ariftophanes, were con¬
temporaries.
CONTEMPT, in a general fenfe, the aft of de-
fpiiing, or the Hate of being deipifed.
Contempt, in Law, is a difobedience to the rules
and orders of a court, which hath power to punifh fuch
offence } and as this is fometimes a greater, and fome-
times a lefler offence, fo it is puniihed with greater or
lefs punifhment, by fine, and fometimes by imprifon-
ment.
CONTENT, in Geometry, the area or quantity of
matter or fpace included in certain bounds.
CONTESSA, a port-town of Turkey in Europe, in
the province of Macedonia, fituated on a bay of the
Archipelago, about 200 miles weft of Conftantinople.
• E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 41. o.
CON TEXT, among divines and critics, that part
of Scripture or other writing which lies about the text,
before or after it, or both. To take the full and ge¬
nuine ienfe of the text, the context fhould be regard¬
ed.
CONTEXTURE, a word frequently ufed in fpeak-
ing both of the works of nature and art; and denoting
the difpofition and union of the conftituent parts with
refpeft to one another.
CONTI, a town of Picardy in France, with the
title of a principality. It is feated on the river Seille,
in E. Long. 2. 17. N. Lat. 49. 54.
CONTIGUITY, in Geometry, is when the furface
of one body touches that of another.
CONTIGUOUS, a relative term underftood of
things dil’pofed fo near each other, that they join their
furfaces, or touch. The houfes in ancient Rome were
not contiguous as ours are, but all infulated.'
CONTINENCE, in Ethics, a moral virtue, by
which we refift concupifcence. It fhould feem that
there is this diftinftion between chaftity and continence,
in that it requires no effort to be chafte, which refults
from conftitution j whereas continence appears to be
the confequence of a viftory gained over ourfelves.
The verb continere, in the Latin, fignifies “ to re-
ftrain.” The term, howrever, is moft ufually applied
to men *, as chajlity is to women. See Chastity.
Continence is a virtue that makes but an inconlider>»
- C O N
days. However, we ought not to Contmency.
lofe our ideas of things, though we have debauched our ■'
true relifh in our praftice : for, after all, folid virtue
will keep its place in the opinion of the wife and fen-
fible part of mankind. And though cuftom has not
made it fo fcandalous as it ought to be to infnare inno¬
cent women, and triumph in the falfehood ; fuch aftions
as we fhall relate muft be accounted true gallantry, and
rife higher in our efteem the farther they are removed
from our imitation.
1. Scipio the younger, when only 24 years of age, Livy,. Val.
was appointed by the Roman republic to the command
of the army again!! the Spaniards. His wifdom and
valour would have done honour to the moft experienced
general. Determined to ftrike an important blow, he
forms a defign of befieging Carthagena, then the ca¬
pital of the Carthaginian empire in Spain. His mea-
fures were fo judicioufly concerted, and with fo much
courage and intrepidity purfued both by fea and land,
that notwithftanding a bold and vigorous defence, the
capital was taken by ftorm. The plunder was im-
menfe. Ten thoufand free-men were made prifoners j
and above 300 more, of both fexes, were received as
hoftages. One of the latter, a very ancient lady, the
wife of Mandonius, brother of Indibilis king of the
Uergeles, watching her opportunity, came out of the
crowd, and throwing herfelf at the conqueror’s feet,
conjured him, with tears in her eyes, to recommend
to thole who had the ladies in their keeping to have
regard to their fex and birth. Scipio, who did not
underhand her meaning at firft, affured her that he
had given orders that they fhould not w’ant for any
thing. But the lady replied, “ Thofe conveniences
are not what affeft us. In the condition to which for¬
tune hath reduced us, with what ought we not to be
contented ! I have many other apprehenfions, when I
confider, on one fide, the licentioufnefs of war j and
on the other, the youth and beauty of the princeffts
which you fee here before us : for as to me, my age
protefts me from all fear in this rdpeft.” She had
with her the daughters of Indibilis, and feveral other
ladies of high rank, all in the flower of youth, who
confldered her as their mother. Scipio then compre¬
hending what the fubjeft of her fear wras, “ My own
glory (fays he) and that of the Roman people, are
concerned, in not fuffering that virtue, which ought
always to be refpefted wherever we find it, fliould be
expofed in my camp to a treatment unworthy of it.
But you give me a new motive for being more flrift.
in my care of it, in the virtuous folicitude you fhow.
in thinking only of the prefervation of your honour,
in the midft of fo many other objefts of fear.” After
this converfation, he committed the care of the ladies
to fome officers of experienced prudence, ftriftly com¬
manding that they fhould treat them with all the re¬
fpeft they could pay to the mothers, wives, and daugh¬
ters, of their allies and particular friends. It was not
long before Scipio’s integrity and virtue were put to the
trial. Being retired in his camp, fome of his officers
brought him a young virgin of fuch exquifite beauty,
that flie drew upon her the eyes and admiration of every
body. The young conqueror ftarted ficm his feat
with confufion and furprife •, and, like one thunder-
ftruck, feemed to be robbed of that prefence of mind,
and felf-poffeffion fo neceffary in a general, and fox.
* ■which.
CON [
Continence, which Scipto was remarkably famous. In a few mo-
v- ments, having rallied his ftraggling fpirits, he inquired
of the beautiful captive, in the molt civil and polite
manner, concerning her country, birth, and connec¬
tions : and finding that (he was betrothed to a Celti-
berian prince named Allucius, he ordered both him
and the captive’s parents to be lent for. The Spanifh
prince no fooner appeared in his prefehce, than, even
before he fpake to the father and mother, he took him
nfide $ and, to remove the anxiety he might be in on
account of the young lady, he addrefled him in thefe
werds : “ You and I are young, which admits of my
fpeaking to you with more liberty. Thofe who brought
me your future fpoufe, affured me, at the fame time,
that you loved her with extreme tendernefs; and her
beauty left me no room to doubt it. Upon which
refiefling, that if, like you, I had thought on making
an engagement, and v/ere not wholly engroffed with
the affairs of my country, I fhould defire that fo ho¬
nourable and legitimate a paflion Ihould find favour,
I think myfelf happy in the prefent conjundlure to do
you this fervice. Though the fortune of war has made
me your mafter, I defire to be your friend. Here is
your wire : take her, and may the gods blefs you with
her. One thing, however, I would have you be fully
affured of, that (lie has been amongft us as Are would
have been in the houfe of her father and mother. Far
be it from Scipio to purchafe a loofe and momentary
pleafure at the expence of virtue, honour, and the
happinefs of an honeff man. No j I have kept her
•for you, in order to make you a prefent worthy of
you and of me. The only gratitude I require of you
for this ineftimable gift is, that you -would be a friend
to the Roman people.” Allucius’s heart was too full
to make him any anfwer 5 but throwing himfelf at the
general’s feet, he wept aloud. The captive lady fell
into the fame poflure : and remained fo, till the father
burff out into the following words: “ Oh! divine
Scipio! the gods have given you more than human
virtue! Oh! glorious leader! Oh! wondrous youth!
does not that obliged virgin give you, while ihe prays
to the gods for your profperity, raptures above all the
tranfports you could have reaped from the poffefiion of
her injured perfon ?”
The relations of the young lady had brought with
them a very confiderable fum for her ranfom: but
when they faw that fire was reftored to them in fo ge¬
nerous and godlike a manner, they intreated the con¬
queror, with great earneftncfs, to accept that fum as
a prefent; and declared, by his complying, that new
favour would complete their joy and gratitude. Sci¬
pio, net being able to refifi: fuch warm and earneft
felicitation, told them that be accepted the gift ;
and ordered it to be laid at his feet: then addref-
fing himfelf to Allucius, “ I add (fays he) to the por¬
tion which you are to receive from your father-in-law
this fum ; which I defire you to accept as a marriage-
prefent.”
If vve confider that Scipio was at this time in the
prime of life, unmarried, and under no reftraint, we
cannot but acknowledge, that the conqueft he made
of himfelf was far more glorious than that of the Car¬
thaginian empire : and though his treatment of this
•captive prince was not more delicate and generous than
what might jufily be expelled from a perfon endowed
O N
■!„
593 ] c
with reafon and refiedlion ; yet confidering how few Contin® <•
there are in his circumftanees who would have added ' y"
as he did, we cannot but applaud his condudl, and
propofe him as a fuitahle example to future ages. Nor
was his virtue unrewarded. The young prince, charm¬
ed with the liberality and politenefs of Scipio, went
into his country to publilh the praifes of fo generous
a vi£lor. He cried out, in the tranfports of Jris gra- 1
titude, “ That there was come into Spain a young
hero like the gods, who conquered 'all things iefs by
the force of his arms than the charms of his virtue
and the greatnefs of his beneficence.” Upon this report
all Celtiberia fubrnitted to the Romans j and Allucius
returned in a (bout to Scipio, at the head of 1400 chofen
horfe, to facilitate his future conquefts. To render the
marks of his gratitude ftill more durable, Allucius
caufed the adlion vve have juft related to be engraven
on a filver flrield, which he prefented to Scipio, a prefent'
infinitely more eftimable and glorious than all his
treafures and triumphs. This buckler, which Scipio
carried with him when he returned to Rome, was loft,
in pafljng the Rhone, with part of the baggage. It
continued in that river till the year 1665, when fome
fifherinen found it. It was, before the revolution, in the
king of France’s cabinet.
2. The circumftance which raifes Alexander the
Great above many conquerors, and, as it were, above
himfelf, is the ufe he made of his victory after the
battle of Iffus. This is the moft beautiful incident in
bis life. It is the point of view in which it is his in-
tereft to be confilered ; and it is impoflible for him
not to appear truly great in that view. By the vi£lo-
ry of Ifi'us he became poffeiTed of the whole Perfian
empire j not only Syfigambis, Darius’s mother, was
his captive, but alfo his wife and daughters, princeffes
whofe beauty was not to be equalled in ail Afia. A-
lexander, like Scipio, was i.; the bloom of life, a con¬
queror, free, and not yet engaged in matrimony : ne-
verthelefs, his camp was to thofe princeffes a iacred
afylum, or rather a temple, in which their chaftity
was fecured as under the guard of virtue itfelf j and
fo h’>hly revered, that Darius, in his expiiing mo
ments, hearing the kind treatment they had met with,
could not help lifting up his dying hands towards hea¬
ven, and vvifiiing fuccefs to fo wife and generous a con¬
queror, who could govern his paffions at fo critical a
time. Plutarch informs us more particularly, that the
princeffes lived fo retired in the camp, according to
their own defire, that they were not feen by any per¬
fon except their own attendants *, nor did any other
perfon dare to aproach their apartments. After the
firft vifit, which was a refpeftful and ceremonious one,
Alexander, to avoid expofing himfelf to the dangers of
human frailty, made a folemn refolution never to vifit
Darius’s queen any more. He himfelf informs us of
this memorable circumftance, in a letter written by him
to Parmenio, in which he commanded him to put to
death certain Macedonians who had forced the wives
of fome foreign foldiers. In this letter was the fol¬
lowing paragraph : “ For as to myfelf, it will fee found
that I neither faw nor would fee the wife of Darius *,
and did not fuffer any one to fpeak of her beauty before
, Flutercl
3. Ifocrates informs us, that Nicocles, king of Sa-
lamin, gloried in never having known any woman be-
fides
lap
CON- [ S99
«Anfe, Tides Ins wife ; and was amazed that all other ccntra&s
nt of civil fociety Ihould be treated with due regard, whilft
that of marriage, the mold facred and inviolable of
obligations, was broken through with impunity •, and
that men Ihould nof bluih to commit an infidelity with
refpeft to their wives, of which, Ihould their wives be
guilty^ it would throw them into the utmoft anguilh
and fury.
4. Henry VI. king of England, though unhappy in
his family and government, was neverthelefs poffeiTed
of many virtues. He w7as fo remarkable for his cha~
ftity, that before his marriage he would not allow any
lady of a fufpicious charaffer and unguarded conduft
to frequent the court: and having obferved one day
fome ladies with their bofoms uncovered, he turned
away his eyes from the indecent object, and reprimand¬
ed them fmartly in the fimple dialed of the times :
“ Fy, fy (faid he), for {name; forfooth ye be to
blame.”
5. In the reign of King Charles II. when licentiouf-
nefs was at its height in Britain, a yeoman of the
guards refufed the miftrefs of a king. The lady, who
was diffatisfied with her royal lover, had fixed her eyes
upon this man, and thought fire had no more to do
than fpeak her pleafure. He got out of her way.
He refufed to underftand her •, and when fire preffed
him further, he faid, “ I am married.” The fiory
reached the king, with all its circumftances •, but they
who expelled an extravagant laugh upon the occafion
were difappointed. He fent for the perfon: he found
him a gentleman, though reduced to that mean flation ;
and “ Odds fiih, man (fays he), though I am not honeft
enough to be virtuous myfelf, I value them that are.”
He gave him an appointment, and refpe&ed him for
life.
6. In many parts the pooreft people are the mod; vir¬
tuous and honed in this refpe£l. In the Swede’s domi¬
nion, towards the pole, there is no name for adultery.
They thought it an offence man could not commit againd
man ; and have no word to exprefs it in their language.
The unpolifhed Lapland peafant,7 with thefe thoughts,
is, as a human creature, much more refpe£lable than
the gay Briton, whole heart is dained with vices, and
edranged from natural affe&ion j and he is happier.
The perfect confidence mutually repofed between him
and the honed partner of his bread, entails a fatisfac-
tion even in the lowTed poverty. It gilds the humble
hearth, and lights the cabin ; their homely meal is a
facrifice of thanks, and every breath of fmoke arifes
in incenfe. If hand be laid upon hand, it is fure af-
feftion ; and if fume infant plays about their, knees,
they look upon him and upon each other with a de¬
light that greatnefs feldom knows, becaufe it feels
didrud.
CONTINENT, in general, an appellation given to
things continued without interruption j in which fenfe
we fay, continent fever, &c.
Continent, in Geography, a great extent of land
not interrupted bv feas, in contradidindhon to ifland
and penlnfula, &c. See Geography. Sicily is faid
to have been anciently torn from the continent ofiltaly;
and it is an old tradition, which fome of our antiquaries,
dill have a regard to, that Britain was formerly a part
of the continent of France,
] CON
The world is ufually divided into two great con¬
tinents, the old and the new. Whether, there exids
in the fouthern hemifphere another continent, or the
whole be only an immenfe w7atery region, is a .ques¬
tion that for near three centuries has engaged the at¬
tention of the learned as well as the commercial
world, and given rife to many intereding voyages
and difeoveries 5 concerning which, fee the article
SouTH-Sea,
CONTINGENT, fomething cafua! or unufual,—
Hence future contingent denotes a conditional event
which may or may not happen, according as circum-
dances fall out.
Contingent, is alfo a term of relation for the
quota that falls to any perfon upon a divifion. Thus
each prince of Germany in time of war is to furnilh io
many men, io much money, and munition, for his con¬
tingent.
CONTINUED, or Continual, in a general
fenfe, means inceffant, or proceeding without inter¬
ruption.
Continued Fever, is fuch a one as; fometimes re¬
mits, but never intermits or goes entirely off till its
period.
Continued Bafs, in Mujtc, thus called, fays Rouffeau,
becaufe it is continued through the whole piece. Its
principal ufe, befides that of regulating the harmony, is
to fupport the voice, and preferve the tone.—They
pretend that it was one Ludovico Viana, of whom a
treatife dill remains, who towards the end of the laft
century fiift put the continued bafs in pra&ice.
Continued Proportion, in Arithmetic, is that where
the confequent of the fird ratio is the fame with the
antecedent of the fecond j as 4 : 8 :: 8 : 16; in con-
tradidin&ion to diferete proportion.
CONTINUITY, is defined by fome fchoolmen the
immediate cohefion of parts in the fame quantum : by
others, a mode of body, whereby its extremities be¬
come one •, and by others, a date of body refulting
from une mutual implication of its parts. There are
two kinds of continuity, mathematical and phyficah
The fird is merely imaginary, fince it fuppofes real
or phyfical parts where there are none. The other,
or phyfical continuity, is that date of two or more
particles, in which their parts are fo mutually impli¬
cated as to conditute oAe uninterrupted quantity or
coistinuum.
CONTINUO, in Mujic, fignifies the thorough b?.&,
as baffo continuo is the continual or thorough bafs,.
which is fometimes marked in mufic-books by tfie tet¬
ters B. C.
CONTOB ABDITES, a feft in the fixth century.
Their fird leader was Severus of Antioch ; who was
lucceeded by John the grammarian furnamed Philo-
ponus, and one Theodofius whole followers were alfo
called ‘Theodojians. Part of them, who were willing to
receive a book compofed by Theodofius on the Trinity,
made a feparate body, and were called Contobabdites,
from fome place, which Nscephorus does not mention,
hut which mud apparently have been the place where
they held their affemblies. The Contobabdites allowed
of no bidiops; which is the only circumdance given us
concerning them.
CONTOR, Condor, or Cundur, the American
nams.
CON ■ [ 600 ] CON
Center
name of a fpecies of Vulture. See Ornithology
Index.
CONTORSION, in general, fignifies the adlion of
twilling or wreiling a nriember of the body out of its
natural lituation. Rope-dancers accuftom themfelves
to conterfions of their limbs from their youth, to render
the fibres of their articulations lax, and fupple to all
kinds of poflures.
Contorsion, in Medicine, has many fignifications,
I. It denotes the iliac paflion. 2. An incomplete dif-
location, when a bone is in part, but not entirely, forced
from its articulation. 3. A dillocation of the vertebrae
of the back fidewife, or crookednefs of thefe vertebrae.
And, 4. A diforder of the head, in which it is drawn
towards one,fide, either by a fpafmodic contradlion of the
mufcles on the fame fide, or a palfy of the antagonift
snufcles on the other.
CONTORTfE, the name of the 30th order in Lin¬
naeus’s Fragments of a natural method, confiding of
plants which have a fingle petal, which is twilled or bent
to one fide. This order contains the following genera,
viz. echites, cerbera, gardenia, genipa, microcnemum,
nerium, periploca, rawolfia, tabernsemontana, vinca,
apocynum, afclepias, comeraria, ceropegia, cynanchum,
plumeria, llapelia. See Botany Index.
CONTOUR, in Painting, the outline, or that which
defines a figure.
A great part of the fkill of the painter lies in ma-
naging the contours well. Contour, with the Italian
painters, fignifies the lineaments of the face.
CONTOURNE, in Heraldry, is ufed when a bead
is reprefented Handing or running with its face to
the finilter fide of the efcutcheon, they being always
fuppofed to look to the right, if not otherwife ex-
preffed.
CONTOURNIATED, a term among antiquaries
applied to medals, the edges of which appear as if turned
in a lathe. This fort of work feems to have had its
origin in Greece j and to have been defigned to perpe¬
tuate the memories of great men, particularly thofc
who had borne away the prize at the folemn games.
Such are thofe remaining of Homer, Solon, Euclid,
Pythagoras, Socrates, and feveral athlelae.
CONTRA-Harmonical Proportion, is that relation
of three terms, in which the difference of the firft and
fecond is to the difference of the lecond and third, as
the third is to the firft. Thus, for inftance, 3, 5, and
6, are numbers contra-harmonically proportional j for
2 ; t 6 ; 3.
CoNTRA-Mure, in Fortification, is a little wall built
before another partition wall, to ftrengthen it, fo that
it may receive no damage from the adjacent build-
inSS*
CONTRABAND, in Commerce, a prohibited com¬
modity or merchandife, bought or fold, imported or
exported, in prejudice to the laws and ordinances of a
ftate, or the public prohibitions of the fovereign. Con¬
traband goods are not only liable to confifcation them¬
felves, but alfo fubjedt all other allowed merchandife
found with them in the fame box, bale, or parcel, to¬
gether with the horfes, waggons, &€. which conduft
them. There are contrabands likewife, which, befides
the forfeiture of the goods, are attended with feveral pe-
nalties and difabilities.
CONTRACT, in a general fenfe, a mutual confent Cocttafi
of two or more parties, who voluntarily promife and “ *
or more
obLge themielves to do fomething ; pay a certain fum,
or the like. All donatioas, exchanges, leafes, &c. are
fo many different contradls.
Contract is particularly ufed, in common law, far
an agreement or covenant between two, with a lawful
confideration or caufe. As, if I fell my horfe for money;
or covenant, in confideration of 20I. to make you a
leafe of a farm j thefe are good contrails, becaufe there
is quid pro quo.
Ufunous Contract, is a contrail to pay more intereft
for money than the law allows. See Usury.
Thofe contrails are faid to be null which the law
prohibits the making of j fuch are all contrails be¬
tween perfons incapable of contrailing, as minors,
religious, lunatics, wives without confent of their huf-
bands, &c.
Contract is alfo ufed for the inftrument in writing,
which ferves as a proof of the confent granted, and the
obligation paffed between the parties.
Among the ancient Romans, contrails, and all
voluntary, uils, were written, either by the parties
themfelves, or by one of the witneffes, or by a do-
meftic fecretary of one of the parties, whom they
called a notary, but who was no public perfon as
among us.
The contrail, when finiftred, was carried to the ma-
giftrate, who gave it a public authority by receiving it
inter alia, into the number of ails under his jurifdiilion;
giving each of the parties a copy thereof, tranferibed by
his clerks or domeftic regiflers, and fealed with his feal.
Which prailice paffed into France, where it obtained a
long time.
Contraiit f ^
toryPto.
Pofition,
CONTRACTILE force, that property or power
inherent in certain bodies, whereby, when extended,
they are enabled to draw themfelves up again to their
former dimenfions.
CONTRACTION, in Phyjics, the diminilhing the
extent or dimenfions of a body, or the caufing its parts
to approach nearer to each other ; in which fenfe it
Hands oppofed to dilation or expanfion.
Contraction is frequently ufed by anatomical wri¬
ters, to exprefs the fhrinking up of a fibre, or an affem-
blage of fibres, when extended.
Convulfions and fpafms proceed from a preternatural
contraiflion of the fibres of the mufcles of the part con-
vulfed. On the contrary, paralytic diforders generally
proceed from a too great laxnefs of the fibres of the
part affedted •, or from the want of that degree of con-
tradlion neceffary to perform the natural motion or adlion
of the part. In the fivft, therefore, the animal fpirits
are fuppofed to flow', either in too great a quantity, or
irregularly, and, in the lail, the animal fpirits are either
denied a free paffage into the part affedled, or the tenfion
of the fibrilla; is fuppofed infuftreient to promote the
circulation.
Contraction, in Grammar, is the reducing of
two fyllables into one, as can't for cannot, JbouldJl for
fhouldejl, &c.
CONTRADICTION, a fpecies of diredl oppofi-
tion, wherein one thing is found diametrically oppofite
to another.
CONTRADICTORY propositions, are oppo¬
fite
CON [ 6q
die- fites, one of which imports a mere and naked denial of
,'0' the other.
;ns Seeming contradidories is when the members of a
•e. period quite diiagree in appearance and found, but
—' pcifedly agree and are confident in fenfe : thus,
Cowards die many times before their death :
The valiant never tafte of death but once.
Shakefpeare.
CONTRAFISSURE, in Surgery, a kind of frac¬
ture, or fiffure, in the cranium, which fometimes hap¬
pens on the fide oppofite to that which received the
blow’, or at leaf! at feme diftance from it.
CONrRAINDICATION, in Medicine, is an in¬
dication which forbids that to be done which the main
fcope of a difeafe points out.
Suppofe, e. gr. in the cure of a difeafe a vomit
w’ere judged proper •, if the patient be fubjedl; to a vo¬
miting of blood, it is a fufficient contraindication as to
its exhibitition,
CONTRARIETY, an opposition between two
things, which imports their being contrary to one
another •, and ccnfifis in this, that one of the terms
implies a negation of the other, either mediately or
immediately ; fo that contrariety may be laid to be
the contrail, or oppofilion of tw’o things, one of
which imports the abfence of the other, as love and
hatred.
CONTRAST ; opposition or difiimilitude of figures,
by which one contributes to the vifibiiity or tfibdl of
the others. See RESEMBLANCE.
Contrast, in Painting and Sculpture, exprefles an
oppofition or difference of pofition, attitude, &c. of
two or more figures, contrived to make variety in a '
painting, &c.; as where, in a group of three figures,
one is fhown before, another behind, and another fide-
wife, they are faid to be in contrail.
The contrail is not only to be obferved in the pofi¬
tion of feveral figures, but alfo in that of the feveral
members of the fame figures : thus, if the right arm
advance fartheft, the right leg is to be hindermoll 5 if
the eye be diredled one way, the arm to go the con¬
trary way, &c. The contrail muft be puvlued even in
the drapery.
Contrast, in MrchitcBure, is to avoid the repe¬
tition of the fame thing, in order to pleafe by va¬
riety.
CONTRATE-WHEEL, in watch-work, that next to
the crown, the teeth and hoop whereof lie contrary to
thole of the other wheels, from whence it takes its name.
See WATCH-Making.
CONTR AVA ELATION, or the Line of Contra-
fallation, in Fortification, a trench guarded with
a parapet, and ufually cut round about a place by the
befiegers, to Secure themfelves on that fide, and to flop
the fallies of the garrifon. See FORTIFICATION.
CONTRAVENTION, in Law, a man’s failing to
difeharge his word, obligation, duty, or the laws cr
Cufioms of the place.
CONTRAYERVA. See Dorstenia, Eotany
Index.
CONTR E, in Heraldry, an appellation given to fe¬
veral bearings, on account of their cutting the Ihield
contrary and oppofite ways: thus we meet with contre-
Vol. VI. Part II.
I ] .CON
bend, contre-chevron, contre-pale, See. when there Centre
are twTo ordinaries of the fame nature oppofite to each H
other, fo as colour may be oppofed to metal, and me- » ^ F 1
tal to colour.
CONTRIBUTION, the payment of each perfon’s
quota of the part he is to bear in fome impofition, or
common expence. See CONTINGENT, &c.—Contri¬
butions are either involuntary, as thofe of taxes and
impofis; or voluntary, as thofe of expences for carry¬
ing on fome undertaking for the intereft of the com¬
munity.
Contributions, in a military fenfe, are impofi-
tions paid by frontier countries to fecure themfelves
from being plundered and ruined by the enemy’s
army. The peafants till their ground under the faith,
of contributions, as fecurely as in the time of profound
peace.
CONTRITION, in Theology, a forrow for our
fins, refulting from the refle&ion of having offended
God, from the foie confideration of his goodnefs, with¬
out any regard to the punilhment due to the trefpafs,
and attended with a fincere refolution of forfaking
them. The word is derived from the Latin conlerere,
to break or bruife.
CONTROL is properly a double regifter kept of
a£ts, iffues, &c. of the officers or commiffioners in
the revenue, army, &c. in order to perceive the true
Hate thereof, and to certify the truth, and the due
keeping of the afts fubje<51 to the enregifterment.
CONTROLLER, an officer appointed to control
or overfee the accounts of other officers 5 and, on ac-
cafion, to certify whether or not things have been con¬
trolled.
In Britain we have feveral officers of this name •,
as controller of the king’s houfe, controller of the
navy, controller of the cuftcms, controller of the
mint, &c.
Controller of the Hanaper, an officer wffio attends
the lord chancellor daily, in term and in feal-time, to
take all things fealed in leathern bags from the clerks
of the hanaper, and to mark the number and effedt
thereof, and enter them in a book, with all the du¬
ties belonging to the king and other officers for the
fame, and fo charge the clerk of the hanaper with
them.
Controller of the Houfehold, the fecond officer un¬
der the lord fteward. The name of his office comes
from the French word contTerouler. His office is to
control the accounts and reckonings of the Green
Cloth, of which board he is always a member. He
carries a white ftaff, and is always one of the privy-
council. He has 10 7I. 17s. 6d. a-year wages, and
1092I. 2s. 6d. board wages.
Controller of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer,
who makes out a fummons twice every year, to levy
the farms and debts of the pipe. See Pipe and Ex¬
chequer.
Controllers of the Pells, two officers of the exche¬
quer who are the chamberlain’s clerks, and keep a
control of pell of the receipts and goings out.
CONTUMACY, in Law, a refufal to appear in court
when legally fummoned, or the difobedience to the
rules and orders of a court having power to puniffi
fuch offence.
4g
CONTUSION,
any hurt
blunt inilrument.
C O N
Contuficn CONTUSION, in Medicine and Surgery,
„ il of the body that is intlidted by
. Conven- c, ..
tide. ^URGKRY-
■ CONVALESCENCE, in Medicine, the infenfible
recovery of health ; or that ifate in which, after the
cure of a dilorder, the body which has been reduced,
has not yet regained its vigour, but begins to refume
its powers. Proper aliments conduce to the re-efta-
bliftunent of the languid faculties ; but as the tone of
the bowels is weakened, the digeftive faculty is not
equal to its office, which is fhown by light fweats
over the whole body ; and the fmalleft excels in this
refpeft is oftentimes the occafion of dangerous re-
lapfes. A pevion in this Hate is like a taper relumin-
ed, which the leaf! degree of wind is fufficient to extin-
guiffi.
CONVALLARIA, or Lilt of the VjiiMr, in Bo¬
tany, a genus of plants, belonging to the hexandria
clals ; and in the natural method ranking under Sar-
mentacecc. See Botany Index.
CONVEN ARUM urbs, or Lugdunum, xa. Ancient
Geography, a town cf the Convenae, a people of Gal¬
lia Narbonenfis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Its ori¬
gin was owing to the Sertorian war, Pompey compel¬
ling the robbers of the Pyrenees and fugitive (laves to
fettle there, (Pliny). It flood near the head of the
Garonne. Now St Bertrand, in Gafcony. E. Long.
30. Lat. 43. 15.
CONVENTICLE, a diminutive of convent j de¬
noting, properly, a cabal, or fecret afiembly, oi a part
of the monks of a convent, to make a brigue or party
j.n the tledlion of an abbot. From the ill ufe ot thefe
afl'emblies, the word is come into ditrepute j and now
Hands for any mifchieyous, feditious, or irregular af-
fembly. F. Dovxine obferves, the occidentals always
efleemed the fifth general council an unlawful conven¬
ticle.
The term conventicle is faid, by fome, to have been
firft applied in England to the fchools of Wickliff, and
has been fince ufed to fignify the religious aflemblies
of all in that country who do not conform to the efta-
blilhed da&rines and worfhip of the church of Eng-
land.
By 22 Car. II. cap. I. it is enabled, That if any
perlons of the age of 16 years, fubjedls of this king-
. dom, (hall be prefent at any conventicle, where theie
are five or more aflembled, they (hall be fined $s. for
the firft offence, and 10s. for the fecond; and per-
fons pleaching incur a penalty of 2oh Alfo luft'er-
jmg a meeting to be held in a houfe, &c. is liable to
20I. penalty. Juflices of peace have power to enter
fuch houfes, and feize perfons affembled, &c. And if
they negleft their duty, they fliall forfeit tool. And
if any conflable, &c. know of fuch meetings, and do
not inform a juftice of peace, or chief magi (irate, &c.
he (hall forfeit 5I. But the ift W. and M. cap. 18.
ordains, that proteflant diffenters (hall be exempt from
penalties : though, if they meet in a houfe with the
doors locked, barred, or bolted, fuch diffenters (hall
have no benefit from 1 W. and M. Officers of the
government, &c. prefent at any conventicle, at which
there fliall be ten perfons, if the royal family be not
prayed for in exprefs words, (hall forfeit 40I. and be
difabled (Stat. 10 Anne, cap. 2.)
602 ] CON
CONVENTION, a treaty, contrary or agreement Convej
between two or more parties. I
Convention is alfo a name given to an extraordi- 0^’e,l
nary a fie mb iy of parliament, or the eftates of the realm,
held without the king’s writ. Of this kind was the
convention parliament which reftored Charles II. This
parliament met above a month before his return, and
(at full (even months after his reftovation, and ena&ed
leveral laws ftill in force, which were confirmed by
flat. 13 Car. II. c. 7. and c. 14. Such alfo was the
convention of eftates in 1688, who upon the retreat of
King James II. came to a concluiron that he had abdi¬
cated the throne, and that the right of fucceffion de¬
volved to King William and Queen Mary •, whereupon
their affembly expired as a convention, and was con¬
verted into a parliament.
CoNrENTioa of EJlates, in Scotland, was partly of
the nature of a parliament; but differing in this, that
the former could only lay on taxes, while parliament
could both Impofe taxes and make law's.
CONVENTUAL, fomething belonging to a con¬
vent or monaftery. See Monastery, and Coenobite.
Conventual, is particularly ufed for a religious
who a&ually refides in a convent •, in contradiliinclion
to thole wTho are only guefts, or are entertained there,
or are. in poflefiion of benefices depending on the houfe.
See Monk.
CONVENTUS Juridici, were courts of juftice
eftablifhed in the Roman provinces 5 with a relorfc or
extent of jurifdidHon, circumfcribed and confined with¬
in certain limits of diftritt, whither all who wxre of the
refort were to repair for juftice. Ibe unfeafonable af-
fedlation of changing forms of war into forms of civil
courts, proved the ruin of Varus and of three legions in
Germany, (Florus). Conventum agere, is to hold a
court of juftice.
CONVERGING or Convzrgent Lines, in Geome¬
try, are fuch as continually approach nearer one ano¬
ther, or whofe diftances become ftiil le& and lefs. Thefe
are oppofed to divergent lines, the diftances of which
become continually greater ; thole lines which converge
one way, diverge the other.
Converging Rays, in Optics, thofe rays that, iffuing
from divers points of an objedt, incline towards another,
till at laft they meet and crofs, and then become di¬
verging rays.
Converging Series, a feries of terms or quantities
that always decreafe the farther they proceed, or which
tend to a certain magnitude or limit : in oppoiition to
diverging feries, or luch as become continually larger
and larger.
CONVERSATION, or Discourse, fignifies an
interlocution between two, or among more perlon&:
with this diftin&ion, that converfation is uled for any
general intercourfe of fentiments whatever, wffiereas a
difcourfe means a converfation limited to fome particu¬
lar fubjeft.
There is no part, perhaps, of focial life, which af¬
fords more real fatisfa&ion than thofe hours which one
paffes in rational and unreferved converfation. lhat
converfation, however, may anfwer the ends for which
it wTas defigned, the parties who are to join in it muft
come together with a determined refolution to pleafa,
and to be pleafed.
In
CON
rfa- In the conduct of it, be not eager to interrupt
• others, or uneafy at being yourfelf interrupted; fince
riC', you fpeak either to amufe or ioftruft the campany, or
to receive thofe benefits from it. Give all, therefore,
leave to fpeak in turn. Hear with patience, and an-
fwer .with precifion. Inattention is ill manners $ it
{hows contempt $ and contempt is never forgiven.
Trouble not the company with your own private
concerns, as you do not love to be troubled with thofe
of others. Yours are as little to them as theirs are to
you. You will need no other rule whereby to judge of
this matter.
Contrive, but with dexterity and propriety, that
each perfon may have an opportunity of difeourfing
on the fubjeft with which he is belt acquainted. He
will be pleafed, and you will be informed. By obfer-
ving this rule, every one has it in his power to aflid
in rendering conyerfation agreeable 3 fince, though he
may not choofe, or be qualified, to fay much himfelf,
he can propofe queftions to thofe wTho are able to an-
fwer them.
Avoid dories, unlefs (hort, pointed, and quite a-pro-
fios. He who deals in them, fays Swift, irmft either
have a very large Itock, or a good memory, or mud
often change his company. Some have a fet of them
ftrung together like onions 3 they take poffefiion of
the converfation by an early introduction of one, and
then you mud have the whole rope ; and there is an
end of every thing elfe, perhaps, for that meet¬
ing, though you may have heard ail twenty times be¬
fore.
I alk often, but not long. The talent of harangue*
ing private company is mfupportable. Senators and
barrifters are apt to be guilty of this fault 3 and mem¬
bers who never harangue in the houfe will often do
it out of the houfe. If the majority of the company
be naturally filent, or cauiious, the converfation will
flag, unlefs it be often renewed by one among them
who can dart new fubjech. Forbear, however, if pof-
fible, to broach a fecond before the fird is out, led
your dock diould not lad, and you ftiould be obliged
to come back to the old barrel. There are thofe who
will repeatedly crofs upon and break into the converfa¬
tion with a fre(h topic, till they have touched upon all
and exhauded none. Economy here is neceffary for
mod people.
Laugh not at your own wit and humour 3 leave that
to the company.
When the converfation is flowing in a ferious and
ufeful channel, never interrupt it by an ill-timed jed.
The dream is fcattered, and cannot be again colleded.
Difcourfe not in a whifper, or half-voice, to your
next neighbour. It is ill-breeding, and, in fome degree,
a fraud 3 converfation-dock being, as one has well ob-
ferved, a joint and common property.
In reflexions on abfent people, go no farther than
you would go if they were prefent. “ I refolve (fays
Bifhop Beveridge) never to fpeak of a man’s virtues to
his fare, nor of his faults behind his back —A golden
rule ! the obfervatlon of which would, at one droke,
hamfh flattery and defamation from the earth.
CONVERSE, in Mathematics. One propofition is
called the canverfe of another, when, after a conclu-
fion is drawn from fomething fuppcfcd in the converfe
G O N
propofition, that conclufion is fuppofed ) and then, that
which in the other was fuppofed, is now drawn as a
conclufion from it: thus when two fides of a triangle
are equal, the angles under thefe fides are equal 3 and,
on the converfe, if thefe angles are equal, the two fides
are equal.
CONVERSION, in a moral fenfe, implies a re¬
pentance for a temper and conduCl unworthy our na¬
ture, and unbecoming our obligations to its Author,
and a refolution to aCl a wifer and a better part for the
future.
Conversion, in War, a military motion, whereby
the front of a battalion is turned where the flank was, in
cafe the battalion is attacked in the flank.
Conversion of Equations, the fame with redudion of
equations by multiplication. See Algebra.
CONVERT, a perfon who has undergone a conver*
fion.
Convert is chiefly ufed in refpeCl of changes from
one religion, or religious fed, to another. Converts
with relation to the religion turned to, are denomi¬
nated apojlates with regard to that they have relin-
quiflied.
The Jews formerly converted to Chriftianity in Eng¬
land, were called converfos. Henry III. built them a
houfe in London, and allowed them a competent fub-
fiftence for their lives ; which houie was called damns
converforum. But the number afterwards increafing,
they grew a burden to the crown j upon which they
were diftributed among the monalteries : and after the
expulfion of the Jews under Edward III. the domus
converforum was given for keeping of the rolls.
Converts, in a monaftic fenfe, are lay-friars, or
brothers, admitted for the fervice of the houfe 3 with¬
out orders, and not allowed to fing in the choir. Till
the eleventh century, the word was ufed for perfons
who embraced the monkifh life at the age of difere-
tion 3 by which they were diftinguifiied from thofe de¬
voted in their childhood by their parents, called ohlatu
But in the eleventh century, when they began to re¬
ceive into, monafteries illiterate perfons, incapable of
being clerks, and only deftined for bodily labour, the
fignification of the word was necefiarily changed.
F. Mabillon obferves, that it was John fnfi; abbot of
Vallombrofa who firfl introduced thefe brother-con¬
verts, difiinguiftied by their ftate from the monks of
the choir, who were then either clerks or capable of
becoming fo.
CONVEX, an appellation given to the exterior fur-
face of gibbous or globular bodies 3 in oppofition to
the hollow inner furface of fuch bodies, which is called
concave; thus we fay, a convex fueze, lens, mirror,
fuperfices, &c.
CONVEXITY, the exterior furface of a convex,
i. e. gibbous and globular thing 3 in oppofidon to con¬
cavity, or the inner furface, which is hollow or de-
prdLd. See Concave.
The word is of particular import in catoptrics and
dioptrics 3 where it is applied to mirrors and lenfes.
A convex mirror reprefents its images fmaller than
the objefls 3 as a concave one reprefents them larger ;
a convex mirror refle&s the rays from it, diverging 3
and therefore difperfes and weakens their ,tSe6l : as
•a concave one refle&s them converging 3 fo as they
4 G 2 conchy
[ 603 ]
Converfe
II .
CON ' t 604 ] CON
Convexity concur in a point, and have their effect increafed j and
Conviction ^ ^°W muc^ rnjrror is a portion of a fmaller fphere,
w-—— by much does it diminilh the objects, and difperfe the
rays the more. See Mirror.
A convex lens is either convex on both fides, called
& convexo-convex; or it is plain on one fide and con¬
vex on the other, called a plano-convex; or concave
on one fide and convex on the other, called a con¬
vexo-concave, or concavo-convex, as the one or the
other furface prevails, i. e. as this or that is a por¬
tion of a fmaller fphere. All convex lenfes inflect the
rays of light in their paffage, i; e. fend them out from
their convex lurface converging, fo as that they concur
in a point or focus. Hence all convex lenfes magnify,
i. e. reprefent their images larger than their objects j and
this the more as they are portions of fmaller fpheres.
CONVEYANCE, in Law, a deed or inftrument that
paffes land, &c. from one perfon to another.
CONVICT, in common law, a perfon that is found
guilty of an oft'ence by the verdidt of a jury. See the
following article.
CONVICTION, in Law. When a jury has given
a verdict upon trial, finding the prifoner guilty, he is
faid to be convifted of the crime whereof he Hands in¬
dicted. See Trial.
When the offender is thus convicted, there are two
collateral circumftances that immediately arife. 1. On
a conviction in general for any felony, the reafonable
expences of profecution are by ftatute 25 Geo. II. c. 36.
io be allowed the profecutor out of the country-flock,
it he petitions the judge for that purpofe ; and by
ilatute xy Geo. II. c. 3. poor perfons, bound over
to give evidence, are likevvife entitled to be paid their
charges, as wrell without conviction as with it. 2. On
a conviction of larceny in particular, the profecutor
fhall have reflitution of his goods by virtue of the
flalute 21 Elen. VIII. c. 11. For by the common law
there was no reflitution of goods upon an indictment j
becaufe it is at the fait of the king only j and there¬
fore the party was enforced to bring an appeal of
robbery, in order to have his goods again. But, it
being confidered that the party profecuting the offender
by indictment, deferves to the full as much encou¬
ragement as he who prcfecutes by appeal, this ftatute
was made, which enaCts, that if any perfon be convict¬
ed of larceny by the evidence of the party robbed, he
ihall have full reftitution of his money, goods, and
chattels, or the value of them out of the offender’s
goods, if he has any, by a writ to be granted by the
juftices. And the conftruCtion of this aCt having been
in great meafure conformable to the law of appeals,
it has therefore in praCtice fuperfeded the ufe of ap¬
peals of larceny. For inftance, as formerly upon ap¬
peals, fo new upon indictments of larceny, this writ of
leftitution fhall reach the goods fo flolen, notwith(land¬
ing the property of them is endeavoured to be altered
by fale in market overt. And though this may feem
fomewhat hard upon the buyer, yet the rule of law is,
that fpohatus debet ante omnia rejlituti, efpecial’ly when
he has ufed all the diligence in his power to conviCt
the felon. And, fince the cafe is reduced to this
hard neceffity, that either the owner or the buyer
mult fuffer, the lav/ prefers the right of the owner,
Y/ho has done a meritorious aCt by purfuing a felon to
condign punhhment, to the right of the buyer, vvhofe
merit is only negative, that he has been guilty of no
unfair tranfaCtion. And it is now ufual for the court., tlon-
upon the conviction of a felon, to order, without any
writ, immediate reftitution of fuch goods as are brought
into court, to be made to the feveral profecutors. Or
elfe, fecondly, without fuch writ of reftitution, the party
may peaceably retake his goods wherever he happens to
find them, unlefs a new property be fairly acquired therein.
Or, laftly, if the felon be convicted and pardoned, or be
allowed his clergy, the party robbed may bring his aCtion
of trover againft him for his goods, and recover a fatis-
faCtion in damages. But fuch aCtion lies not before pro¬
fecution j for fo felonies would be made up and healed :
and alfo recaption is unlawful, if it be done with inten¬
tion to fmother and compound the larceny j it then be¬
coming the heinous offence of theft-bote.
It is not uncommon, when a perfon is convicted of
a mifdemeanour, which principally and more immedi¬
ately affeCts fbme individual, as a battery, imprifon-
ment, or the like, for the court to permit the defen¬
dant to fpeah with the profecutor, before any judge¬
ment is pronounced j and if the profecutor declares
himfelf fatisfied, to infliCl but a trivial punifhment.
This is done to rermburfe the profecutor his expences,
and make him fome private amends, without the
trouble and circuity of a civil aCIion. But it is furely
a dangerous praCtice ; and, though it may be entruft-
ed to the prudence and diferetion of the judges in the
fuperior courts of record, it ought never to be allow¬
ed in local or inferior jurifdiCtions, fuch as the quar-
ter-fefiions; where profecutions for affaults are by
this means too frequently commenced, rather for pri¬
vate lucre than for the great ends of public juftice.
Above all, it (hould never be fuffered, where the te-
ftimony of the profecutor himfelf is neceffary to con¬
viCt the defendant j for by this means the rules of evi¬
dence are entirely fubverted; the profecutor becomes
in effeCt a plaintiff, and yet is fuffered to bear witnefs
for himfelf. Nay, even a voluntary, forgivenefs by the
party injured, ought not, in true policy, to intercept
the ftroke of juftice. “ This (fays an elegant writer
who pleads with equal firength for the certainty, as for
the lenity of punilhment) may be an aCt of good nature
and humanity, but it is contrary to the good of the
public. For although a private citizen may difpenfe
with fatisfaCIion for his private injury, he cannot
remove the neceffity of public example. The right of
puniihing belongs not to any one individual or particu-
lar, but to the fociety in general, or to the fovereign
who reprefents that fociety ; and a man may renounce
his own portion of this right, but he cannot give up
that of others.”
Conviction, in Theology, expreffes the firft degree
of repentance, wherein the finner becomes fenfible of his
guilt, of the evil nature of fin, and of the danger of his
own ways.
CONVOCATION, an affembly of the clergy of
England, by their reprefentatives, to confult of eccle-
fiaftical matters. It is held during the feffion of par¬
liament, and confifts of an upper and a lower houfe.
In the upper fit the biffiops, and in the lower the infe¬
rior clergy, who are reprefented by their pro&ors; con-
fifting of all the deans and archdeacons, of one proftor
for
CON [ 605 ] COO
"«p a- for every chapter, and two for the clergy oF every di-
tli ocefe, in all 143 divines j viz. 22 deans, 53 archdea-
Ijj cons, 24 prebendaries, and 44 proctors of the diocefan
, clergy. The lower houfe chooles its prolocutor 5 whofe
bulinds it is to take care that the members attend, to
colled their debates and votes, and to carry their refo-
lutions to the upper houfe. The convocation is fum-
mcned by the king’s writ, direded to the archbifhop
of each province, requiring him to fummon all bhhops,
deans, archdeacons, See.
The power of the convocation is limited by a ftatute
of Henry VIII. They are not to make any canons or
ecclefiaftical laws without the king’s licenfe ; nor when
permitted to make any, can they put them in execution,
but under feveral reftridions. They have the examining
and cenfuring all heretical and fchifmatical books and
perfons, &c. but there lies an appeal to the king in
chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy in convoca*
tion, and their fervants, have the fame privileges as
members of parliament.
Since the year 1665, when the convocation of the
clergy gave up the privilege of taxing themfelves to
the houfe of commons, they feidom have been allowed
to do any bufinefs; and are generally prorogued from
time to time till diffolved, a new one being generally
called along with a new parliament. The only equi¬
valent for giving up the privilege of taxing themfelves,
was their being allowed to vote at eledions for mem-
bers to the houfe of commons, which they had not
before.
CONVOLUTION, a winding motion, proper to
the trunks of fome plants, as the convolvulus, or bind¬
weed ; the clafpers of vines, bryony, &c.
CONVOLVULUS, Bind-weed 5 a genus of plants
of the pentandria clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 20th order, Campanacece, See Bo¬
tany and Materia Medica Index.
CONVOY, in naval affairs, one or more ffiips of
war, employed to accompany and proted merchant
fhips, and prevent their being infulted by pirates, or
the enemies of the ftate in time of war.
| . Convoy, in military matters, a body of men that
guard any fupply of men, money, ammunition, or pro-
vifions, conveyed by land into a town, army, or the like,
in time of war.
CONUS, a cone, in Botany \ a fpecies of fruit or
fcaly feed-veffel, fo termed by Tournefort and other
botanifts. Linnaeus has fubftituted strobilus in its
place.
Conus, the cone-Jhell, a genus of (hells. See Con-
CHOLOGY Index.
CONVULSION, a preternatural and violent con-
tradion of the membranous and mufcular parts of the
body. See Medicine Index.
CONWAY, a market-town of Caernarvonffrire in
North Wales, fituated near the mouth of a river of
the fame name, 15 miles weft of St Afaph. W. Long.
3. 50. N. Lat. 53. 20.
CONYZA, Tleabane 5 a genus of plants of the
fyngenefia clafs, ranking under the 49th natural order,
Ctmpojitce. See Botany Index.
CONZA, a town of the kingdom of Naples in
Italy, fituated in the farther principate, on the river
Offanto, 50 miles fouth-eaft of the city of Naples.
E, Long. 16. 0. N. Lat. 41, o. It is the fee of an Con**,
archbifhop. , _
COOK, Sir Anthony, defeended from Sir Thomas v~'"'
Cook lord mayor of London, was born in 1506, and
luppofed to have been educated at Cambridge. He
was fo eminent for his learning, piety, and prudence,
that the guardians of King Edward VI. appointed him
to be his chief inftrudor in learning, and to form his
manners. He had four daughters •, and being refolved
to have Tons by education, left he ihould have none by-
birth, he taught his daughters thofe leflons by night
that he had inftilled into the prince by day ; he was
happy in his endeavours, as they proved learned in
Greek and Latin, and equally diftinguiihed by virtue,
piety, and good fortune. Mildred was married to the
great Lord Burleigh : Ann to Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord
keeper of the great feal; Elizabeth to Sir John Ruffel,
fon and heir of Francis earl of Bedford ; and Catha¬
rine to Sir Henry Killigrew. He lived in exile during
the Marian perfecudon 5 and returning on the accefiiou
of Queen Elizabeth, fpent the reft of his days in peace
and honour, dying in 1576.
Cook, Captain Jatnesy one of the ableft and moft
celebrated navigators of any country, was the fon of
James Cook, a labourer or fervant in hufbandry, and
fuppofed to have been a native of the county of Nor¬
thumberland, and was born on the 27th of Oftober
1728, at the village of Marton in the north riding of
Yorkfhire. He was one of nine children, all of whom
are ncwT dead except a daughter, who married a fither-
man of Redcar. He received the firft rudiments of
education from the fchoolmiftrefs of the village ^ and
afterwards, on his father’s removal to Great Ayton, he-
was put to a day-fehool, at the expence of Mr Skot-
tow his father’s employer, where he was inftrudted in
writing and in a few of the firft rules of arithmetic.
Before the age of thirteen he was bound apprentice to
Mr W. Sanderfon, a habetdalher or thopkeeper at
Straiths, about ten miles from Whitby : but fome
difagreement taking place between him and his mafter,
he indulged his own inclination in binding himfelf ap¬
prentice to Mefirs Walkers of Whitby, who had fc-
veral veflels in the coal trade; and after ferving a few
years longer in the fituation of a common failor, he
was at length raifed to be mate of one of Mr Walker’s
fhips. During all this period it is not recollected that
he exhibited any thing peculiar either in his abilities or
conduct.
Early in the year 1755, when hoftilities broke cut
between France and England, Cook entered on board
the Eagle of fixty guns, to which veflel Sir Hugh Pal-
lifer was foon after appointed, who foon diftinguilhed
him as an aftive and diligent feaman j and his promo¬
tion was forwarded by a letter of recommendation
which was written by Mr Ofbaldefton, member for
.Scarborough, at the x’equeft of feveral neighbours, in
Mr Cook’s favour. On the 15th of May 1759, he
was appointed mafter of the Mercury, which foon after
failed to America, and joined the fleet under Sir
Charles Saunders at the memorable fiege of Quebec.
His intereft with the admiralty appears even then to
have been very ftrong •, for on Mr Ofbaldeftcn’s letter
he was appointed mafter of the Grampus {loop ; but
the proper mafier having unexpe&edly returned to
COO' [ 606 ] coo
her, the appointment did not take place. Four days
after, he was made mailer of the Garland j when upon
inquiry it was found that he could not join her, as the
veffel had already failed : and the next day, May 15th
1759, he was made mailer of the Mercury. On this
occafion he was recommended by Captain Pallifer to a
difficult and dangerous fervice, viz. to take the found¬
ings of the river St Lawrence, between the illand of
Oilcans and the north Ihore, which he performed in the
moft complete manner $ and foon afterwards he w'as
employed to furvey the moll dangerous parts of the
river below Quebec : thefe were his firlt efforts with
the pencil. After this expedition he was appointed,
on the 22d of September, mailer of the Northumber¬
land, ftationed at Halifax, w'here he firll read Euclid,
and applied to ailronomy aad other branches of fcience.
In the year 1762, he was with the Northumberland,
affilling at the recapture of Newfoundland \ and in the
latter end of the fame year he returned to England, and
married, at Barking in Eifex, Mifs Elizabeth Batts.
Early in 1763, when Admiral (then Captain) Greaves
was appointed governor of Newfoundland, Mr Cook
went out wTith him to furvey the coalls of that illand.
At the end of the feafon he returned to England j
but in the beginning of 1764, Sir Hugh Pallifer being
appointed governor of Newfoundland and Labradore,
Mr Cook accompanied him in the fame capacity of
furveyor, and had the Granville fehooner to attend
him on that bulinefs: in this lituation he continued till
1767.
While Mr Cook remained on this ftation, he had an
opportunity of exhibiting publicly a fpecimen of his
progrefs in the lludy of altronomy, in a Ihoft paper
printed in the 57th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
adtions, entitled “ An obfervation of an eclipfe of the
fun at the illand of Newfoundland, Augult 5. 1766,
with the longitude of the place of obfervation de¬
duced from it.” Mr Cook’s obfervation wras made at
one of the Burgeo illands near Cape Ray, in N. Lat.
47° 56' 19" ; and by the comparifons of it made by
Mr Mitchel, with an obfervalion of Dr Hornlby at
Oxford, it appeared to have been accurately done:
and Mr Cook at that time obtained the charadler of
an able aflronomer.
In the mean time, a fpirit for geographical difeo-
veries, which had gradually declined fince the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, began to difeover itfeif anew.
Two voyages of this kind had been performed in the
reign of George II. the one under Captain Middleton,
the other by Captains Moore and Smyth, with a view
to difeover a north-well paffage through Hudfon’s Bay
to the Eall Indies. Two others, under Captains Byron,
Wallis, and Carteret, had been undertaken foon after
the conclulion of the peace in 1763, by order of his
prefent majelly j and before the return of thefe naviga¬
tors, who were ordered to fail round the w-orld, another
voyage was refolved upon for adronomical purpofes.
It having been calculated that a Iran fit of Venus over
the fun’s dilk would happen in 1769, a long memorial
to his majelly was prefenied by the Royal Society in
which they let forth the great importance of making
proper obfervations on this phenomenon, the regard that
iiad been paid to it by the different courts of Europe ;
itnd intrealing, among other things, that a vtffel might
te fitted out, at the expence of government for con¬
veying proper perfons to fome of the Friendly Iflands,
in order to make the neceffary obfervations. This'
being complied with on the part of his majefiy, Alex¬
ander Dalrymple, Efq. an eminent member of the
Royal Society, was appointed to take tlie command of
the bark appropriated for the purpofe. In the execu¬
tion of the projeft, however, an unexpedled difficulty
occurred. Mr Dalrymple, fenfible of the impoffibility
of guiding a veffel through unknowm and dangerous feas
without any proper command over the crew, demanded
a brevet commiffion as captain of the veffel, in the
fame manner as had formerly been granted to Dr
Halley in a voyage of difeovety made by him. This
commiffion Sir Edward Hawke abfolutely refufed to
fign 5 declaring, when preffed upon the fubjedl, that he
would rather fuffer his right hand to be cut off than
trull any of his' majelly’s ffiips to a perfon who had not
been properly bred to the fervice *, and in this pro¬
ceeding he feemed to be jullified by the mutinous
behaviour of Dr Halley’s crew; who, denying the
legality of his authority over them, had involved him in
a very difagreeable difpute, and which was attended
with pernicious confequences. Mr Dalrymple, on the
other hand, being equally determined in his refufal to
proceed without the authority in queftion, there was
a neceffity for finding out fome perfon of fcience who
•might alfo be free from the objection made by Sit
Edward Hawke. Mr Cook therefore was propofed
by Mr Stephens ; and his recommendation being
feconded by Sir Hugh Pallifer, he was immediately
appointed to diredl the expedition ; and on this occafion
was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in his majsfty’s
fervice.
Mr Cook’s commiffion as lieutenant was dated May
2 1768 ; a veffel of 370 tons, named the Endeavour,
was provided for him ; and while the neceffary prepa¬
rations were making for the voyage, Captain Wallis
returned. It having been recommended to this gentle¬
man to fix upon a proper place for making the aftrono-
mical obfervations, he had accordingly chofen the ifland
named by him George's Ifland, but fince known by the
name of Otnheite ; judging alfo that Port Royal harbour
in it would afford an eligible fituation. This propofal
being accepted, diredlions for the purpofe were accord-
ingly given to Mr Cook, with whom Mr Charles Green
was joined in the aflronomical part j the latter having
been affiftant to Dr Bradley in the royal obfervatory
at Greenwich, and thus judged to be every way quali¬
fied for the office. The lieutenant was likewife accom¬
panied by Mr Banks, now Sir Jofeph Banks, Dr So-
lander, &c. The principal defign of the voyage was,
as has already been hinted, to make obfervations on
the tranfit of Venus ; but this being done, Mr Co ’k
was directed to make further difeoveries in the Pacific
ocean-, and on the 30th of July 1768, he fet fail on
his expedition. An account of the voyage, and th;
difeoveries made during the time of it, is given in the
next article; here it is fufficient to obferve, that
throughout the whole Mr Cook approved himfelf an
able feaman ; and from his behaviour both to his own
people and to the fnvage nations he occafionally met
with, {bowed a moll cxadl regard to the rules both of
juftice and humanity. On his firft arrival at Ocaheite,
the following regulations were diawn up for his people,
which he took caie (hould be punctually obeyed.
1. To
COO [ 607 ] coo
1. To endeavour, by every fair means, to cultivate a
friendfhip with the natives, and to treat them with all
imaginable humanity. 2. A proper perfon or perfons
to be appointed to treat with the natives for provi-
fions, fruits, &tc. and no other perlon belonging to
the (hip to do fo without leave. 3. Every perfon on
(hoie to attend pundlually to his duty, and to pay pro¬
per at nlion to his tools or arms j and if loft through
negligence, to have the full value charged againlt his
pay, with fuch farther punilhment infli&ed as occa-
lion might require. 4. The fame penalty to be in-
flifted on every one who ftiould embezzle, trade with,
or offer to trade rvith, any part of the (hip’s (lores j and,
No iron to be given in exchange for any thing but
provifions. His rigid adherence to thcle rules *vas
jnanifefted in feveral inftances, particularly by feverely
punifhing the (hip’s butcher, who had threatened the
life of a w'oman, wife to one of the chiefs of the
illand, for refufing a ftone hatchet on the terms hs
propofed. On eretfting their obfervatory, in order to
go through the aftronomical operations, an accident
happened which had like to have, difconcerted the
whole fcheme. This was the lofs of their quadrant,
which had been ftolen by fome of the natives; but,
chiefly through the exertions of Mr Banks, it was
recovered, and the obfervations made accordingly.
Scarce was this accomplilhed, however, before ano¬
ther theft of the natives demanded the moft fericus
confideration of the commander. Some of them tak¬
ing advantage of the attention of the officers being
otherwife engaged, took the opportunity of breaking
into one of the (lore-rooms, and Healing from thence
a bag of fpike nails of no lefs than an hundred weight.
I his was a moft important affair; for as thofe nails
were of great eftimation among the Indians, the pof-
feflion of fuch a quantity muft undoubtedly have much
leffened their value, and thus rendered provifions of
every kind greatly dearer on the ifland than before.
One of the thieves therefore being difcovered, was piw
niftied with 200 lalhes ; notwithftanding which he ob-
ftinately refuled to difcover any cf his accomplices.
Repeated thefts committed afterwards required all the
wifdom and refolution of Mr Cook to condu£l him-
felf in a proper manner. After due confideration, he
judged it to be a matter of importance to put an end
to thefe practices at once, by doing fomething which
might engage the natives themfelves to prevent them
for their common intereft. This, however, he was
not at prefent able to accomplifti; nor indeed did it
feem poffible to prevent them without ufing fire¬
arms, which from motives of humanity he ftill deter¬
mined to avoid. At laft, after a (lay of three months*
when preparing to take his leave, the moft difagree-
able adventure took place that he had hitherto met
with. ’Ihis was the defertion of two of his people,
who having married young women of that country, de¬
termined to take up their relidence in it. Mr Cook
was now obliged to feize fome of the chiefs, and to in¬
form them that they could not obtain their liberty un-
lefs the deferters were recovered. This at laft produ¬
ced the defired effeft ; the deferters were given up,
and Mr Cook fet fail, along with Tupia, (who had
formerly been the prime minifter to Oberea, a princefs
of the iffand) and a boy of 13 years of age, both
of whom were defirous of accompanying him to Eng¬
land.
While Mr Cook proceeded to vlfit others of the
South fea iflands, Tupia occafionally ferved as an in¬
terpreter. On his arrival in New Zealand, Mr Cook
found the' people extremely hoftile and infolent. At
their very firft meeting, one of the natives having-
threatened to dart his lance into the boat, wras Ihot
dead. Another, having carried off Mr Green’s hanger
was fired at with Imall (hot; and upon his ftill refufing;
to reftore it, was fired at with ball and killed. This,
however, produced very little effedl on the reft, who
offered to make an attack upon them, till feveral muf-
kets were fired with fmall (hot, which wounded three
or four more. Next day the commander, having de¬
termined to force fome of the natives on board, in or¬
der to conciliate their affeftions by kind treatment,
dire&ed his men to follow two canoes whom he per¬
ceived under way before him. One made her efcape,
but the other, not obferving the boats in purfuit, was
overtaken ; on which the favages plied their oars fo
brifkly, that the (hip’s boats were not able to keep up
with them. Tupia, whofe language the New Zealan¬
ders underftood, called to them to return, with affur-
ances that no hurt ffiould be done them ; but they con¬
tinued their flight without minding him. A mulket
was then fired over their heads with a view to intimidate
them, but upon this they prepared to fight ; and on
the coming up of the boats began the attack with fo
much vigour, that the lieutenant’s people were obli¬
ged to fire upon them with ball, by which four out of
feven that were in the boat were killed, and the other
three jumped into the water,_ and were taken on
board.
This part of Mr Cock’s condufl feems inconfiftent
with that humanity for which he was in general fo
eminently diftinguiffied ; he was aware of the cenfure,
and makes the following apology. “ Thefe people
certainly did not deferve death for not choofing to con¬
fide in my promifes, or not confenting to come on
board my boat, even if they had apprehended no dan¬
ger ; but the nature of my fervice required me to ob¬
tain a knowledge of their country, which I could no
otherwife obtain but by forcing into it in an hoftile
manner, or gaining admiffion through the confidence
and good will of the people. I had already tried the
power of prefents without effect ; and I was now
prompted by my defire to avoid farther hoftilities, to
attempt to get fome of them on board ; the only me¬
thod we had left of convincing them that we intended
them no harm, and had it in our power to contribute
to their gratification and convenience. Thus far my
intentions certainly were not criminal; and though in
the conteft, which I had not the lead reafon to expe61^
our viftory might have been complete without fo great
an expence of life; yet in fuch fituations, when the
command to fire has once been given, no man can pre¬
tend to reftrain its excefs, or preferibe its effedft.”
Notwithftanding the difafter juft mentioned, to which
the three New Zealanders, who were taken on board,
bad been witneffes, they were foon conciliated, and
began to fing with a degree of tafte that furprifed the
Engliffi gentlemen. They were boys, the oldeft about
Jp and the youngeft about 11; but no kindnefs
which
Cook.
COO ■ [6;
whicli could be fhown them was in any degree effec¬
tual to bring about a reconciliation with the reft. On
the contrary, having perceived the fhip in fome di-
llrefs, they inftantly fhowed a dirpofition to make an
attack ; and from this they vrere only prevented by
the firing of a four-pounder charged with grape-fhot.
fEven this did not produce any permanent effeft 5 ano-
thet attack was determined upon, and wmuld undoubt¬
edly have been made, had not Tupia informed them,
that ir they perfifted in their attempt, the arms of their
adverfaries, like thunder, wmuld deftroy every one of
them. I his wTas enforced by the fire of another four-
pounder with grape-ihot, wdiich fpreading wide in the
water, terrified them to fuch a degree that they be¬
gan to paddle auTay as faft as poffhble. Notwilhftand-
mg this, however, fome intercourfe began to take
place ; but in every inftance the New Zealanders ma- -
niiefled their hoftility and treachery in fuch a manner
as (tiow'ed that they were not to be gained by fair
means. At laft an attempt to carry off Tayeto, Tu-
pia’s boy, rendered it abfolutely neceffary to fire upon
them in order to refcue him from certain deftrudtion,
fome of the favages having got him into a canoe,
where they held him down by violence. In confe-
quence of this one of the favages wras killed on the
ipot, and feveral more wmunded, by the difeharge of
mu fleets from the boats 5 Tayeto recovered his liberty,
jumped into the water, and fwam to the fhip. Some
partial intercourfe again took place : but ftill it ap¬
peared that the innate rancour of thefe favages was
not to be fubdued by any fair means ; and it was
omy by the powerful arguments of cannon and
mufketry that they could be kept from attempting to
do mifehief.
Jrom the account of this voyage publifhed by Dr
Hawkefworth, indeed, it appears, that a confiderable
number of favages perifhed in a fimilar manner to that
above mentioned, and they feem to have manifefted a
more hoftile behaviour than afterwmrds: on thofe me¬
lancholy occafions, however, it is obferved to the ho¬
nour of Mr Cook, that his humanity was eminently
conspicuous beyond that of the common people, who
all along {bowed as much inclination to deftroy the
Indians as a ipcitfman does to kill the game he pur¬
ines.
While Mr Cook coafted the iflands of New Zealand,
he was fometimes in the moft imminent danger of be¬
ing fhipwrecked. In the latitude of 350 fouth, and
in the midft of fummer in that climate, he met with
>uch a gale of wind as he fcarce ever experienced be¬
fore ; fb that he was no lefs than three weeks in get¬
ting ten leagues to the weftward, and two more before
lie could get 3c leagues farther. Fortunately, how-
ever, they were all this time a confiderable w'ay from
land, otherwife :t is probable that the ftorm muft have
proved fatal.
Mr Cook having fpent fix months in circumnaviga¬
ting and fully exploring the ifiands of New Zealand, he
failed from thence on the 31ft of March 1770. It muft
be obferved, however, that the extreme hoftility r*a-
nifelled by the inhabitants in that part of the illand
where he firft arrived, was not univerfally diil’ufed ; but
that a friendly intercourfe was for a long time main¬
tained with thofe about Queen Charlotte’s Sound.
From New Zealand he proceeded to New Holland, and
z
-8 ] COO
on the 28th of April came in fight of Edtany Bay. (v
Here all their endeavours to induce the natives to have1-^ ,
any intercourfe with them proved ineffeflual, though
happily there was no blood fpilt in any quarrel.
During their navigation round New Holland, the
coafts of wdiich are full of dangerous rocks and ftioals
our navigators were brought into a more perilous fixa¬
tion than ever; and from which the efcape was fo ex¬
traordinary, that it deferves a particular relation.
This happened on the 10th of June 1770, as they
purfued their courfe from Trinity Bay, and nearly in
the latitude aftigned to the iflands difeovered by Qui_
ros. At that time they had the advantage of a fine
breeze and a clear moonlight ; and in Handing off
from fix till near nine o’clock, the ftiip had deepened
her water from 14 to 21 fathoms; but while the na¬
vigators were at fupper, it fuddenly ftioaled to 12, 10,
and 8 fathoms in the fpace of a few minutes. Every¬
thing w-as then ready for putting the ftiip about, when
they fuddenly got into deep wrater again, and continued
in 20 and 2X fathoms for fome time, fo that the gentle¬
men went to bed in-perfedl fecurity. A little before
eleven, however, the w’ater flioalecl at once from 20 to
17 fathoms; and before the lead could be heaved again,
the fir ip {truck, and remained immoveable, excepting
as far as ftie was heaved up and down,' and daftied
againft the rocks by the furge. The alarm was now
univerfal, and not indeed without the greateft reafon.
It appeared that the vefiel had been lifted over the
ledge of a rock, and lay in a hollow within it, where
there were in fome places from three to four fathoms
wTater, and in others fcarcely as many feet: the {heath-
ing boards were disjoined, and floating round the ftiip
in great numbers; and at laft the falfe keel alfo was
deftroyed, while the lock kept grating her bottom
with fuch force as to be heard in the fore flore-room. It
was now neceflary to lighten the fhip as much as pof-
fible : and this wms done with all expedition to the
amount of more than 50 tons. In the morning of the
I x th of June they difeoyered the land at about eight
leagues diftance, without any ifland between, on which
they could have been fent aflxore in the event of the
ftiip going to pieces, that fo they might have been car¬
ried to the main land by turns. To add to their dif-
trefs, the ftiip drew fo much water, that it was with dif¬
ficulty kept under with three pumps. Laftly, it appear¬
ed, that even the rifiing of the tide, on which they had
ultimately depended for relief, was infufficient to
anfwer the purpofe as the day tide fell confiderably
fhort of that in the night-time. Having therefore
lightened the fhip ftill farther, by throwing out every
thing that could poflibly be fpared, they waited with
patience for the next tide ; when, after incredible ex¬
ertion, the fliip righted, and they got her over the
ledge of the rock into deep water. By continual la¬
bour, however, the men were at laft fo much exhaufted,
that they could not ftand to the pumps more than five
or fix minutes at a time ; after which they threw
themfelves flat on the deck, though a ftream of wa¬
ter between three and four inches deep ran over it;
and in this fituation, they lay till others, exhaufted
as wTell as themfelves, took their places on which they
ftarted up again, and renewed their exertions. In
this dreadful extremity, Mr Mor.khoufe, a midihipman,
propofed the expedient of fothering the ftiip, as it is
called,
goo r 609 ] coo
Cook, called, by wbica means he faid that he had feen a mer-
chant (hip brought from Virginia to London after the
had fprung a leak that admitted more than four feet
water in an hour. The expedient being approved of,
it was put in execution in the following manner. He
took a lower ftudding-fail, and having mixed a large
quantity of oakum and wool together, Hitched them
down by handfuls as lightly as pofhble ; the whole be¬
ing afterwards fpread over with the dung of the (beep
and other filth. The fail was then hauled under the
(hip’s bottom by means of ropes which kept it ex¬
tended. When it came under the leak, the wool and
o«kum, with part of the fail, were forced inwards by
the prelTure of the water, which thus prevented its
own ingrefs in fuch an effe&ual manner, that one
pump, infiead of three, was now fufficient to keep it
under. Thus they got the (hip into a convenient port
f>n. the coaft of New Holland, where they had an op¬
portunity of repairing the injury. Here they difeo-
vered that their prefervaiion had not been owing entire¬
ly to the expedient above mentioned ; for one of the
holes was in a great meafure filled up by a piece of rock
which had broken off and Hack in it; and this hole wras
fo large, that had it not been filled up in the manner
juft mentioned, they muft undoubtedly have perilhed
notwithftanding all the a Hi fiance that could have been
derived from the pumps.
The dangers they luftained in navigating this coaft
were innumerable, infomuch, that for very near three
months they were obliged to have a man conftantly
in the chains heaving the lead. They were always
entangled among rocks and flioals, which could not
have failed to deftroy a lefs experienced navigator ; and
even Mr Cook, with all his fagacity, could not fome-
times have extricated himfelf, had it not been for the
favourable interpofttion of fome natural events, which
no hutnan penetration could forefee o; have the leaft
dependence upon. Of this we (hall only give the fol¬
lowing inftance. Having at laft, as they thought,
got lafely over the vaft reefs of funk rocks with
which the coaft of New Holland is furrounded, they
flattered themfclves that all danger was pall, and
the vaft fwell of the water convinced them that they
were now in the open ocean. The remembrance of
former dangers, however, induced them frequently to
take the precaution of founding ; notwithftanding
which, in the latitude of about 14^-° S. they found
themfelves one morning only about a mile diftant from
the moft hideous breakers, though the fea all around
was unfathomable. I heir fituation was rendered the
more dreadful by its being a dead calm, at the fame
time that they were carried towards the rock with
fuch rapidity, that by the time they had got the (hip’s
head turned by means of the boats, (he was fcarcely
100 yards diftant from it. Their only refource then
was to tow the (hip, if poflible, by means of the boats
and pinnace, out of a fituation (o very perilous ; but
all their efforts would have been unfuccefsful, had not
a breeze of wind fprung up, which, though too hght
to have been noticed at any other time, was found to
fecond their efforts fo effeftually, that the drip began
to move perceptibly from the reef in an oblique di-
reftion: during the time that this breeze lafted,
which was not more than ten minutes, they had made
a eonfiderable way. A dead calm fucceeding, they
VOL. VI. Part II. ^ 7
began to lofe ground, and in a little time were dri- Cook,
ven within 200 yards of the rocks: but fortunate- '■■■■■■y—'
ly the breeze returned, and lafted ten minutes more;
during which lime a (mall opening was perceived in
the reef at the diftance of about a quarter of a
mile. The mate being fent out to examine this open-
ing, reported that it was not more than the length of
the (hip in breadth, but that there was fmooth water
within. On this it was determined to pufti into it by
all means. The attempt failed of fuccefs ; as, juft;
when they had brought the (hip with great labour to
the mouth of the opening, they found a current fetting
out from it by reafon of the tide norv beginning to ebb.
But though their hopes were difappointed in getting
through the opening, they w’ere, by the current fetting
out from it, driven in a very (hort time to the diftance
of a quarter of a mile from the rocks; and by dint of
towing and other exertions, they were got by noon to
the diftance of two miles. This temporary deliverance,
however, afforded but fmall profpeft of being ultimate¬
ly relieved. They had (till no other expectation than
of being forced back into their former filuation by the
return of the tide ; but happily they now perceived
another opening about a mile to the vveftward. Mr
ILcks the lieutenant being fent to examine this open- .
ing, returned with an account of its being narrow and
hazardous, but capable of being palled. To this
place therefore the drip was directed by every poffible
means; and a light breeze happening to (pring up,
they fortunately reached it, and were inftantly hurried
through with great rapidity by the current of the re¬
turning tide ; which, had it not been for this opening,
would undoubtedly have dafhed them to pieces againft
the rocks.
From the time they quitted the coaft of New Hol¬
land till their arrival at Batavia in the iftand of Java,
our navigators met with no other danger but what is
common in fea voyages. They were obliged to ftsy
for fome time at this place to repair their damages;
and on viewing the condition of the (hip, found they
had more reafon than ever to admire the manner in
which they had been preferved. Both the falfe keel
and main-keel were greatly injured ; great part of the
(heathing was torn off; feveralof the planks were much
damaged, and among thefe there were two, and half of
another, which for fix feet in length were not above
the eighth part of an inch in thicknefs, befides being
penetrated with worms quite to the timbers. Here
-the crew were exceffively annoyed by ficknefs, which
obliged them to remain much longer than they would
otherwife have done : and it is worthy of notice, that
every one of the crew was ill excepting the fail-maker,
an old man between 70 and 80 years of age, and who
was drunk every night. Poor Tupia, with his boy
Tayeto, fell facrifices to the unhealthinefs of the cli¬
mate, as well as the furgeon, three feamen, and Mr
Green’s fervant. Nor did the evil flop here ; for on
their fetting out from Batavia, the feeds of difeafe
which had been received there broke out in the mod
violent and fatal manner, infomuch that in the courfe
of about fix weeks there died one of Mr Banks’s af-
fiflants, by name Mr Sporing, Mr Parkinfon his na¬
tural hiftory painter, Mr Green the aftronomer, the
boatfvyain, carpenter, and mate, Mr Monkhoufe the
midftiipman, the corporal of the marines, two of the
4 carpenter’s
COO [ 6
carpenter’s crew, and nine feamen. Even the jolly old
' Tail-maker could now hold out no longer j but whether
his death might not in fome meafure be attributed to his
being lefs plentifully fupplied with liquors than formerly,
might have delerved inquiry. Thefe unfortunate events
probably made a confiderable impreflion on Mr Cook’s
mind ; and perhaps induced him to direct his attention
to thofe methods of preferving the health of feamen
which he afterwards put in execution with lb much
fuccefs. After touching at St Helena, they continued
their voyage for England, wdiere they arrived on the
lithof June I'J'Ji: and on the 29th of Auguft the
fame year, his majefty teftitied his approbation of Mr
Cook’s conduct by appointing him a captain in the navy.
On this oecafion Mr Cook wilhed to have been advanced
to the rank of poll-captain, which though not more pro¬
fitable than the other, is more honourable ; but this being
inconfillent with the rules of preferment in the navy,
the earl of Sandwich, at that time at the head of the
admiralty, could not agree to it.
. Captain Cook was not allowed to remain long in-
afitive. The idea of a fbuthern continent had long
been entertained, and Mr Dalrymple had renewed the
attention of the public towards the queflion, by his
hiftorical colle&iou of voyages to the Pacific ocean,
publifhed in two quarto volumes, one in 1770, the
ocher in 1771. To determine the matter finally, Cap¬
tain Cook was again fent out: and the objeft of this
voyage was not merely to fettle the queflion juft men¬
tioned, but to extend the geography of the globe to its
utaaoft limits. That the undertaking might be carried
on with the greater advantage, it wras determined to
employ two fliips, on the choice and equipment of which
the utmoft attention was bellowed. The fuccefsful
voyage which had already been made in the Endeavour,
fuggefted the idea of that fliip being a proper model for
the two which were to be fent out j and the opinion of
Lord Sandwich concurring with the general idea, two
velfels, conftrudled by the fame perfon who had built
the Endeavour, were purchafed for the voyage. Thefe
were about 14 or 16 months old at the time they wrere
purchafed } and, in the opinion of Captain Cook, were
as fit for the purpofe as if they had been but newly built.
The laiger of the two, of 462 tons burden, was named
the Refolutian; the fmaller, of 336 tons, had the name
of the Adventure : the complement of men on board
the former, of which Captain Cook was commander,
being 1:2; on the latter, commanded by Mr Tobias
Purneaux, 81. In their equipment, every article that
could be fuppofed neceffary, however much out of the
common line, was procured, and every circumftance
that could be fuppofed to contribute to the fuccefs of
the voyage was attended to in the moll fcrupulous
manner. Befides the ufual ftores and provifions, all
of which were of the beft kinds, the fhips were fur-
riifhed with malt, four krout, faited cabbage, portable
foup, falop, muftard, marmalade of carrots, beer, and
infpiffated wort. Mr Hodges, an excellent landfcape
painter, was engaged to make drawings and paintings
of fuch objects as required them. Mr John Reinhold
Fcrfter, with his fon, were both engaged, in order to
explore and collehl the natural hiftory of the countries
through which they pafied y and laftly, that nothing
might be wanting to render the voyage as complete as
o ] COO
poftible, Mr William Wales, and Mr William Bayley Coo1
were engaged by the board of longitude tomake^ce-1—v
leftial obfervations. They were furnifhed with the
beft inftruments of every kind, and among the reft
with four time-pieces ; three conftru&ed by Mr Ar¬
nold, and one by Mr Kendal on Mr Harrifon’s prin¬
ciples.
At Plymouth Captain Cook received his inftruc-
tions ; which were not only to fail round the globe,
but to fail round it in high fouthern latitudes, and to
make fuch traverfes as might finally refolve the queftion
concerning the fouthern continent. In purfuance of
thefe inftrudtions he fet fail on the 13th of July 1772,
and on the 29th of the fame month reached the Ma«
deiras. As he proceeded afterwards in his voyage, he
made three puncheons of beer from the infpiffated wort
carried out along with him, and found it excellently
to anfwer the purpofe, provided the material could
have beeai keep without fermentation in its infpiffated
ftate ; but as this was found impoflible, the expedient
feems to have failed. In this voyage, however, the
captain ufed with the greateft fuccefs fuch methods as
appeared likely to contribute to the prefervation of the
health of his men. In rainy weather, he took care
that the fhip fliould be aired and dried by means of
fires made between the decks, the damp places were
fmoked, and the people were ordered to air their bed¬
ding, and wafti and dry their clothes, whenever an op¬
portunity offered. Thus he reached the Cape of Good
Hope without having a fingle man lick. Having left
it and kept on his courfe to the fouthward, he feon
began to meet with cold and ftormy weather, by which
he loft almoft the whole of his live flock of ftieep, hogs,
and geefe. The bad effects of this ftormy weather up¬
on the men were guarded againft by an addition to
their clothing, and giving them a dram on particular
occafions. On the fixth of December, being in the
latitude of 50° 40', he fell in with illands of ice, and
continued among them in various latitudes till the
17th of January 1773 } when he fet fail for New Zea¬
land, which he reached on the 27th.
The reception of our navigator by the New Zealan¬
ders wras now much more friendly than in the former
voyage, fo that there were no contefts with the na¬
tives } nor did Captain Cook obferve any one of thofe
whom he had feen before, neither was there the fmalleft
remembrance of former hofiilities. Having ftaid in
this country till the 7th of June, our navigators fet
lail for Otaheite y but during the voyage the crews of
both fhips weie attacked by the feurvy. Thofe of the
Adventure vrere in a veiy fickly ftate ; the cook was
dead, and 28 of her beft men incapable of duty. On
board the Refolution matters wTere much better; and
the only reafon that could be conjectured for the dif¬
ference was, that the people of the Adventure had
been in a habit of body more inclined to the feurvy
than thofe of the Refolution, and had eaten fewer vege¬
tables. Here it was obferved, that the averfion of fea¬
men to a change of diet is fo great, that it can only
be overcome by the fteady and perfevering example of
a commander. While he remained at New Zealand,-
the captain had difeovered a tree which greatly re-
fembled the American black fpruce. Perfuaded,
therefore, that it would be attended with effeCts
equally
COO i 61
equally falutary on the health of the people, he em¬
ployed them in brewing beer from it. This was
done while they continued at Bulky Bay, in order to
fupply the want of vegetables, which were not to be
procured there •, but on removing to Queen Charlotte’s
Sound, they were more fortunate. Captain Cook him-
felf went to look out for antifcorbutic vegetables j and
returned in a very Ihort time with a boat-load of fcurvy-
grafs, celery, &c. Thefe were boiled with the peas
and wheat 5 and though fome of the people dilliked
them at firft, they foon became fo fenfxble of their
good effefts, that they cheerfully followed the example
of the reft : and the freedom of the crew from the
fcurvy and other diftempers was by every one attri¬
buted to the New Zealand, fpruce beer and vegetables.
From this time forward the captain had fcarce occafion
to give orders for gathering vegetables when they came
to any land.
During this voyage Captain Cook experienced ano¬
ther narrow efcape from fhipwrreck. Being becalmed
at the diftance of half a league from a reef of rocks
near Ofnaburgh illand, it -was found neceftary to order
out the boats to tow off the ftiips; but this was found
impoffible. The calm continuing, and the fituation
of our navigators becoming every moment more dan¬
gerous, the captain attempted to get through an
opening in the reef which he had judged prafticable }
but on approaching it, found that there was not fuf-
Ucient depth of water •, at the fame time that the
draught of the tide through it forced the Ihip thither in
a manner fcarce to be refilled. One of the warping
machines, wuth about 420 fathoms of rope, ivas then or¬
dered out, but did hot produce any efTetft. They were
within two cables length of the breakers, and no bot¬
tom could be found for calling anchor. Having no
other refource, howrever, they did drop an anchor;
but before it took hold, the Refolution was in lefs
than three fathoms wmter, and ftruck at every fall of
the fea, which broke violently clofe under her Hern,
threatening deftrudlion to every one on board. At
laft the tide ceafing to aft in the fame direftion, the
boats were ordered to try to tow off the veifel ; in
Which being affifted by the land-breeze, whiqh fortu¬
nately fprung up at that inftant, they with much labour
fucceeded.
Having fpent a confiderable time in the South Sea
iflands, Captain Cook returned to New Zealand, and
from thence fet fail for the foulhem part of the conti¬
nent of America. Here he explored all the iflands in
the neighbourhood, and then returned to England,
where he arrived in fafety on the goth of July I774>
having been abfent three years and 18 days •, and in all
that time loft only one man, who died of a confump-
tion probably begun before he fet out on the voy-
3ge- . • , .
The reception our navigator now met with was lult-
ed to his merit. He was immediately rarfed to the
rank of poll-captain, and foon after unanimoufly eleft-
ed a member of the Royal Society j from whom he
received the prize of the gold medal for the bell expe¬
rimental paper that had appeared throughout the year.
It was the cuftom of Sir John Pringle, at the delivery
cf this medal, annually, to make an elaborate difeourfe,
containing the hiftory of that part of fcience for which
the medal was given } and, as the. fubjeft of Captain
I ] COO
Cook’s paper (the means of preferving the health of, Coc^
feamen) was analogous to the profeffion of Sir John
Pringle himfelf as a phyfician, he had the greater op¬
portunity of difplaying his eloquence on the occalion.
The fpeech he made was in the higheft degree honour¬
able to Captain Cook. He remarked, that the fociety
had never more meritorioully bellowed the medal than,
on the perfon who now received it. “ If (fays he)
Rome decreed the civic crown to him who laved the
life of a fingle citizen, what wreaths are due to the
man who, having himfelf faved many, perpetuates in
your Tranfaftions the means by which Britain may
now, on the molt diftant voyages, preferve numbers of
her intrepid fons, her mariners ; who braving every
danger, have fo liberally contributed to the fame, to
the opulence, and to the maritime empire of the coun¬
try ?” Thefe honourable teftimonies of the public re¬
gard, however, Captain Cook did not receive, being
already embarked on another voyage, from which he
never returned.
The third voyage of this celebrated navigator war
not undertaken by any exprefs command of his ma-
jefty. Captain Cook had already done fo much, that
it was thought but reafonable he Ihould now fpend the
remainder of his life in quiet •, and in order to enable
him to do this in a more comfortable manner, befides
his rank of poll-captain in the navy, he was alfo made
a captain in Greenwich. Still, however, there wer©'
fome points in the fcience of geography which had very
much engaged the attention of the public, and were in¬
deed of fuch importance as to became a national con¬
cern. Thefe rvere to difeover the conneftion between
Afia and America, and to determine whether there was
not a poftibility of Ihortening the palfage to the Eaft
Indies by failing round the northern parts of the conti¬
nents of Europe and Alia. Many attempts, indeed,
had already been made by various navigators of differ¬
ent nations $ but all of them had failed, and, what was
worfe, had left the point Hill undetermined. An aft of
parliament had been palled in 1745, by which a reward
of 2o,oool. was held out to the Ihips of any of his ma-
jelly’s fubjefts for accomciilhing this important voy¬
age, but without mentioning any thing of thofe be¬
longing to his majefty j and this reward was further
confined to the finding cut of the north-weft paffage
to the Eaft Indies through Hudfon’s bay. In the
year 1776, however, both the errors juft mentioned
were correfted. It was now enafted, “ That if any
Ihip belonging to any of his majefty’s fubjefts, or to
his majefty, lhall find out, and fail through, any paf¬
fage by fea between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,
in any direftion or parallel of the northern hemifphere,
to the northward of the 52d degree of northern lati- „
tude j the owners of fuch Ihips if belonging to any
of his majefty’s fubjefts, or the commanders, officers,
and feamen, of fuch Ihip belonging to his majefty,
lhall receive, as a reward for fuch dilcovery, the fum
of 20,000!.
It was not, as has already been hinted, now deem¬
ed proper to folicit Captain Cook to undergo frelli
dangers by undertaking a voyage of this kind j ne-
verthelefs, as he was univerfally looked upon to be
the fitteft perfon in the kingdom for the purpofe, the
eyes of every one were tacitly fixed upon him : he
was confulted on every thing relating to it, and foh-
4 H 2 cited
COO. [6
Cited to name the perfon whom he judged moft proper
to condudl it. To determine this point, Captain Cook,
Sir Hugh Paliifer, and Mr Stephens, were invited to
the houfe of Lord Sandwich to dinner j where, befides
the congelation of the proper officer for conducing
the expedition, many things were faid concerning the
nature of the defign. They enlarged upon its gran¬
deur and dignity, its confequences to navigation and
fcience, and the completenefs it would give to the
whole iyftem of difcoveries} until at laft Captain Cook
was fo much inflamed by the reprefentation of the im¬
portance of the voyage, that he ftarted up, and declared
that he would conduit it himfelf. This was what the
parties prefent had defired, and probably expeited;
his oiler was therefore inftantly laid before the king,
and Captain Cook appointed commander of the ex¬
pedition by the loth of February 1776. At the fame
rime it was agreed,, that on his return from the voyage,
he fliould be reftored to his place at Greenwich 5 and
if no vacancy occurred during the interval, the officer
who fuccceded him was to refign in his favour. The
inftruilions he now received were, that he fliould at¬
tempt the high latitudes between the continents of
Afia and America, and if poffible return to England
along the northern coafts of Afia and Europe. This
was moft probably the refult of the captain’s own deli¬
berations, and what had been fuggefled by him to Lord
Sandwich and other people in power. Fie was parti¬
cularly defired to fail firfl: into the Pacific ocean through
the chain of newly difeovered ifiands wffiich he had
lately vifited. After having crofled the equator, and
paffed into the northern parts of the ocean juft men¬
tioned, he was then to hold fuch a eourfe as might
tend to iettle many interefting points of geography,
and produce fome intermediate difeoveries, before he
arrived at the main feene of operation. With regard
to this principal obje£I, he was ordered, immediately
on his arrival on the coaft of New Albion, to proceed
northward as far as the latitude of 65 degrees, without
jofing any time in exploring creeks or rivers previous
to his arrival in that latitude 5 and for his further en¬
couragement, the aft of 1745, offering a premium for
the difeovery of the paffage, was amended in the man¬
ner above mentioned. That nothing might be want¬
ing which could promote the fuccefs of the grand ex¬
pedition, Lieutenant Pickerfgill was fent out, in 1776,
with direftions to explore the coafts of Baffin’s bay ;
and the next year Lieutenant Young was commiffioned
not only to examine the weftern parts of that bay, but
to endeavour to find a paffage on that fide from the
Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Nothing, however, was
performed by either of thefe gentlemen which in the
leaft could promote Captain Cook’s fuccefs. Two
veffels were provided as in the former voyage, viz. the
Rcfolution and the Difeovery; the command of the
former being given to Captain Cook, and of the latter
to Captain Charles Clerke. The only thing in which
the appointment of the Difeovery differed from that
of the Refolution was, that the former had no marine
officer on board. Every degree of attention was be¬
llowed, as in the former voyage, upon the proper
viftualling and other neceffaries for the tw’o (hips;
and that the inhabitants of thofe countries which our
navigator intended to vifit might derive fome perma¬
nent benefit from the intercourfe they had with him,
f2 ] COO
it was determined to fend abroad a breed of dottieftic Coot
animals, and likewife a quantity of ufeful feeds, tobe^-“v-
left in proper places. With this view, a bull, two
cows with their calves, and feveral flieep, with hav and
corn for their fubfiftence, were taken on board ; and
it was likewife propofed to take in others at the Cape
of Good Hope. A large affortment of iron tools and
trinkets was alfo fent out; and, in. ihort, every thing
that could be judged proper either to conciliate the
good will of the natives or to prove ferviceable to
them, was provided for the voyage, as well as every
convenience for the iliips companies. In the former
voyage Captain Cook had brought along with him a
native of one of the South iea ifiands, named Qmai^
who refided in England during the interval between
the fecond and third voyages, and was now happy at
getting an opportunity of returning to his own coun¬
try. Though he could by no means complain of the
entertainment he had' met with in England, the idea
of returning home loaded with treafure, which might
enable him to make a figure among his countrymen,
foon overcame all uneafy fenfations, which the leaving
of his^ Englilh friends might excite. His majefty had
taken care to furnifh him with every thing that could
poffibly be of ufe when he came to his native country y
and he had befides received feveral valuable prefents
from Lord Sandwich, Sir Jofeph Banks, and feveral
ladies and gentlemen of his acquaintance 5 fo that
nothing was omitted which could poflibly be done to
convey, by his means, to the inhabitants of the South
Sea ifiands, an idea of the Britilh power and great-
nefs.
Every thing being prepared for the voyage, our na¬
vigator fet fail from the Nore on the ajth of Jung
1776; but by reafon of fame delay in receiving his in-
ftruftions, did not leave Plymouth till the 12th of July.
He had not been long at fea before he began his ope¬
rations for preferving the health of his people y which
were. found equally efficacious in this as in the for¬
mer voyage. Finding his flock of provender for the
animals on board likely to run ftiort, he touched at
Teneriffe, in order to procure a fupply, having judged
that to be a more proper place than Madeira for the
purpofe. On failing from thence he ran a great rilk
of running upon fome funk rocks on the ifland of
Bonavifta ; but in this, as well as on other occa-
fions of danger, he behaved with the fame judgment,
coolnefs, and prefence of mind, that diftinguifhed him
throughout the whole courfe of his life. On the 12th
of Auguft he arrived before Port Praya, in one of
the Cape de Verd iflands named Si Jago; but not
finding it neoeffary to go in there, he continued his
voyage to the fouthward. The weather now be¬
coming gloomy and rainy, required a continuance of
the methods he had already praftifed for preferving
the health of his people y and, as formerly, they were
attended with the greateft fuccefs. In this voyage,
the effeft of thefe precautions was the more remark¬
able, as at this time the feams of the veffel were opened
to fuch a degree as to admit the rain, fo that fcarce
any perfon on board could lie dry in his bed; and all
the officers in the gun-room were driven out of their
cabins by the water which came through the fides.
Such was the humanity of the commander, however,
that while the ftfips continued at fea, he would not
trull
coo r 613 ] c o o
. tmft the workmen over their fides to repair the de-
fefts, though caulkers were employed in the infide as
foon as fettled weather returned. On the ift of
September our navigators crofled the equator, and on
the 18th of Oftober anchored in Table bay at the
Cape of Good Hope. Here they met with a violent
temped, the effe&s of which were felt both on fea and
. laud. It lafted three days, and the Refoiution was the
only fhip in the bay that rode out the ftorm without
dragging her anchors. On Ihore the tents and obfer-
vatory were deflroyed, and the aftronomical quadrant
narrowly efcaped irreparable damage. The Difcovery,
which had been fome time later in failing from Eng¬
land, was driven off the coaft, and did not arrive till
the loth of November.
While they remained in this place, a difafter happen¬
ed which threatened the lofs of moft of their live flock.
The bulls and two cows had been put afliore to graze
among other cattle 5 but Captain Cook had been advi-
fed to keep the Iheep, 16 in number,, near the tents,
where they were penned in every night. Some dogs
having got in among them in the nighttime, killed
four, and difperfed the refl. Six of them were reco¬
vered the next day, but the two rams and two of the
fineft ewes in the flock were milling. The captain applied
to Baron Plettenberg the governor ; but all his endea¬
vours were unfuccefsful, until he employed fome of the
meaneft and lowefl of the people, fellows whofe cha-
rafter was, that for a ducatoon they would cut their
matter’s throat, burn the houfe over his head, and bury
him and his whole family in alhes. This is mentioned as
an inftance how far the boafted policy of the Dutch go¬
vernment at the Cape of Good Hope falls fliort of its
alleged perfection. After all,, two of the fineft ewes
in the flock were mifling, and never could be recover¬
ed. The captain, therefore, to repair this lofs, and
to make an addition to his original flock, purchafed
two young bulls, two ftone horfes, two mares, two
heifers, two rams, feveral ewes and goats, with fome
rabbits and poultry j when, having finilhed all his bu-
finefs, he fet fail on the 30th of November, though it
was not till the 3d of December that he got clear of
land. Soon after his putting to fea, he had the mif-
fortune to lofe feveral of the goats, efpecially the males,
together with fome Iheep; and it was with the utmoft
difficulty that the reft of the cattle were preferved, by
reafon of the fnip toffing and tumbling about in a very
heavy fea. Having explored fome defolate iflands in the
fouthern feas, Captain Cook fet fail for New Zealand.
During this part of the voyage, our navigators were
involved in fo thick a fogr that, according to the au¬
thors of Captain Cook’s life, “ they failed 300 leagues
in the dark.” The firft land they afterwards reached
was New Holland ; where having remained till the 30th
of January 1777, they fet fail for New Zealand, and on
the 12th of February they anchored in Queen Charlotte’s
Sound. Here the people were ffiy and timorous, on
account of their having formerly deftroyed 10 of Cap¬
tain Furneaux’s people, who had been fent alhore to
gather vegetables. The caufe of the quarrel could not
be known, as none of the party were left alive to tell
the news. Lieutenant Burney, who went alhore in
queft of them, found only fome fragments of their bo¬
dies ) from which it appeared that they had been kill¬
ed and eaten by the favages. It was not the *»ten’ion
of Captain Cook, at this diflance of time, to refent the
injury j he even refufed to put to death a chief named
Kahoora, who, as he was informed by the natives them-
. felves, had killed Mr Rowe the commander of the par¬
ty. He was, however, particularly careful that no
opportunity fliould now be given the favages of com-
. mitting fuch an a£lion with impunity j and with this
view a boat was never fent on ffiore without being well
armed, and the men under the command of fuch offi-
. cers as could be. depended upon. The New Zealanders
were no fooner aflured of Captain Cook’s pacific dif-
pofition, than they threw afide their fears and fufpi-
cions, and entered into a commercial intereourfe with
the people. It would have been the lefs excufable in
Captain Cook to have revenged at this time the maf-
facre of Mr Rowe’s party, as he was affured that tire
quarrel originated from fome petty thefts of the favages,
which were too haftily relented on the part of the Bri-
tiffi j and had it not been fqr this, no mifehief would
have happened.
On the 25th of February our navigator left New
Zealand, taking with him, at the requeft of Omai,
two boys, the eldeft about 18 and the youngeft about
10. Thefe were foon cured of their paflion for tra¬
velling, being both violently fea-fick 5 but as it was
then too late to repent, they expreffed their grief in
loud and almoft continual lamentation j and this in a
kind of fong which feemed to confift of the praifes of
their native country, whence they were now to be fe-
parated for ever. By degrees, however, the fea-fick-
nefs abated, their lamentations became lefs frequent,
and at laft ceafed entirely $ their native country was
forgotten, and they appeared to be as firmly attached
to their new friends the Englilh as if they had been
born among them.
So much time was now fpent in failing up and down
in the Pacific ocean, where, feveral new iflands were
difeovered, that Captain Cook judged it impoflible to
accomplilh any thing, for this year in the high northern
latitudes j for which reafon he determined to bear away
for the Friendly iflands, in order to fupply himfel-f
with thofe neceffaries which he had found impoffible
to be got at any of the iflands which he had juft difeq-
vered. In his run thither feveral new iflands were vi-
fited j and in profecuting thefe difeoveries our naviga¬
tor once more narrowly efcaped being Ihipwrecked.
The danger at this time arofe ftom a low fandy ifland,
whish the Refoiution was very near running upon.
From this Ihe was only faved by the circumftance of
all the men having been accidentally called upon deck
to put the veffel about, and moft of them being at their
ftations when the danger was difeovered. Soon after
this both (hips ftruck upon fome funk coral rocks, but
happily were got off without damage.
After a flay of between two and three months,.
Captain Cook took leave of the Friendly iflands on the
13th of July 1777 ; and on the 12th of Auguft:
reached Otaheite, where he introduced Omai to his
country people^ and whofe reception by them is par¬
ticularly related under the next article. Here the
captain found the people of Otaheite ready to engage
in a war with thofe of Eimeo 5 but though ftrongly
folicited by the former to aflift them in an expedition
againft
Ce»1v.
C O O < [ 614
agahrit their enemies, he refufed to take any concern
in the affair, alleging, by way of excufq, that the
people of Eimeo had never offended him. This feemed
to fatisfy moft of the chiefs j but one, named Towha,
was fo much difpleafed, that Captain Cook could ne¬
ver regain his favour. He even threatened, that as
foon as the captain fliould be gone, he would make
war upon Otoo, one of the princes of thefe illands whom
he knew to be in ftrici friendftup with him • but from
this he was deterred by the captain’s threatening to
return and challile him if he made any fuch attempt.
As a mark of Otoo’s friendlhip, he gave our navigator
a canoe, which he defired him to carry to the king of
Britain, having nothing elfe, as he faid, worth his ac¬
ceptance. <
From Otaheite Captain Cook proceeded to Eimeo,
where, on account of fome thefts committed by the
natives, he was obliged to commence hoftilities, by
burning a number of their war canoes, and even fome
•lioules. Thefe tranlaftions gave him much concern;
and the more that he had been fo much folicited to
make war on thefe people by his friends at Otaheite,
to whole intreaties he had refufed to lillen. From
Eimeo he proceeded to Huaheine, where he faw Omai
■finally fettled, and left with him the two New Zealand
youths already mentioned. The youngeff of thefe was
fo much attached to the Englilh, that it was neceffary
to carry him out of the {hip and put him afhore by
force. During his ftay on this ifland, the captain was
obliged to puniih a thief with greater feverity than he
-had ever done before, viz. by caufing his head snd
beard to be fhaved, and his ears cut off. Some other
thfagreeable tranfa&ions took place, particularly the
defertion of two of his people, who were not recovered
without the greateft difficulty. In the courfe of his
exertions for their recovery, he found it neceffary to
detain the fon, daughter, and fon-in-law, of the chief
of an ifland named Otaha. This had almoff produced
very ferious confequences, the natives having formed
a plot for carrying off Captain Cook himfelf, as well
as Captain Clerke and Mr Gore. With regard to the
commander, they w.me difappointed by his own cau¬
tion and vigilance : but Meffrs Clerke and Gore wrere
in particular danger •, and it was only owing to the
circumftance of one of them having a piftol in his hand
-as they walked together on fhore, that they were not
•feized.
Having left the Society illands, and difeovered
"a new group, which in honour of his patro* the
earl of Sandwich, our commander named the Sand-
iv;ch Ifies, he fet out on . the 2d of January 1778 on
his voyage northward. In this he was very luccefs-
i J, afeertaining the vicinity of the continents of Afia
and America, which had never been done, or but very
imperfectly, before. From thefe defolate regions he
returned to the ifland of Oonalaffika } whence, having
refitted and taken in provifions, he returned to the
feuthward, and on the 26th of November reached
the Sandwich iflands, where he'difeovered a new one
named Mowee, and on the 30th of the fame month
another of much larger extent, named O-wJiy-hee, Se¬
ven weeks were fpent in exploring the coaffs of this
iiland; and during all this time he continued to have
the moff friendly jntercourfe with the people, who,
however, appeared to be much more numerous and
3
coo
powerful than thofe of any ifland our navigators had Cool
yet touched at. Several of the chiefs and principal't
people had attached themfelves greatly to the com¬
mander, and in general the people appeared to be
much more honeff in their difpofitions than any whom
he had ever vifited. But by the time he had finilhed
his circumnavigation of the ifland, and caff anchor
in a bay called Karakakooa, matters were greatly al¬
tered. An univerfal difpofition to theft and plunder
had now taken place; and in this it was evident that
the common people were encouraged by their chiefs
who fhared the booty with them. Still, however, no
hoftilities were commenced : the greateft honours were
paid to the commander j and, on his going afhore, he
was received with ceremonies little fhort of adoration,
A valt quantity of hogs and other provifions were
procured for the fiiips ; and on the 4th of February
I779» they hfft the illand, not without moft magni¬
ficent preients from the chiefs, and fuch as they had
never before received in any part of the world. Un¬
luckily they met with a ftorm on the fixth and feventh
of the fame month 5 during which the Refolution
fprung the head of her fcremint in fuch a manner that
they were obliged to return to Karakakooa bay to
have it repaired. As they returned, Captain Cook
had an opportunity of (bowing his humanity to the
people, by the relief he afforded to fome of their canoes
which had fuffered in the ftorm. The fame friendly
intercourfe which had formerly been held with the na¬
tives now commenced, and Captain Cook wms treated
with the ufual honours j but on the 13 th of this month
it was unhappily broken off on the following account.
One of the natives being detefted in ftealing the
tongs from the armourer’s forge in the Difcovery, was
difmiffed with a pretty fevere flogging-, but this example
was fb far from being attended ■with any good effeft,
that in the afternoon another, having (hatched up the
tongs and a chiffel, jumped overboard with them and
(warn for the (bore. The mafter and midfhipman were
inflantly difpatched in purfuit of him 5 but he efcaped
on board a canoe, -which paddled away fo quickly that
the cutter could not come near it. A chief named Pa-
reak, wTho was at this time on board the Refolution, un-
derftanding what had happened, promifed to go afhore,
and get back the ftolen goods j but before this could
be done, the thief had made his efcape into the coun¬
try. Captain Cook, who was at that time afliore,
had endeavoured to intercept the canoe when it land¬
ed, but was led out of the way by fome of the na¬
tives who pretended to be his guides. The tongs and
chiffel, how-ever, were brought back to the mafler as
he advanced to the landing place, but he being now
joined by fome of the reft of the people in the pin¬
nace, could not be fatrsfied with the recovery of the
ftolen goods, but infilled upon having the thief or the
canoe which carried him by way of reprifal. On
his preparing to launch this laft into the water, he wa-s
interrupted by Pareab, who infifted that it was his
property, and that he fhculd not take it arvay. As
the officer paid no regard to his remonftrances, Pa-
reah, who feems to have been a very ftrong man, fei¬
zed him, pinioned his arms behind, and held him
fall by the hair of the head. On this one of the failors
ftruck the chief with an oar 5 on which, quilting the
officer, he inftantly fnatched the oar out of the man’s
hand,
hand, and broke it in two acrofs bis knee. The In-
■J dians then attacked the Tailors with ftones, and Toon
drove them to their boats, to which they were forced
to fwim, as they lay at fome diftance from the (bore.
The officers who could nat fwim retired to a fmall
rock, where they were cloiely purfued by the Indians 5
and here the mailer narrowly efcaped with his life,
till Pareah returned and obliged the Indians to give
over their attacks. The gentleman, feniible that Pa¬
reah’s prefence alone could protedl them, entreated
him to remain with them till they could be brought
off in the boats. On his refufal, the mailer fet out to
the place where the obfervatories had been eredled, for
farther affiilance ; but Pareab, who met him, and fuf-
pedled his errand, obliged him to return. In the
mean time the multitude had begun to break in pieces
the pinnace, after having taken every thing out of her
that was loofe : on the return of Pareah, however,
they were again difperfed, and fome of the oars re-
fi,ored, after which the gentlemen were glad to get off
in fafety. Before they reached the ffiip Pareah over¬
took them in a canoe, and delivered the midihipman’s
cap which had been taken from him in the fcufHe ; he
alio joined nofes with them in token of friendihip, and
deiired to know whether Captain Cook would kill him
on account of what had happened. They affured
him that he would not, and made figns of reconcilia¬
tion on their part. On this he left them and pad-
died over to the town of Kavaroah ; and that was the
laft time that he was feen by the Englilh. In the night¬
time the fentinels were much alarmed by ffirill and
melancholy founds from the adjacent villages, which
they took to be the lamentations of the women. Next
day it was found that the large cutter of the Difco-
very had been carried oft in the night-time ^ on which
Captain Cook ordered the launch and fmall cutter to
go under the command of the fecond lieutenant, and
to lie off the eaft point of the bay in order to intercept
all the canoes that might attempt to get out, and if
neceffary to fire upon them. The third lieutenant of
the Refolution was difpatched to the weftern part of
the bay on the fame fervice; while the mailer was
fent in purfuit of a large double canoe already under
fail, and making the beft of her way out of the har¬
bour. He foon came up with her, and by firing a
lew {hots, obliged her to run on ffiore, and the In¬
dians to leave her. This was the canoe belonging to
a- chief named Omca, whofe perfon was reckoned
equally facred with that of the king y and to the ne¬
glect of fecuring him we may attribute the fucceeding
difafter. Captain Cook now formed the refolution of
going in perfon to (eize the king himfelf in his capi¬
tal oi Kavaroah ; and as there was reafon to fuppofe
that he had fled, it was his defign to fecure the large
canoes, which on that account he caufed to he hauled
Up on the beach. With this view he left the fhip
about feven o’clock in the morning of Sunday the 14th
of February, being attended by the lieutenant of ma¬
rines, a feijeant, corporal, and feven private men,
Fhe crew of the pinnace, under the command of Mr
Roberts, were alfo armed : and as they rowed towards
the flioie, the captain ordered the launch to leave her
fiation, at the oppofite point of the bay, in order to
aflift his own boat. Having landed with the marines
ai the upper end of the town, the Indians flocked
S j W V.
round him, and profhrated themfelves before him. No
fign of hoftiiity, nor even much alarm, appeared j the
king’s fons waited on the commander as foon as he
fent for them, and by their means he was introduced
to the king, who readily confented to go on board ;
but in a little time the Indians began to arm them¬
felves with long fpears, clubs, and daggers, and to
put on thick mats which they ufe as defenfive armour. '
Tlvis heftile appearance was greatly augmented by an
unlucky piece of news which was juft now brought by
a canoe, viz. that one of the Indian chiefs had been
killed by the people in the Difcovery’s boats. On this
the women, who had hitherto fat on the beach con-
verfing familiarly, and taking their breakfafts, re¬
moved, and a confufed murmur ran through the
crowd. An old priefl now appeared with a cocoa-nut
in his hand, which he held out as a prefent to Captain
Cook, finging all the while, and making a moft
troublefome noife, as if he meant to divert the attention
of the captain and his people from obferving the mo¬
tions of the Indians, who were now everywhere put¬
ting on their armour. Captain Cook beginning to
think his fituation dangerous, ordered the lieutenant
of the marines to march towards the {bore, as he
himfelf did, having all the while hold of the king’s
hand, who very readily accompanied him, attended
by his wife, two fons, and feveral chiefs. The In¬
dians made a lane for them to pafs ; and as the di¬
ftance they had to go was only about 50 or 60 yards,
and the bpats lay at no more than five or fix yards
diftance from land, there was not the leaft apprehen-
fion of the cataftrophe which enfued. The king’s
yeungeft fon Keowa went on board the pinnace with¬
out the leaft hditation, and the king was about to
follow, when his wife threw her arms about his neck,
and, with the afliftance of two chiefs, lerced him to
fit down. The captain might now have iafely got
aboard, but did not immediately relinquifli the defign
of taking the king along with him. Finding at laft,
however, that this could not be accompliihed with¬
out a great deal of bloodftied, he was on the point of
giving orders for the people to reimbark, when one
of the Indians threw a ftone at him. This infult was
returned by the captain, who had a double barrelled
piece, by a difeharge of fmall fhot from one of the bar¬
rels. This had little effeft, as the man had a thick
mat before him $ and as he now brandifhed his fpear,
the captain knocked him down with his mufket. The
king’s fon, Keowa, ftill remaining in the pinnace,
the detaining him would have been a great check up¬
on the Indians ; but unluckily Mr Roberts, who com¬
manded the pinnace, fet him afhore at his own re-
queft foon after the nrlt fire. In the mean time ano-,
ther Indian was obferved in the adl of bxandiffiingf his
fpear at the commander } who thereupon was obliged
to fire upon him in his own defence. Miffing his
aim, however, he killed one clofe by his fide: upon
which the ferjeant obferving that he had miffed the
man he aimed at, received orders to fire alfo, which
he did, and killed him on the fpot. This repreffed
the foremoft of the Indians, and made them fall back
in a body ; but they were urged on again by thofe be¬
hind, and difeharged a volley of ftones among the ma¬
rines, who immediately returned it by a general dif¬
eharge of their mulkets 5 and this was inftantly follow-
GOO- [ 616 ] COO
ed by a fire from the boats. Captain Cook exprefled
his aftonifhment at their firing, waved his hand to
them to ceafe, and called to the people in the boats
to come nearer to receive the marines. This order
was obeyed by Mr Roberts ; but the lieutenant who
commanded the launch, inltead of coming nearer, put
off to a greater diftance ; and by this prepofierous
conduft deprived the unfortunate commander of the
only chance he had for his life : for now the Indians,
exafperated by the fire of the marines, rufiied in upon
them and drove them into the water, leaving the cap¬
tain alone upon the rock. A fire indeed was kept up
by both boats 5 but the one was too far off, and the
other crowded with the marines, fo that they could
not dire£t their fire with proper effedt. Captain Cook
was then obferved making for the pinnace, carrying
his mulket under his arm, and holding his other hand
on the back-part of his head to guard it from the
flones. An Indian was feen following him, but with
marks of fear, as he flopped once or twice feemingly
undetermined to proceed. At lad he ftruck the cap¬
tain on the back of the head with a club, and then
precipitately retreated. The latter daggered a few paces,
and then fell on his hand and one knee, and dropped his
mulket. Before he could recover himfeif, another In¬
dian dabbed him with a dagger in the neck, though
dill without putting an end to his life. He then fell
into a pool of water knee-deep, where others crowded
upon him: but dill he druggled violently with them,
got up his head, and looked towards the pinnace as.
if foliciting aflidance. The boat was not above five
or fix yards diilanl j but fuch was the confufed and
crowded date of the crew, that no adidance could be
given him. The Indians then got him under again,
but in a deeper water, though he dill continued to drug¬
gie, and once more got his head up; but being quite
fpent he turned towards the rock as if to fupport
himfeif by it, when a lavage druck him with a club,
which probably put an end to his life, as he was never
feen to druggie any more. The favages hauled his
lifelefs body upon the rocks, and ufed it in the mod
barbarous manner, [hatching the daggers out of one
another’s hands, in order to have the pleafure of
mangling it. If any thing could add to the misfor¬
tune of this celebrated navigator’s death, it was, that
even his mangled remains were not faved from the
hands of the barbarians. The lieutenant already
mentioned, who, by his removing to a didance when
he ought to have come on Ihore, leemed to have been
the occafion of his death, returned on board without
making any attempt to recover his body ; though it
appeared from the tedimonies of four or five midihip-
men who arrived foon after at the fatal fpot, that
the beach was almod deferted by the Indians, they
having at lad yielded to the continual fire from the
boats. The officer alleged in his own excufe for re¬
moving at fird from the finore, that he miftook the.
fignals j but be this as it will, the complaints avrainft
him were fo many and fo great, that Captain Clerke
was obliged publicly to take notice of them, and to
take the depotitions of his accufers in writing.-—Thefe
papers, however, were not found, and it is fuppoied
that the captain’s bad date of health had induced hhn
io deftroy them.- After all, we are informed that,
in the opinion of Captain Philips who commanded
x
the marines, it is very doubtful whether any effe^ual Co0!:
relief could have been given to the commander, even '"“■y
if no midake had been committed on the part of the
lieutenant. The author of all the mifchief was Pa-
reah, the chief already mentioned, who had employ¬
ed people to deal the boat in the night-time. The
king was entirely innocent both of the theft and the
murder of Captain Cook ; but the latter was perpe¬
trated by fome chiefs who were his near relations.
The chief w7ho fird druck him with a club was na¬
med Karimans rctha, and he w'ho dabbed him with the
dagger was called Nooah. The latter, Mr Samwell,
from whofe narrative this account is taken, obferves,
was dout and tall, had a fierce look and demeanour, n.
and united in his perfon the two properties of drength
and agility more than he had ever obferved in any other
perfon.-—Both of them w'ere held in great edimation by
their countrymen on account of the hand they had in
his death.
By reafon of the barbarous difpofition of the Indians,
it wras found impodible to recover Captain Cook’s body
after the fird opportunity already mentioned was lod. By
dint of threats and negociations, however, fome of the
principal parts were procured with great difficulty ; by
which means the navigators were enabled to perform
the lad offices to their much refpedled commander.
Thefe being put into a coffin, and the fervice read
over them, were committed to the deep with the ufual
military honours on the 21 d of February 1779. Soon
after his death a letter was iffued by M. de Sarting,
fecretary to the marine department of France, and lent
to all the commanders of French diips, importing,
that Captain Cook fiiould be treated as the commander
of a neutral and allied powrer $ and that all captains
of armed veffels who might meet with him, ffiould
make him acquainted with the king’s orders, but at
the fame time let him know, that on his part he
mud refrain from hodilities. This humane and gene¬
rous proceeding, with regard to France, originated
from M. Turgot •, but, the thought leems fird to have
druck Dr Franklin. Thus much at lead is certain,
that the doftor, wffiHe ambaffador from the United
States, wrote a circular letter to the American naval
commanders fomething to the purport of that already
mentioned j but in this he wras not fupported by Con-
grefs j for an edi£l was indantly iffued, that fpecial care
ffiould be taken to feize Captain Cook if an oppor¬
tunity of doing it occurred. The Spaniards proceed¬
ed in the fame manner, and both a£led on a princi¬
ple equally mean and abfurd, that the obtaining a
knowledge of the wedern coad of America, or of a
northern paffage into the Pacific ocean, might be at¬
tended with fome bad confequence to their refpe&ive
dates.
Captain Cook was a man of plain addrefs and ap¬
pearance, but well looked, and upwards of fix feet
high. His head was fmall, and he wore his hair,
which was brown, tied behind. His face was full of’
expreffion j his nofe exceedingly well ffiaped ; his eyes,
which were fmall and of a brown cad, were quick
and piercing; his eyebrows prominent, which gave
his countenance altogether an air of auderity. .Not-
withdanding this, it was impoffible for any one to ex¬
cel him in humanity, as is evident from the whole te¬
nor ox his behaviour both to his own people and the-
many
COO l 6v
many favage naliona with whom he had occafion to in¬
terfere. This amiable property dilcovered itfelf evert in
the final catailrophe of his life ; his utmoti care being
direhted to the prefervation of his people, and the pro¬
curing them a fafe retreat to their boats. And it can¬
not be enough lamented, that he who took lo much
care of others, ihould have perithed in fuch a miferable
manner for want of being properly Supported by them.
The perfeverance ^vith which he purlued every objeil
which happened to be pointed out as his duty was un¬
equalled. Nothing ever could divert him from what
he had once undertaken j and he perfevered in the
midi.1 of dangers and difficulties which would have dif-
heartened perfons of very confiderable Rrength and
fiimnefs of mind. For this he was adapted by nature,
having a llrong conftitution, inured to labour, and ca¬
pable of undergoing the greateft hardffiips. His fto-
mach bore without difficulty the coarfeit and molt
ungrateful food } and he fubmitted to every kind of
lelf denial with the greateft indifference. To tins
Rrength of conftitution he joined an invincible forti¬
tude of mind, of which the circumnavigation of New
Holland, and his voyage towards the South Pole, fur-
nifti innumerable iniiances. He was maiter of him--
felf on every trying occafion ; and the greater the
emergency, the greater always appeared his calmnefs
and recolledlion : fo that in the molt dangerous ficua--
tions, after giving proper directions to his people, he
could Reep toundly the hours that he had allotted to
himfelf. That he poiltfled genius in an eminent de¬
gree cannot be queftioned ; his invention was ready,
and capable not only of fuggefting the moil noble ob-
-jtd'ts of purfuit, but the molt proper methods of at¬
taining them. His knowledge of his own profeffion
was unequalled; and to this he added a very confider¬
able proficiency in other fciences. In aftronomy, he
became fo eminent, that he was at length enabled to
take the lead in making the aftronomical obfervations
during the courfe cf his voyages. In general learning
he like wile attained to fuch a proficiency as to be able
to exp refs himfelf with clearnels and propriety 5 and
thus became refpeftable as the narrator, as well as the
performer, of great aftions. He was an excellent huf-
band and father, fincere and fteady in his friendffiip,
and pofiefied of a general fobriety and virtue of charac¬
ter. In converfation he was unaffsdled and unafium-
ing j rather backward in puihing difeourfe, but oblig¬
ing and communicative to thofe who wiffied for infor¬
mation : and he was dilfinguifhed by a fimplicity of
manners almoft-univerfally the attendant of truly great
men. With all thefe amiable qualities, the captain
was occafionally fubjedl to a haftinefs of temper, which
has been fet forth in its utmoft extent, if not exag¬
gerated by fome, though but few, who are not his
Iriends: but even thefe, as well as others, when taking
a general view of his charafter, are obliged to ac¬
knowledge that he was undoubtedly one of the greateft;
men of his age.
Captain Cook is diftinguiffied as an author by an ac¬
count of his lecond voyage written by himfelf. His firft
voyage, as well as that of feveral other navigators, had
been recorded by Hr Hawkefworth ; but on the prefent
occafion it was not judged neceffary to have recourfe
to any other than the pen of the author himfelf j and
■his journal, with a few occalional alterations, and be-
Vol. VI. Part II,
r ] COO-
mg divided into chapters, was fufficient for the pur¬
pose. The ftyle is clear, natural, and manly 5 and it is
not improbable, that even a pen oi more ftudied elegance
could not have made it appear to more advantage.
When it appeared-, which was not till fome lime after
the author had left England, the book was recommended
by the accuracy and excellency of its charts, and ’by a
numerous collection of fine engravings done from the
original drawings of Mr Hodges.
We cannot conclude this article without taking fome
notice of the honours paid to our celebrated navigator
after his death, both by his own countrymen and tbofe
of other nations. Perhaps indeed it may be faid with
juftice, that foreigners hold his memory in an eftimatior?.
unequalled even in this country j a remarkable proof of
which occurs in the eulogy upon him by Michael
Angelo Gianetti, read in the Florentine academy, ort
the 9th of June 1785, and publiffied at Florence the
fame year. It is faid alio, that one of the French
literary academics propofed a prize for the heft eulogiunt
on Captain Cook ; and many poetical teftimonies of his
merit appeared in our own language. The Royal
Society of London refolved to teftify their refpedf to hint
by a medal, for which purpofe a voluntary fublcripUqn,
was opened. A gold medal was given to fuch of the
fellows as fubferibed 20 guineas, and a filver one to
thofe who fubferibed fmaller firms ; and each of the
ether members received one of bronze. 1 hofe who
fubferibed 20 guineas were, Sir Jofeph Banks, preudent,
the prince of Anfpach, the duke of Montague, -Lord
Mulgrave, and Meffrs Cavendiffi, Peachey, Perrin,
Poll, and Shuttleworth. Many defigns were propofed
on the occafion 5 but the following was that which wras
aflually ftruck. On one fide was the head of Captain
Cook in profile, with this infeription round it, Jac,
Cook, oceani investigator acerrimuS ; and on the
exergue, Reg. Soc. Lond. socio suo. On the re-
verfe is a reprefentation of Britannia holding a globe,
with this infeription round her, Nil intentatum
nostri liquere } and on the exergue, Auspiciis
Georgti III. One of the gold medals ftruck on this
occafion, was prefented to the king, another to the
queen, and a third to the prince of Wales. Another
was fent to the French king on account cf the protec¬
tion he had granted to the ihips j and a fecond to the
emprefs of Iluffia, in whofe dominions they had been
treated with every expreffion of friendfhip and kind-
nefs. Both thefe great perfonages condefcended ta
accept of the prefent with marks of fatisfaffion. The
French king wrote a hamifome letter to the Scociety,
figned by himfelf, and underfigned by the marquis de
Vergennes } and the emprefs of Ruffia commiffioned
Count Ofterman to figniiy to Mr Fitzherbert the fenfe
lire had of the value of the prefent, and that ffie had
caufed it to be depofited in the mufeum of the Imperial
Academy of Sciences. As a further tedimony of the
pleafure fire derived from it, the emprefs prefented to
the Royal Society a large and beautiful gold medal,
containing on one fide the effigies of herfelf, and on the
other a teprefenfatlon of the ftatue of Peter the Great.
After the general affignment of the medals, which took
place in 1784, there being a furplus of money ftiil
remaining, it was refolved by the prefident and council,
that an additional number of medals ftiould be throwfl
off, to be difpofed of in prefents to Mrs Cock, the earl
4 I of
C O O [ 61
Cook, ot Sandwicli, Dr Benjamin Franklin, Dr Cook, pro-
t ocks vofl. 0£ j^;ng»s College Cambridge, and Mr Planta. At
i llC0Jeries; the fame time it was agreed that Mr Aubert fhould be
allowed to have a gold medal of Captain Cook, on his
paying for the gold, and the expence of {hiking it, in
confideration of his intention to prefent it to the king of
Poland.
During the two vifits of the fhips at Kamtfchatka,
Major Behm, the commandant of that province, had
beftowed, in the moll; liberal manner, every kind of
affiftance which it was in his power to beftow j and fuch
was the fenfe entertained by the lords of the admiralty
of the kindnefs he had (bowed, that they determined to
make him a prefent of a magnificent piece of plate with
an infeription expreffive of his humane and generous
condudl. The infeription was drawn up by Dr Cook,
and afterwards fubmitted to the opinion and corredlion
of fome gentlemen of the firll eminence in claffical tafte.
Sir Hugh Pallifer, who had all along difplayed an
uncommon refpedl and kindnefs for Captain Cook,
Jikewife difplayed his regard for his memory in a moft
eminent manner. On his eflate in Buckinghamfhire,
he conftruded a fmall building with a pillar, containing
the charadler of Captain Cook, which is given at the
end of the introduftion to the lad voyage. This vras
drawn up by the honourable Admiral Forbes, admiral
- of the fleet, and general of the marines to whom Captain
Cook was known only by his merit and extraordinary
actions.
Amid A all thefe exprefiions of unavailing praife, it
was not forgotten to {how feme effential fervice to the
widow and family of our celebrated navigator. A
memorial for a penfion of 200I. per annum was given
in to the king from the ccmmiflioners of the admiralty,
and figned by the earl of Sandwich, Mr Butler, the
carl of Lifburne, Mr Penton, Lord Mulgrave, and
Mr Mann. His majefty complied with the requefl
of the memorial, and the grant was pafled through the
ufual forms with all poffible fpeed. By this 200I. per
annum was fettled on the widow during life ; and 2 9I.
a-year on each of her three fons. After her death
the 200I. was to be divided between her children ; a
fourth was allotted to Captain King, and the remaining
fourth to Mr Bligh and the reprefentatives of Captain
Clerke.
The lafl honour paid to the memory of Captain
Cook was the granting a coat of arms to the family,
which was done by patent on the 3d of September
2785 : and of this wre have the following defeription.
Azure, between the two polar flars, Or 3 a fphere on
the plane of the meridian, north pole elevated, circles
of latitude for every ten degrees, and a longitude for
every 153 {bowing the Pacific ocean between 6o°
and 240° wefl, bounded on one fide by America, and
on the other by Ada and New Holland 5 in memory
of the difeoveries made by him in that ocean, fo very ,
far beyond all former navigators. His track thereon
is marked with red lines 3 and for creft, in a wreath
of the colour is an arm imbowed, veiled in the uniform
©f a captain of the royal navy. In the band is the
union jack, on a ftaff proper. The arm is encircled by
a wreath of palm and laurel.
Cook's Difcoverics.—The number of countries dif-
covered by Captain Cook, and which had never before
8 ]
COO
been vifiled by any Luropcan, is very ccnfiderable ; Cvi; ,
1 * - lit r si * $
but it was a remarkable property of our celebrated na-Dfea. ®
vigator, thut, wherever he touched, everything
tive to the place was determined with fuch acuracy
and precifion, that ail former accounts feemed to go
for nothing, and the difeovery to belong entirely to
Captain Cook. Thus it was not unufual with him to
make difeoveries in places already well known 3 and
thus his voyages have conveyed a vaft fund of know¬
ledge perfeftly original. Though the accounts of the
different places, therefore, at which he touched, are
particularly given under their names in the order of
the alphabet, we {hall in this article endeavour to
join the whole together in fuch a manner as to give
the reader fome idea of the benefit which has accrued
to fcience from voyages attended not only with much
expence and labour, but even with the lofs of the ce¬
lebrated navigator’s life. :
When he let out in the Endeavour in the year 1768, Mad™
the firft place he touched at was Madeira. Here Mrvokanit
Banks and Dr Solander, befides fome additions to the^ant*'
fcience of botany, difeovered undoubted marks of the
ifland having a volcanic origin. On leaving this place, ^
they found it neceffary to touch at Rio de Janeiro for
provifions, and, during the run thither, the commander a
had an opportunity of determining the caufe of the
luminous appearance of the fea. On the 29th of Oc-
tober they obferved that the water frequently emitted appear;
flaflies like lightning, though much fmailer 3 but fuch ot the;
was their frequency, that eight or ten of them were°cca^!
vifible almoft at the fame moment. This appearance y
they found, both at this time and afterwards, to arife
from a fmall kind of animal with which the water
abounded. Whilft flaying at Rio de Janeiro, a melan¬
choly obfervation was made of the prodigious wafte of
human lives with which the working of the Portu-
guefe gold mines was attended, no fewer than 40,000
negroes being annually imported for this purpofe, nonebersof
oi whom, it feems, furvive the labour of the year 3 andpw5'
our navigator was informed, that in 1766 this number*^*'
was fo far fliort, that they were obliged to draught
20,000 more from the town of Rio itfelf. Proceed-minci.
ing from thence to the fouthern coafts of America, he
had an opportunity of determining a queftion of great 4
importance to navigation, viz. whether, in failing to Bell p
the Pacific ocean, it is better to pafs through thefage11 !
ftraits of Magellan, or to double Cape Horn, and fail1*161111
through thofe of Le Maire ? From Captain Cook’s
voyage it appears, contrary to the opinion of former the fti
navigators, that the latter is the preferable paffage.Le M; ;
Through this he Was only 33 days in coming round the
land of Terra del Fuego from the eaft entrance of the
flrait of Le Maire till he had advanced about 12 de¬
grees to the weflward, and three and a half to the
northward of Magellan’s ftraits. During all this
time the {hip fcarcely received any damage, though if
he had paffed the other way he could not have accom-
plifhed his paffage in lefs than three months, befides
immenfe fatigue to his people and damage to the {hip. .
In thefe ftormy regions, however, he experienced thej;xcej
fame inconveniencies felt by other navigators 3 fuch aftor®
fea being met with off Cape Diego, that the {hip fre col(* ”
quently pitched her bowfprit under water. Here alfo .
the exceflive cold and mutability of weather in thefe s
fouthem
c
coo
fouthern regions was experienced in fuch a manner as
c- had nearly proved fatal to fume of the gentlemen who
failed along with him. Dr Solander, Mr Banks, Mr
Monkhoufe the furgeon, and Mr Green the aftronomer,
with their attendants and fervants, fet out on a botani¬
cal expedition while the {hip lay at anchor in the bay
of Good Succefs. It was then the middle of fpmmer,
and the morning on which they fet out was as mild
and warm as it ufually is in the month of Mqy in Eng¬
land : but having afcended a mountain for the purpofe
of botanizing, they were furprifed by fuch {forms of
- fnow and hail that they could not get back that night.
Dr Solander, who warned them of their danger, that
people when about to perilh with cold W'ere feized with
a violent inclination to deep, was the firit who feemed
likely to fail a victim to it} and it was not in the power
of his companions to keep him from fitting down
for that purpofe. He was awakened in a few minutes j
but during this fhort interval his feet had become fo
much diminiflied by the contraffion of the veffels, that
his {hoes fell off from them when he was again made
to rife. Even thefe dreary regions, however, are not
without inhabitants, whom our voyagers juftly con-
eluded to be the lowed of the human fpecies. Indeed,
confidering the little convenience they have, it is won¬
derful how they can reflft the feverity of the climate,
for they are alinoft without clothing j they dwell in
miferabie hovels, which admit both the wind and fnow
or rain ; and they have not any utenfil for drefling their
food. Neverthelefs, • thefe miferabie creatures, as they
appeared to our navigators, feemed to have no wifh to
poilefs more than they enjoyed; and they were abfo-
lutely indi{ferent about every thing that wras offered
them, except large beads which they would take as
ornaments. Hence Dr Hawkefworth, who wrote the
account of the voyage, concludes, that thefe people
may be on a level with ourfelves with refpe£t to the
real happinefs they enjoy.
if_ On the 26th of January 1769 our navigators left
be-Cape Horn •, and from that time to the firlt of March,
^during which they run no lefs than 660 leagues, met
with no current by which the {hip was affeSed. Hence
it is probable, that during all this time they had never
been near any land, the currents of the ocean being
ufually met with in the neighbourhood of iflands. Se¬
veral iflandsf* however, were difeovered before they
reached Otaheite, on which they beftowed the names
of Lagoon Bland, Thrumb-cap, Bow Bland, the
Groups, Bird Bland, and Chain Bland. All thefe
feemed to be inhabited, and w7ere covered with a molt
delightful verdure ; which appeared to the greater ad¬
vantage, as our navigators had for a long time feen no
land but the dreary hills and waftes of Terra del Fue-
go. Having arrived at Otaheite, they fet about ob-
Icrving the tranfit of Venus over the fun, which indeed
was the main purpofe for w'hich the voyage had been
undertaken. The anxiety which they underwent when
the time of the expefted phenomenon approached may
eafily be imagined, as the whole depended on the cir-
cumdance of a clear Iky, which though more readily to
be expe&ed in that climate than one more to the north¬
ward, wras ftill a matter of uncertainty. In confequence
of fome hints which had been given by the earl of
Morton, Captain Cook determined to fend out two par-
Ce's to different places to make the obfervations j by
619 ] coo
which means there would be a chance of fuccefs, even ^00ii*s.
if thofe at Otaheite {hould fail. For this purpofe he , 1 co^en‘-'i,‘
lent Mr Gore in the long boat to Eimeo, a neighbour¬
ing illand, along with Mr Monkhoufe, Mr Banks, and
Mr Sporing, who were furnifloed with proper inftru-
ments by Mr Green the aftronomer. Meffrs Hicks,
Clerkej Pickerfgill, and Saunders, were fent in the
pinnace to a convenient fpot to the e a ft: ward of the
main obfervatory, wdiere they were likewife ordered to
make obfervations writh fuch inftruments as they had.
The day on which the tranftt happened was the 3d of
June 1769, when they had the fatisfaftion to fee the
fun rife.without a cloud ; and as the weather continued
equally clear throughout the day, there was the belt
opportunity of making the obfervations in a proper
manner. All of them faw an atmolphere or dulky
cloud round the planet, which difturbed their obferva-
tion, and probably caufed them to differ from each
other more confiderably than they would otherwife
have done. According to Mr Green, the times of
ingrefs and egrefs of the planet were as follow :
of
ib-
Morning,
Fir ft external contaft,
Firft internal contact, or total imtnerfton,
Afternoon.
Second internal contact.
Second external contaft, or end ©f the
tranftt,
}
h.
9
9
25
44
I4
32
fee*
4s
4
10
From fnefe obfervations the latitude of the obfer¬
vatory was found to be 170 29' 15" S. and the longi¬
tude 1490 32' 30" W. of Greenwich. Several curious
remarks were made both on the country itfelf, and on
the inhabitants. Mr Banks, in an excurfton up the otalieit*
country, difeovered many traces of volcanic fire $ the a volcanic
ftones, like thofe of Madeira, had evidently the ap- ifland.
pearance of being burnt, and the very clay on the hills
had the fame appearance. The natives, though ad" Acc(!^t
difted to thieving, appeared in general harmlefs and tjiC
friendly, and very ready to fupply the {hip with ne-
ceffaries in exchange for fuch things as they wanted.
The articles on which they fet the greateft value were
hatchets, axes, large nails, fpikes, looking-glaffes, and
beads. They were alfo fond of fine linen, whether
white or printed; but an axe of the value of half a
crown would buy more provifions than a piece of cloth
of the value of 20 {hillings. They are very fickle and
inattentive j fo that it was not poflible to engage them,
to pay any regard to the worlhip of the Deity which
they faw performed before them; nor would they at¬
tend to any explanation of it that was given them.
They are not, however, deftitute of a religion of their
own j and are particularly carefuF of the repofitories
of the dead, which they will not allow to be violated
on any account. Of this Captain Cook had an in-
ftance, when fome of his people offered to take down
an inclofure of one of thofe repofitories. They wrere
violently oppofed by the natives, who fent a meffenger
to acquaint them that they would never fuffer any
(uch thing; and the only infult that ever was offered to
an Englilhtnan by the people of this ifiand was on a
fimilar account. From Otaheite our navigators carried
4 I a with
Cooh’s
I>ilcoverie$.
ii
Society
Iflands dif-
covered.
12
Wretched
appearance
of the Idng
of Bolabola.
’3
Oheteroa
id and dif-
covered.
COO [ 620 ] COO
with them Tupia, formerly high ptiell of the country,
and piime minidcr to Q^ucen Oberea. From his prac¬
tice it appeared, that the priefts of Qtaheite, as well as
clfewhere, take care to place theriifelves a ftep nearer
the Deity than the common people, and to ufe the de¬
ceptions too frequently put in pradtice by fuch media¬
tors. While on board the Endeavour, he frequently
prayed to his god Tone for a wind ; and according to
his own account never failed of luccefs. This, how¬
ever, he took care to enfure \ for he never began his
prayers till he perceived the breeae already on the
water, and fo near that it muft reach the fhip before
they could well be ended. It was obferved likewife of
the people of Otaheite, that they had their bards or
miniirels, who went about the country with mulical
inftruments. The band whom they faw at this time
confided of two players on flutes and three drummers ;
the letter accompanying the flutes with their voices.
Their fongs were made extempore, and the Engliih
themlelves were generally the fubjeft.
From Otaheite oip; navigators failed towards a neigh¬
bouring ifland named Tethuora ; but finding it fmali,
low, and without any fettled inhabitants, the captain
chofe rather to direft his courfe towards Huaheine and
Ulietea, which he was informed were wTell inhabited.
Thefe had never been vifited by any European fhip 5
but the inhabitants, though peaceable and friendly,
were very flow and cautious in trading, fo that the
captain was obliged to bring out his hatchets to mar¬
ket ; a commodity which he had hoped might have
been concealed from thofe who had never feen an Eu¬
ropean flu’p before. On bis arrival at Ulietea he found
by the difcourfe of Tupia, that the inhabitants of a
neighbouring ifland named BoJabola were of fuch a
martial difpofition as to be the terror of thofe of Hua-
Jieinej* Ulictea, and others, infomuch, that he appre-
liended great danger to cur navigators fhould they
touch at an ifland which the Eolabola men had lately
conquered. This, however, had fo little effe£f upon
Captain Cock, that he not only landed on the ifland
already mentioned, but took pofTeflion, in his majefty’s
name, of Bolabola itfelf, together with Ulietea, Hua¬
heine, and another named Otaha, which were all vi-
fible at once. During their flay here they paid a vifit
to Opoony, the formidable monarch of Eolabola;
whom, to their furprife, they found a feeble wretch,
withered and decrepid, half blind with age, and fo
fiupid that he feemed fcarce to be poffefied of a com¬
mon degree of undeiHanding. About thefe iflands
they fpent fix weeks, bellowing upon them the name
of the Society IJlesy on account of their being fo near
to each ether. They are fix in number, Ulietea, Hua¬
heine, Bolabola, Otaha, Tubai, and Maurna. The
fmaller ones in their neighbourhood are Tethuora, Ei-
meo, Tapoarnanoa, Oatara, Opururu, Tamou, Toaho-
atu, and Whennuaia.
Leaving the Society Iflands, which are fituated be¬
tween Lat. 16. 10. and 16. 55. S. and between 150.
jjy. ancki52. W. from the meridian of Greenwich, they
fell in with the ifland of Oheteroa, fituated in S. Lat.
22. 27. and W. Long. 150.. 47. j but this was found
to be deftitute of any harbour or fafe anchorage, and
the difpofition of the inhabitants fo hoftile that they
could not by any means be conciliated, fo that no
attempts were made to land. From Tupia Captain
Cook learned that there were feveral iflands in the Cool-', f
neighbourhood, which our navigator eonieflured to^ova*«
be Bofcawen and Keppel’s iflands, difeovered by Cap- '""""V'' 1"
tain Wallis; but without fpending more time in ex¬
ploring thefe, he fet fail to the fouthward in fearch o£ a
continent.
Our voyagers left Oheteroa on the 15th of Auguft Comeu;
1769, and on the 30th had a view of the comet which
appeared that year 5 its tail fubtending on an angle offove(1'
42 degrees. This proved a new fource ef apprehen-
fion to Tupia, who inftantly cried out, that as foon as
it wTas feen at Bolabola, the people of that country
would attack thofe of Ulietea, who would undoubted¬
ly be obliged to fly with precipitation to the mountains
to lave their lives. On the 6lh of Oftober they dif¬
eovered land, which from its fize, and the enormous
mountains obfervable on it, was fuppofed by the gen¬
tlemen on board to be part of Terra S-uJiralis incognita;
but, on farther examination it was found to be part of
New Zealand. Here the inhabitants were found to They«
fpeak a dialed of the language of Otaheite, fo that rive at
they could underftand Tupia, and he them; yet fo^Zi
extremely hoftile were their difpofitions, that not thelanil‘
fmalleft intercourfe could be held with them ; nor
could any thing necefiary for the ftrips be procured
excepting wood; fo that the name Captain Cook
thought proper to beftow on this part of the country
was Poverty Bay. By the natives it is called Taotieroa^
and lies in S. Lat. 38.' 42. and W. Long. 181. 36.
During the time of his ftay in this part of the world,
the captain circumnavigated almoft the whole country
of New Zealand, which he found to confift of two- t*
iflands feparated from each other by a narrow ftrait,
which, from its difeoverer, has obtained the name of J
Cook's Strait. In feme places the difpofition of the in¬
habitants was as favourable as could be wilhed ; fo that
Dr Solander, Mr Banks, and other gentlemen, had an
opportunity of exploring the country in fome degree,
with a view to difeover its natural productions. In Rock c
one of their excurfions, as they paifed through a val-6*1™
ley, the hills on each fide of which were very fteep,nai^a '
they were fuddenly ftruck with the fight of a very ex¬
traordinary natural curiofity. It was a rock perfo¬
rated through its whole fubftance, fo as to form a rude
but ftupendous arch or cavern, opening direCtly to the
lea. This aperture was 75 feet long, 27 broad, and
45 in height, commanding a view of the bay and the
hills on the other fide, which were feen through it ;
and opening at once on the view, produced an effefl ,,
far fuperior to any of the contrivances of art. On Natan
that part of the coaft, which, from having obferved aprodui
tranfit of Mercury, they named Mercury Bay, cyders1*16®
were found in fuch plenty, that they might have load- 3'
ed not only their boats, but even their fiiip with them.
They were about the fame fize with thofe met with in
this country; and on account of their being found in
fuch plenty, and likewife that the adjacent country
abounds with conveniencies, Captain Cook was at great
pains to point out the fituation of the place. By his
obfervations the latitude of Mercury Bay is 36. 48.
28. S.
Leaving this bay, our commander proceeded to ex¬
plore other parts of the country, which by his ac¬
count feems to abound with rivers. Two large ones
were met with in Mercury bay 5 one ©f which, from
the.
COO [6
odt the abundance of oyfters found at its mouth, was call-
:ovt 5. eci Oijjler river; the other they named Mangrove ri-
"V” J ver, from the number of mangrove trees growing there.
A third, which they called Thames, was met with in
that part called the Bay of Iflands, up which they fail¬
ed 14 miles. Its banks were everywhere adorned
with lofty trees, which they had likewife obferved in
other parts of the country. They were too heavy for
nulls, but would make the fined planks imaginable y
and as they refembled the pitch pine, the timber of
which is lightened by tapping, the carpenter was of
opinion that they might thus be rendered more pro¬
per for mails than any European timber. One of
thefe trees meafured 19 feet 8 inches in circumference
at the height of fix feet from the ground, and was no
lefs than 89, with very little taper, to the branches j
fo that the lieutenant fuppofed it mull contain 336
feet of folid timber. - In Queen Charlotte’s Sound the
country was little other than one vaft forelt, with plen¬
ty of excellent water, and the coaft abounding with fifh.
As the Ihip'lay at the diftance of only a quarter of a
mile from the Ihore, they were agreeably entertained
with the fingmg cf an infinite number of fmall biids,
which formed a melody greatly fuperior to any thing
they had ever heard before.. I he mufic of tnele liti.e
chorifters feemed to be like fmall bells, mod exquifitely
tuned, though probably the didance and intervention
of the water had a confiderable effe6t in heightening
it. They Began to ling about two in the morning,
and continued their long till funrife, after which they
were fiient all the day, refembling in this refpe£t the
^ nightingales of our country.
ene The time which Captain Coolc fpent in exploring the
sijun C0E^S New Zealand was not lefs that fix months,
y. By his refearchts it was drown to confid of two large
i{lands, the mod northerly of which is called Kaheino-
mauwe, mA. the mod foutherly lovy or lavai Poe-
narnmoQ ; though it is not certain whether the whole
fouthern ifiand or only a part of it is comprehended un¬
der this name. ’I his ifland feems to be barren and
mountainous, but Eaheinomauwe has a much better ap¬
pearance j and it was univerfally believed by the gen¬
tlemen on board, that all kinds of European grain, as
well as garden plants and fruits, would hourilh in the
greated abundance and perfe£lion j and from the \e-
getables found here it was concluded that the winters
are not mor© fevere than thole of England, and it was
known by experience, that the fummer was not hotter,
though the heat was more equal than in this country.
Here are no quadrupeds except dogs and rats j and
the latter are fo fcarce, that they efcaped the notice oi
many on board. The birds are not numerous, and tne
gannet is the only one of the European kind that was
obferved. The infefts are equally fcarce j but the lea
makes abundant recompenfe for tins fcarcity of land
animals j every creek iwarms with fidi, equally deli¬
cious with thofe in this country. The foreds are of vaft
extent, and filled with excellent timber trees j the Er-
geft, ftraighteft, and cleaned: that Mr Cook had ever
feen. There is here one plant which anfwers the pur-
9 pofes of both hemp and flax, and excels all otneis of the
kind that have been met with in any other part of the
21 ] GOO
beft place for efiablilWog a colony would be either on
the banks of the Thames or in the bay 0^ Iflands; eacn
of thefe places having the advantage of an excellent
harbour. Settlements might be extended, and a com¬
munication made with the inland parts ol the countiy
by means of the river j and veffels ealiiy conflru£kd
of the excellent timber with which the country every¬
where abounds.
world. If the fettling of New Zealand therefore fliould
ever be deemed an object worthy of the attention of
Great Britain, Captain Cook was of opinion, that the
for
ig a
The inhabitants of New Zealand are in a very bar- Account of
barons date, and have a degree of ferocity unknown the mhabE
to the inhabitants of the South Sea iflanus, though >-suits,
they feem to have the fame origin. During their re-
fldence there, our navigators had tne molt convincing
evidences of their being cannioais, and accuiiomed u>
devour the bodies of their fiain enemies. Notwith-
danding thefe barbarous praflices, however, they
fee me d° to enjoy a date of uninterrupted health. In
ail the vifits made to their towns, none was ever per¬
ceived who had the lead bodily complaint, not even
the flighted eruption on the fkin. This extraordinary
degree, of health was likewife manifeded by the eafe
with which their wounds were healedwithout the fm2li¬
ed application, as well as by the number of old men
with which the ifland abounded. Many cf thefe, by the.
lofs of their hair and teeth, teemed to be extremely
old, but none of them were decrepid ; and though in¬
ferior in flrength to the young men, they came not
behind them in the lead with regard to cheer! ulntts
and vivacity. The univerfal and only drink ol tue
New Zealanders is water.
Our navigator had now explored three-fourths 01
that part of the globe where the fouthern continent
was fuppofed to lie,.without being able to find it and
his voyage had demondiated, that tne lands ken by
former navigators could not have been parts of Inch a
continent, though, as he had never proceeded iarther
to the fouthward than 40 degrees, the arguments for it 2r
were not as yet entirely overthrown. Mr Cook, how-Difcovc_ ]
ever, did not at this time proceed farther in the fearchnes at
of fucha continent, but failed from New Zealand to[^
the coad of New Holland, where he anchored in Bo¬
tany Bay on the 20th of April. Here he found a few
favage inhabitants more barbarous and degenerate than
any that had yet been obferved. Their language was
hardr and diflbnant, totally unintelligible even to Ta¬
pia : they appeared to have little curiofity, and fet no
value upon any prefent that could be made them. Eiie
mod remarkable circumdance in this country feems to
be its extreme fcarcity of water j not a Angle dream
of any confequence having ever been obferved by any
navigator. Some were of opinion indeed, that More-
ton’s bay, in S. Lat. 26. 59. and W. Long. 206. 28.
opens into a river j though the only reafon they had
for this opinion was, that the La looked paler in that
part than ufual, and the land at the bottom part of the
bay could not be feen. At this time, however, tbs
matter could not be determined by experiment, on
account of the wind being contrary. The fcarcity
of water here is the more furprifing, on account of the
vad extent of the country, and likewife its having
abundance ot tolerably high hills. In this ifland theie
were found many curious plants and animals ; and it 2X
was found, that in leverai places the magnetical needle Magnetic
was afFeded to fuch a degree, as to vary its pofitionneedlefur.
even to 30 degrees. At one time it varied no l^fs^^^
than
COO [ 622 ] coo
Cook’s than two points on being removed to the diftance of
, 'jlC0^C! iCS; only 14 feet. Some of the loofe ftones being taken up
and applied to the needle produced no effedt; but Mr
Cook was of opinion that the whole phenomenon was
to be afcribed to iron ore in fome of the mountains,
and of which traces had been already met with. This
irregularity continued in ibme degree even at faa j for
when the fliip was clofe under Cape Upftart, the varia¬
tion of the needle in the evening of the 4th of June
wasp0 eaft, and next morning only 50 35'5 and this
was in like manner accounted for from iron ore, or
fome magnetical matter below the furface of the
ground. The great ifland has many other fmall
23 ones round it, feveral of which were vifited by our na-
ofanim^ v'Sators- One of them, named Eagle Ifland,\<izvi\c& to
menie lize. habited by a monftrous kind of birds, the neit of
one of which meafured no lefs than 26 feet in' circum¬
ference, and two feet eight inches in height; and in
the Philofophical Tranfadtions, Vol. xx. there is an ac¬
count of one of thefe nefts ftill larger j but the bird
to which it belonged W'as not feen. That which
cur navigators faw was built of flicks, and lay upon the
24 ground.
Vaft extent The country which goes by the name of New Hot-
of the coun-land is by far the largeft ifland in the world. Its eaft-
ern part, called New South lValesy now firft explored
by Captain Cook, extends upwards of 2000 miles in
length, if the coaft were reduced to a flraight line.
Though inhabited, as we have -already faid, by very
barbarous favagcs, their number appears to bear no
proportion to the extent of their territory. The in-
tercourfe they had with our navigators was fo finall,
that they could pick up but a few words of their lan¬
guage. As a Britifh fettlement is now made in that
country, there is no doubt that much more exadt ac¬
counts will foon be obtained than even the diligence
and attention of Captain Cook could colledl on fuch a
tranfient vifit.
Separated this voyage our navigator, befides exploring the
by ftraits eaflern part of the ifland, which had never been done
from New before, difcovered that it was feparated from the ifland
'‘il“ca' cf New Guinea, to which it had formerly been thought
to join. The two countries are feparated by a ftrait
to which the commander gave the name of Endeavour
Strait. The north entrance of this lies in S. Lat. 10.
39. and W. Long. 218. 36. j the paflfage is formed by
the main land and a congeries of iflands to the north,
on which our navigator bellowed the name of Prince
cj Wales's IJlands. Thefe are very different both in
height and extent; and the captain was of opinion,
2{; that feveral paffages might be found out among them.
Cockles of On *he coaft of New Holland oppofite to New Guinea
vaft lize, are found cockles of an immenfe fize ; fome of them
fea-foum, being as much as two men could move, and containing
20 pounds of good meat. In thefe feas, as well as on
the coafts of Brazil, our navigators found the furface of
the water covered with a kind of fcum called by the
failors fea-fpawn. It was examined by Mr Banks and
Hr Solander \ but they could determine nothing far¬
ther than that it was of vegetable origin.
The natives of New Guinea were fo hoftile that no
difeoveries of any confequence could be made. They
refembled the Nerv Hollanders in ftature, and having
fnort cropped hair. Like them too they were ahfo-
ktely naked, but fomewhat lefs black and dirty. They
had a furpriung method of letting off a kind of fires, Coo! '
exaftly refembling the flaflies of fire-arms, but withoutDifcov ’
any exploficn. It was not known in what manner'~Y
this was done, as they were never near enough tounaca
make a particular obfervation. Thofe who difchargedabkiJ ’
them had a fhort piece of flick which they fwung fide-^ 0
wife from them, from which there iffued the fire andf‘UVk
fmoke juft mentioned. This feems to have been in-£re^ ,
tended as a defiance; for they had no effedl as offen-
five weapons, and others were armed with bows and
arrows. The country appeared extremely pleafant
and fertile. The place at which they touched lies in
S. Lat. 6. 15.
As the condition of the Endeavour was now very
much fhattered by having failed fo long in thefe dan¬
gerous feas, the commander determined to make the
beft of his way for Batavia in order to refit. In this
voyage he firft paffed two unknown iflands without
touching at either cf them. They were fuppofed to
belong to the Aurora iflands ; but if this be the cafe,
the latter mu ft be laid down at too great a diftance
from New Guinea. The Weafel Ifles, laid down by
former navigators at about 28 or 25 leagues from the
coaft of New Holland, were not feen ; for which reafon
Mr Cook is of opinion that they are erroneoufly laid
down.
Faffing by the iflands of Timor, Timor-lavet, Rot-
ta, and Seman, they next arrived at the ifland of Sa-
vu, where a fettlement had lately been made by the
Hutch. In this voyage they had the fatisfaflion of^uroi
obferving the aurora auftralis, which here feemed toaufc
differ in fome refpedfts from that in the northern hemi-,
fphere. It confifted of a dull reddifh light extend¬
ing about 20 degrees above the horizon 5 and though
it varied fometimes in extent, it was never lefs than
eight or ten degrees. From this general mafs of
light there fometimes iffued rays of a brighter colour,
which vanifhed and were renewed like thofe of the au¬
rora borealis, but without any of that tumultuous mo¬
tion obferved in the aurora borealis. The body of the
light bore S. S. E. from the fliip, and continued with¬
out any diminution of its biightnefs from 10 to 12 at
night.
The middle part of the ifland of Savu lies in 10. 35.excc]
fouth, and 237. 30. weft longitude, and afforded a moftchara
beautiful profpeft from the fliip. The people are re-oftk
markable for the purity of their morals, which are faidp1^1
to be irreproachable, even on the principles of Chrif- ‘
tianity. Though no man is allowed to have more
than one wife, inftances of illicit commerce betwixt
the fexes are fcarcely known among them. Inftances
of theft are likewife very rare j and fo far are they
from revenging a fuppofed injury by murder, that
when any differences arife among them, they are im¬
mediately and implicitly referred to the determination
of the king. They will not even make it the fubjeft
of private debate, left they fhould he provoked to re-
fentment and ill-nature •, and the delicacy and cleanli-
nefs of their perfons are faid to be proportionable
the purity of their morals. fefls M
On the arrival of the Endeavour at Batavia, our na- eled)1
vigator had an opportunity of obferving the good ef- c^rij,
fefts of the electrical chains applied to {hips, in fecuring r
them from the effeCts of lightning. A dreadful ftorm
of thunder happened one evening, during which thelightil!’
main-maft
/
coo
main-mart of one of the Dutch Eart Indiamen was
es. fplit and carried away clofc by the deck, the main-
top-mart, and top-gallant-maft being rtrivered to pie¬
ces. This ftiip lay fo near the Endeavour, that the
latter rvould probably have {hared the fame fate, had
it not been for the conducting chain which fortu¬
nately was jurt put up. The ex-plofion (hook her like
an earthquake, the chain at the fame time appearing
like a line of fire. The ftroke feemed to have been
directed to the Dutch vefiel by an iron fpindle at the
mart head : which pradtice cur commander difeom-
mends, but ftrongly inculcates the ufe of the eledtrical
chain.
f On their landing at Batavia, Tupia was confined by
ficknefs, fo that he appeared quite lifelefs and dejedted
when put into the boat: but on his arrival at land re¬
covered his fpirits furprifingly. The feene, to him fo
new and extraordinary, feemed to produce an effedt
fimilar to what is produced by enchantment. His at¬
tention was particularly engaged by the various drefies
of the people : and being informed that at Batavia
every one appeared in the drefs of his own country, he
exprerted a defire of likewife appearing in the garb of
Otaheile. Having therefore been furniftied with South
fea cloth from the fhip, he equipped himfelf with
great quicknefs and dexterity. After tlie firrt flow of
fpirits had fubfided, however, he foon began to feel
the fatal effedts of the climate ; and his boy Tayeto,
whofe fpirits had been ftill more elevated on his ar¬
rival, was attacked with an inflammation of the lungs,
and in a little time fell a vidtim to the difeafe. Tu¬
pia himfelf did not long furvive him, and his death
was not attributed folely to the unwholefomenefs of
the climate. Having been accuftomed from his in¬
fancy to fubfift chiefly upon vegetable food, and par¬
ticularly on ripe fruit, he had foon contradted the dif-
ordos incident to a fea life, and could fcarce have
been expedted to reach England, even if the un-
wholefome climate of Batavia had been out of the
queflion.
s The Endeavour left Batavia on the 27th of De-
a cember 1770, and on the 5th of January 1771 reach¬
ed Prince’s ifland. This place had been formerly
much frequented by the India (hips, but of late en-
it. tirely deferted on account of the fuppofed bad quality
of the water •, but this our navigator has difeovered to
be a miftake j and that, though the water near the
fea is brackiflr, it may be had of excellent quality by
going a little way up the country. He is of opinion,
that this ifland is a mote proper place for (hips to touch
at than either North Ifland or New Bay, becaufe neither
of thefe can afford other refrelhments, which may be
had at Prince’s ifland.
The reft of the voyage affords but little interefting
matter. The Cape of Good Hope, v/hich was their
next ftage, has been fo fully deferibed by former na¬
vigators that there was little room for addition. At
St Helena the commander made fome remarks on the
rigorous treatment of the flaves, which was reprefent-
ed as worfe than that of the Dutch either at Batavia
or the Cape of Good Hope. In the account of his
fecond voyage, however, this accufation was retradt-
13' ed#
d Captain Cook’s fecond voyage was undertaken m
e. an efpecial manner to determine finally the quefticn
623 } coo
concerning thtf exiftence of a fouthern continent. It
commenced in the year I772? mid, as in the former,, 1 co^eiieg*
he proceeded fiift to Madeira. From thence lie pro¬
ceeded to St Jago, one of the Cape de ^ erde iflands 5
where an opportunity was taken of delineating and gi¬
ving fuch a defeription of Port Praya, and the fupplies
to be there obtained, as might be of ufe to future navi¬
gators. On the Slh of September he croffed the line
in 8° weft longitude, and had the latisfadlion to meet
with good weather, though he had been informed that
he had failed at an improper time of the year, in con-
fequence of which he would probably be becalmed.
From his account, however, it appears, that though in
fome years fuch weather may be expedled, it is by no
means univerfally the cafe. In this part of the ocean Calmstiot
he had alfo an opportunity of obferving the caufc of always to
the luminous property of fea-waler, which in his for-be feared
mer vo) age had been attributed to infedls. Mr For-^af^te^
fter being of a different opinion, the matter was again A
particularly inquired into, but the refult was entirely 35
conformable to the former determination. Some hue-Luminous
kets of water being drawn up from alongfide the fhip, quality of
were found to be filled with thofe infers of a globular £ea ^at®r
form, and about the fize of a frnall pin’s head. No life
indeed could be perceived in them ; but Mr Forfter
was thoroughly convinced of their being living animals
when in their proper element. ^6
Proceeding fouthward in queil of a continent, they ice iuand?»
fell in with ice iflands in S. Lat. 50. 40. and two
degrees of longitude cart from the Cape of Good
Hope. One of thefe was fo much concealed by the
hazinefs of the weather, that it could not be feen at the
diftance of more than a mile. Captain Cook judged
it to be about 50 feet in height and half a mile in cir¬
cumference j its fides riling in a perpendicular direc¬
tion, and the fea breaking againft them with great vio¬
lence. Two days after, they paffed fix others, feme of
which were two miles in circumference and 60 feet in
height yet fuch was the ftrength and violence of the
waves that the fea broke quite over them. On the 14th
they were flopped by a vail field of low ice, of which
they could perceive no end. In different parts of this
field there were feen iflands, or hills of ice like thofe
already deferibed, and fome of the people imagined
that they faw land over them *, but upon a narrow ex¬
amination this was found to be a miftake. On getting
clear of the field of ice they again fell in with loofe
iflands} and it was a general opinion that thtfe are
only formed in bays and rivers, our navigators con¬
cluded that they could not be at a great diftance from
land. They were now in the latitude of 550 40' fouth y
and as they had failed for more than 30 leagues along
the edge of the ice without finding any opening, the
captain determined to run 30 or 40 leagues farther to
the eaftward, in hopes of then getting to the fouth¬
ward. If in this attempt he met with no land or other
impediment, his defign was to ftretch behind the ice
altogether, and thus determine the matter at once. In
a ftiort time, however, it became evident that the
field of ice along which they had failed fo long, did
not join with any land y and the captain now came to
a refolution of running as far to the weft as the meri¬
dian of Cape Circumcifion. In the profecution of this
defign he met with a very fevere ftoim, which was
rendered the more dangerous by the pieces of ioofe ice
among
coo
tiook’s among which they were ftill entangled, and a vaft
.Oiicoveries. 0f they could not perceive the boundaries
about three miles to the northward. Of this they
could not get clear without receiving fome fevere
flrokes ; and after all, when they arrived at the place
where they ought to have found Cape Circumcifion,
it could not be difcovered j fo that the captain con¬
cluded that what Bouvet took for land could have
^ been nothing but ice.
Ice not al- During this run the fallacy of the general opinion
ways found -had been difcovered, that the ice with which the polar
n^ty of^" re^°nS a^oun^ ^as ^een formed in the vicinity of
land. land. It w'as found likewife, that the tvater produced
from the melting of ice, even though formed in the
ocean, was perfectly fweet and well tailed. Of this
circumftance the captain took advantage to fupply
himfelf with water ; and gave it as his opinion that it
was the moft expeditious method of watering he had
ever known. He had likewife an opportunity of de¬
tecting another popular error, viz. that penguins, al-
batroifes, and other biids of that kind, never go far
from land. This indeed may be the cafe in open feas,
but in fuch as are covered with ice it is very different ',
for they then inhabit the ice iflands, and float out with
them to fea to a great diftance,
When in the latitude of 49. 13. S. fome flgns of
land were perceived ; but as the wind did not admit of
any fearcH being made in the direClion where it was
38 Dppofed to lie, the captain proceeded in his voyage to
Irregularis the eallward. A very remarkable alteration in the
tyofthe dircftion of the needle was now perceived, and which
needletlC could not ^ppofed owing to the vicinity of any
magnetic matter, as it happened while the fliips were
far out at fea. The circumflance w’as, that when the
fun w^s on the (larboard fide of the (hip the variation
was lead, but greatefl when on the oppofite fide. An
aurora audralis was again obferved, which broke out in
fpiral or circular rays, and had a beautiful appearance j
but did not feem to have any particular direClion, be¬
ing confpicuous at various times in different parts of
the heavens, and diffufing its light over the whole at-
mofphere.
The extreme cold and fiorrny weather which now
began to take place, determined Captain Cook not to
. 39 crofs the antarClic circle a fecond time as he had once
defigned. His obfervations confirmed the accounts of
fouthern ^ fornaer navigators, that the Cold of the fouthern feas is
feas. much more intenfe than in equal latitudes in the nor¬
thern hemifphere j but at the fame time it fhowed
that this cold cannot be owing to the vicinity of a con¬
tinent, as had been formerly imagined. On the con¬
trary, it was now determined beyond difpute, that if
any fuch continent exifled in the eaflern part of the
ibuthern ocean, it mufl be confined within the latitude
of 60 degrees. No. farther difcoveries therefore being
practicable in. higher latitudes, as the winter feafon
was approaching, the commander fleered for New
Zealand, where he anchored in Dufky Bay on the 25th
40 •I^arc.^» having been at fea 117 days without once
further ac- coding in fight of land. Here the time was fpent in
count of procuring proper refrefhments for the people, and ex-
Kew Zea- ploring the fea-coafl and country for the benefit of
future navigators.. Nor was our commander unmind¬
ful, of the inhabitants. Here he left the five geefe
winch yet remained, choofing for them a place where
[ 624 1 coo
there were no people at the time to diflurb them j and Cook\
as they had there great plenty of food, he had no doubt^eri,
of their breeding, and in a fhort time fpreading over1"^*-
the country, Some days after a piece of ground was
cleared by letting fire to the topwood, after which it
was dug up and fowed with garden feeds. Dufky Bay
is fituated in the v/eflern ifland of New Zealand, called
Tavai Poenammoo, which, as has already been faid, is
lefs fertile than the other. The inland part is full’ of
rugged mountains of a vafl height: but the fea-coaft
is covered with trees, among which is the true fpruce,
which was found to be of great ufe. It was remark¬
ed, that though a vaft quantity of rain fell during the
time of refidence here, it was not attended with any
bad effeCts on. the health of the people: which fur. •
nifties an additional argument for the healthinefs of the
place. Dulky Bay is reckoned by Captain Cock to
be the moft proper place in New Zealand for the pro¬
curing of refrefhments, though it is attended with fome
-difagreeable circumftances, particularly being infefttd
with great -numbers of black fand-fiies, which were
troublefbme to an extreme degree. The natives feen
at Dufky Bay were apparently of the fame race with
thofe feen in other parts of the country, and led a
wandering life, without any appearance of being united
in the bonds of fociety or friendfhip.
From Dufky Bay the captain proceeded to Queen
Charlotte’s Sound, where lie met with the Adventure,
which had been feparated from the Befolulion for 41
above 14 w eeks. In his paffage thither he had an Water
opportunity of obferving fix water-fpouts, one of wbichfPouts’
paffed within 50 yards of the Refolution. It has been
a common opinion, that thefe meteors are difiipated
by the firing of a gun, and the captain was forry he
had not made the experiment 5 but he acknowledges,
that though he had a gun ready for the purpofe, and
was near enough, his attention was fo much engaged
in viewing them, that he forgot to give the neceffary
orders.
Having planted another garden in this part of the
country, and left two goats, two breeding fows and a
boar, in as private a fituation as poftible, that they
might be for fome time out of the reach of the natives,
the captain fet fail for Otaheite. During the longDifcoverii
abfence of the Adventure, Captain Furneaux had yi.ofCaptaii
fited the coaft of New Holland, and difcovered thatFurneau*
there was no probability of Van Diemen’s land being
feparated from it by -ftraits: he had likewife found
additional proofs that the natives,, of New Zealand
were accuftomed to eat human fldh. Captain Cook
alfo remarked with concern, that the morals of the
New Zealanders were by no means mended by the
vifit he had formerly paid them. At that time be
looked upon the women to be more chafte than thofe
of moft of the nations he had vifited; but now they
were ready to proftitute themfelves for a fpikenail,
and the men to force them to fiich an infamous traffic,
whether agreeable to the inclinations of the females
or not.
In the run from New Zealand to Otaheite, our
commander paffed very near the fituation affigned by
Captain Carteret to Pitcairn’s ■ifland, difeovered by him
in 1767, but without being able to find it, though a
fight of it would have been ufeful for corfeftirtg its
longitude as well as that of others in the neighbour¬
hood j
COO [ '625 ] coo
& ‘3 hood } but there was not .at prefent any time to fpend
f jjji-, res. jn featching for it. Proceeding farther on in his
,lw- voyage, hoivever, he fell in with a clufter of iflands
fuppofed to be thofe difcovered by M. Bougainville j
Xfl^and named by him the Dangerous Archipelago. To
iifcc £our 0£ t]iefe Captain Cook gave the names of Refo-
lution, Doubtful, Furneaux, and Adventure IJlands.
Relblution Ifland is fituated in S. Lat. 17. 24. W. Long.
141. 39. Doubtful Wand in S. Lat. 17. 20. W. Long.
141. 38. Furneaux Wand in S. Lat. 17. 5. W. Long.
143. 16. and Adventure Wand in S. Lat. 17. 14. and
W. Long. 144. 30.
1 No difcovery of any great confequence was made at
e. the ifland of Otaheite or thofe in its neighbourhood,
)mep excepting that the captain hai an opportunity of
heite corre&ing the opinion, wtiich till now had prevailed,
of the exceflive diflblutenefs and immodefty of the
women of Otaheite 5 and which had been enlarged
upon by Dr Hawkefworth more than feemed to be con-
fiftent with decency. The charge, however, according
to the accounts of this fecond voyage, is far from being
indifcriminately true, even of the unmarried females
of the lower clafs. Some additions were made to the
knowledge of the geography of thofe iflands j and
from Huaheine Captain Furneaux took on board of
his Ihip one of the natives of Ulietea named Omat,
afterwards fo much fpoken of in England. Captain
Cook at firft appeared diffatisfied with his choice of this
youth, as being inferior in rank to many others, and
having no particular advantage in (hape, figure, or
complexion; however, he had afteiwTards reafon to be
better pleafed. During the captain’s refidence at
Otaheite, he ufed his utmoft endeavours to difcover
whether the venereal difeafe was endemic among them,
or whether it had been imported by Europeans; but in
this he could not meet with any perfectly fatisfadlory
account, though it was univerfally agreed, that if it
had been introduced by Europeans, it muft have been
by the French under M. Bougainville.
Captain Cook having left Ulietea on the 17th of
September 1773, directed his courfe wreftward, with
45 an inclination to the fouth. In this courfe he difco-
1 vey’s vered land in S. Lat. 19. 8. and W. Long. 158. 54. to
,4 co" which he gave the name of Harvey's IJland. From
thence he proceeded to the ifland of Middleburg, .where
he was treated in the moft hofpitable manner poflible.
To fuch an excefs did the people carry their generofity,
that they feemed to be more fond of giving away their
goods than in receiving any thing for them j infomuch
that many, who had not an opportunity of coming near
the boats, threw over the heads of others whole bales of
cloth, and then retired, without either waiting or afldng
far any thing in return. From Middleburg he proceed¬
ed to Amfterdam ifland, where the beauty and cultiva¬
tion of the ifland afforded the moft enchanting profpeft.
There was not an inch of wafte ground \ the roads w'ere
no wider than what was abfolutely neceffary, and the
fences were not above four inches thick. Even this was
not abfolutely loft j for many of thefe contained ufeful
trees or plants.
It is obfervable of the ifles of Middleburg and Am¬
fterdam, as well as of moft others in the South fea,
rally fur- that they are guarded from the waves by a reef of
undcd coral rocks, which extend about one hundred fathoms
from the (hore. Thus they are effe&ually fecured
Vol. VI. Part II.
46
uth fea
ands ge-
‘A coral
cks,
from the encroachments of the ocean $ by which they Cook’s
wmuld probably foon be fwallowed up, as moft of them Difcoveries.
are mere points in comparifon of the vaft quantity of ■ v ”li
water which furrounds them. Here he left a quan¬
tity of garden vegetable feeds and pulfe, which it was
not doubted wrould be taken care of by the induftrious
inhabitants. In the laft-mentioned iflands our naviga¬
tors found no animals but hogs and fowls; the for¬
mer being of the fame kind with thofe ufually feen
in the other iflands of the South fea ; but the latter
greatly preferable, equalling thofe of Europe in their
fize, and even preferable in refpedt of the goodnefs of
their fleflt.
On the 7th of 0£lober, Captain Cook left the ifland
of Amfterdam, with a defign to pay another vifit to
New Zealand, in order to take in wood and water for
his voyage in queft of a fouthern continent. The day
after he left Amfterdam he fell in with the ifland of
Pilftart, formerly difcovered by Tafrnan, and fituated
in S. Lat. . W. Long. 175. 59. thirty-two leagues ^
diftant from the eaft end of Middleburg. On his arrival Another
at New Zealand, he exerted himfelf as much as poflible vifit to New
to leave a proper affortment of vegetables and animals Zea^an^*
for the benefit of the inhabitants. One of the firft
things he did, therefore, was to make a prefent to a
chief, who had come off in a canoe, of a quantity of
the moft ufeful garden feeds, fuch as cabbage, turnips,
onions, carrots, parfneps, and yams; together with fome
wheat, French and kidney beans, and peafe. With
the fame perfon alfo he left two boars, two fows, four
hens, and two cocks. This prefent, however valuable
in itfelf, feems to have been but indifferently recei¬
ved \ for the chief was much better fatisfied with a
fpikenail half the length of his arm than with all the
reft ; notwithftanding which, he promifed to take care
of the feeds, and not to kill any of the animals. On,
inquiring about thofe animals left in the country in the
former part of his voyage, the captain was informed,
that the boar and one of the fows had been feparated,
but not killed. The other he faw in good condition,
and very tame. The two goats, he was informed, had
been killed by a native of the name of Gaubiah-
The gardens had met with a better fate; all the articles
being in a very flourifhing condition, though left en¬
tirely to nature, excepting the potatoes. Captain Cook,,
however, flili determined to fupply thefe iflanders
with ufeful animals, put on ftiore a boar, a young fpw,
two cockr, and two hens, which he made a prefent
of to the adjacent inhabitants. Three other fows and a
boar, with two cocks and hens, he ordered to be left
in the country without the knowledge of the Indians-
They wrere carried a little way into the woods, and
there left with as much food as would ferve them
for 10 or 12 days, in order to prevent them from
coming down to the coaft in queft of it, and thus being
difcovered.
A fecond feparation from the Adventure had now {n
taken place j notwithftanding which, Captain Cook queft of a
fetout alone with hisveffel in queft of a fouthern con-fouthem
tinentj and fuch was the confidence put in him by the continent*
failors, that ail of them expreffed as much fatisfaflion
and alacrity as if not only the Adventure, but ever fo
many (hips had been in company.
On the 26th of November the captain fet fail from
New Zealand 3 and on the 12th of December began to
4K fall
coo
Cook's fall in with the ice, but confiderably farther to the
^DJcovenes. fouthward than they had met wdth it in the former part
of his voyage j being now'in the Lat. of 62. 10. S.
and 1720 W. Long. As they proceeded fouthward,
the number of ice iflands increafed prodigioufly ; and
in Lat. 67. 31. and W. Long. 142. 54. they all at
once got in among fuch a clufter of thefe iflands, that
it became a matter of the utmofi; difficulty and danger
to keep clear of them. Finding it impoflible, there¬
fore, to get any farther to the fouthward at prefent,
the captain determined to explore a confiderable tract
of fea to the north of his prefent fituation, and then
again to Hand to the fouth. But in this he was ftill
unfuccefsful ; no land being difcovered either in fail¬
ing northward, eaftward, weftward, or fouthward 5
49 though he proceeded as far in the lafl: direftion as
Isftrpped 71. 10. S. Lat. and xo6. 54. W. It was now impof-
J ^e' Able to proceed j and the opinion of the captain him-
felf, as well as mofl: of the gentlemen on board, was
that the ice by which they were now flopped extend¬
ed as far as the pole. As there was ftill room, how¬
ever, in parts of the ocean entirely unexplored, for
vexy large ifiands, our commander determined not to
abandon the purfuit in which he was engaged until
there firould not be any poffibility of doing more : and
befides the poffibility of making new difcoveries, he
was confcious that many of the iflands already difco¬
vered were fo obfcurely known, that it was of confe-
quence to pay them a fecond viftt. With this view he
propofed to go in queft of Eafter or Davis’s ifland ; the
fituation of which was known with fo little certainty,
that none of the attempts lately made to difcover it
had bfeen fuccefsful. He next intended to get within
the tropic, and then to proceed to the weft, touching
at-any iflands he might meet with, and fettling their
Atuations, until he fhould arrive at Oiaheitc, where it
was neceffary for him to make fome flay in order to
look for the Adventure. It was part of his defign abo
to run to the eaftward as far as Terra Auftral del E-
fpiritu Santo, difcovered by Quiros, and which M.
Bougainville had named The Great Cyclades. From
this 'land he propofed to fail to the fouthward, and
fiom thence to the eaft between the latitude of 500
and 6o°. In the execution of this defign, he deter¬
mined if pcffible to reach Cape Horn, during the en-
fuing November, when he would have the heft part of
the fummer before him to explore the fouthern part of
the Atlantic ocean.
In purfuing his courfe to the northward, it had been
part of his defign to find out the land faid to have been
difcovered by Juan Fernandez in about the latitude of
38° j but he was foon convinced, that if any fuch
land exifled, it could only be a very fmall ifland ; but
the profccution qd the defign was for fome little time
interrupted by a violent bilious diforder by which the
captain was attacked. In this, when he began to re-
<.0 cover, as there was no frelh meat on board, he was ob-
Nutritive liged to have recourfe to dog’s flefli j and a favourite
property of animal belonging to Mr Forfter was facrificed on
deg’s defh. j.pe occaf10n. The captain was able to eat not only
of the broth made of this, but likewife of the flefli, when
his ftomach could bear nothing elfe. On the n th of
March they arrived at Eafter ifland, before which time
the captain was tolerably recovered. Here they made
but few difcoveries farther than determining the ii-
coo
tuation of it to be in S. Lat. 27. 5. 30. and W. Cooio
Long. 109. 46. 20. The ifland itlelf was found
barren and defolate, having every appearance of being
lately ruined by a volcanic eruption ; without either
wood, fuel, or frelh water worth taking on board TheVifE"
inhabitants were few in number 5 and the wTomen itriflaod, |
very fmall proportion to the men, but remarkable for
their lewdnefs. A number of gigantic flatues were
obferved, which had alio been taken notice of by Com¬
modore Roggewein, and the origin of which could not
be accounted for.
On leaving Eafter ifland, Captain Cock was again
attacked by his bilious diforder*, but happily reco- c,f.
veied before he reached the Marquefas, which they and tail
did on the 6th and 7th of April. One of thrie,Mar<juI
being a new difeovery, received the name of Hood's
IJlatid, from the young gentleman by whom it was
firft obferved. Thefe are five in number; fituated
between 9 and 10 degrees of fouth latitude, and be-»
tween 138. 47. and 139. 13. of'tveft longitude. They
■were difcovered by Mendana a Spaniard 5 and their
names are, La Magdalena, St Pedro, La Dominica,
Santa Chriftina, and Flood’s Ifland. The inhabitants
are, without exception', the fineft race of people in the
South fea, furpaffing all others in that .part of ths
world in the fyrnmetry of their perfons and regularity
of their features. Their origin, however, from the
affinity of language, was evidently the fame with that
of Otaheite. It was in St Chriftina that our comman¬
der anchored ; and he has left particular diveftions for
finding a particular cove in Refolution bay in that
ifland, which is the moft convenient for procuring wood
and water.
In the paflage from the Marquefas to Otaheite, euf
navigators paffed feveral low and fmall iflands conneft*
ed together by reefs of coral rocks. One of thefe,
named by the inhabitants Tiookea, was vifited by Lieu- < I
tenant Cooper. It was difcovered and vifited by Cap-Hand |
tain Byron ; and is fituated in S. Lat. 27. 30. W.^eoio i
Long. 144. 36. The inhabitants are much darker in
their complexion, and feern to be of a fiercer difpofi-
tion than thofe of the neighbouring iflands. They
have the figure of a fifh marked upon their bodies ; a
very proper emblem of their profeffion, deriving their
fubfiltence almoft entirely from the fea. Faffing by
St George’s iflands, which had been alfo difcovered
and named by Captain Byron, our commander now (
difcovered four others, which he named Pa Idler's
Jjlands. One of thefe is fituated in S. Lat. 15. 26. ifland
and W. Long. 146. 20. another in S. Lat. 15, 27.
and W. Long. 146. 3. They were inhabited by peo¬
ple refembling thofe of Tiookea, and like them were
armed with long pikes. Here our navigator obferves,
that from W. Long. 138° to 148° or 150°, the fea is
fo full of fmall low iflands, that one cannot proceed with
too much caution.
On his arrival at Otaheite, provifions were met with ^rr;, at
in great plenty; and they were now very acceptable,Otah-
byr reafon of the long time the {hip had been at fea
without obtaining any ccnfiderabls fupply. Two
goats which had been given by Captain Eurneaux to a
chief named O/oo, appeared to be in a very ptomifing
fituation. The female had brought forth two kids,
which were almoft large enough to propagate ; and as
flie was again with kid, there was little doubt that the
ifland
[ 626 ]
coo
[ 627 ]
coo
c *
lif' nes;
lus !'10i
fill I
[0.
la; &C.
dam
r )fed
110,
59
I’He-
hs vifit
ifland would foon be flocked with tbefe ufeful ani¬
mals •, though it was otherwife with the (beep, all
of which had died except one. On this occafion,
alfo, the captain furnUhed the natives with cats, of
which he gave away twenty ; lb that there was lit¬
tle danger of the flock of tbefe animals decaying.
During "his refidence at this time, he had an oppor¬
tunity of making fome computation of the number of
inhabitants on the illand, which he fuppofed to be no
lefs than 200,000.
Huaheine and Ulietea iflands were next vifited, but
without any remarkable occurrence. From the latter
our commander fet fail on the 5th of June. 1774 ; and
next day came in fight of Howe ifland, difcovered by
Captain Wallis, and fituated in S. Lat. 16. 46. and
W. Long. 154. 8. On the 16th a new ifland, named
Palmerjione ijland, was difcovered, in S. Lat. 18. 4.
W. Long. 163. 10.5 and four days after, another was
obferved in S. Lat. 19. 1. W. Long. 169. 37-_ As it
was evidently inhabited, the captain determined to
land; but found the people fo extremely hoftile, that
no intercourle could be had : nay, he himfeif was in
danger of lofing his life by a lance thrown by one of
the natives, which paffed clofe over his (houlder. From
the extreme hoflihty of the people of this ifland, it
was named by Captain Cook Savage IJlatid. It is of
a round fhape, pretty high, and has deep water clofe to
the fliore, but has no good harbour.
Palling by a number of fmall iflands, Captain Cook
next anchored at that of Anamocka or Rotterdam,
difcovered by Tafman. It is fituated in 20. I5‘ 8.
Lat. and 174. 31. W. Long. Its form is triangular,
each fide extending about three and a half or four
miles. From the north-weft to the fouth it is encom-
pafled by a number of fmall iflands, fand Danks, ^and
breakers 5 of which no end can be ieen from the Hiand
on the northern fide, and may poluoly be as far ex¬
tended as Amfterdam or Tongataboo. While toe
captain remained on this ifland, he learned the names
of more than 20 of the adjacent ifles, fome or which
were in fight between the north-weft and north-eaft.
Two of thefe, which lie more to the eaftward than
the others, are named jdrnattafoa and Oghoo. They
are remarkable for their height; and from ^ great
fmoke vifible about the middle or Amattaloa, it was
fuppofed to have a volcapo. The ifland of Rotteraam,
Middleburg, or Eaoowe, with Pilftart, form a group
extending about three degrees of longitude, and two
of latitude. The whole group was named The Friend¬
ly IJles by Captajn Cook, on account, of the. iriendflup
which feemed to fubfift among the inhabitants, anc
their courteous behaviour to ftrangers. Tne peopie
of Rotterdam ifland are fimilar to thefe of Amiter-
dam ; but the ifland is not in fuch a high ftate cn cul¬
tivation as Amfterdam, nor do its fruits come to iuch
perfedlion. It is alfo inferior in the articles of cloth,
matting, &c. which are accounted the wealth of t eie
P From Rotterdam ifland our navigator continued his
courfe to the weftwTard, w7here he firft difeovere a
fmall ifland in S. Lat'19. 48. W. Long. 178. 2. It
was named Turtle ifland, from the great number of
thefe animals found upon it. Sixteen days a ter he
fell in with the clufter of iflands named by M. Bou¬
gainville the Great Cyclades. The firft ifland on wmc
he landed was Mallicollo, where, though the people Ccok^
were at firft very hoftile, they were foon conciliated, ,
and a friendly intcrcourfe took place. The language
of thefe people is confiderably different from that of
the other South fea iflands ; they are diminutive in
their perfons, and of ugly features ; their hair blac^
or brown, ftiort and curling, but lefs foft than that of
the negroes. They had no name for a dog in their lan¬
guage, and had never feen the animal $ io that they
were extremely fond of a dog and bitch, oi. which
Captain Cook made them a prefent. The harbour in
this ifland, in which the fhip came to an anchor, was
named Sandwich harbour, and lies on the. north-eaft
fide, in S. Lat. 16. 25. 20. E. Long. 167. 57. 53. _ It
is very commodious for the carrying on any operations
at land, having a good depth ot water, and many other
advantages. 60
The next difeovery was that of the group named Shepherd’s
Shepherd's Ijles, in honour of Dr Shepherd, Plumian
profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford. Numbers more
were every day obferved \ of which one peaked rock,
named the Monument, ivss uninhabited, being appa¬
rently inacceflible to any other creature but birds.
Sandwich ifland is of a confiderable extent, and exhi¬
bits a moft beautiful profpeft. It is furrounded with
other fmaller iflands, the principal of which were na¬
med Montague and Hinchinbrooke. At Erromango
they found the people hoflile and treacherous-, and
from a Ikirmilh they had with them near a promontory
on the north-eaft point of the ifland, it was named
Traitor's Mead. Its fituation is in S. Lat. 10. 43*
Long. 169. 28. Cx
From Erromango our navigators proceeded to Tan-Tanna
na, an ifland they had formerly difcovered.at a diftance,lfland'
and which is furrounded by fome others, three of
which are named Immer, Footoona or Erronan, and
Anatom. At Tanna they ftaid for fome time, on account 6z
of their wanting fome quantity ot wood. A vol-voican0,
cano was feen about the middle of this ifland, winch
burned with great violence, particularly m moift and
wet weather ; but notwithftanding the friendly terms
on which they were with the natives, the latter would
never allow them to approach this mountain. There
were fome fpots on the fea-coaft which emitted a hot
and fulphureous fmoke j and the people aLo expreffed
much uneafineis when thefe were approached or med¬
dled with. The port which the fliip entered in this
ifland was named Rejolulioti Harbout, and is {nuaced in
s. Lat. 19. 32. 25^. E. Long. 169. 44. 35. It is a
fmall creek three quarters of a mile long, and aoput
half as broad. It is extremely convenient, having
plenty of wood and water clofe to the fhore. .Among
the vegetable produ&ions of this ifland, there is reafon
to Tufpecl the nutmeg tree to be one, a pigeon ha¬
ving been (hot, in the craw of which was a wild nut¬
meg. The inhabitants are two, diftinct races of peo¬
ple^ and fpeak two different languages ; one that of'
the’ Friendly Iflands, the other peculiar to Tanna and ^
thofe in the neighbourhood. The people are vei7Dexterity
extort in the ufe of their weapons; on wdiich Mr of the inha-
Wales makes the following remarks: “ I muft con-bta.tsi„
fefs I have often been led to think tne feats which
Homer reprefents his heroes as performing with tiieir
fpears, a little too much of the marvellous to be ad¬
mitted in an heroic poem, I mean when confined
4 K 2 within
1
0 0 0
Cook's
. within the ftrait flays of Ariftotle: nay. even fo Fteat
Xhicoveries. • - * - — — - -
[ 62S ]
COO
    an advocate for him as Mr Pope acknowledges them
to be furprifing; but frnce I have feen what thefe
people can do with their wooden fpears, and them
badly pointed, and not of an hard nature, I have not
the leaft exception to any one paflage in that great
poet on this account. But if I fee fewer exceptions,
I can find infinitely more beauties in him, as he has,
i think, fcarcely an a6tion, circumftance, or defcrip-
tion of any kind whatever relating to a fpear, which I
have not feen and recognifed among thefe people 5
as their whirling motion and whiffling noife as they
fly } their quivering motion in the ground when they
iali j their meditating their aim when they are going
to throw 5 and their fliaking them in their hand as they
go along.”
The archipelago, in which Captain Cook had now
remained a confidenible time, is fituated betw'een 14.
tg. and 20. 4. S. Lat. and between 166. 41. and 170.
21. E. Long, extending 125 leagues in the diredfion
of N. N. W. 4 W. and S. S. E.E. The principal
iflands are the Peak of the Etoile, Terra del Efpiri-
tu Santo, Mallicollo, St Bartholomew, the ifle of Le¬
pers, Aurora, Whitfuntide ifle, Ambrym, Paoom,
Apee, Three Hills, Sandwich, Erromango, Tanna,
Immer, and Anatom. They were firft difcovered in
1606 by Quiros, who fuppofed them to be part of a
fouthern continent; nor were they vifited from that
time till the year 1768, When M. Bougainville beflow-
ed upon them the name of the Great Cyclades, as al¬
ready mentioned. This gentleman, however, befides
landing in the ifle of Lepers, only difcovered that the
country was not connedled, but confifted of iflands.
Captain Cook examined the whole in fuch an accu¬
rate manner, afcertaining the fituation of many of the
iflands, and difcovering fuch numbers of new ones,
that he thought he had an undoubted right to impofe
a new name upon them, and therefore called them the
New Hebrides.
From the New Hebrides Captain Cook fet fail for
New Zealand, in order to profecute his voyage in
fearch of a fouthern continent, but in three days dif-
64 covered a large ifland, which he named New Caledo-
Kew Cafe- nia ; and which, next to New Zealand, is the largeft
tj0ma ' " in the Pacific ocean. It lies between 19. 37. and 22.
30. S. Lat. and between 163. 37. and 167. 14. E.
Long, lying N. W. -j- W. and S. E. 4 E. extending
about 87 leagues in that direftion, though its breadth
does not anywhere exceed 10 leagues. The natives
are ftrong, adlive, well made, and feem to be a middle
race between thofe of Tanna and the Friendly Ifles;
and the women were more chafte than thofe of the
iflands farther to the eaftward. The ifland afforded a
confiderable variety of plants for the botanifts, and
fome excellent timbers of the fpecies of the pitch pine,
for mafts and fpars. The wood is clofe-grained, white,
and tough; and very fit for the purpofe. One of the
fmall iflands furrounding the large one rvas named the
Ifle of Pines, from the quantity of thefe trees found
upon it ; and another, from the number and variety of
plants it aftorded, had the name of Botany If and. The
coaft, however, was fo dangerous, that our navigator,
having no more time to fpare, was obliged to leave
fome part of it unexplored, though the extent was de¬
termined, as has been already related. Mr Forftef was
covered.
of opinion, that the language of this people is totally Co^
different from that of any of the other South Sea^ove
iflands. '—v*
Proceeding from New Caledonia, our navigator nextN0 6i
fell in with an ifland about five leagues in circumfe.ifla^
rence, and of a good height, fituated in S. Lat. 29,
2. 30. and E. Long. 168. 16.; on which he bellowed
the name of Norfolk If and. It was entirely uninhabit¬
ed. Various trees and plants common in New Zealand
were obferved here, particularly the flax plant, which
is more luxuriant in this ifland than in any part of
New Zealand. The chief produce of the ifland is a
kind of fpruce-pine, many of the trees of which are
10 or 12 feet in circumference. The palm cabbage
likewife abounds here ; and the coafts are well flocked
with excellent fifh. On the 18th of Otlober they ar- ^
rived at Queen Charlotte’s Sound in New Zealand j-Arrival
the fituation of which was now afeertained by MrNew2
Wales with the utmofl accuracy, its latitude being^’
found 41. 5. 564-. S. and its longitude 174, 25. 74 E.
On examining the gardens which had been made, it
was found that they were in a thriving condition,
though they had been entirely negledled by the natives.
Some of the cocks and hens were fuppofed to be ftiii
in exiflence, as a new laid hen’s egg w^as found, though
none were feen.
On the 10th of November Captain Cook fet fail
from New Zealand in fearch of a fouthern continent;
but having traverfed a vafl extent of fea for 17 days,
from S. Lat. 43. o. to 35. 48. he gave up all thoughts
of finding any more land in this part of the ocean,
and therefore determined to fleer dire&ly for the weft
entrance of the flraits of Magellan, with a defign of
coafling the fouthern part of Terra del Fuego quite
round Cape Horn to Le Maire’s Straits. As the
world had hitherto received but very imperftdl ac¬
counts of this coaft, he thought a furvey of it w'ould
be ©f more advantage to navigation and geography than
any thing he could expecl to meet with in a higher
latitude. On the 17th of December he reached the'
coaft of Terra del Fuego, and in three days more ari-atTe,j
chored in a place to which he gave the name of Chrif-^
mas Sound. The land appeared defolate beyond any
thing he had hitherto experienced. It feems to be
entirely compofed of rocky mountains, without the
leaft appearance of vegetation. Thefe mountains ter¬
minate in horrid precipices, the craggy fummits of
which fpire up to a vaft height; fo that fcarcely any
thing in nature can have a more barren and favage
profpedt than the whole of the country. In the courfe
of his voyage along this coaft, he could not but ob-
ferve, that at no time had he ever made one of fuch
length where fo little occurred of an interefting na¬
ture. Barren and dreary, however, as the coaft was,
it was not totally deflitute of accommodations about
Chriftmas Sound. Frefh water and wood for fuel
W'ere found about every harbour; and the country
everywhere abounds with fowl, particularly geefe.-—
A confiderable number of plants were alfo found upon
it, almoft every fpecies of which was new to the bo¬
tanifts. In patting by Cape Horn, it w^as wifhed to
determine whether it belonged to the land of Ter¬
ra del Fuego, or to a fmall ifland fouth from it; butona
this was found impracticable on account of the fog-rour.<iff
gy weather and dangerous fea. Its latitude was'Horn !
now
' Hem;
coo
62
Coo now determined to be 55. 5S. S. snd its longitude
[cov 3*. 5^. 46. W. The coaft appeared lei's dreary here than
’"’V ^ on the weitern fide of Terra del Fuego j for though
the fummits of fome of the hills were rocky, the fides
and valleys ieemed covered with a green turf and wood¬
ed in tufts. In puffing this cape a remark was made
by the captain, that if he were on a voyage round
Cape Horn, to the weft, and not in want of wood or
water, or any other thing which might make it necef-
f'ary to put into port, he would fail a confiderable way
to the fouthward, fo as to be out of the reach of land
altogether. By this method he would avoid the cur¬
rents, whofe force, he was of opinion, would be broken
at IQ or 12 leagues diftance from the fhore, and far¬
ther off would be entirely deftroyed. The extent of
Terra del Fuego, and confequently cf Magellan’s
Straits, was found to be lefs than what is commonly
laid down in maps and charts, and the coafts, in gene¬
ral, lefs dangerous than has been ufually reprefented 5
though this muft undoubtedly have been owing in a
great meafure to the weather, which happened to be
mrp ng remarkably temperate. In one or the imall iilands
or‘c of rear Staten Land, and which from their being difco-
he^ veIg(j on new year’s day, were called 'Neva Tear's Ijles,
a remarkable harmony was obferved among the ani¬
mals of different fpecies with which tkefe defolate re¬
gions abound. The fea-lions occupy the greateft part
of the fea coaft •, the bears occupy the inland j the
{hags are polled in the higheft cliffs; the penguins in
fuch places as have the befl accefs to and from the
fea •, and the other birds choofe more retired places.
Occafronally, however, all thefe animals were feen to
mix together like domeflic cattle and poultry in a
farm yard, without one attempting to hurt the other
in the leaft. Even the eagles and vultures were fre¬
quently obferved fitting together on the hills among
the (hags, while none of* the latter,_ either old or
young, appeared to be difturbed at their prefence. It
is probable, therefore, that thefe birds of prey fubfift
by feeding on the carcafes of the animals which die
naturally or by various accidents, and which muff be
very numerous, from the iminenfe quantity exifting on
[ 0 the ifland.
Fn ;r dif- Our navigator now fet out in queft: of that extenfive
P' es ^ coaft laid down in Mr Dalrymple’s chart, and in which
E is marked the gulf of St Sebaftian •, but when he
^ came into the place where it is fuppofed to lie, neither
land nor any certain figns of it Could be met with.
Some iflands, however, were difcovered, particularly
Willis’s ifland, in S. Lat. 54. O. W Long. 38. 23. J
another named Bird JJland and South Georgia, filuated
between 53. 57. and 54. 57. S. Lat. and between 38.
13. and 35. 34. W. Long. All thefe were covered
with fnow and ice to a great height. Not a tree
was to be feen, not even a fhrub, nor were there any
rivulets or ftreams of water: the only vegetables to
fee met with were a coarfe ftrong-bladed grafs, wild
burnet, and a kind of mofs. A contiderable quantity
of feals and penguins were met with, whofe flefh, though
very coarfe, was preferred by the (hip’s company, even
by Captain Cook himfelf, to the fait provifions, which
were now greatly decayed. The moft ioutherly land
*!i(covered by our navigator was that on which he
feeftowed the name of Southern T-hule, and which is
fituaied in S. Lat. 59. 13. 30* W. Long. 27. 45*
9 3 coo
This was fill! more defolate than South Georgia, being Cook’s
forfaken even by the feals and penguins which abound-, ^ *“ ‘
ed on it. Not a finglc herb of any kind rvas feen upon
it, but vaft high and barren mountains, the tops of
feme of which reached above the clouds j and it may
be remarked, that this feems to be the only part of the
world, hitherto difcovered, entirely unfit for the fupport
of animal life. . „t
Southern Thule was difcovered on the 31ft of Ja'of the ex~
nuary 1775 > and from this to the 6th of February iftence of a
feveral other iflands were difcovered, and named (?tf/>efoutheni
Bri/loi, Cape Montague, Saunders's Ijles, Candlemas con,-u'(;r-':
Ijle, and Sandwich's Land. With regard to this laft.
Captain Cook was undetermined whether it tvas a group
of iflands or part of a continent lying near the pole, as
after all his difappointments, he was ftill inclined to
think that fuch a continent has an exiftence, on ac¬
count of the vaft; quantity of ice met with in the
fouthern feas, and which from its great height appears
to be formed in bays and gulfs of the land, and not
in the ocean itfelf. The greateft part of the fouthem
continent, however, if it has any exiftence, muft be
within the polar circle, where the fea is fo encumbered
with ice, that the land muft be inacceffible. So great
is the danger in navigating thefe fouthern feas, that
Captain Cook afferts, on the moft probable grounds in
the world, that fuch lands as lie to the foulhvvard of
his difeoveries could not be explored j and that even,
no man would venture further than he had done,.
Thick fogs, fnow ftorms, intenfe cold, and every thing
that can render navigation difficult or dangerous,
muft be encountered j all which difficulties are greatly
heightened by the inexpreffibly horrid afpeft of the
country itfelf. It is a part of the world doomed by
nature never once to feel the warmth of the fun’s rays,
but to be buried in everlafting fnow and ice. What¬
ever ports there may be on the coaft, they are almott
entirely covered with frozen fnow of a vaft thicknefs.
If, however, any of them fhould be fo far open as to
• invite a ffiip into it, fhe would run the rifle of being
fixed there for ever, or of coming out in an ice ifland.
To this it may be added, that the iflands and floats on
the coaft, the great falls from the ice clefts in the port,
or a fudden fnow ftorm, might be attended with equal¬
ly fatal effe&s. For thefe reafons our commander de¬
termined to abandon the purfuit of a land whofe exift¬
ence was fo equivocal, but whole inutility, if it fhould
be difcovered, was certain. One thing only remained
to complete what he wiihed to accomphfh, and that
was to determine the exiftence of Bouvet’s land. In Voyage in
this inquiry he fpent 16 days; but having run for 13 quell of
of thefe direaiy in the latitude affigned to that land, *
and found no appearance of it, or of Cape Circumci-
fion, he concluded that neither of them had any ex¬
iftence, but that the navigators had been deceived by
the appearance of ice iflands. Two days more were
fpent in queft of fbme land which had been obferved
more to the fouthward, but with the like bad fuccefs;
after which our commander abandoned all farther
thoughts of fouthern difeoveries, and prepared for re¬
turning to England. On his way home, however, he
determined to diieft his courfe in fuch a manner as to 73
fall in with the iflands of Denia and Marfeveen.. T hefePf the files
are laid down in Dr Halley’s variation chart in lath ®nd
tude 41. 3®1 S.*' apd about 4* L, from the meridian j-evgenj
of
^ojok’5,
J>iiVoveiies
,
Of the ufe-
falnefs of
diftilling
ioa-water.
.75
Third voy¬
age-,
75
Vifits the
ifle of Te-
neriffe.
77
Tea-iiirub.
73
Impregna¬
ted lemon.
. 79
Prince Ed¬
ward’s
iflands dif-
covered.
COO [6
of the Cape of Good Hope. None of thefe hlands
; could be found ; and therefore our commander having
very little time to fpare either in fearching for them
or attempting to difprove their exiftence, made the
beft of his way to the Cape of Good Hope, and from
thence to England, In his paifage thither, he vifited
the iiles of St Helena, Afcendon, and Fernando de
Noronha, An experiment was made on the ufe of the
Itili for procuring frelh water at fea j the refuit of which
was, that though the invention was ufeful upon the
whole, yet it would not by any means be advifable to
truft entirely to it. Provided indeed that there was
not a fcarcity of fuel, and that the coppers were good,
as much might thus be procured as would fupporfc life )
but that no efforts would be fufficient to procure the
quantity necefiary for the prefervation of health, elpe-
eially in hot climates. He was likewife convinced
that nothing contributes more to the health of feamen
than having plenty of frelh water. His laft ftage in
this fecond voyage before his arrival in England was
at Fayal, one of the Azores iflands 5 and his only de-
lign in flopping here was to give Mr Wales an oppor-
portunity of finding the rate of the watches going, that
ib he might be enabled to find the longitude of thefe
iflands with the greater certainty.
In our commander’s third voyage he touched at the
ifland of Teneriffe inffead of Madeira, looking upon
the former to be a better place for procuring refrefh-
mentsj and was convinced of the juflnefs of his con-
jefhire by the facility with which provifions of all
kinds were obtained. The air of the country is ex¬
ceedingly healthy, and proper for thofe fubjeft to pul¬
monary complaints. This was accounted for by a
gentleman of the place from the great height of the
ifland, by which it was in the power of any perfon to
change the temperature of the air as he pleafed } and
he expreffed his furprife that phyficians, inifead of
fending their patients to Nice or Lifbon, did not fend
them to TenerifFe. From the fame gentleman it was
learned, that the tea fhrub grows in that ifland as a
common weed, which is conflantiy exterminated in
large quantities. The Spaniards, however, fometimes
ufe it as tea, and aferibe to it all the qualities of that
brought from the Eall Indies. They gave it alfo the
name of tea, and fay that it was found in the country
when the iflands were firft difeovered. Another bota¬
nical curiofity is the fruit called the impregnated lemon,
which is a perfect and diftindt lemon inciofed within
another, and differing from the outer only in being a
little more globular.
From Teneriffe Captain Cook proceeded to the Cape
of Good Hope, and from thence to the fouthward,
where he fell in with two iflands, the larger of which
is about 15 leagues in circuit, and the fmaller about
nine ; their diftance from one another being about five
leagues. The one of thefe iflands lies in S. Lat. 46.
53. and E. Long. 37. 46. 5 the other in S. Lat. 46. 4.
E. Long. 38. 8. As the (hips paffed through between
them, they could not difeern either tree or fhrub upon
any of them, even with the affiftance of their bell:
glaffes. The {here feemed to be bold and rocky, their
internal parts full of mountains, whofe fides and fum-
mits were covered with blow. Thefe two, with four
others, which lie from 9 to 12 degrees of longitude
snore to the caff, and nearly in the fame latitude, had
30 ] coo
been difcove'red in the year 1772 by Captain Marion Cot i
du Frefne and Crozet, two French navigators, in-^^i
their pafl’age from the Cape of Good Hope to the Phi-
lippines. As no names had been affigned to them in
a chart of the Southern ocean communicated to Cap- |
tain Cook in 1775, the two larger ones were by him
diftingubhed by the name of Prince Edward's ijlands,
in honour of his majeffy’s fourth Ion \ the other four,
with a view to commemorate the difeoverers, were
called Marion's and Cro%et's ijlands. * gli
From thefe our commander fleered to the fouthward j
in fearch of Kerguelen’s land, which he had been in-4ueltjj
flrudled to touch at, in order to difeover, it poflible,
a good harbour there. In his paffage to it ieverai new *
iflands were difeovered; one, to which Kerguelen had
given the name of the IJiand of Pendeesmus, Captain
Cook, on account of its fhape, changed to that of J|
Blight's Cap. It is fituated in S. Lat. 48. 29. E.D2fcr|J
Long. 68. 40. and is a high round rock, inacceffible to of tkjl
ail creatures but birds. Next day he fell in with Ker-^aniq]
guelen’s land, at firff thought to be a part of the louth-
ern continent, hut afterwards found by Kerguelen him-
felf to be an ifland. The extent of it, however, was
no.t deterauned either by the French navigator or by
Captain Cook. The former reckons it at. 200 leagues
in circumference, but Captain Cook eflimates it at much
lefs. Our navigator could not get any extenfive view
of it on account of the foggy weather; but as far as
could be difeovered, it was barren and defolate, info-
much that there was neither food nor covering for cat¬
tle of any kind, fo that they would inevitably perifh if
any were left. Even the fea-coafts were in a great
meafure deftitute of fifh ; but the Ihore was covered
with innumerable multitudes of feals, together with
penguins and other birds; all of which rvere fo void of
fear that any quantity whatever might be killed with¬
out any difficulty. Not a Angle tree nor fhrub could
be feen, nor a piece of drift wood on the fhore j and
herbage of every kind was likewife very fcarce. A
prodigious quantity of the fea-weed called by Sir Jofeph
Banks fucus giganteus was found in one of the bays.
The whole variety of plants found in this ifland did
not exceed fixteen or eighteen fpecies. The harbouf
in which our navigator made his longeft flay on this de¬
folate coall was named Port Pa/lifer, and is fituated in
S. Lat. 49. 3. E. Long. 69. 37. In this voyage our
navigator undoubtedly difplayed fuperior nautical abi¬
lities to thofe of M. Kerguelen, who in two voyages to
the place had never been able to bring his fhips to an¬
chor on any part of the coaft.
From Kerguelen’s land, our navigator proceeded toonB
the coaft of New Holland, where he now7 touched at emerj
the foutbern part, called Fan Diemen's Land, where he laIi£i•
anchored in Adventure Bay. Here they found plenty
of wood and water, with abundance of grafs, coarfe
indeed, where they went firft affiore, but afterwards
much finer and proper for the cattle. Here, as every¬
where elfe, the latitudes and longitudes were fettled
with the greateft exadlnefs. The bottom of Adven¬
ture bay was found to lie in S. Lat. 43. 21. 6. j E.
Long. 147. 29. The inhabitants vifited them in a
friendly manner, but feemed as ftupid and inlenfible as
thofe they had formerly feen. They feemed to be
totally ignorant of the ufe of iron, and fet no value
upon anything in the ornamental way excepting
beads^
COO [63
,s j,eacTs •, nor did they feem to be acquainted even with
life lies, the uie of fith-hooks. Here they found the hones of
the ancient fauns and fatyrs living in hollow trees rea¬
lised. Some huts covered with bark, and of a moft
wretched conftrudtion, were indeed found near the
(hore ; but the moll commodious habitations were af¬
forded by the largeit trees. Thefe had their trunks
hollowed out by fire to the height of fix or ftven feet}
and there was room enough in one of them for three
or four perrons to fit round a hearth made of clay ; and
it may juftly leem furprifing, that notwithftanding the
extreme violence offered to the vegetative powers of
the tree by forming this habitation, it ffill continued
to flouiiftr in confequence of one fide being left entiie.
The people, notwithffanding their extreme barbarily,
were fiippofed to proceed from the fame flock with
thofe of the South lea iffands. As in one of their
vifits the natives had feized upon twm pigs which had
been brought alhore, apparently with an intenlion to
kill them, the commander determined to make them a
prefent of thofe animals j though from their exceffive
flupidity and inattention there was no probability of
their allowing them to propagate, if they had been
put dire&ly into their hands. To prevent this, Cap¬
tain Cook ordered the two they had attempted to leize,
being a boar and a fow, to be carried about a mile
within the head of the bay, and faw them left by the
fide of a frefh-water rivulet. He was prevented from
leaving any other fpecies by a confiderj.aon of the bar¬
barity of the inhabitants.
From New Holland our navigator proceeded to New
n to Zealand, where he arrived on the 12th of February
If Zea- 1777, and anchored in Queen Charlotte’s found,
41 Here he was defirous of leaving a further fupply of a-
nimals; but the inhabitants had hitherto ffiown fuch
careleffhefs about mofe which had been lert, that he
durft not venture to leave any other than two goats,
a male and female with kid, and two hogs, a boar
and fow. He was informed, however, that one chief,
had feveral cocks and hens in his poffeffian, lo that
there wras fome probability of thefe animals being al¬
lowed to multiply 5 and as ten or a dozen hogs had at
different times been left by Captain Cook, befidcs
thofe put on fiiore by Captain lourneaux, it (eems^as o
to be likely that this race of creatures will increafe ci¬
ther in a wild or domefhc ftate, or both. i. he gar¬
dens had ftill been almoft totally neglefted, and fome
of them deftroyed. Thofe which remained, however,
produced cabbages, onions, leeks, purffain, radilhes,
and a few potatoes. Thefe lair had been bi ought
from the Cape of Good Hope, and wore fo greatly me¬
liorated by the change of foil, that with proper culti¬
vation they feemed to bid fair for excelling thote of
other countries.
Our navigator’s next courfe was towards tue ifiand
of Otahe/te $ in the run to which he thfeovered the
iflxnd of Mangea, fituated in S. Lat. 22. 57* E Long.
201. 53. From thence he proceeded to Wateoa,
where Omai, on his way home, recOgnifea tnree
g of his countrymen, natives of the Society i(lands, wdio
] r^r(||_ had arrived here by the following accident. About
> pre- 12 years before, 20 of the natives of Otaheite had
Htion of embarked in a canoe, in order to vifit the neighbour-
1 ; of theiHg jfland Ulietea. A violent ftorm arofe, which
( drove them out of their courfe, and they fuffered in-
1
€00
credible hardffup by famine and fatigue, fo that the Cook’s
greateft part of them periflied. Four men continued P1-eocenes,
hanging by the fide of the veffel for four days after it J'"
was overfet, when they were at laff brought within,
fight of the people of this ifland. The latter imme¬
diately fent out their canoes, and brought them affiore,
treating them afterwards with fo much kindnefs, that
the three who now furvived exprefied no defire of re¬
turning to their own country, though they had now
an opportunity, but chofe rather to remain where they
were. This ifland is fituated in S. Lat. 20. I. E.
Long. 201. 45. and is about 6 leagues in circumference.
The inhabitants are faid to be equally amiable in their
perfons and difpofitions.
Vifiting a fmall ifland named lYenooa-etey or Ota*
kootaia, fituated in S. Lat. 19. 15. and E. Long. 201.
37. our commander found it without inhabitants, though
there were undoubted marks of its being occafionally
frequented. Harvey’s ifland, which in his former voy¬
age had been defficute of inhabitants, wras now found
to be well p.eopled ; but the inhabitants fhowed fuch
an hoftile difpofition that no refrefhments could be pro¬
cured ; for rvhich reafon it was determined to fleer for
the Friendly iflands, where there was a certainty of
meeting with an abundant fupply. In his way thither^0Iie"-g2nd'
he touched at Palmerftone ifland, from a fmall iflea proper
near which a fupply of 1200 cocoa nuts was obtain-place of
ed, befides abundance of filh and birds of various kinds. ^
Had this ifland been capable of furnifhing water, the wftp„ut
captain rvould have preferred it to any of the inhabit-Water.
ed ones for the purpofe of procuring refrefliments, as .
they could be had in any quantity without moleftation.
from the petulance of the inhabitants. As water at
this time happened to be a fcarce article, our naviga¬
tor was obliged to fupply himfelf from the {bowers
which fell, and which afforded as much in an hour as he
could procure by diftillation in a month.
During the time of rcfidence at the Friendly iflands,
our navigator vifited one named Hcpr.ee, at which no
European (hip had ever touched before. Here he was
entertained in a friendly manner, fupplied with refrefh¬
ments, and left fome ufeful animals. Great additions
were made to the geography of thefe iflands, and many
curious remarks made on the inhabitants and natural
products. It was obferved by Mr Anderfon, that the
people had very proper notions of the immateriality
and immortality of the human foul; and he thought
himfelf authorized to affert that they did not worftiip
any part @f the vifible creation. gg
Faffing by a fmall ifland named Toobouai, about five ngeeptiow
or fix miles in extent, and fituated in S. Lat. 23. 25. of Omai at
E. Long. 210. 37. our navigators now arrived at Ota-Otaheits.
heite. Here Omai met with his relations, feme of
whom received him with apparent indifference $ but
his meeting with an aunt and a fifter was marked with
expreflions of the moft tender regard. It was Hua-
heine, however, that was deftined for the place of O-
ma'fls final refidence, and thither the captain repaired
on purpofe to fettle him. The affair was conduced
with great folernnity j and Omai brought with him
a fuitable affortment of prefents to the chiefs, went
through a great number of religious ceremonies,
and made a fpeecb, the fubieft of which had been 87
di&ated to him by Captain Cock. The refu t of the He is fet-
negociation was, that a fpot of ground was afligned^J^ Hu-
5 him,
c o
t 6
€oak's him, extending about two hundred yards along the
pJcovcnes. f},ore 0f tl-,e harbour, with a proportionable part of
* an adjacent hill. The carpenters of both {hips were
then employed in conflrudting a houfe for him, in
which he might fecure his European commodities.
At the fame time a garden was made for his ufe, in
which were planted (haddocks, vines, pine-apples, me¬
lons, and feveral other garden vegetables. Here he
met with a brother, lifter, and fifter-in-law, by whom
he was very affectionately received but it was difco-
verqd with concern, that none of his relations were
able to proteCt him in cafe of any attack on his peifon
or property j fo that there was too much reafon to
fear that he would be plundered immediately on the
departure of the Englifli. To prevent this, if poftible,
Captain Cook advifed him to conciliate the favour
and engage the patronage and protection of feme of the
moft powerful chiefs by proper prefents 5 at the fame
time that he himfelf took every opportunity of letting
the inhabitants know that it wras his intention to return
to the ifland again, and if he did not find Omai in
the fame ftate of fecurity in which he left him, thofe
by whom he had been injured would certainly feel
the weight of his refentment. About a fortnight after
leaving Huaheine, the captain had a meftage from
Omai j in which he informed him that every thing
went well, only that his goat had died in kidding,
for which he defired another might be fent; and
accompanied this requeft with another for two axes,
which were fent along with a couple of kids, male
and female. On taking his final leave of the Society
iflands, Captain Cook obferves that it would have been
far better for thefe poor people never to have known
the fuperiority of the Europeans in fuch arts as render
life comfortable, than after once being acquainted with
it to be again abandoned to their original incapacity
of improvement; as, if the intercourfe between them
and us (liould be wholly difeontinued, they could not
be reftored to that happy ftate of mediocrity in which
they were found. It feemed to him that it was be¬
come in a manner incumbent on the Europeans to vifit
thefe i(lands once in three or four years, in order to
fupply them with thofe conveniences of which they
have taught them the ufe. It is indeed to be appre¬
hended, that by the time the iron tools which were then
among them are worn out, they will have forgotten the
ule of their own \ as in this laft voyage it was obferved
that the ufe of their former tools was almoft totally
abolithed.
Having left the Society iflands, Captain Cook now
jfland difeo-proceeded to the northward, crofting the equator on
the 22d and 23d of December; and on the 24th dif-
covered a low uninhabited ifland about 15 or 20 leagues
in circumference. Here the longitude and latitude
were exaftly determined by means of an eclipfe of the
fun. The weft fide of it, where the eclipfe was obferv¬
ed, lies in N. Lat. 1. 59. E. Long. 202. 30. From the
time of its difeovery it obtained the name of Chrijlmas
Ijland. Plenty of turtle was found1' upon it, and the
captain caufed the feeds ©f the cocoa-nut, yams, and
melons, to be planted.
Proceeding ftill to the northward, our navigator
next fell in with five iflands, to which he gave the ge¬
neral name of Sandwich IJIesi in honour of his patron.
Their names in the language of the country are Woa-.
88
Remarks
on the
Society
iflands.
89
Chriltmas
vered.
90
Sandwich
ifles.
52 ] . COO
hoo, Atooi, Oneeheeow, Oreehoua, and Tehoora. cvnt
They are fituated between latitude 21. 30. and 22.
North, and between 199. 20. and 201/30. E. Lony.'
The longitude was deduced frem no fewer than -72 fets
of lunar obfeivations. The largcft of thefe iflands is
Atooi, and does not in the lead: referable the other
iflands of the South fea formerly vifited by our na¬
vigator, excepting only that it has hills" near the
centre, which flope gradually towards the lea fide.
The only domeflic animals found upon it were hogs,
dogs, and fowls. Captain Cock defigned to have
made the inhabitants of this ifland a prelent of fome
others; but being driven out of it by ftrefs of weather
he was obliged to land them upon a {mailer one named
Oneeheeow. They were a he-goat and two females
and a boar and fow of the Englifh breed, which is
much fuperior to that of the South Sea iflands. He
left alfo the feeds of melons, pumkins, and onions. The
foil of this ifland feemed in general to be poor: it was
obfervable that the ground was covered with flirubs
and plants, fome of which had a more delicious fra-
graney than had been experienced before. The in¬
habitants of thefe iflands are much commended, not-
withftanding their horrid cuftom of eating human flefli,
Jn every thing manufa&ured by them there is an
ingenuity and neatnefs in an uncommon degree ; and
the elegant form and polifla of fome of their fiftiing-
hooks could not be exceeded by an European artift,
even aflifted by all his proper tools. From what was
{een of their agriculture alfo, it appeared that they
tvere by no means novices in that art, and that the
quantity and goodnefs of their vegetable produflions
might with propriety be attributed as much to their
fkilful culture as to the fertility of the foil. The lan¬
guage of the Sandwich ifles is almoft identically the fame
with that of Otaheite. J
Proceeding farther to the northward, our navigatorsAmer
difeovered the coaft of New Albion on the 7th of March c0^lft)(,'
1778. Its appearance was very different from that of 'Clu‘
the countries wdth which they had been hitherto conver-
fant. The land was full of mountains, the tops of which
were covered with fnow; while the valleys between
them, and the grounds on the fea-coaft, high as well
as low, were covered with trees, which formed a beau¬
tiful profpedt as of one vaft foreft. The place where
they landed was fituated in N. Lat. 44. 33. E. Long.
235. 20. At firft the natives feemed to prefer iron
to every other article of commerce; but at laft they
ftiowed fuch a predileftion for brafs, that fcarcely a bit
of it was left in the (hips, except what belonged to the
neceffary inftruments. It was obferved alfo, that thefe
people were much more tenacious of their property
than any of the favage nations that had hitherto been
met with, infomuch that they would part neither with
wood, water, grafs, nor the moft trifling article, without
a compenfation, and were fometimes very unreafonable
in their demands; with which, however, the captain
always complied as far as was in his power. 5
i he place where the Refolution was now anchoredNoot
was by our navigator called St George's Sound, but hefouwi
afterwards underftood that the natives gave it the name
of Nootka. Its entrance is fituated in the eaft corner
of Hope Bay, in N. Lat. 49. 33. E. Long. 233. 12.
The climate, as far as they had an opportunity of ob- jvnidit
ferving it, was much inildcj than that on the eaftern the dF
coaft
COO [ 633 ] coo
coaft of the American continent in the fame parallel of
latitude; and it was remarkable that the thermometer,
even in the night, never fell lower than 420, while in
the day-time it frequently rofe to 6o°. The trees met
with here are chiefly the Canadian pine, white cyprefs,
‘ and fome other kinds of pine. There feemed to be a
fcarcity of birds, which are much haraffed by the natives,
who ornament their clothes with the feathers, and ufe
the fleih for food. The people are no ftrangers to the
ufe of metals, having iron tools in general ufe among
them; and Mr Gore procured twro filver fpoons of a
conftruftion fimilar to what may be obferved in fome
T’lemifh pictures, from a native who wore them round
his neck as an ornament. It is mofl: probable that
thefe metals have been conveyed to them by the way of
Hudfon’s bay and Canada : nor is it improbable that
fome of them have been introduced from the north-
weftern parts of Mexico.
While Captain Cook failed along this coaft, he kept
always at a diftance from land when the wind blew
flrongly upon it j whence feveral large gaps w’ere left
unexplored, particularly between the latitudes of 50°
and 550. The exaft fituation of the fuppofed flraits
of Anian was not afcertained, though there is not the
leaft doubt, that if he had lived to return by the fame
way in 1779, he would have examined every part
with his ufual accuracy. On departing from Nootka
found, our navigator firft fell in with an ifland in N.
Lat. 59. 49. E. Long. 216. 58. to which he gave the
name of Kay's IJland. Several others were difcovered
in the neighbourhood j and the (hip came to an an¬
chor in an inlet named by the captain Prince William's
found. Here he had an opportunity of making feveral
obfervations on the inhabitants, as well as on the na¬
ture of the country. From every thing relative to the
former, it was concluded, that the inhabitants were of
the fame race with the Efquimaux or Greenlanders.
The animals were much the fame with thofe met with
at Nootka, and a beautiful ikin of one animal, which
feemed to be peculiar to the place, was offered to fale.
Mr Anderfon was inclined to think that it was the fame
to which Mr Pennant has given the name of the cafan
marmot. The alcedo, or great king’s-fifher, was found
here, having very fine and bright colours. The hum¬
ming bird alfo came frequently, and flew about the
fhip when at anchor ; though it is fcarce to be fuppofed
that it can live throughout the winter on account of the
extreme cold. The water-fowl w^ere in confiderable
plenty $ and there is a fpecies of diver which feemed
to be peculiar to the place. Almoft the only kinds
of fiih met with in the place were torlk and holibut.
The trees were chiefly the Canadian and fpruce pine,
fome of which were of a confiderable height and thick-
nefs. The found is judged by Captain Cook to occupy
a degree and a half of latitude and Uvo of longitude,
exclufively of its arms and branches, which were not
explored. There was every reafon to believe that the
inhabitants had never been vifited by any European
veffel before j but our navigator found them in poffeffion
not only of iron but of beads, which it is probable are
conveyed to them acrofs the continent from Kudfon s.
hay.
Soon after leaving Prince William’s found, our
navigators fell in. with another inlet, which it was
expefted would lead either to the northern fca or to
VOL. VI. Part II.
Hudfon’s or Baffin’s bay; but upon examination it |?ook’s.
was found to end in a large river. This was traced , 1 c0Jcnei*;
for 210 miles from the mouth, as high as N. Lat.
61. 30. and promifes to vie with the mofl; confiderable
ones already known, as it lies open by means of its
various branches to a very confiderable inland com¬
munication. As no name was given by our commander
to this river, it was ordered by Lord Sandwich to be
named Cook's river. The inhabitants feemed to be
of the fame race with thofe of Prince William’s found j
and like them had glafs beads and knives; they were
alfo clothed in very fine fursj fo that it feemed probable
that a valuable fur-trade might be carried on from
that country. Several attempts have accordingly been
made from the Britiih fettlements in the Eafl. Indies to
eftabliftr a traffic of that kind \ but little benefit accrued
from it except to the proprietors of the firll veffel, her
cargo having greatly lowered the price of that commo¬
dity in the Chinefe market. It muft be obferved, that
on the weftern fide of the American continent, the only
valuable fldns met with are thofe of the fea-otter j thofe
of the other animals, efpecially foxes and martens, be¬
ing of an inferior quality to fuch as are met with in
other parts. 517
Proceeding farther to the northward, our navigators They fall iia
now fell in with a race of people who had evidently ^
been vifited by the Ruffians, and feemed to have ^
adopted from them fome improvements in drefs, &c. In the Ruf-
the profecution of this part of their voyage, it appeared fians.
that they had been providentially conveyed in the dark
through a paffage fo dangerous, that our commander
would not have ventured upon it in the day-time.
They were now got in among thofe iflands which had
lately been difcovered by Captain Beering and other
Ruffian navigators, and came to an anchor in a har¬
bour of Oonalaflika, fituated in N. Lat. 53. 55. E.
Long. 193. 30. Here it was remarked that the inha¬
bitants had as yet profited very little by their inter-
courfe with the Ruffians; fo that they did not even
drefs the filh they ufed for their food, but devoured
them quite raw.
From Oonalaflika our navigator proceeded again to¬
wards the continent, which he continued to trace as far
as poffible to the northward. In N. Lat. 54. 48. E.
Long. 195. 45. is a volcano of the fliape of a perfeft A volcano,
cone, having the crater at the very fummit. On the
coaft farther to the north the foil appears very barren,
producing neither tree nor flirub, though the lower
grounds are not deflitute of grafs and fome other plants.
To a rocky point of confiderable height, fituated in N»
Lat. 58. 42. E. Long. 197. 36, our commander gave
the name of Cape Newnham.
Here Mr Anderfon, the furgeon of the Refolution,
died of a confumption, under which he had laboured for
more than twelve months. Soon after he had breathed
his laft, land being feen at a diftance, it was named
Anderfon's ijland; and on the 9th of Auguft the (hip
anchored under a point of the continent, which he named
Cape Prince of Wales. This is remarkable for being CapePrinct
the mod wefterly point of the American continent of Wales,
hitherto known.. It is fituated in N. Lat. 65. 46.
E. Long. 19-1. 45. It is only 39 miles diftant from the 0£-
eaftern coaft of Siberia; fo that our commander had theconti-
the pleafure of afeertaining the vicinity of the two ner.ts of
continents to each other, which had only been imper- Afia and
4 L fe&ly America..
COO [ 634 ] coo
Cook's fe&Iy done by the Ruffian navigators. Setting fail
. covenes. from this point next day, he fteered to the weft and
north, when he loon fell in with the country of the
Tfchutfki, which had been explored by Becring in
1728. Here he had an opportunity of correfting M.
Stcehlin’s map, who had placed in thefe Teas an ima¬
ginary iiland, on which he beftowed the name of A-
Jafchka. Being convinced that the land he had now
reached wras part of the Aliatic continent, our com¬
mander dire£ted his courfc eaftward, in order to fall
in wdth that of America ; and on the 17th reached
the latitude of 70. 33. and E. Long. 197. 41. Here
they began to perceive that brightnefs in the horizon
called by mariners the blink cf the ice ; and in 70. 41.
roi they had got quite up to it, fo that no farther pro-
^refs^north §re^s cou^ ma(fe. Next day they made a drift to
ward ftop-*" §et 33 ^ar as 70- 44* ? ^ut t^le ^ce was novv as compaft
ped by ice. as 3 wall, and about ten or twelve feet in height. Its
furface was extremely rugged, and farther to the
northward appeared much higher. Its furface was
covered with pools of water; and great numbers of
fea-lions lay upon it, whofe flefh they were now glad
to ufe as food. Our commander continued to tra-
verfe the Icy fea till the 29th j but the obftruflions
becoming every day greater and greater, it wras
thought proper to give over all further attempts of
finding a paffage to Europe for that year. He did
not, however, omit the inveftigation of the Afiatic
and American coafts until he had fully afeertained the
accuracy of Captain Beering’s accounts as far as he
Went, and correfled the errors of M. St«hlin. Great
additions were thus made to the geographical know¬
ledge of this part of the globe ; and Mr Coxe obferves,
that “ it reflects no fmall honour upon the Britifh
name, that our great navigator extended his difeoveries
much farther in one expedition, and at fo great a diflance
from the point of his departure, than the Ruffians ac-
complilhed in a long feries of years, and in parts belong-
102 ing or contiguous to their own empire.”
^mval at An end of this celebrated navigator’s difeoveries,
°na a‘ however, was now at hand. From Beeiing’s ftraits
he failed for Oonalafhka, where he arrived on the
2d of O&ober, and (laid for feme time in order to
repair his (hips. While the carpenters veere employed
in this work, one-third of the people had permiffion
to go on (bore by turns, in order to gather berries,
with which the ifland abounds, and which, though
now beginning to decay, were of great fervice, in con-
junftion with the fpmee beer, to preferve the people
from the feurvy. Such a quantity of fifh was like-
wife procured, as not only ferved to fupply the fliips
for the prefent, but likewife allowed a great number
to be carried out to fea ; fo that hence a confiderable
faving was made of the provifions of the fhips, which
was an article of very ccnflderable confequence. On
the 8th of the month our commander received a very
fingular prefent from fome perfons unknown, by the
hands of an Oonalafhka man named Derramoujhk. It
confided of a rye-loaf, or rather a falmon-pyc in the
form of a loaf, and highly feafoned with pepper. This
man had the like prefent for Captain Clerke, and each
of them was accompanied with a note which none on
board could underftand : a few bottles of rum, with
fome wine and porter, were fent in exchange: it be¬
ing fuppofed that fuch a prefent would be more accep. ^
table than any other thing that could be fpared, Cor-^ov®
poral Lediard of the marines, an intelligent man, vvas',,,BWr*
at the fame time directed to accompany Derrarpoufhk,
for the purpofe of gaining a more fatisfa&ory account
of the country. On the tenth of the month he re.
turned with three Ruffian feamen or furriers, who with
feveral others refided at Egoofliac, where they had
a dvvelling-houfe, fome ftore-houfes, and a floop about
30 tons burden. One of thefe people was either ma¬
iler or mate of the veflel, and all of them were very
fober and decent in their behaviour. The greatelt dif¬
ficulty arofa from the want of an interpreter ; for
which realbn the converfation was carried on by figns.
However, the captain obtained a fight of two lea-
charts, both of which he was allowed to copy. One
of them included the fea of Penfliinfk, part of the coal!
of Tartary down to the latitude 410 j the Kurile
iflands, and the peninfula of Kamtfchatka. The other
comprehended all the difeoveries that had been made
from the time of Captain Beering to the year 1777J
but thefs were found to be very trifling. Indeed our
navigator was affured by all the Ruffians whom he had
occafion to fee, that they knew of no other iflands
than thofe laid down in the charts juft mentioned, and
that none of them had ever feen any part of the A-
merican continent, excepting what lies oppofite to the
country of the Tfchutfld. With regard to the nativesChatad
of Oonalafhka, they are to appearance the molt inof-0^81
fenfive and peaceable people in the world, not to be^lt£Ilti
in a ftate of civilization ; though perhaps this may be
owing in fome meafure to the cnnne.dtion they have
long had with the Ruffians. From the affinity ob-
ferved between the language of the Efquimaux Green¬
landers, and thofe of Norton’s found in N. Lat. 64. 55.
there is great reafon to believe that all thofe nations^^
are of the fame extraction; and if that be the cafe,
there is little reafon to doubt that a communication probab
by fea exifts between the eaftern and weftern fides
the American continent ; which, however, may very^ac1
probably be fhut up by ice in the winter time, or even of AmJ
for the moft part throughout the year. ioj j
The return of Captain Cook to the Sandwich ^or-f'|
iflands, with the lamentable cataftrophe that enfued,
have been already related under the former article. ^fcov,|
We fhall now briefly enumerate the confequences of
his difeoveries with refpeft to the advancement of
fcience. Thefe are principally his having overthrown
the hypothefis of a fouthern continent of immenfe ex¬
tent, ufually fpoken of under the name of Terra aujlralis
incognita ; his demonftration of the impraClicability of a
northern paflage either by Alia or America to the
Eaft Indies ; and his having eftablifhed a fure method
of preferving the health of feamen through the long-
eft fea-voyages. It is remarked by the bifliop of
Carlifle, that one great advantage refulting from the
late furveys cf the globe, is the refutation of fanciful
theories, too likely to give birth to impracticable un¬
dertakings. The ingenious reveries of fpeculative
philofophers will now be obliged to fubmit, perhaps
with reluClance, to the fober diClates of truth and ex¬
perience ; nor is it only by difeouraging future unpro¬
fitable fearches that the late voyages are likely to be
of fervice to mankind, but likewife by leffening the
dangers
La
COO
dangers and diftreffes formerly experienced in thofe
feas which are within the actual line of commerce and
navigation.
The interefts of fcience, as well as of commerce,
are highly indebted to the labours of our illuftricus
navigator. Before his time almoft half the furface of
the globe was involved in obfcurity and confufion : but
now fuch improvements have been made, that geogra¬
phy has aflumed a new face, and become in a manner
a new fcience ; having attained fuch completenefs as
to leave only fome lefs important parts to be explored
by future voyagers. Other fciences befides geography
have been advanced at the fame time. Nautical aftro-
nomy, which was in its infancy when the late voyages
were undertaken, is now brought to much greater per¬
fection ; and, during Captain Cook’s laft expedition,
many even of the petty officers could take the diftance
of the moon from the fun or from a ftar, the moft de¬
licate of all obfervations, with fufficient accuracy ; and
the officers of fuperior rank would have been affiamed
to have it thought that they did not know how to ob-
fervc for, and compute, the time at fea : a thing before
hardly mentioned among feamen. It muft, however,
be remembered, that a great part of the merit in this
refpect is due to the board of longitude. In confequence
©f the attention of that board to the important objeCl
jaft mentioned, liberal rewards have been given to ma¬
thematicians for perfefting the lunar tables and facili¬
tating calculations : and artifts hav« been amply en¬
couraged in the conftruCtion of watches, and other in-
firuments better adapted to the purpofes of navigation
than any that formerly exifted.
A vaft addition of knowledge has been gained with
refpeCt to the ebbing and flowing of the tides; the di¬
rection and force of the currents at fea : the nature of
the polarity of the needle, and the caufe of its varia¬
tions. Natural knowledge has been increafed by ex¬
periments on the effeCts of gravity in different and
very diftant places ; and from Captain Cook’s having
. penetrated fo far into the fouthern regions, it is now
afcertained, that the phenomenon ufually called the
aurora borealis, is not peculiar to high northern lati¬
tudes, but belongs equally to all cold climates, whether
north or fouth.
No fcience, however, perhaps ftands more indebted
to thefe voyages than that of botany. At leaf! 1200
new fpecies of plants have been added to thofe former¬
ly known 5 and every other department of natural
hiftory has received large additions. Befides all this,
there have been a vaft: many opportunities of obferving
human nature in its different fituations. The iflands
viiited in the middle of the Pacific ocean are inhabited
by people who, as far as could be obferved, have con¬
tinued unmixed with any different tribe fince their firft
fettlement. Hence a variety of important faCIs niay
be collected with refpeCt to the* attainments and defi¬
ciencies of the human race in an uncultivated ftate, and
in certain periods of fociety. Even the curiofities
brought from the newly difcovered iflands, and w'hich
enrich the Britiffi mufeum and the late Sir Affiton Le¬
ver’s (now Mr Parkinfon’s) repofitory, may be confi-
dered as a valuable acquifition to this country, and af¬
fording no fmall fund of inftruftion and entertainment.
There are few inquiries more generally interefting
than thofe which relate to the migrations of the vari-
[ 63s ]
coo
ous colonies by which the different parts of the earth Cook’s
have been peopled. It was known in general, that Plfcoveries;
the Afiatic nation called the Malayans, poffeffed in for- ^ ”
mer times much the greateft trade of the Indies, and
that their ffiips frequented not only all the the coafts of
Afia, but even thofe of Africa likewife, and particu¬
larly the large ifland of Madagafcar; but that from
Madagafcar to the Marquefas and Eafter ifland, that
is, nearly from the eaft fide of Africa till we approach
the weft coaft of America, a fpace including almoft
half the circumference of the globe, the fame nation
of the oriental world ffiould have made their fettle-
ments, and founded colonies throughout almoft every
intermediate ftage of this immenfe trad, in iflands at
amazing diftances from the mother continent, is a hi-
ftorical faCI that before Captain Cook’s voyages could
not be known, or at leaft but very imperfe&ly. This
is proved, not only by a fimilarity of manners and cu-
ftoms, but likevvife by the affinity of language $ and
the colleftions of words which have been made from
all the widely-diffufed iflands and countries vifited by
Captain Cook, cannot fail to throw much light on the
origin of nations, and the manner in which the earth
was at firft peopled.
Befides this, information has been derived concetn-
ing another family of the earth formerly very much
unknown. This was the nation of the Efquimaux or
Greenlanders, who had formerly been known to exift
only on the north-eaftern part of the American con¬
tinent. From Captain Cook’s accounts, however, it
appears, that thefe people now inhabit alfo the coafts
and iflands on the weft fide of America oppofite to
Kamtfchatka, From thefe accounts it appears alfo, that
the people we fpeak of have extended their migrations
to Norton found, Oonalaffika, and Prince William’s
found 5 that is, nearly to the diftance of 1500 leagues
from their ftations in Greenland and the coaft of La-
bradore. Nor does this curious faft reft merely on
the evidence arifing from the fimilitude of manners ;
for it ftands confirmed by a table of words, exhibiting
fuch an affinity of language as muft remove every doubt
from the mind of the moft fcrupulous inquirer.
From the full confirmation of the vicinity of the
two great continents of Afia and America, it can no
longer be fuppofed ridiculous to believe, that the latter
received its inhabitants from the former; and by the
fadts recently difcovered, a degree of further evidence
is added to thofe which might formerly be derived
from nature concerning the authenticity of the Mofaic
accounts. It is not indeed to be doubted, that the
infpired writings will ftand the teft of the moft rigor¬
ous inveftigation j nor will .it ever be found, that true
philofophy and divine revelation, can militate againft
each other. The rational friends of religion are fo
far from dreading the fpirit of inquiry, that they wifti
for nothing more than a candid and impartial exami¬
nation of the fubjedt, according to all the lights which
the improved reafon and enlarged fcience of man can
afford.
Another good effedl of the voyages of Captain Cook
is, that they have excited in other nations a zeal for
fimilar undertakings. By order of the French govern¬
ment, Meff. de la Peyroufe and de Langle failed from
Breft in Auguft 17S5, in the frigates Bouffole and .
Aftrolabe, on an enterprife, the purpofe of which was
4 L 2 to
GOO [ 616 1 COO
Cook’s to improve geography, aftronomy, natural hidory, and
plfcoverics. pjjjlofophy, and to collect an account of the cuftoms
and manners of different nations. For the more ef¬
fectual pro'ecution of the defign, leveral gentlemen
svere appointed to go cut upon the voyage, who were
known to excel in different kinds of literature. The
offuers. of the Bm.ffole were men of the belt informa¬
tion and tirmeft rdo’ution ; and the crew contained a
number of artiricers in various branches of mechanics.
Marine watches, &c. were provided, and M. Dngelet
the altronomer was particularly directed to make ob-
feivstions with M. Condamine’s invariable perrdulum,
to determine the difference in gravity, and to afeer-
tain the true proport on of the equatorial to the polar
diameter of the earth. It has likewife been made evi¬
dent, that notwithdanding all that has been done by
Captain Cook, there is ftill room for a farther invef-
tigation of the geography of the northern parts of the
world. The obje£t accordingly was taken up by the
emprefs of RufTia, who committed the care of the
enterprife to Captain Billings an Englifhman in her
majefty’s fervice. We (hall only make one obferva-
tion m >re concerning the benefits likely to accrue
from the voyages of Captain Coc k, and that is relative
to the fettlement in Botany bay. Whatever may be
fuppofed to accrue to the nation itfelf from the fettle¬
ment, it muft undoubtedly give the higheft fa*isfa<flion
to every friend to humanity to be informed, that thus
a number of unhappy wretches will be effnflually pre¬
vented from returning to their former feenes of temp¬
tation and guilt, which may open to them the means
of induftrious fubfiftence and moral reformatio::. If
the fettlement be conduced with wifdom and pru¬
dence, indeed it is hard to fay what beneficial confe-
quences may be derived from it, or to what height it
may arife. Rome, the greateft empire the world ever
faw, proceeded from an origin little, if at all, fuperior
to Botany bay. For an account of this fettlement fee
the article New Holmnd.
One other object remains only farther to he eonfi-
dered with regard to thefe vovages, and that is the ad¬
vantages which may refult from them to the difeovered
people. Here, however, it mav perhaps be difficult to
fettle matters with precifion. From the preceding ac¬
counts, it mull be evident that the intentions of Cap¬
tain Cook were in the higheft degree benevolent ; and
if at any time the people were the fuff rers, it muft
have been through their own fault. In one inftmee
indeed it might be otherwife, and that is with refpett
to the venereal difeafe. The evidence in this cale can¬
not be altogether fatisfaftory. Mr Sam well, who fuc-
ceeded Mr Anderfon as furgeon of the Refolution, has
endeavoured to lhaw, that the natives of the lately ex¬
plored parts of the world, and efpecially of the Sand¬
wich iflands, were not injured by the Englilh ; a: d it
was the conilant care and folicitude of Captain Cook
to prevent any infection from being communicated to
the people where he came. But whether he was uni-
verfally fuccefsful in this refpe6l or not, it 'S evident
that the late voyages were undertaken with a view ex¬
ceedingly different from thofe of former times. The
horrid cruelties of the Sn^nifti conquerors of America
cannnot be remembered without concern for the caufe
of religion and human nature ; but to undertake ex¬
peditions with a defign of civilizing the world, and
meliorating its condition, is certainly a noble objnih Coops
From the long continued inteicoune betwixt this couu.Bifcovsri
trv and the Smith fea illands, there cannot b^ any
doubt that fjme degree of knowledge mult aireaev
have been communicated to them. Their ftock of
ideas mull naturally be enlarged by the number of un¬
common obfervations which has been prefented to them,
and new materials furnilhed for the exercile of’ their
ration,d faculties. A confide!able addition mult he
made to their immediate comfort and enjoyment by
the introduction of ufeful animals and vegetables j and
if the only benefit they (houid t ver receive from Bri¬
tain thou Id be the having obtained trelh means of fub-
fidence, this or itfclf mu t be co.ifideied as a valuable
acquilition. Greater confequences, however, may foon
be expected. The connexion formed with thele peo¬
ple mry be confidered as the firft itep towards their im¬
provement; and thus the bleffings of civilization may
be fpread among the various tribes ot Indians in the
Pacific ocean, which in time may prepare them for
holding an honourable place among the nations of the
earth. - toj I
As a fupplement to this account of the difeoveries Accou-t
made by Captain Cook himlelf, we ftiall here fubjoin a Captain■
narrative of the fubfequent part of the voyage by Cap-ckrke’s I
tain CU rke, &c. until the return of the ftiips to Eng-voW-
land. At the time of Captain Cook’s death, the great
point of a north-weft paffage remained in fome meafure
to be ftill determined: for though, by the event of
the former attempt, it had been rendered highly im¬
probable that they fhould fucceed in this, it was ftill
refolved to try whether or not, at certain fealbns of
the year, the ice might not be more open than they
had hitherto found it. The firft obje£t that naturally
occurred, however, was the recovery ot Captain Cook’s Method
body; for which Mr K’ng was of opinion that fome taken fc
vigorous meafure ought inftantly to be purfued. Hisd161*'4
motives for this, befides the perfonal regard he hadY,eryof
fi r the captain, were to abate the confidence which :
muft be (uppoied to erdue on the part of the natives,dy^
which would probably incline them to dangerous at¬
tempts; avd this the more particularly, as they had
hitherto difeovered much Ids fear of the fire-arms than
o:he:- lavage nations were accuftomed to do. Mr S?m-
well alfo takes notice of the intrepidity of the natives
in this refpeft ; but aferibes it, in the firft inftance, to
ignorance of their effbds ; and in the next, to a no¬
tion, that as the effebts of thefe arms were occafioned
by fire, they might be counterabted by water. tor
this purpofe they dipped their war-mats in water;
but finding tbemfelves equally vulnerable after this
method had been purfued, they became more timid and
cautious.
As matters ftood at prefent, there was even reafon
to dread the confequences of a general attack upon the
(hips: and therefore Mr King was the more confirm¬
ed in his opinion of the neceffi y of doing fomething to
convince them of the prowefs of their adverfaries. In
thefe apprehenfions he was feconded by the opinion of
the greater part of the officers on board ; and nothing
feemed more likely to encourage the iflanders to make
the attempt than an appearance of being inclined to
an accommodation, which they would certainly attri¬
bute to we; knefs or fear. Cantain Clerke, however,
and thofe who were in favour of conciliatory meafures,
urged,
COO [ 637 1 coo
urged, iliat the milchiet was already irreparable j that
|‘es’ the natives, ly reafon t)f their fbrmer friendship, had
-^a ilrorg claim to ;he regard of the Englilh ^ and that
the more paiticuiurly, as the late calamitous accident
did not appear to have taken iis rile from any preme¬
ditated delign $ they urged alio the ignorance of the
king concerning the thelt, and the miftake of the
ithn deis who had armed themhlves on a iuppofition
that fume attempt would be made to carry off the
kmg. To all this was added, that the fliips were in
want of refrdhments, particularly water ; that the
Refolution’s foremaft would require Oven or eight days
before it could be properly repaired j and as the fpiing
was fall advancing, the fpeedy profecution of the
v vage to the northward ought now to be the only
objedl ; that a vindi&ive conteft with the natives might
rot only juftify an imputation of needlefs cruelty, but
would occafion great delay in the equipment of the
fhips.
In confequence of the prevalence of thefe Sentiments
lenient mealuies were adopted, though the behaviour
of the natives continued to be very infolent. A great
body ftill kept pofl'efiion of the Shore ; many of whom
came off in their canoes within piSbol-lhot of the Strips,
and provoking the people by every kind of infult and
defiance. A train of negociations for Captain Cook’s
body took place j in which the natives Showed the moft
hoftile and treacherous difpofition, and, as afterwards
appeared, had cut the fleSh from the bones and burnt
it. A piece of about ten pounds weight was brought
by two natives at the hazard of their lives, who gave
information that the reft had been burnt, and that
the bones were in the poSTeftron of the king and fome
of the principal chiefs. Information was given, at
the fame time, that the chiefs were very defirous of
war, in order to revenge the death of their country¬
men.
Thus it appeared that the pacific plan had anfwered
no good purpofe. No fatisfa&ory anfwer had been
given to the demands made of the bodies of the Slain }
nor was any progrefs made in the great work intend¬
ed, viz. a reconciliation with the natives; they ft;ll
remained on Shore in an hoftile pofture, as if determined
to oppofe any endeavours that might be made by our
people to land ; at the fame time that a landing was
become abfolutely neceffary, in order to complete the
flock of water. Had this fpiritlefs conduct been per-
fifted in, there is not the leaft doubt that neither this
purpofe or any other could have been efFe^led. The
infolence of the natives became every day greater and
greater : infomuch that one of them had the audacity
to come within mufket Shot of the Refolution, and, af¬
ter throwing feveral ftones, wTaved Captain Cook’s hat
over his head, while his countrymen on (bore were ex¬
ulting and encouraging his audacity. Ey this infult
the people wTere fo highly enraged, that coming on
the quarter-deck in a body, they begged *hat they
might no longer be obliged to put up with fuch reite¬
rated provocation, but might be allowed to make ufe
of the ifirft opportunity of revenging the death of their
captain. The neceffity of more vigorous meafures,
therefore, being now apparent, a fewT difeharges of the
^ . great guns, with the burning of a village and fome
ft0b_Sother afts of feveri v, at laft produced the mangled^ re-
id. mains of Captain Cook. They were wrapped up in a
bundle, in which were found both his hands entire,
which were eafily known by a fear in one of them di . 1
vidmg the fore-finger from the thumb the whole length
of tne metacarpal bone. Along with thele was the
fkull, but with the Scalp Separated from it, and the
bones ot the face wanting j the fcalp, with the ears
adhering to it, and the hair cut Short; the bones of
both the arms, and the Skin of the fore-arms hanging
to them ; the bones of the thighs and legs joined to¬
gether, but without the Sect. The ligaments of the
joints were obferved to be entire j the whole Showing
evident marks of being in the fire, except the hands
which had the flefti remaining upon them, and were
cut in fiv-ral places and crammed with fait, moft pro¬
bably for the purpofe of preferving them. The fkull
was not fraftured; but the fcalp had a cut in the back
part of it. The lower jaw and feet were wanting, ha¬
ving been feized by different chiefs. j0p
Having accomplished the purpofes of their ftay in Unfuccefs-
this place, Captain Clerke fet fail from Karakakooa bay Sfo alt®niPts
in O-why-hcc towards Mowee, with a defign to ex* farther dif-
plore the coafts of that ifland more fully than had been COveries.
done, but were unable to accomplish their purpofe ;
nor indeed was it in their power to accomplish any
difeovery of confequence among thefe iflands. The on¬
ly intelligence worth mentioning which they were able
to procure was, that wars had enfued about the pro¬
perty of the goats which were left by Captain Cook
on the ifland of Oneeheowq as has been already men¬
tioned, and that during the conteft all thefe poor
animals, who had already begun to multiply, w-ere de¬
stroyed $ lb that the benevolent attempts of our illustri¬
ous navigator in favour of thefe iflanders had proved
abortive.
On quitting the ifland of Oneeheow, our navigators
fet fail for another named Modoopappa, which they
were affured by the natives lay within five hours fail¬
ing of Tahoora, a fmall ifland in the neighbourhood of
Oneeheow. In this they proved uniuccefsful •, on wfoich
it. was detet mined to Steer for the coaft of Kamtichat-
ka. In the paffage thither they arrived at the place
where De Gama is Said to have difeovered a great ex¬
tent of land j but of this they could difeover no ap¬
pearance. I bis imaginary continent is Said to have
been difeovered by a navigator called John de Gama,
but who feems alfo to have been imaginary, as no per-
fon can find out either the country where he lived, or
the time wdien he made the difcoveiy. We are in¬
formed by Muller, that the firft account of it was pub¬
lished by Texeira in a chart of 1649, who places it be¬
tween the latitude of 44 and 45 degrees, and about
160. eaft longitude, and calls it “ land feen by John
de Gama, in a voyage from China to New Spain.”
By the French geographers it is removed five de- no
grees farther to the eaft. When they arrived at Their fa-
Kamtfcha’ka they were entertained in the moft ^°cuera^
pit able manner, and furnished with every thing that
could he procured in that defert and barren region. fwhatka.
« In this wretched extremity of the earth (fays the
narrator of the voyage), beyond conception barba¬
rous and inhofpitable, out of the reach of civilization,
bound and barricaded with ice, and covered wnlh fum-
mer fnow\ we experienced the tendereft feelings of
humanity, joined to a roblenefs of mind and eleva ion
of fentiment which would have done honour to any
clime
COO [038] coo
Cook’s clime or naiton.” From Major Behtn, in particular,
jOifcoveries. t}jey received fo many and lo great obligations, that
"J an handfome acknowledgment was made him by the
Royal Society, as has been already obferved. Even
the failors were fo llruck with gratitude, that they
voluntarily requeued that their allowance of grog
might be withheld, in order to compliment the garn-
fon of Eolcheretfk with the fpirits 3 faying, that they
knew brandy was extremely fcarce in that country,
the foldiers on fliore having offered four roubles a
bottle for it. The officers, however, would pot
allow them to fuffer by their generofity in this in¬
clement country and feafon of the year (the month
of March not being yet expired) j but in room of
the fmail quantity of brandy which Major Behm
confented to accept, fubflituted an equal quantity of
m rum.
Tfchutfki It is worth obferving, that the kindnefs with which
fubmit to t}5e emprefs had ordered the Britifh navigators to be
ord'?6111'* treated in this part of her dominions was amply re¬
warded, even with no lefs than the addition of a new
kingdom to the Ruffian empire, which hitherto her
arms had not been able to fubdue. Among the north¬
ern Afiatics none had been able to maintain their in¬
dependence except the Tfchutfki, who inhabit the
north-eaft extremity of the continent. No attempt to
fubdue thefe people had been made fince the year i75°>
when the Ruffian forces had at laft been obliged to re¬
treat, after having loft their commanding officer. I he
Ruffians afterwards removed their frontier fortrefs from
the river Anadyr to the Ingiga, which runs into the
northern extremity of the fea of Okotfk, and gives its
name to a gulf to the weft of the fea of Penfhinfk.
On the day that Captains Clerke and Gore arrived at
Bolcheretfk, Major Behm received difpatches from this
fort, acquainting him that a party of the Ifchutfki
had been there with voluntary offers of friendftffp and
a tribute. That on afking the reafon ot fuch an un¬
expected alteration in their fentiments, they had ac¬
quainted his people that two large Ruffian boats had
viftted them towards the end of the preceding fummer;
that they had been fhown the greateft kindnefs by the
people who were in them, and had entered into a
league of amity with them ; and that, in confequence
of this, they came to the Ruffian fort in order to fet¬
tle a treaty upon terms agreeable to both nations.
This incident had occafioned much fpeculation, and
could never have been underftood without the affift-
ance of thofe who were now prefent; the large Ruf¬
fian boats having been in truth no other than the
Refolution and Difcovery, under Captains Cook and
xr„ Clerke.
Vaf^quan- About the middle of May the fnow began to melt
tity of fifh. very faft in this inhofpitable region, and the fhips be¬
ing now on their paffage northward, met with an ex¬
cellent opportunity of fupplying themfelves with fifh.
The beach was cleared of ice on the 15th of the
month j from which time vaft quantities came in from
every quarter. Major Behm had ordered all the Kamt-
fchadales to employ themfelves in the fervice of the
Englifh (hips $ fo that often they found it impoffible
to take on board the quantities that were fent. They
chiefly confifted of herrings, trout, flat fiffi, and cod.
Thefe fifti were here found in fuch plenty, that once
the people of the Difcovery furrounded fuch an ama-
6
zing quantity with the feine, that they were obliged CooV,
to throw out a very confiderable number, left the netb&overi
fhould have been broken to pieces ; and the cargo
ftill fo abundant, that, beftdes having a flock for im¬
mediate ufe, they filled as many calks as they could
conveniently fpare for faking j and after fending on
board the Refolution a tolerable quantity for the
fame purpofe, they left behind feveral bufhels on the
beach..
While they remained in this country an opportu-Spirit
nity offered of obferving the pernicious effefts of fpi-liquorsp
rituous liquors in producing] the fea-feurvy. All the™0115”
Ruffian foldicrs were in a greater or leffer degree af-
flicked with that diforder, fome of them being in the
laft ftage of it j and it was particularly obferved that
a ferjeant, with whom our people had kept up a moft
friendly intercourfe, had, in the courfe of a few (Jays,
brought upon himfelf the moft alarming fcorbutic
fymptoms, by drinking too freely of the liquors with
which he had been prefented by the Englifh. Cap¬
tain Clerke foon relieved them by putting them under
the care of the furgeons of the (hips, and fupply¬
ing them with four-kreut, and malt for fweet-wort.
In confequence of this a furprifing alteration was
foon obferved in the figures of moft of them *, and
their fpeedy recovery was principally attributed to the
fweet-wort.
On the 12th of June they began to proceed north-Eruptiol
ward along the coaft of Kamtfchatka, and three days0favol
after had an opportunity of obferving an eruption ofca!10'
one of the volcanoes of that peninfula. On the 15th
before day-light, they were furprifed with a rumbling
noife like diftant thunder •, and when the day appear¬
ed, found the decks and fides of the ffiips covered near
an inch thick with fine duft like emery. The air was
at the fame time loaded and obfeured with this fub-
ftance ; and in the neighbourhood of the volcano it-
felf it was fo thick that the body of the hill could not
be difeovered. The explofion became more loud at
12 o’clock, and during the afternoon, being fficceed-
ed by (bowers of cinders, generally of the fize of peafe,
though fome were as large ts hazel-nuts. Along |
with thefe there alfo fell fome fmall ftones which had
undergone no alteration from the aflion of the fire.
In the evening there were dreadful claps of thunder,
with bright flafties of lightning, which, with the dark-
nefs of the Iky, and the fulphureous fmell of the air,
produced a moft awful and tremendous effeft. The
fhips were at this time about 24 miles diftant from the
volcano; and it appeared that the volcanic (bower had
been carried to a ftill greater diftance, as they next
day found the bottom of the fea to confift of fuch fmall
ftones as had fallen upon the decks of the fhips. The
mountain was ftill obferved to be in a ftate of eruption
on the 18th. „,!
For fome time Captain Clerke kept the coaft ofyoyafW
Kamtfchatka in view, with a defign to make an accu-theroH
rate furvey of it y but in this he was difappointed byward
foggy and fqually weather j however, he determined
the pofition of fome remarkable promontories, and at
laft finding the feafon too far advanced to accomplifh
his defign,'fet fail for Becring’s firaits, chiefly with a
view to afeertain the fituation of the projecting points
of the coaft.
On the 3d of July our navigators came in fight of
the
GOO
jjL 5 the ifland of St Lawrence, and another which was
I Bj 'es' iuppofed to lie between it and Anderfon’s ifland. The
latter being entirely unknown to Captain Clerke, he
was inclined to have approached it, but was unable
to effeS his purpofe. All thefe iflands as well as the
coart of the Tfchutlki on the continent were covered
with fnow, and had a difmal appearance.
In the preceding year Captain Cook had determined
the fituation of the iflands of St Dioraede to be in 65*
48' latitude $ but now being fomewhat at a lofs to re-
} M i concile this with the pofition of the continent, they
flood for fome time over to the latter, till fully con-
■ vinced of the accuracy of the former obfervation. At
this time they approached within two or three leagues
of the eaftern cape of Alia, which is an elevated
round head of land extending about five miles from
north to fouth, and forms a peninfula conne&ed
with the continent by a narrow ifthmus of low
(land. It has a bold Ihore, and three lofty detached
fpiral rocks are feen off its northern part. It was ftill
encompaffed with ice, and covered with fnow. Here
they found a ftrong current fetting to the northward,
which at noon had occafioned an error in the computa¬
tion of the latitude of no lefs than 20 miles. A fimilar
effedl had been obferved the preceding year in palling
this ftrait. On fleering to the north-eaft the weather
cleared up, fo that they had a view of the eaftern cape
of Alia, Cape Prince of Wales on the weftern coaft of
America, with a remarkable peaked hill on the latter,
and the two iflands of St Diomede lying between
them. Here they met with great numbers of very
fmall hawks, having a compreffed bill rather large in
I proportion to the body ; the colour dark brown, or
rather black, the breaft whitilh, and towards the ab-
5 domen of a reddilh hue.
^ :oP- On the 6th of July, at 12 o’clock, the Ihips were in
r ytte N. Lat. 67. o- E. Long. 191. 6. when having already
^ paCTed many large pieces ol ice, and obferved that in
feveral places it adhered to the continent of Alia, they
were fuddenly flopped about three in the afternoon by
an extenfive body, which ftretched towards the weft.
By this their hopes of reaching any higher latitude
than what had been attained laft year were confiderably
diminilhed ; but finding the courfe obftrufted on the
Afiatic fide, they proceeded to the north-eaftward, in
order to explore the continent of America between the
latitudes of 68 and 69° ; which had laft year been
found impraflicable on account of the foggy weather $
but in this alfo they were partly difappointed $ for on
the 7th, about fix in the morning, they met with an¬
other large body of ice ftretching from north-weft to
fouth-eaft 5 but not long afterwards, the horizon be¬
coming clear, they had a view of the American coaft
at the diftance of about ten leagues, extending from
north-eaft "by eaft, to eaft, and lying between N. Lat.
68° and 68° 26'. As the ice was not very high, the
view extended a great way over it, fo that they could
perceive it exhibiting a compadt folid furface, and ap¬
parently adhering to the land. Soon after the wea¬
ther became hazy, fo that they loft fight of the land j
and it being iqipoffible to get nearer, they continued
to fleer northward clofe by the fide of the ice. This
courfe was continued till next morning, during which
time the Ihips paffed fome drift wood; but the morn¬
ing following, the wind lh if ting to the north, they were
COO
obliged to ftand to the weft ward. At two in the af- book’s
ternoon they were again clofe to an immenfe expanfe
of ice $ which from the maft-head ffeemed to confift of
very large compadl bodies, united towards the exterior
edge, though in the interior parts fome pieces floated in
the water ; it extended from weft-fouth-vveft to north-
eaft by north. There was now a necelfity for fleering
towards the fouth, as the ftrong northerly winds had
drifted down fuch numbers of loofe pieces that they
had encompaffed the ftiips for fome time, and it was
impoflible to avoid very fevere ftrokes while failing
among them. Thus, however, they reached the lati¬
tude of 69. 12. and E. Long. 188. 5.; but having
now failed almoft 40 leagues to the weft along the edge
of the ice without perceiving any opening, Captain
Clerke determined to bear away fouth by eaft, the
only quarter which was clear at prefent, and to wait
till the feafon was fomewhat farther advanced before
any further attempts were made. The intermediate
time he propofed to employ in furveying the bay ©f
St Lawrence, and the coaft fituated to the fouthward
of it; as it mutt be a great fatisfaftion to have a
harbour fo near in cafe of the (hip’s receiving any da¬
mage from the ice ; and the captain was alfo defirous
of paying another vifit to the Tfchutfki, efpecially in
confequence of the accounts of them that had been rr^
given by Major Behm. In this navigation they killed Remark-
feveral fea-horfes, and had an opportunity of obferving aHe affcc-
the ftrength of parental affeftion in thefe monftrousfe°\of^°
animals. On the approach of the boats towards thetowar^s
ice, all of them took their young ones under their fins, the young,
and attempted to make their efcape with them into
the fea. Some whole cubs were killed or wounded,
and left floating upon the furface of the water, rofe
again, and carried them down, fometimes juft as they
were on the point of being taken into the boat; and
could be traced bearing them to a confiderable diftance
through the water, which "was ftained with their blood.
They were afterwards obferved bringing them at in¬
tervals above the furface, and again plunging under
its furface with an horrid bellowing *, and one female,
whofe young one had been killed and taken on board,
became fo furious, that (he flruck her tu(ks through
the bottom of the cutter.
Our navigators ftill found themfelves difappointed The fiiips
in their attempts. On approaching the coaft of the finally Hop-
Tfchutlki they met with a large and compafl body ofP01* hy ice.
ice, extending to the north-eatf, fouth-weft, and fouth-
eaft, as far as the eye could reach j fo that they were
again obliged to fail back to the northward. Here
alfo their courfe was foon flopped; for, on the 13th,
being in N. Lat. 69. 37. and about the middle of the
channel between the two continents, they once more
fell in with a compaft body of ice, of which they
could perceive no limit. Captain Clerke therefore
determined to make a final attempt on the coaft of
America, the paffage northward having been found
laft year "pra&icable much farther on that than the
Afiatic fide. Thus they attained the latitude of 70. 8.
at the diftance, as was fuppofed, of 25 leagues from
the coaft of America; and fome days after got about
three minutes farther to the northward, about the di¬
ftance of feven or eight leagues from the Icy Cape.
This, however, was the utmoft limit of the voyage to
the north-eaft 3 and they were foon obliged to relin-
qui(h
[ 639 ]
coo [ 640 ] coo
Difcoverie5.qU'f^JaU '‘T* ,°f ProceedinS tI,cr on llle Amcri- obferved by Beering in his expedition in 1728. A f„
v can lde* . At^Qther effort was ftill refolved on to try new form is given to the whole peninfula in a mapMw
t e piacticabiuty of a north-weft paffage j and for publiftied by the academy at Peterfburgh in 1776.'"‘""'I
this purpofe our navigators altered their direftion on Here its moft north-eafterly extremity is placed in n!
the 21 ft of July, paffing through a great quantity of Lat. 730, E. Long. 178. 30.; and its moft eafterly
iooie ice. About ten at night the main body was dif- point in N. Lat. 65. E. Long. 189. 30. All the other
119 covered at a very fmall diftance, fo that they were ob- maps vary between thefe two fituations : and the only
fituXn’of iged to.Pro.ceed ,t0 t]}sr Southward. During this peri- thing in which all of them agree is the pofition of the
the Difco-' 1(?us navigat-lon» fhe Difcovery, after having almoft got Eaft cape in N. Lat. 66. The form of the coaft, how-
very. clear out from the ice, became fo entangled by feveral ever, is very erroneous in the map publifhed by the
large pieces, that her progrefs was flopped, and fhe academy, and may be entirely difregarded. In Mr
immediately dropped to leeward, falling broadfide Muller’s map, the northern part of the coaft has fome
foremoft on the edge of a confiderable body of ice, on refemblance to that laid down in Captain Cook’s and
winch fhe ftruck with violence, there being an open Clerke’s furvey, as far as the latter extends j only
lea to windward. At length the mafs was either that Mr Muller does not make it trend fufficiently to
broken or moved fo far, that the crew had an opportu- the weft, but fuppofes it to recede only five degrees
Tiity of making an effort to efcape. But unluckily, of longitude between the latitudes of 66° and 6qc ;
before the ftiip gathered way fufficient to be under whereas it really recedes almoft ten.
command, ftie fell to leeward a fecond time upon ano- We muft next examine Mr Muller’s authority for
t er piece of ice ; and the fwell rendering it unfafe fuppofing the coaft to bend round to the north and
to he to windward, and finding no profpeft of get- north-eaft in fuch a manner as to form a large pro-
ting cleai, they pufhed into a fmall opening, and made montory. Mr Coxe, whofe accurate refearches into
the veffel faft to the ice with hooks. Here the Refolu- this matter muft give great weight to his opinion,
tion for fome time loft fight of her confort, which thinks, that the extremity of the promontory was
occafioned no fmall uneafinefs in both veffels j but at never doubled by any perfon except Defhneff and his
length, on a change of wind, the Difcovery, fetting party; who failed, in the year 1648, from the river
a ner fails, forced a paffage, though not without lo- Kovyma, and are imagined to have got round to the
ling a confiderable part of her fheathing, and be- river Anadyr. The account of this voyage, however,,
coming very leaky by reafon of the blows fhe had re- gives no geographical delineation of the coaft, fo that
ceived. . its figure muft be determined by other circumftances;
ihus the two veffels continued to make every effort and from thefe it evidently appears, that the Tfchu-
to penetrate through the immenfe. quantities of ice kotfkoi Nofs of Defhneff is in reality the Eaft cape of
with which thofe feas are filled winter and fummer, Captain Cook. Speaking of this nofs, he fays, that a
tut without fuccefs. Captain Clcrke therefore finding perfon, with a favourable wind, may fail from the
•.nat it was impofuble either to get to the northward, ifthmus to the Anadyr in three days and three nights,
or even to reach the Afiatic continent, the fhips being This agrees entirely with the fituation of the Eaft cape,
a .0 gieatly damaged, determined to proceed fouth- which is about 120 leagues from the mouth of the ri-
ward to the bay of Awatfica, on the Kamtfchadale ver Anadyr ; and there being no other ifthmus to the
coaft, to refit, and afterwards take a furyey of the nofth between that and the latitude of 69°, it feems
no Coads °.x daPan before the winter fhould fet in. evident, that by this defcription he certainly means
Of the ex- During this navigation, two general conclufions were either the Eaft cape or fome other fttuated to the fouth-
tent of the adopted relative to the extent of the Afiatic coaft, in ward of it. In another place he fays, that oppofite to
tiw nt^Q03 ~Ci^°^^0n *° °P*rdon Muller. One is, that the ifthmus there are two iflands upon which fome
the north- P10”1011^0^^ cahyd the Ea/l Ca/>e, is in reality the of the Tfchutfki nation were obferved, having pieces
ward. moft eafterly point of Alia; and that no part of that of the teeth of fea-horfes fixed in their lips; and
quarter of the globe extends farther than the longitude this exadlly coincides with the two iflands that lie
of 190 22 E. The other conclufion is, that the to the fouth-eaft of the Eaft cape. Our navigators
latitude of the moft north-eafterly point of Afia does indeed did not obferve any inhabitants upon thefe
not exceed 70 N. but is rather fomewhat below it. iflands ; but it is by no means improbable, that fome
As the prefent difcoveries, however, were terminated of thofe of the American coaft, whom the above de-
on the Afiatic fide on the 68th degree of latitude, the fcription perfeflly fuits, might have accidentally been
probable direftion of the coaft afterwards can only be there at the time, and been miftaken for a tribe of
conjeftured. The only fources of knowledge in this Tfchutfki.
cafe are the Ruffian charts and journals, and thefe in Other circumftances, though lefs decifive than thofe
general are fo defective and contradictory, that the juft mentioned, concur in the fame proof. Defhneff
particulars of their real difcoveries can fcarce be col- fays, that in failing from the Kovyma to the Anadyr, a
leCted. . Hence the Ruffian geographers are greatly great promontory, which projeCts far into the fea, muft
divided in their opinions concerning the extent and be doubled; and that this promontory extends be-
iigure of the peninfula of the Efchuifki. Mr Muller, tween north and north-eaft.. From thefe expreffions,
in a map publifhed I751* fuppofes it to extend north- perhaps, Mr Muller was induced to reprefent the
eaft as far as the latitude of 750, and E. Long. 190°, country of the Tfchutfki in the form we find in his
ending in a round cape, which he calls Tfchukotjhoi Nofs. map ; but if he had been acquainted with the pofition
To the fouthward of this cape he fuppofes the coaft to of the Eaft cape as determined by Captain Cook, and
form a bay to the weft, bounded in the latitude of the ftriking agreement between that and the promon-
67° 18' by Serdze Kamen, the moft northerly point tory or ifthmus in the circumftances above mentioned,
l : - ' it
COO [64
>, Jt Is mod probable that he would not have deemed thefe
ties, exprefiions of fufficient weight to authorize his extend-
—■^jng the north-esftern extremity of Afi.'v either as far
to the north or to the eaft as he has done.
Another authority ufed by Mr Muller feems to have
been the depofition of the Coffack Popoff, taken at
the Anadirlkoi Olfrog in 1711, Popoff was lent by
land, in company with feveral others, to demand tri¬
bute of the independent TTchutlki tribes, who inhabit¬
ed the country about the Nois. In the account of
this journey, the diftance betwixt Anadirfk and Tfchu-
kotlkoi Nois is reprefented as a journey of ten weeks
with loaded rein-deer. From liich a vague account,
indeed, we can judge but very little : but as the di¬
ftance between the Fail cape and Anadirlk does not
exceed 200 leagues, and confequently might be accom-
plilhed in the fpace above mentioned at the rate of 12
or 14 miles a day, we cannot reckon Popoff’s account
of its fituation inconfiftent with the fuppofition of its
being the Eaft cape. It may likcwife be obferved,
that PopofF’s route lay along the foot of a rock named
Matko/, fituated at the bottom of a fpacious gulf,
which Muller fuppofes to have been the bay he lays
down between the latitudes of 66* and 7 2° ; and he
accordingly places the rock Matkol in the centre of it;
but it feems more probable that it might be a part of
the gulf of Anadyr, wThich they would undoubtedly pafs
in their journey towards the Eaft cape.
But what feems to put the matter beyond all doubt,
and to prove that the cape which Popoff viftted cannot
be to the northward of 69° Lat. is that part of his
depohtion which relates to an ifland lying off the Nofs,
from whence the oppofite coaft might be difcerned }
for as the oppofite continents, in the latitude of 69 >
diverge fo far as to be upwards of 100 leagues diftant,
it is highly improbable that the Afiatic coaft fhould
again trend eaftward in fuch a manner as to come al-
moft in fight of that of America. As an additional
proof of the pofition in cjueftion, we may obferve, that
the Tfchukotfkoi Nofs is conftantly laid down as
dividing the fea of Kovyma from that of Anadyr $
which could not poflibly be the cafe if any large
cape had projected to the north-eaft in the higher la¬
titudes.
The next queftion to be determined is, to what degree
oflalitude the northern coaft of Afia extends before it
inclines direflly weftward ? Captain Cook was always
ftrongly inclined to believe, that the northern coaft of
this continent, from the Indigirka eaftward, nas hi¬
therto been ufually laid down above two degrees to the
northward of its true fituation j for which reafon, and
on the authority of a map that was in his pciiemon,
as well as from intelligence received at Oonalafhka, he
placed the mouth of the Kovyma in the latitude o. 68 .
Should he be right in his conjefture, it is probabie
that the coaft of Afia does not anywhere extend be¬
yond the latitude of 70° before it trends to the weft 5
and confequently our navigators muft have been only
one degree from its northern extremity. L his feems
to be confirmed by the filence of the Ruffian naviga¬
tors concerning anv extent of continent to the north¬
ward of Shelatlkoi Nofs j nor do they mention any
remarkable promontory, except the Eaft cape, be¬
tween the Anadyr and the Kovyma. Another parti¬
cular which Deftineff relates may perhaps be deemed a
Vol. VI. Part II.
I ] COO
farther confirmation of this opinion, viz. that he
with no obftrutlion from ice in failing round the f "  ,
northern extremity of Afia ; though he adds, that
this fea is not at all times fo free of it, which indeed
appears evidently to be the cafe. That part of the
continent which lies between Cape North and the
mouth of the Kovyma is about 125 leagues in extent.
A third part of this fpace, from Kovyma eaftward,
was explored in the year 1723 by Feodot Amoffoff,
who informed Mr Muller that its direftion was eaft-
erly. Since that time it has been furveyed with fome
accuracy by Shalauroff, whofe chart makes it trend
north-eaft-by-eaft as far as Shelatfkoi Nofs, which he
places at the diftance of about 43 leagues eaft of the
Kovyma. The fpace, therefore, between the Nofs and
Cape North, fomewhat more than 80 leagues, is the
only part of the Ruffian dominions now remaining
unexplored. But if the Kovyma be erroneoufly laid
down in point of longitude as well as latitude, a fup¬
pofition far from being improbable, the extent of the
undifeovered coaft will be confiderably diminiftiedf
The following are the reafons why it may be fup-
pofed that the mouth of the Kovyma is placed too fat
to the weftward in the Ruffian charts: 1. Becaufe the
accounts that have been given of the navigation of the
Frozen ocean from that river round the north-eaftem
extremity of Afia to the gulf of Anadyr, do not
agree with the fuppofed diftance between thofe places.
2. Becaufe the diftance from the Anadyr to the Ko¬
vyma over land is by fome Ruffian travellers reprefent¬
ed as a journey of no very great length, and eafily per¬
formed. 3. Becaufe the coaft from the Shelatfkoi Nofs
of Shalauroff appears to trend dire&ly fouth-eaft to¬
wards the Eaft cape. From all which it may be in¬
ferred, with fome degree of probability, that only 60
miles of the northern Afiatic coaft remain to be ex¬
plored. 121
With regard to a north-w^eft paffage from the At- ImpraAi-
lantic into the Pacific ocean, it is highly probable lhatca°^yot
no fuch thing exifts to the fouthward of the 56th de-^"°r”r"
gree of latitude. If, in reality, it exifts anywhere, itnorth^arr
muft certainly be either through Baffin’s bay, or by thepafi'age into
north of Greenland in the w^eftern hemifphere, or in the the Pacific
eaftern, through the Frozen fea to the north of Siberia jocean*
fo that in whichever continent it is feated the navigator
muft pafs through Beering’s ftraits.
All that remains now to be confidered therefore is,
the impracticability of penetrating into the Atlantic
ocean through thefe ftraits. From the voyaye’s of
our navigators it appears, that the fea to the northward
of Beering’s ftraits is more free from ice in Auguft
than in July, and perhaps may be ftill more fo in fome
part of September. But after the autumnal equinox
the length of the day diminifties fo faft, that no farther
thaw can be expected *, and it would be unreafonable
to attribute fo great an effect to the warmth of the laft
fortnight of September as to imagine it capable of dif-
perfing the ice from the moft northern part of the
American coaft. Even admitting this to be poffible,
it muft at leaft be allowed that it would be highly im¬
prudent to endeavour to avoid the Icy cape,, by run¬
ning to the known parts of Baffin's bay, a diftance of
about 1260 miles, in fo ftiort a time as that paffage
Can be fuppofed to be open. On the fide of Afia there
appears ftill lefs probability of fuccefs, as appears from
4 M; the
COO [ 642 ] coo
Cook’s the teftimony of the Ruffian as well as the Engllih na-
pifcoverics. vigatoj-^ Xhe voyage of Defhneff indeed proves the
poffibility of circumnavigating the norlh-eadern ex*
tremity of Afia j but even this affords a very flen-
der foundation to hope for any great benefit, as no
perfon befides hirnfelf appears to have fucceeded in
the attempt, though more than a century and a half
has now • elapfed fince the time of his voyage. But
even fuppofing that, in fume very favourable fea-
fon, this cape might be doubled, flill the cape of Tai-
mura remains, extending as far as the 78th degree of
latitude, and round which none pretend ever to have
failed.
Thefe arguments feem conclufive againfl any ex-
pe£fation of a north-weft or north-eaft paffage to the
Eaft Indies, unlefs on the fuppofition of an open fea
very near the polar regions. The probability of get¬
ting into the polar leas is confidered under the article
POX.K 5 and indeed from what has already been ad¬
vanced muft appear very little. Waving this fub-
jedl therefore at piefent, we ftiall return to the re¬
marks made by our navigators during their fecond
122 voyage. _
Remarks In this they did little more than confirm what had
during the been obferved during the firft : for it never was in
voyage of thejr p0wer t0 approach the continent of Afia in any
Clerke to- h!*gher latitude than 67°, nor that of America in any
wards the part, excepting a few leagues, between 68° and 68° 20',
Icy lea. which they had not feen before. In both years the
ice was met with fooner on the Afiatic than the A-
merican coaft; but in 1779 they met with it in lower
latitudes than in 1778. As they proceeded north-
ward, the ice was found univerfally more compaft and
folid, though they w^ere afcertained at the fame time
that the greateft part of what they met with was move-
able. Its height on a medium was eftimated at eight
or ten feet 5 though forae of the higheft might be about
16 or 18. The currents were generally at the rale of
one mile in the hour, and more generally fet from the
fouth-w^ft than from any other quarter. Their force,
however, w^as fo inconfiderable, whatever their direc¬
tion might be, that no conclufion could poffibly be
drawn from them concerning the exiftence or non-
exiftence of a northern paffage. With regard to the
temperature of the weather, July was found much
colder than Auguft. In the former, the thermometer
was once at 20°, and very frequently at 30°; whereas
during the laft year it was very uncommon in Auguft
to have it as low as the freezing point.. High winds
were experienced in both feafons, all of which blew
from the fouth-weft. The air was foggy whenever
the weather became calm ; but the fogs wrere obferv¬
ed to accompany foutherly winds much more than
ethers.
The ftraits, in the neareft approach of the conti¬
nents to each other, in the latitude of 66°, are about
13 leagues over j beyond which they diverge to N.
E. by E. and W. N. W. ; fo that in the latitude of
69®, their jliftance from each other is about 300 miles.
A great refemblance is obferved betwixt the continents'
cn both fides of the ftraits. Both are deftitute of
wood j the fhores are low7, with mountains further in¬
land, rifihg to a great height. The foundings in the
mid w7ay between them were from 29 to 30 fathoms,
gradually decreafing as either, continent was approach¬
ed j with this difference, however, that the water was Cook’,
fomewhat ftialiower on the coaft of America than that ^werit
of Afia, at an, equal diftance from land. The bottom,
towards the middle, was a foft (limy mud j and near
either ihore was a brownifh hand intermixed with a few
ftiells and fmall fragments of bones. There was but
little tide or current, and what there was came from the
weft.
Before the flfips could reach the peninfula of Kamt- Deai f
fchatka, Captain Clcrke expired j in confequence of Captain
which the command of the Difcovery devolved upon ckrke.
Mr King, Captain Gore being now the fuperior of-See ^
fleer. On the return to Kamtfchatka, Captain Clerke
was buried in the fpot on which a church w7as to be
erefted j it having been his own defire to be interred in
the church. |
By the time they arrived at this peninfula, the face
of the country was greatly improved j the fields being Kamtfcl)
covered with the molt lively verdure, and every plant w>tl>
in the moft flourifhing ftate. The eruption of the^^j
volcano w’hich they had obferved on their laft depar- 0f^w ,
ture from Kamtfchatka, had dene little or no damage, tka.
nolw’ithfianding its violence. Several flones bad fallen
about the fize of a goofe’s egg, but none larger. At
this vifit it wTas obferved by our navigators, that the
complexions of the Ruffians feemed to be much more
unhealthy and fallow than when they faw them for¬
merly ; and the Ruffians made the fame obfervatica
upon the complexions of their guefts. As no certain
caufe for this alteration could be perceived, the blame
was by both parties laid on the verdure of the country j
which, by contrafting itfelf with the colour of the peo¬
ple, made the latter appear to difadvantage.
Having repaired as well as they could the damages
fuftained by the (hips among the ice, our navigators
now began to proceed on their voyage fouthward;
but the (battered condition of their vefftls, with the
little time they had now to fpare on voyages of dif-
covery, after having been fo long at fea, now render¬
ed them much lefs fuccefsful than formerly. Before
leaving the peninfula, however, they took care to give
fuch a defeription of the bay of Aw’atlka as muft be
of great fervice to future navigators. This bay lies .
in 52. 51. N. Lat. and 158. 48. E. Long, in the
bight of another bay formed by Cape Gavareea to the
fouth, and Cheeponfkoi Nofs to the north. The lat¬
ter of thefe bears from the former N. E. by N. and is
32 leagues diftant. From Cape Gavareea to the en¬
trance of Awatfka bay the coaft takes a northerly di-
reefion, and extends about 11 leagues. It coofifts of
a chain of rugged cliffs and rocks, and in many parts
prefents an appearance of bays or inlets ; but on a
nearer view7, low grounds were perceived by which the
headlands were copnedled. From the entrance of
Aw7atlka bay, Cheeponlkoi Nofs bears E. N. E. d:-
ftant 17 leagues. The ftiore on this fide is flat and low7,
with hills behind gradually riling to a confiderable
height. The latitude of Cape Gavareea is 52. 21.
Py this remarkable difference of the land on both fides
the cape, navigators may be dire6ied in their courfe
tow’ards it from the fouthward. When they approach
it from the northwmrd, Cheeponlkoi Nofs becomes
very confpicuous ; it being a high projecting headland,
and united to the continent by a large extent of level
ground lower than the Nofs : and prefents the fame
appearance
COO £ 643
s appearance whether viewed from the north or fouth.
ICJ' Should the weather happen to be fufficientlv clear to
admit ,a view of the mountains both on the fea coaft
and in the neighbourhood, the fituation of Awatlka
bav. may be known by the two high ones to the louth
of it. That neared the bay is in the form of a fugar
loaf, the other flat at top, and not quite fo high. Three
very confpicuous mountains appear on the north fide
of the bay j of which that to the wed appears to be
the highed ; the next, being a volcano, is readily
known by the fmoke which it emits; the third is the
mod northerly, and might properly be called a clufier
of mountains, as it prefents feveral flat tops to viexv.
When got within the capes, the entrance of the bay
of Awatlka to the north is pointed out by a light-
houfe on a perpendicular headland. Many funken
rocks lie to the dadward of this headland, dretching
two or three miles into the fea*, and which with a
moderate fea or fwell will always diow themlelves.
A finall round ifland lies four miles to the fouth of
the entrance, principally compofed of high pointed
rocks, one of which is very rertiarkable. The en¬
trance into the bay is at fird about three miles wide,
and one and a half in the narrowed part j the length
is four miles in a north-wed dire&ion. Within the
mouth is a noble bafon about 25 miles in circumference*,
in which are the harbours of Rakoweera to the ead,
Tarcinlka, to the wed, and St Peter and St Paul to the
north.
:c,|t of On leaving Knmtfchatka, it was unanimoufly judged
age improper to make any attempt to navigate the feas
1
COO
had been for feme time in the wedern quarter; a
cumdance for which they feem to have been altoget ei
5
, a between the continent of Alia and Japan. Indead of
imt-this, it was propofed to deer to the eadward of that
ilknd, and in the way thither to fail along the Kuriles;
examining particularly thofe that are fituated neared
to the northern coad of Japan, which are fald, to be
confiderable, and neither fubjeft to the Ruffians nor
Japanefe. In cafe they Ihould have the good fortune
to meet with fome fecure and commodious harbour in
one of thefe iflands, it was fuppofed that they might
prove of confiderable importance, as convenient places
for {belter for fubfequent navigators, who might be
employed in exploring thefe feas, as the means of pro¬
ducing a commercial intercourfe among the adjacent
dominions of the two above-mentioned empires. 1 ne
next objefi was to take a furvey of the coads of the
iflands of Japan ; after which they defigned to fail for
the coad of'China as far north as poffible, and then
fail along it fouthward t® Macao.
In purfuance of this plan, they failed along the
coad of Kamtfchatka, till they came to the fouthern
point called Cape Lnpatha, whofe fituation they deter¬
mined to be in Lat. 51. o. E. Long. 156. 45* ^ie
north-wed they obferved a very lofty mountain, wdiofe
fummit was lod in the clouds $ and the fame indant
the fird of the Kurile iflands, named Shootrijka, made
its appearance in the diredtion of wed, half fouth.
The pafiage betwixt the fouthern extremity of Cape
I.opatka and the ifland of Shoomlka, though only one
league in breadth, is extremely dangerous, both on ac¬
count of the rapidity of the tides, and of the funk rocks
which lie off the cape. In the courfe of this voyage,
they had occafion to obferve, that a violent fwell from
the north-wed frequently took place, though the wind
unable to account.
The tempeduous weather which now occurieo, pre
vented any difeoveries from being made among t ie
Kurile ifles *, however, they again failed over the Ipace
affigned to the land of Le Gama, without being
to. find it; and, from comparing feveral accounts m
the Ruffian navigators with one another, it was juuged
extremely probable, that the land of Jefo, fo frequently
laid down in former maps, is no other than the mod
foutherly of the Kurile ifles. On coming in view oi
the coad of Japan, they.had the mortification to find
that they could not approach the land by reafon of
the tempeduous weather and bad date of the di ps; tne
coads of thefe idands being extremely dangerous, rai¬
ling from thence in qued of the Balhee iflands, they
found amazing quantities of pumice-done floating in
the fea $ fo that they feemed inclined to believe, with
Mr Muller, that if there had formerly been any patt
of the continent, or large iflard, called the Lattd of
Jefo, it mud have difappeared in a volcanic convulfion :
W’hich alfo mud have been the cafe with that callea.
the Company's Land and Staten IJland. 1 hough they
had not the good fortune to find the Balhee iflands,
they difeovered one in 24- 48. N. Lat. 141. 20. E.
Long, which from its appearance, and tne fulphureous
fmell emitted by it, they named Sulphur ijland.
After this nothing remarkable occurred till their
arrival at Canton in China, where, having {laid for
fome time in Order to put their fliips in repair, they at
lafl let fail for Britain $ but through diets ot weather
were driven as far north as Stromnets in Cikney.
From thence Captain Gore lent a difpatch to tne lords
of the admiralty to inform them of his arrival ; and on
the 4th of October 1780, the drips reached the Nore,
after an abfence of four years, two months, and twTentj-
two days.
COOKERY, the art of preparing and dreffing
visfluals for the table : An art in its fimpled and
ordinary modes, fufficiently familiar to every houfe-
keeper ; and, in its luxurious refinements, too copioufly
detailed in manuals and directories publidied for the
purpofe, to require any enlargement here,^ were it even
a topic that at all deferved confideration in a w*ork of
this nature.
COOLERS, in Medicine, thofe remedies which were
fuppofed to produce an immediate fenfe of cold, behg
fuch as have their parts in lefs motion than tuoie ot
the organs of feeling; as fruits and all acid liquors.
Or they are fuch as wTere fuppofed, by a particular vif-
qidity or groffnefs of parts, to give the animal fluids a
greater confiftency than they had before, and conle-
quently retard their motion, having lefs of that intefline
force on which their heat depends: this property was
aferibed to cucumbers and fimilar fubftances,
COOM, a term applied to the foot that gathers over
an oven’s mouth ; and alfo to the black, greafy fub-
ftance, which works out of the wheels of carriages.
COOMB, or Comb, of corn, a dry meafure contain¬
ing four bufhels, or half a quarter.
^COOP, in Hujbandry, a tumbrel or cart enclofed
with boards, and ufed to carry dung, grains, See.
Coof, is alfo the name of a pen, or enclofed place,
4 M 2 where
Coop.
Coop,
Cooper.
COO [ 644 ] coo
where lambs, poultry, &c. are (hut up in order to be
fed.
COOPER, an artificer who makes calks, coops
tubs and barrels, and all kinds of wooden vefl'els which
are bound together with hoops. It would appear,
that the art of the cooper is t;f great antiquity, and
foon attained all the perfection which it at prefent pol-
felfes.
But although this art is very ancient, there are fome
countries in which it is yet unknown $ and in other
countries from the fcarcily of wood, or from fome
other caufes, earthen veffels and fkins lined with pitch
are ufed for containing liquors. The Latin word dsiium,
is ufually tranllated “ cafk but it was employed by the
Romans to denote earthen veffels ufed for the lame
purpofes. The word dolare, to “ plane, or fmooth,”
from which dolium is derived, and the word dolarius,
a cooper,” may be naturally enough applied, the
former to the conftruftion of calks, which are made of
feveral pieces of the fame tree planed and fitted for
joining together, and the latter to the artificer him-
lelf.
Pliny afcribes the invention of calks to the people who
lived at the foot of the Alps. In his time they lined
them with pitch. From the year 70 of the Chriitian
era in the time of Tiberius and Vefpafian the art of
conflruCling veffels of different pieces of wood feems to
have been well known. Indeed, previous to this pe¬
riod, Varro and Columella, in detailing the precepts of
rural economy, fpeak diftinClly of veffels formed of dif¬
ferent pieces, and bound together with circles of wood
or hoops. The defcription which they have given ac¬
cords exactly with the conftru6ticn of calks. The fa¬
brication of calks, on account of the great abundance
of wood, was probably very early introduced into
France. When this art was firft praftifed in Britain
is unknown 5 but it feems not improbable that it was
derived from the French.
The figure of a cafk is that of two truncated cones,
or rather conoids, joined together j for the lines are
not ftraight, as in the cone, but are curved from the
vertex to the bafe. As the place where the junftion
feems to take place is the mofl capacious, it is com¬
monly called the belly of the calk. In the choice of
wood, old, thick, and llraight trees are preferred, from
which thin planks are hewn which are to be formed
into ftaves. In France, the wood is prepared in win¬
ter ; the ftaves and bottoms are then formed, and they
are put together, or, in the language of the artificer,
the calk is mounted, in fummer. Planing the ftaves
is one of the moft difficult parts of the work j and it is
at the fame time one of the moft important in the fa¬
brication of calks. In drefling ftaves with the plane,
the workman is diredled to cut acrofs the wood ; the
reafon of which is probably to prevent the inftrument
following the courfe of the fibres, which may not al¬
ways be in the fame plane with the furface of the
ftave, and thus render it of unequal thicknefs.
In the formation of the ftaves, it ought to be recol-
]e£!ed, that each is to conftitute part of a double co¬
noid. It muft therefore be broader at the middle, and
muft gradually become narrower, but not in ftraight
lines, towards the extremities. The outfide cf tha
ftaves, acrofs the wood, muft be wrought into the feg-
mentof a circle j and it muft be thickeft near the mid¬
dle, growing gradually thinner towards the ends. Coop.
Great experience, it is obvious, muft be requifite for'■■“v*
the nice adjuftment ol the different curves to the fize
and lhape of the calk. Lefs attention, as it is lefs ne-
ceffary, is paid to the rounding or dreffing of the infide
of the ftave.
After the ftaves are dreffed and ready to be arranged
in a circular form, it might be fuppoied neceffary for
the purpofe of making the feams tight, to trim the thin
edges in fuch a manner, that the contiguous liaves may
be brought into firm contact throughout the whole
joint, or Hoped limilar to the arch-ftones of a bridge.
But this is not the practice which is ulually followed
by the artificer. Without attempting to Hope them,
fo that the whole furface of the edge may touch in
every point, he brings the contiguous ftaves into con¬
tact only at the inner lurface; and in this way, by
driving the hoops hard, he can make a clofer joint
than could be done by floping them from the outer to
the inner fide. In this, perhaps, with giving the pro¬
per curvature to the ftaves, confifts the principal part of
the cooper’s art.
Cooper, Anthony Alfhley, firft earl of Shafteftmry,
a moft able ftatefman, was the {on of Sir John Cooper,
Bart, of Rockburn in Hamplhire, and was bom in
1621. He was eledled member for Tewkefbury, at
19 years of age, in the Ihort parliament that met April
13. 1640. He feems to have been well affefted to the
king’s iervice at the beginning of the civil tvars; for
he repaired to the king at Oxford with offers of afiift-
ance : but Prince Maurice breaking articles to a town
in Dorfetfiure that he had got to receive him,
furnilhed him with a pretence for going over to the •
parliament, from which he accepted a commifiion.
When Richard Cromwell was depofed, and the Rump
came again into power, they nominated Sir Anthony
one of their council of ftate, and a commiflioner for
managing the army. At that very time he had enga¬
ged in a fecret correfpondence for reftoring Charles II»
and, upon the king’s coming over, was frvorn of his
privy council. He was one of the commiffioners for
the trial of the regicides } was foon alter made chan¬
cellor of the exchequer, then a commiflioner of the
treafury j in 1672 was created earl of Shaftefbury ’r
and foon after was raifed to the poll of lord chancel¬
lor. He filled this office with great ability and inte¬
grity j and though the ftiort time he was at the helm
was in a tempefiuous feafon, it is doing him juftice to
fay, nothing could either diftiadl or affright him.
The great feal was taken from him in 1673, 12 months
after his receiving it ; but, though out of office, he fiill
made a diftinguiffied figure in parliament, for it was
not in his nature to remain inaftive. He drew upon
himfelf the implacable hatred of the duke of York, by
fteadily promoting, if not originally inventing, the fa¬
mous project of an exclufion-bilh When his enemies
came into power, he found it neceffary to confult his
lafety, by retiring into Holland, where he died fix'
weeks after his arrival, in 1683. While his great abi¬
lities are confeffed by all, it has been his misfortune
to have his hiftory recorded by his enemies, who ftu-
died to render him odious. Butler has given a very
fevere charadler of him in his Hudibras.
Cooper, Anthony Afhley, earl of Shaftefbury, was
fon of Anthony earl of Shaftefbury, and grandfon cf
Anthony
coo
Anthony firft earl of Shaftefbury, lord high chancel¬
lor of England. He was born in 1671, at Exeter-
houfe in London, where his grandfather lived, who
from the time of his birth conceived fo great an affec¬
tion for him, that he undertook the care of his educa¬
tion ; and he made fo good a progtefs in learning,
that he could read with eafe both the Latin and Greek
languages when only ix years old. In 1683, his fa¬
ther carried him to the fchool at Winchefler, where he
was often infulted on his grandfather’s account, whofe
memory was odious to the zealots for defpotic power :
he therefore prevailed with his father to confent to his
defire of going abroad. After three years ftay abroad,
he returned to England in 1689, and was offered a
feat in parliament in fome of thole boroughs where his
family had an intereft. But this offer he did not now
accept, that he might not be interrupted in the courfe
of his ftudies, which he profecuted five years more
with great vigour and fuccefs j till, on Sir John Tren-
chard’s death, he was elefted burgefs for Pool. Soon
after his coming into parliament, he had an opportu¬
nity given him of expreffing that ipirit of liberty by
which he uniformly diiedled his conduct on all occa-
fions. It was the bringing in and promoting “ the
a£t for regulating trials in cafes of high treafon.”
But the fatigues of attending the hcufe of commons
in a few years fo impaired his health, that he was ob¬
liged to decline coming again into parliament after the
diffolution in 1698. He then went to Holland, where
the converfation of Mr Bayle, M. le Clerc, and Seve¬
ral other learned and ingenious men, induced him to
refide a twrelvemonth. During this time, there was
printed at London, in 8vo, an imperfeft edition of
Lord Alhley’s Inquiry concerning Virtue. It had been
furreptitioufly taken from a rough draught, fketched
when he was no more than 20 years of age. His lord-
fhip, who was greatly chagrined at this event, immedi¬
ately bought up the impreffion before many books were
fold, and fet about completing the treaufe, as it af¬
terwards appeared in the fecond volume of the Charac-
teriftics. Soon after Lord Afhley’s return to Eng¬
land, he became, by the deceafe of his father, earl of
Shaftefbury. But his own private affairs hindered
him from attending the houfe of lords till the fe¬
cond year of his peerage, when he was very earneff
to fupport King William’s meafures, who was at that
time projedfing the grand alliance. So much was he
in favour with King William, that he had the offer of
fecretary of flate j but his declining conllilution would
not allow him to accept of it. 1 hough he was difabled
from engaging in bufinefs, the king confulted him on
matters of very high importance ", and it is pretty in ell
known that he had the greateft fiiare in compofmg that
celebrated laff fpeech of King William, December 31.
1701. On Queen Anne’s acceffion to the throne, he
returned to his retired manner of life, being no longer
advifed with concerning the public ; and \sas then re¬
moved from the vice-admiralty of Dorfet, which had
been in the family for three generations. In *7^3’
made a fecond journey to Holland, and returned to
England the year following. 1 he French prophets,
foon after this, having by their entbufiaflic extravagan¬
cies made a great n©ife throughout the nation, am
among different opinions, fome advifing a profecution,
the lord Shaftefbury apprehended that fuch meaou.es
C 645 ]
coo
tended rather to inflame than to cure the difeafe. This Cooper,
was the origin of his Letter concerning Enthufiafm, v '
which he fent to Lord Somers then prefident of the
council j and which being approved of by that noble¬
man and other gentlemen to whom it was fnown, was
publilhed in 1708, though without the name of the
author, or that of the perlon to whom it was addrtffed.
His Moralift, a philofophical Rhapfody, being a reci¬
tal of certain converfations on natural and moral fub-
jefts, appeared in January 1709 ’ ant^ ^ay
lowing his Senfus Communis, an effay upon the freedom
of Wit and Humour, in a Letter to a Friend. It wSs
in the fame year that he entered into the marriage ftate
with Mrs Jane Ewer, the youngeff daughter of Tho¬
mas Ewer, Efq. of Lee in Hertfordfliire. By this la¬
dy, to whom his lordfhip was related, he had an only
fon, Anthony the late earl of Shaftefbury. In 1710,
his Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author, was publilhed
at London in 8vo. While he was thus employing
himfelf in literary compofition, his health declined fo
faff, that it was recommended to him to feek affifiance
from a warmer climate. Accordingly, in July I711*
he fet out for Naples, and purfuing his journey by way
of France, was obliged to pafs through the duke of
Berwick’s army, which at that time lay encamped neat
the borders of Piedmont. Here he was entertained by
that famous general in the moff friendly manner, and
every affidance was given him to conduft him in lafety
to the duke of Savoy’s dominions. Our noble author’s
removal to Italy was of no fervice to the re-eftablifh-
ment of his health 5 for after having refided at Naples
about a year and a half, he departed this life on the
4th of February, O. S. 1712-13,10 the 42d year of
his age. The only pieces which he finilhed alter he
came to this city, were the Judgment of Hercules,
and the Letter concerning Dtfign, which laft was add¬
ed to that impreffion of the Characteriftics which ap¬
peared m 1732* It was in I'jii that tue fi.il edition
was publilhed of all the Charaflerifhcs together, and
in the order in which they now Hand. But this pub¬
lication not being entirely to his lordlhip’s fatistachon,.
he chiefly employed the latter part of his life in prepa¬
ring his writings for a more elegant edition ; which
was given to the ivorld in 1713’ ^°on after his deceafe.
The feveral prints that were then firft interiperfed
through the volumes were all invented by himfeL, and
defigned under his immediate infpedlion 5 and foi this
puipofe he was at the pains of drawing up a moh ac¬
curate fet of inlfru&ions, the manufeript of which is
ftill preferved in the family. That no miflakes might
be committed, the earl did not leave to any olhei
hands fo much as the drudgery of correaing the prefs.
I11 the three volumes of the Charaflerilfics of nien,.
Manners, Opinions, and Times, he completed the
whole of his works which he intended for the public
eye. Not long before his death he had formed a.
fcheme of writing a difeourfe on painting, feuipture,
and the other arts of defign, which, if he had Lved
to have finilhed it, might have proved a very pleafing
and ufeful work, as he had a fine tafte in fubje^sof that
kind : but his premature deceafe prevented^ his making
any great progrefs in the undertaking. Ike eail of
Shaftefbury had an efteem for the works of the bell
Englith divines-, one remarkable inflance of which was
difplayed in his writing a Preface to a volume of Dr
1 J Whichcola
coo r 646 I coo
^ (“ooper. Whichcot’s Sermons, publifliad in 1698. Copies of
^*Y*~~’thefe fermons had been taken in (hort-hand, as they
were delivered from the pulpit; and the earl had fo
high an opinion of them, that he not only introduced
them to the world by his preface, but had them print¬
ed under his own particular infpeclion. In his Letters
to a Young Man at the univerfity, he fueaks of Bi-
(hop Burnet and Dr Hoadly in terms of great applaufe,
and has done jutfice to the merits of Tillotfon, Bar-
row, Chillingworlh, and Hammond, as the chief pil¬
lars of the church againft fanaticifm. But whatever
regard his lordfhip might have for feme of our divines,
it v;as to the writings of antiquity that his admiration
was principally direfted. Thefe were the conftant ob-
jedls of his ftudy, and from them he formed his fyftem
of philofophy, w'hich wTas of the civil, facial, and
theiftic kind.
Of Lord Shaftefbury’s characfer, as a waiter, differ¬
ent accounts have been given. As one of his greatefl
admirers, may be mentioned Lord Moriboddo; who,
fpeaking of his Rhapfodift in particular, does not hefi-
tate to pronounce it not only the beft dialogue in Eng-
lifh, out of all degree of comparifon, but the fublimeft
philofophy : and, if we will join wdth it the Inquiry,
the completed fyftem both of morality and theology,
that we have in our language, and, at the fame time,
of the greateft beauty and elegance for the ftyle and
compofttion.
Even feveral of the authors who have diftinguiftied
therafelves by their direfl oppofition to many of the
fentiments which occur in the Charafteriftics, have ne-
verthelefs mixed no fmall degree of applaufe with their
cenfures. “ I have again perufed, with frefti pleafure
and frefir concern (fays Mr Balguy, in his Letter to a
Deift), the volumes of Chara&eriftics—-I heartily wifti
the noble author had been as unprejudiced in writing
as I was in reading. If he had, I am perfuaded his
readers wrould have found double pleafure and double
inftruftion. It feems to me, that his lordfhip had little
or no temptation to purfue any Angularities of opi¬
nion by way of diftiruSHon. His fine genius would fuf-
ficiently have diftinguifhed him from vulgar authors in
the high road of truth and fenfe ; on which account
his deviations feem the more to be lamented. The pu¬
rity and politenefs of his ftyle, and the delicacy of his
lentiments, are and muft be acknowledged by all read¬
ers of tafte and fincerity. But neverthelefs, as his beau¬
ties are not eafy to be overlooked, fo neither are his
blemifhes. His works appear to be ftained wdth fo
many grofs errors, and his fine thoughts are fo often
mingled with abfurdities, that however wre may be
charmed with the one, we are forced to condemn the
other.” Mr Balguy hath farther obferved, with re¬
gard to the Inquiry concerning Virtue, which is the
imrtoediate objeft of his animadverfion, that though he
cannot agree in every particular contained in it, he
finds little more to do than to tell how much he ad¬
mires ; and that he thinks it indeed, in the main, a
performance fo juft and exaft as to deferve higher prai-
fes than he is able to give it.
Dr Brown, in his efiay on the Chara&eriftics, ob-
ferves that the earl of Shaftefbury hath in that per¬
formance mingled beauties and blots, faults and ex¬
cellencies, with a liberal and unfparing hand. At the
fame time, the do£Ior applauds that generous fpirit of
freedom which flrir.es throughout the whole. Another (W*
direft antagonift of the earl of Shaftefhury, Dr Le.V^
land, has obferved, that no impartial man will deny
him the praife of a fine genius. ' 44 The quality of the
writer (continues the doftor), his lively and beautiful
imagination, the delicacy of tafte he hath fhown in
many inftances, and the graces and embelHfhments of
his ftyle, though perhaps fometimes too affesfted, have
procured him many admirers. To which may be add¬
ed his refined fentiments on the beauty and excellency
of virtue, and that he hath often fpoken honourably of
a juft and good Providence, which minifters and go¬
verns the whole in the beft manner; and hath ftrong-
ly afierted, in oppofition to Mr Hobbes, the natural
difference between good and evil; and that man was
originally formed for fociety, and the exercife of mu¬
tual kindnefs and benevolence ; and not only fo, but
for religion and piety too. Thefe things have very
much prejudiced many peifons in his favour, and pre-
pared them for receiving, almoft implicitly, whatever
he hath advanced.” Dr Johnfon, as we are informed
by Sir John Hawkjns, bore no good-will to Lord
Shaftefbury ; neither did he feem at all to relifh the
cant of the Shaftefburian fchool, nor inclined to admit
the pretenfions of thofe who profeffed it, to taftes and
perceptions which are not common to all men ; a tafte
in morals, in poetry and profe writing, in painting, in
fculpture, in mufic, in archlte&ure, and in government!
A tafte that cenfured every produftion, and induced
them to reprobate every effort of genius that fell (hart
of their own capricious ftandard.
The grand point in which our noble author has ren-Bug. M
dered himfelf juftly obnoxious to the friends of reli-'Alv.
g*on, is his having interfperfed through the Charafte-
riftics a number of infinuations that appear to be unfa¬
vourable to the caufe of revelation. There have not
however been wanting many among his admirers, who
have thought that he ought not to be reckoned among
the deiftical writers. The author of animadverfions
upon Dr Brown’s three ElTays on the Charafteriftics,
obferves, that it is “ imprudent, to fay no worfe, in
fome fincere advocates for Chriftianity, to rejeft the
friendly advice and afliftance of fo mafterly a writer as
the lord Shaftefbury, and to give him up to the Ddfts
as a patron of infidelity.” But it is matter of faff,
and not confiderstions of prudence or imprudence, that
muft determine the queftion. In fupport of his lord-
fhip’s having been a believer in our holy religion, may
be alleged, his Preface to Whichcot’s Sermons, and his
Letters to a Student at the univerfity : in both which
works he conftantly expreffes himfelf in fuch language
as feems to indicate that he was really a Chriftian.
And with regard to the letters, it may be remarked,
that they were written in 1707, 1708, and 1709,1101
many years before his lordfiiip’s death. Neverthelefs,
there are in tire Chara&eriftics fo many fceptical paf-
fages, that he mull be confidered as having been a
doubter at lead, if not an abfolute dilbeliever, with
refpefl to revelation. But if he muft be ranked a-
mong the Delfts, we agree with the obfervation of
one of his biographers, that he is a very different Deift:
from numbers who have appeared in "that character;
his general principles being much lefs exceptionable.
The ftyle of Lord Shaftefbury’s ccmpofitions is alfo
a point upon which various and contradiftory fenti*
ments
COO C 647 ] i COP
Cooper, merits, have been.entertained. Bat for the fulleft and granted by King Henry VIII. to William Cooper, one Cooper
T""""’’ mott judicious criticiftn that has appeared upon that of his anceftors. This manfion Mr Cooper inherited II.,
fubjeit, we may. refer t ie reader to Dr Blair’s Lee- from his father, who in 1739 was high fheriff of the ■
tures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, vol. i. p. 192, county 3 and tranfmitted it to his fon, who filled the
*931 207> 234. 263, and 396—39S. fame refpe&able office in 1783. After paffing through
Cooper, Samuel, a very eminent Eagliffi miniature Weftminfter fchool under Dr John Nicoll, along with
painter, born in 1609, and bred under the care of the late Lord Albemarle, Lord Buckinghamffiire, Ma-
his uncle John Holkins. He derived, however, his jor Johnfon, Mr George Afhby, and many other emi-
principal excellence from the uudy of the works of Van- nent and ingenious men, he became in 1743 a fellow-
dyck, in whole time he lived j infomuch that he was commoner of Trinity-college, Cambridge, and refided
commonly fly led “ Vandyck in little.” His pencil was there two or three years 3 but quitted the univerfity
chiefly confined to the head, in which, with all its de- on his marriage with Sufanna the daughter of William
pendencies, efpecially the hair, he was inimitable 3 but Wrighte, Efq. fon to the lord keeper of that name,
if he defeended lower his incorreftnefs was notorious, and recorder of Leicefter 1729—1763. In the year
He died in 16723 and his pieces, arc univerfa.lly ad- 1745 he commenced author by the publication of The
mired all over Europe, felling for incredible prices.— Power of Harmony, a poem in 410 5 and in 1746 and
He had a brother, Alexander, likewife a good minia- *747 produced leveral Eflays and Poems under the
tore painter, who became limner to Chnitina queen fignature of Philalethes, in a periodical wrork called
of Sweden. . . publiffied by Mr Dodfley. In the fame-
Cooper, Thomas, a pious and learned prelate in year he came forward as an author, with his name, by'
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Oxford a- a work which received much affiflance from his friend
bout the year 1517. He was educated in the fchool the Reverend John Jackfon of Leicefter, who commu-
a.djoimng to Magdalene college, of which he was a cho- nicated feveral learned notes, in which he contrived to
niter, where al.lo, m 1539, he was elected probation- manifeft his dillike to his formidable antagonift Mr
er, and fellow in the following year. About the year Warburton. It was entitled The Life of Socrates,
r546, quitting his fellowffiip, he applied himfelf to the coMed from the Memorabilia of Xenophon, and the
ftudy of phyfic, in 1556 took the degree of bachelor in Dialogues of Plato, and illuftrated farther by Ari-
that faculty, and praftifed as phyfician at Oxford. Be- ftotle, Diodorus Siculus, Cicero, Proclus, Apuleius,
mg inclined to the Proteftant religion, probably this Maximus Tyrius, Boethius, Diogenes Laertius, Au-
was. only a prudent fufpenibn of his final intentions lus Gellius, and others: 1749, 8va. In this work Mr
during the popifii re>gn of Queen Mary 3 for, on the Cooper gave evident marks of fuperior genius} warm,
acceliion of Elizabeth, he refumed the ftudy of divini- impetuous, and impatient of reftraint. In 1754, Mr
ty, became a celebrated preacher, was made dean of Cooper publilhed his Letters on Tafte, 8vo; an ele-
Chnft church, and vice-chancellor of the univerfity, gant little volume, on which no fmall (hare of his re-
havmg accumulated the degrees of bachelor and doc- putation is founded 3 and in 17^5, The Tomb of
tor in divinity. In 1569 he was made dean of Glouce- Shake.fpeare, a Vifion, 4to 3 a decent performance, but
Ler; and, tne year following, biQiopot Lincoln : whence, in which there is more of wit and application than of
in 1584, he was tranftated to the fee of Winchefter, nature or genius. In I756 he affifted Mr Moore, by
in which city he died on the 28th of April 1594, and writing fome numbers of the World 3 and attempted
was buried in the cathedral there, on the fouth fide of to roufe the indignation of his countrymen againft the
the choir. The. feveral writers who have mentioned Heffians, at that junflure brought over to defend the
Dr Cooper, unammoufiy gave him the character of an nation, in a poem called the Genius of Britain, ad-
eloquent preacher, a learned divine, and a good mar. drdL-d to Mr Pitt. In 1758, he publiffied Epiftles to
He had the misfortune, while at Oxford, to marry a the Great, from Ariftippus in Retirement, 4to 3 and
lady whofe gallantries became notorious : neverfhdefs The Call of Ariftipnus, Epiftle IV. to Mark Akenfide,
he would not be divorced from her 3 knowing that he M. D. Alfo, A Father’s Advice to his fon, in 4to!
could not.live without a wife, he did not choofe “ to In the Annual Regifter of the fame year is his Tranlla-
charge his confcience with the fcandal of a fecond tion of an Epiftle from the King of Pruffia to Monfieur
marriage.”—He wrote, 1. The Epitome of Chronicles Voltaire. In 1759, he publilhed Ver Vert 3 or the
.om t^e 17th year afeer Chnft to 1540, and thence Nunnery Parrot 3 an Heroic Poem, in four cantos, in-
after.to 1560.. 2. Thefaurus lingua Romance et Bri- feribed to the Abbefs of D*** 3 tranflated from the
tanmece. This diiftionary, which is an improvement French of Monfieur Greffet, 410 3 reprinted in the firft
upon Elyot’s, was much admired by Queen Elizabeth,, volume of Dilly’s Repofitory, 17775 and, in 1764,
who thenceforward determined to promote the au- Poems on feveral fubje&s, by the Author of the Life
tnor. 3. A brief expofition of fuch chapters of the of Socrates; with a prefatory Advertifement by Mr
Old Teftament as ufually are read in the church, at Dodftey. In this little volume were included all the
common prayer, on Sundays throughout the year, feparate poetical pieces which have been already men-
4- An admonition to the people of England. 3. Ser- tioned, excepting Ver Vert, which is a fprightly com-
nj0r^s' . _ pofition. Mr Cooper died at his father’s houfe in
Cooper, John Gilbert, a polite modern writer. May Fair,, after a long and excruciating iftnefs ari-
was born. in. 1723 ; and was defeended from an an- ling from the ftone, April 14th 1769.
cient family in the county of Nottingham, whofe for- CO-ORDINATE, fomething of equal order, rank,,
tune was injured in the laft century by their at- or degree with another.
tachment to the principles of monarchy. He refided; COOT. See Fulica, Ornithology Index.
at Thurgarton priory in Nottinghamffiire, which was COPAIBA, or B a If am of Copaiba, a liquid refi-
wonsfc
Copaiba
Copenha-
gen.
COP [ 64B ] COP
nous juice, flowing from incifions made m tlie trunk
of the copaifera balfamum. See Materia Medjca
Index.
COPAIFERA, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the decandria clafs. See Botany Index.
COPAL, improperly called copal, is a gum of
the relinous kind brought from New Spain, being the
concrete juice of the Rhus Copallinum. It is employed as
a varnifh. See Varnishing and Chemistry Index.
COPARCENARY, the (hare or quota of a copar¬
cener.
COPARCENERS, (from con and particeps, “ part¬
ner or Parceners •, fuch as have equal portions
in the inheritance of their anceftor.
Coparceners are fo either by law or cuftom. Co¬
parceners by law, are the iffue female ; which, in de¬
fault of a male or heir, come equally to the lands of
their anceftors. Coparceners by cufiom, are thofe
who, by fome peculiar cuftom of the country, chal¬
lenge equal parts in fuch lands ; as in Kent, by the
cufiom of gavelkind. The crown of England is not
fubje61 to coparcenary.
COPE, an ecclefaftical ornament, ufually worn
by chanters and fubchanters, when they officiate in
folemnity. It reaches from the (houlders to the feet.
The ancients called it Rluviale.— The word is alfo ufed
for the roof or covering of a houfe, &c.
Cope is alfo the name of an ancient cufiom or tri¬
bute due to the king or lord of the foil, out of the
lead mines in fome part of Derbyfhire j of which Man-
love faith thus:
Egrefs and regrefs to the king’s highway,
The miners have ; and lot and cope they pay $
The thirteenth difh of ore within their mine,
To the lord for lot, they pay at meafuring time 5
Sixpence a load for cope the lord demands,
And that is paid to the burghmajler's hands.
This wrord by Doomfday-book, as Mr Hagar hath in¬
terpreted it, fignifies a hill: and cope is taken for the
fupreme cover, as the cope of heaven.
COPEL. See Cupel.
COPENHAGEN, the capital of the kingdom of
Denmark, fituated on the eaftern fhore of the ifland of
Zealand, upon a fine bay of the Baltic fea, not far
from the ftrait called the Sound. E. Long. 13. o. N.
Lat. 55. 3o;
The precife date of the foundation of this city is dif-
puted ; but the mod probable account is, that it took
its rife from a caftle built on the fpot in the year 1168,
as a protedlion againft the pirates which at that time
fwarmed in the Baltic. The conveniency of the fitua-
tion, and the fecurity afforded by the cafllc, foon in¬
duced a number of the inhabitants of Zealand to refort
thither : but it was not diflinguifhed by the royal refi-
dence until 1443, during the reign of Chriftopher of
Bavaria ; fince which period it has been gradually en¬
larged and beautified, and is become the capital of
Denmark.
Copenhagen is the bed built city of the north 5 for
although Peterfburgh excels it in fuperb edifices, yet,
as it contains no wooden houfes, it does not difplay
that driking contrad of meannefs and magnificence;
but in general exhibits a more equable and uniform ap¬
pearance. The town is furrounded towards the land
with regular ramparts and badions, a broad ditch full Copsnlis.
of water, and a few outworks, its circumference ge»
meafures between four and five miles. The dreets are „ H.
well paved, with a foot-way on each fide, but too nar- V0Per^ICUS'
row and inconvenient for general ufe. The greated
part of the buildings are of brick; and a few are of
free done brought from Germany. T he houfes of the
nobility are in general fplendid, and condrufted in the
Italian dyle of archite£ture : the palace, which was
erefted by Chridian VI. is a large pile of building;
the front is of done, and the wings of brick du.c-
cocd; the fuite of apartments is princely ; but the
external appearance is more grand than elegant.
The bufy fpirit of commerce is vifibfe in this city,
which contains about 80,coo inhabitants. The haven
is always crowded with merchant (hips : and the dreets
are interfered by broad canals, which bring the mer-
chandife clofe to the vvareheufes that Jine the quays.
This city owes its principal beauty to a dreadful fire in
1728, that dedroyed five churches and 67 dreets, which
have been fince rebuilt in the modern dyle. The new
part of the town, railed by the late king Frederic V.
is extremely beautiful, fcarcely inferior to Bath. It
confids of an oflagon, containing four uniform and
elegant buildings of hewn done, and of four broad
dreets leading to it in oppofite direftions. In the
middle of the area dands an equedrian datue of Fre¬
deric V. in bronze, as big as life, which cod 80,cool.
The Royal Mufeum, or Cabinet of Rarities, merits
the attention of travellers. This colle&ion, which
was begun by Frederic III. is depofited in eight apart¬
ments, and ranged in the following order: animals,
fhells, minerals, paintings, antiquities, medals, dreffes,
arms and implements of the Laplanders.
Part of Copenhagen, which is called Chrijlianjhafen,
is built upon the ille of Amak, which generally at¬
tracts the curiofity of foreigners; (fee Amak). From
this place, to which the main city is joined by a
bridge, the markets are fupplied with fowl, beef, mut¬
ton, venifon, corn, and culinary vegetables, which are
produced here in the greated abundance.
COPERNICAN, in general, fomething belonging
to Coternicus. FIcnce
Coternican Syjlem or Hypothecs, that fyfiem ©f the
world wherein the fun is fuppofed to red in the cen¬
tre, and the planets, with the earth, to move in eliip-
fes round him. See Copernicus.
COPERNICUS, Nicolaus, an eminent adronomer,
was born at Thorn in Pruffia, Jan. ic. 1472. He
"was taught the Latin and Greek languages at home ;
and afterwards fent to Cracovia, where he dudied
philofophy and phyfic. His genius in the mean time
was naturally turned to mathematics, which he pur-
(ued through all its various branches. He fet out for
Italy when he wras 23 years of age ; but daid at Bo-
nonia fome time, for the fake of being with the cele¬
brated adronomer of that place, Dominicus Maria:
vhofe converfation, however, and company, he affeCI-
ed, not fo much as a learner, as an affifiant to him in
making his obfervations. From thence he paffed to
Rome, where he was no fooner arrived than he was
confidered as not inferior to the famous Regiomonta¬
nus ; and acquired, in diort, fq great a reputation, that
he was chofen profeffor of mathematics, which he
taught for a long time with great applaufe. He alio
COP
[ 649 ]
COP
Copernicus made fame agronomical obfervations there about the
u* v — 'year 1500. Returning to his own country fome years
after, he began to apply his vaft knowledge in mathe¬
matics to correft the fyftem of aftronomy which then
prevailed. He fet himfelf to colled: all the books
which had been written by philofophers and aftrono-
rners, and to examine all the various hypothefes they
had invented for the folution of the celeftial pheno¬
mena, to try if a more fymmetrical order and confti-
tulion of the parts of the world could not be difeover-
ed, and a more juft and exquiftte harmony in its mo¬
tions eftablifhed, than what the aftronomers of thofe
times fo eaftly admitted. But of all their hypothefes
none pleafed him fo well as the Pythagorean, which
made the fun to be the centre of the fyftem, and fup-
pofed the earth to move not only round the fun, but
round its own axis allb. He thought he difeerned much
beautiful order and proportion in this j and that all
that embarralTment and perplexity from epicycles and
excentrics, which attended the Ptolemaic hypothefis,
would here be entirely removed.
This fyftem, then, he began to conftder, and to write
upon, when he was about 35 years of age. He em¬
ployed himfelf in contemplating the phenomena care¬
fully ; in making mathematical calculations; in exa¬
mining the obfervations of the ancients, and in making
new ones of his own 5 and after more than 20 years
chiefly fpent in this manner, he brought his fcherne to
perfection, and eftabliftied that fyftem of the world
which goes by his name, and is now univerfally re¬
ceived, (fee Astronomy Index}. His fyftem, how-
ever^ was then looked upon as a moft dangerous here-
fy \ for which he was thrown into ’prifon by Pope
Urban VIIl. and not fuffered to come out till he had
recanted his opinion; that is, till he had renounced
the teftimony of his fenfes. He died the 24th of May
1543, in the 70th year of his age.
This extraordinary man had been made canon of
Worms by his mother’s brother, Lucas Wazelrodius,
who was biftrop of that place. He was not only the
greateft of aftronomers, but a pert'eft mafter of the
Greek and Latin tongues; to all which he joined the
greateft piety and innocence of manners.
The following is the account of the difeoveries of
Copernicus by Dr Smith, in his EJfays on Phi/o/ophical
SubjeEis.
“ The confufion (fays Dr Smith) in which the old
hypothefis reprefented the heavenly bodies, was, as Cor-
pernicus himfelf tells us, what firft fuggefted to him the
defign of forming a new fyftem, that thefe, the nobleft
works of nature, might no longer appear devoid of that
harmony and proportion which difeover themfelves in
her meanefl: produfHons. What moft of all diflatisfied
him was, the notion of the equalizing circle, which, by
reprefenting the revolutions of the celeftiad fpheres as
equable only when furveyed from a point that was dif¬
ferent from their centres, introduced a real inequality
into their motions; contrary to that moft natural, and
indeed fundamental idea, with which all the authors of
aftronomical fyftems, Plato, Eudoxus, Ariftotle, even
Hipparchus and Ptolemy themfelves, had hitherto fet
out, that the real motions of fuch beautiful and divine
objefts muft necefiarily be perfectly regular, and go on
in a manner as agreeable to the imagination as the ob-
jefts themfelves are to the fenfes. He began to con-
Vol. VI. Part II.
fider, therefore, whether, by fuppofing the heavenly Copernicus,
bodies to be arranged in a different order from that in
which Ariftotle and Hipparchus had placed them, this
fo much fought for uniformity might not be beftowed
upon their motions. To difeover this arrangement
he examined all the obfeure traditions delivered down
to us, concerning every other hypothefis which the
ancients had invented for the fame purpofe. He
found, in Plutarch, that fome Pythagoreans had repre¬
fented the earth as revolving in the centre of the uni-
verfe, like a wheel round its own axis ; and that others,
of the fame fe£I had removed it from the centre, and
reprefented it as revolving in the ecliptic like a ftar
round the central fire. By this central fire he fuppo-
fed they meant the fun; and though in this he was
very widely miftaken, it was, it feems, upon this in¬
terpretation that he began to confider how fuch an hy¬
pothefis might be made to correfpond to the appear¬
ances. The fuppofed authority of thofe old philofo¬
phers, if it did not originally fuggeft to him his fyftem,
feems at leaft to have confirmed him in an opinion
which, it is not improbable, he had beforehand other
reafons for embracing, notwithftanding what he himfelf
would affirm to the contrary.
“ It then occurred to him, that if the earth was fup¬
pofed to revolve every day round its axis, from weft to
eaft, all the heavenly bodies rvould appear to revolve,
in a contrary dire&ion, from eaft to weft. The diurnal
revolution of the heavens, upon this hypothefis, might
be only apparent ; the firmament, which has no other
fenfible motion, might be perfeftly at reft; while the
fun, the moon, and the five planets, might have no
Other movement befide that eaftward revolution which
is peculiar to themfelves. That, by fuppofing the
earth to revolve with the planets round the fun, in an
orbit, which comprehended within it the orbits of Ve¬
nus and Mercury, but was comprehended within thofe
of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, he could, without the
embarraffnent of epicycles, conneft together the appa¬
rent annual revolutions of the fun, and the diredi, re¬
trograde, and fiationary appearances of the planets;
that while the earth really revolved round the fun on
one fide of the heavens, the fun would appear to re¬
volve round the earth on the other ; that while (he
really advanced in her annual courfe, he would appear
to advance eaftward in that movement which is peculiar
to himfelf. That, by fuppofing the axis of the earth
to be always parallel to itfelf, not to be quite perpen¬
dicular, but fomewhat inclined to the plane of her or¬
bit, and confequently to prefent to the fun the one
pole when on the one fide of him, and the other when
on the other, he would account for the obliquity of the
ecliptic ; the fun’s feemingly alternate progreffion from
north to fouth, and from fouth to north; the confequent
-change of the feafons, and different lengths of days and
nights in the different feafons.
“ If this new hypothefis thus connecied together all
thefe appearances as happily as that of Ptolemy, there
were others which it connefted together much better.
The three fuperior planets, when nearly in conjunftion
with the fun, appear always at the greateft diftance from
the earth ; are fmalleft, and leaft: fenfible to the eye ; and
feem to revolve forward in their direft motion with the
greateft rapidity. On the contrary, when in oppofi-
tion to the fun, that is, when in their meridian about
4 N midnight.
COP
fopermcHs. midnight, they appear neareft the earth, are larged, and
v,-~V—' mod fenfible to the eye, and feem to revolve backwards
in their retrograde motion. To explain thefe appear¬
ances, the fyftem of Ptolemy fuppofed each of thefe
planets to be at the upper part of their feveral epicy¬
cles in the one cafe, and at the lower in the other.
But it afforded no fatisfa&ory principle of connexion,
which could lead the mind eafiiy to conceive how the
epicycles of thofe planets, whofe fpheres wrere fo diftant
from the fphere of the fun, fhould thus, if one may fay
fo, keep time to his motion. The fyftetn of Coperni¬
cus afforded this eafiiy j and like a more fimple machine,
without the alManee of epicycles, connefted together,
by fewer movements, the complex appearances of the
heavens. When the fuperior planets appear nearly in
conjun&ion with the fun, they are then in the fide of
their orbits, which is almofi oppofite to, and moft di-
flant from, the earth, and therefore appear fmalleft and
lead fenfible to the eye. But as they then revolve in
a direction which is aimed contrary to that of the
earth, they appear to advance forward with double ve¬
locity; as a Ihip that fails in a contrary diredtion to
another, appears from that other to fail both with its
own velocity and the velocity of that from which it is
feen. On the contrary, when thofe planets are in op-
pofition to the fun, they are on the fane fide of the fun
with the earth, are neared it, mod fenfible to the eye,
and revolv e in the fame diredlion with it; but as their
revolutions round the fun are dower than that of the
.earth, they are neceffarily left behind by it, and there¬
fore feem to revolve backwards ; as a (hip which fails
dower than another, though it fails in the fame direc¬
tion, appears from that other to fail backwards. After
the fame manner, by the fame annual revolution of the
earth, he connefled together the direct and retrograde
motions of the two inferior planets, as well as the da-
ionary appearances of all the five.
“ Thus far did this new account of things render the
appearances of the heavens more completely coherent
than had been .done by any of the former fydems. It
did this, too, by a more fimple and intelligible, as well
as more beautiful machinery. It reprefented the fun,
the great enlightener of the unfverfe, whofe body was
alone larger than all the planets taken together, as eda-
blidied immoveable in the centre, diedding light and
heat on all the worlds that circulated around him in
one uniform direction, but in longer or drorter periods
according to their different didances. It took away
the diurnal revolution of the firmament, whofe rapidity,
vjpon the old hypothefis, was beyond what even thought
could conceive. It not only delivered the imagination
from the embarraffment of epicycles, but from the diffi¬
culty of conceiving thefe two oppofite motions going
on at the fame time, which the fydem of Ptolemy and
Aridotle bedowed upon all the planets; I mean, their
diurnal weftwstrd, and periodical eadward revolutions.
The earth’s revolution round its own axis took away
the neceffity for fuppofing the fird, and the fecond was
eafiiy conceived when by itfelf. The five planets, which
feem, upon all other fydems, to be objedls of a fpecies
by themfelves, unlike to every thing to which the ima¬
gination has been accudomed, when fuppofed to revolve
along with the earth round the fun, were naturally ap¬
prehended to be objefts of the fame kind with the earth,
habitable, opaque, and enlightened only by thg rays of
COP
the fun. And thus this hypothefis, by claffing them in Copemic
the fame fpecies of things', with an objesd that is of all fophti
others the mod familiar to us, took off that wonder and*'’—^
uncertainty which the drangenefs and fingula.ity of
their appearance had excited ; and thus far, too, better
anfwered the great end of philofophy.
“ Neither did the beauty and fimplicity of this fyfteiu
alone recommend it to the imagination ; the novelty
and unexpedtednefs of that view of nature which it
opened to the fancy, excited more wonder and furprife
than the dranged of thofe appearances, which it had
been invented to render natural and familiar, and thefe
fentiments dill more endeared it. For though it is the
end of philofophy to allay that wonder which either the
unufual or feemingly disjointed appearances of nature
excite, yet (he never triumphs fo much as when, in or¬
der to conneft together a few, in themfelves perhaps
inconfiderable objedls, (lie has, if I may fay fo, created
another conditution ol things, more natural indeed, and
fuch as the imagination can mere eafiiy attend to, but
more new, more contrary to common opinion and ex¬
pectation, than any of thofe appearances themfelves.
As in the indance before us, in order to conaeCt to¬
gether fome feeming irregularities in the motions of
the planets, the mod inconfiderable objeCls in the
heavens, and of which the greater part of mankind
have no occafion to take any notice during the whole
courfe of their lives, die has, to talk in the hyperbo¬
lical language of Tycho Brahe, moved the earth from
its foundations, dopt the revolution of the firmament,
made the fun dand dill, and fubverted the whole order
of the univerfe.
“ Such were the advantages of this new hypothefis,
as they appeared to its author when he fird invented it.
But though that love of paradox, fo natural to the
learned, and that pleafure which they are fo apt to take
in exciting, by the novelty of their fuppofed difeoveries,
the amazement of mankind, may, notwithdanding what
one of his difciples tells us to the contrary, have had
its weight in prompting Copernicus to adopt this fyf-
tem ; yet when he had completed his Treatife of Re¬
volutions, and began coolly to confider what a drange
doClrine he was about to offer to the world, he fo
much dreaded the prejudice of mankind againd it,
that, by a fpecies of continence of all others the mod
difficult to a philofopher, he detained it in his clofet
for thirty years together. At lad, in the extremity
of old age, he allowed it to be extorted from him,
but died as foon as it was printed, and before it was
publilhed.”
Copernicus, the name of an adronomical indru-
ment, invented by Mr Whidon, to exhibit the motion
and phenomena of the planets, both primary and ie-
condary. It is built upon the Copernican fydem, and
for that reafon called by his name.
COPHTI, Cophts, or Copti, a name given to
the Chridians of Egypt, who are of the fed of Jaco-
bites.
The critics are extremely divided about the origin
and orthography of the word ; fome write it Cophti,
others Cophtites, Cophtitm, Copts, &c. Scaliger de¬
rives the name from Coptos, an anciently celebrated
town of Egypt, the metropolis of the Thebaid. Kir-
cher refutes this opinion, and maintains, that the word
originally fignifies “ cut” and “ cijrcumfcnbed and
t 65° 1
COP [ 65
it !ti. was given thefe people by tUe Mahometans, by way of
- ■—1 reproach, bpcaufe of tkeir pra&ice of circumcifing :
but P. Sollier, another Jeluit, refutes this opinion.
Scaliger afterwards changed his opinion, and derived
the word from Aryvwjac, the ancient name ©f Egypt,
by retrenching the firft fyllable : but this opinion, too,
P. Sollier difputes. John de Leo and others fay, that
the Egyptians anciently called their cowntry Elchibth^
or Cibth, from Cibih their fird king, whence Cophtite,
See. others fay from Cobtim fecond king of Egypt*
Vanfleb derives the word Copht from Copt, fon of
Mifraim, grandfon of Noah. All thefe etymologies
P. Sollier reje£b, on this principle, that were they true,
the Egyptians ought all equally to be called Cophti;
whereas, in effeft, none but the Chriflians, and among
thofe none but the Jacobites, bear the name, the Mei-
chites not being comprehended under it. Hence he
xhoofes to derive the word from the name Jacobite,
retrenching the firft fyllable 5 whence Cobite, Cobea,
Copta, and Cophta.
The Cophts have a patriarch who refides at Cairo,
but he tekes his title from Alexandria : he has no
arebbithop under him, but 11 or 12 biftiops. The
red of the clergy, whether fecular or regular, is com-
pofed of the orders of St Anthony, St Paul, and St
Macarius, who have each their monafteries. Befides
the orders of priefts, deacons, and fubdeacons, the
Cophts have likewife archimandrites, the dignity
whereof they confer with all the prayers and ceremo¬
nies of a ftritl ordination. This makes a confiderable
difference among the priefts $ and befides the rank
and authority it gives them with regard to the religi¬
ous, it comprehends the degree and fun&ions of arch-
priefts. By a cuftom of 600 years ftanding, if a prieft
eledled biftiop be not already archimandrite, that dig¬
nity muft be conferred on him before epifcopal ordi¬
nation. The fecond perfon among the clergy, after
the patriarch, is the titular patriarch'of Jerufalem, who
alfo refides at Cairo, beCaufe of the few Cophts at Jeru-
falem *, he is, in effeft, little more than the bifhop of
Cairo : only he goes to Jerufalem every Eafter, and vi-
fits fome other places in Paleftine near Egypt, which
•own his jnrifdiftion. To him belongs the government
of the Cophtic church, during the vacancy of the pa¬
triarchal feb.
To be ele&ed patriarch, it is neceffary the perfon
have lived all his life in continence j it is he confers
the bilhoprics. To be eledled biftiop, the perfon muft
he in the celibate; or, if he has been married, it
muft: not be above once. The priefts and inferior mi-
nifters are allowed to be married before ordination ;
but are not obliged to it, as Ludolphus erroneoufly
tobferves. They have a great number of deacons, and
even confer the dignity frequently on children. None
but the loweft rank among the people commence ec-
clefiaftics ; whence arifes that exceffive ignorance found
among them; yet the refpeft of the laity towards
the clergy is very extraordinary. Their office is longer
than the Roman ©ffiee, and never changes in any
thing : they have three liturgies, which they vary occa-
lionally.
The monaftic life is in great efteem among the
Cophts: to be admitted into it, there is always re-
•quired the confent of the bifhop. The religious
Cophts make a vow of perpetual chaflity ; renounce
1 ] COP
the world, and live with great aufterity in deferts: Cophti,
they are obliged to fleep in their clothes and their, Cophtk.
girdle, on a mat ftretched on the ground; and to
proftrate themfelves every evening 150 times, with
their face and breaft on the ground. They are all
both men and women, of the loweft clafs of the people ;
and live on alms. The nunneries are properly hofpitals ;
and few enter but widows reduced to beggary.
F. Roderic reduces the errors and opinions of the
Cophts to the following heads: 1. That they put away
their wives,, and efpoufe others while the firft are
living. 2. That they have feven facraments, viz. bap-
Ufm, the eucharift, confirmation, ordination, faith, fatt¬
ing, and prayer. 3. That they deny the Holy Spirit to
proceed from the Son. 4. That they only allow of three
oecumenical councils; thofe of Nice, Conftantinople,
and Ephefus, 5. That they only allow of one nature,
will, and operation, in Jefus Chrift, after the union of
the humanity with the divinity. For their errors in
difeipline, they may be reduced, 1. To the pra&ice
of circumcifing their children before baptifm, which
has obtained among them from the 12th century.
2. To their ordaining deacons at five years of age.
3. To their allowing of marriage in the iecond degree.
4. To their forbearing to eat blood ; to which ibrae
add their belief of a baptifm by fire, which they confer
by applying a hot iron to their forehead or cheeks*
—Others palliate thefe errors, and ftiow that many of
them are rather abufes of particular perfons than
doctrines of the fe£L This feems to be the cafe with
regard to their polygamy, eating of blood, marrying
in the fecond degree, and the baptifm of fire ; for cir-
cumcifion, it is not praftifed as a ceremony of reli¬
gion, nor as of any divine appointment, but merely
as a cuftom, which they derive from the IflimaeL
ites ; and which, perhaps, may have had its origin
from a view to health and decency in thofe hot coun¬
tries.
The Cophts, at different times, have made feveral
reunions with the Latins; but always in appearance
only, and under fome neceflity of their affairs. In the
time of Pope Paul IV. a Syrian wras difpatched to
Rome from the patriarch of Alexandria, with letters to
that pope ; wherein he acknowledged his authority, and
promifed obedience ; defiring a perfon might be dif¬
patched to Alexandria ; to treat about a reunion of hi*
church to that of Rome ; purfuant to which, Pius IV.
fucceffor to Paul, chofe F. Roderic, a Jefuit, whom he
difpatched in 1561, in quality of apoftolical nuncio.
But the Jefuit, upon a conference with two Cophts de¬
puted for that purpofe by the patriarch, was made to
know, that the titles of father of fathers, paftor of paf-
tors, and mafter of all churches, which the patriarch
had beftoWed on the pope in his letters, were no more
than mere matters of civility and compliment ; and that
it was in this manner the patriarch ufed to write to his
friends: they added, that fince the council of Chalce-
don, and the eftablifhment of feveral patriarchs indepen¬
dent of one another, each was chief and mafter of his
own church. This was the anfwer the patriarch gave
the pope, after he had received a fum of money remit¬
ted to him from Rome, by the hands of the Venetian
conful.
COPHTIC, or Coptic, the language of the Cophts,
the ancient language of the Egyptians, mixed with
4 N 2 a
COP [6
Cophtic a great deal of Greek, the chara&ers it is written in
jj. being all Greek. It has a form and conftruftion pecu-
. liar to itfelf: it has no inflexions of the nouns or verbs;
but expreiTes number, cafe, gender, perfon, mood, tenfe,
and poiYefiive pronouns, by letters and particles pre¬
fixed.
F. Kircher is the firil v/ho publifhed a grammar and
vocabulary of the Cophtic. There is not known any
book extant in the Cophtic, except tranflations of the
Holy Scriptures, or of ecclefiaftical offices; or others
that have relation thereto, as dictionaries, &c.
The ancient Cophtic is now no longer found but
in books; the language now ufed throughout the
country is Arabic. The old Cophtic, which Kircher
maintains to be a mother-tongue, and independent of
all others, had been much altered by the Greeks : for
belides that it has borrowed all its characters from the
Greek, with a very little variation, a great number of
the words are pure Greek. Voffims, indeed, aflerts,
that there was no Cophlic language till after Egypt
became fubjeX to the Arabs. The language, accord¬
ing to him, is a mixture of Greek and Arabic : the very
name thereof not being in the world till after the Arabs
were mailers of the country. But this, M. Simon oh-
ierves, proves nothing 3 except that what was ancient¬
ly called Egyptian, has fince by the Arabs been called
Cophtic, by a corruption of fpeech. There are, it is
true, Arabic words in the Cophtic ; yet this by no
means proves but that there was a language before
that time, either Cophtic oj Egyptian. Pietro de la
Valle obferves, that the Cophts have entirely loft their
ancient tongue j that it is now no longer underftood
among them; that they have nothing extant therein
but fome facred books j and that they ftill fay mafs in
it.
All their other books have been tranflated into
Arabic, which is their vulgar tongue ; and this has oc-
cafioned the originals to be loft : it is added, that they
rehearfe the epiftles and gofpels in the mafs twuce ;
once in Arabic and once in Cophtic. Indeed, if we
believe F. Vanfleb, the Cophts fay the mafs in Arabic,
all but the epiftles and gofpels, which they rehearfe both
in that and Cophtic.
Cophtic Bible. See Bible.
Cophtic Liturgies are three •, one attributed to Ba-
fil, another to St Gregory, and the third to Cyril: they
are tranflated into Arabic for the uie of the priefts and
people.
COPIATA, under the weftern empire, a grave-dig¬
ger. In the firft ages of the church there were clerks
deftined for this employment. In the year 357 Con-
ftantine made a law in favour of the priefts copiatae,
i. e. of thofe who had the care of interments $ where¬
by he exempts them from the luftral contribution
which all other traders paid. It w’as under him alfo
that they firft began to be called copiatce, q. d. clerks
deftined for bodily labour, from xottos, or feindo,
cedo,ferio, “ I cut, beat,” &c. Before that time they
were called decani and le&icarii; perhaps becaufe they
were divided by decades or tens, each whereof had a
b er or litter for the carriage of the dead bodies. Their
place among the clerks was the next in order before
the chanters.
COPING of a wall, the top or cover of a wall,
made ftoping to carry off the water.
5
52 ] COP
Coping over, in Carpentry, a fort of hanging over, Copin
not fquare to its upright, but bevelling on its under fide IN
till it end in an edge. Copy-hJ
COPISP, in diplomatic fcience, fignifies a tranferiber t, C:'
or copier of deeds, books, &c. ^ r
COPPA, in Law, a cop or cock of grafs, hay, or
corn, divided into titheable portions; as the tenth
cock, &c. This word in ftriXnefs denotes the ga¬
thering or laying up the corn in cops or heaps, as the
method is for barley or oats, &c. not bound up, that it
may be the more fairly and juftly tithed : and in Kent
they ftill retain the word, a cop or cap of hay, ftraw,
&c.
COPPEL. See Cupel.
COPPER, one of the metals, called by tbs alche-
mifts Venus, on account of its facility of uniting with a
great number of different metallic fubftances. Its co¬
lour, when pure, is pale red, and its fpecific gravity
from 8.7 to 9.3, which depends not only on its degree
of purity, but alfo on its condenfation by hammering.
See Chemistry Index.
COPPERAS, a name given to the faXitious ful-
phate of iron. See Chemistry Index.
COPPERPLATE. See Engraving.
COPPICE, or Copse, a little wood, confifting of
under-woods, or fuch as may be raifed either by lowing
or planting.
COPTOS, in Ancient Geography, a famous trading
town of the Thebais, inhabited by Egyptians and
Arabs, fome diftance from the Nile ; others place it in
a fmall ifland in the Nile, on which, however, it had
a port. Here Ifis, on hearing of the death of Ofiris,
cut one of her locks, and put on mourning ; and hence
the name Coptos, fignifying privation. A proof this
of the antiquity of the place. And for this reafon
the Ifiaci, or priefts of Ifis, tvere bald, according to Ju¬
venal.
COPULATION, the aX of generation, or the con-
grefs of the male and female, otherwife called coition.
See Generation.
COPY, in a law fenfe, a tranfeript of a writing or
inftrument, made for the ufe and fatisfaXion of fome of
the parties concerned, or in order to preferve the me¬
mory thereof.
Copy is alfo ufed for an imitation of any original
work ; particularly a painting, draught, figure, &e.
Copy, among printers, denotes the manufeript or
original of a book given to print from.
Copr-Hold, a tenure for which a tenant has nothing
to ftiow but the copy of the rolls made by the fteward
of the lord’s court.
It is called a bafe tenure ‘7 becaufe the tenant holds
the land at the will of the lord. However, it is not
fimjtly at the will of the lord, but according to the cut
tom of the manor by which fuch eftate is defcendible,
and the tenant’s heirs may inherit it 5 and a copy-hold¬
er, fo long as he does his fervices, and does not break
the cuftom, cannot be ejeXed by the lord ; and if he
be, he {hall have trefpafs againft him. See the articles
Tenure and Villenage.
Corr-Holder, one who is admitted tenant of lands
or tenements within a manor, which time out of mind,
by ufe and cuftom of the manor, have been demifable,
and demifed to fuch as will take them in fee-fimple,
or fee-tail, for life, years, or at will, according to ths
cuftom
ef
ight.
COP [65
cudom of the manor by copy of court-roll j but is ge¬
nerally where the tenant has fuch ellate either in fee or
for three lives.
Cepr-RigAt, the right which an author may be fup-
pcfed to have in his own original literary compofitions j
ib that no other perfon, without his leave, may publilh
or make profit of the copies. When a man by the ex¬
ertion of his rational powers has produced an original
work, he has clearly a right to difpofe of that identical
work as he pleafes j and any attempt to take it from
him, or vary the difpofition he has made of it, is an
invaiion of his right of property. Now' the identity of
a literary compofition confifts entirely in the fentiment
and the language *, the fame conceptions clothed in the
fame words, muft neceffarily be the fame compofition :
and whatever method be taken of conveying that com¬
pofition to the ear, or to the eye of another, by recital,
by writing, or by printing, in any number of copies,
or at any period of time, it is ahvays the identical
work of the author which is fo conveyed ; and no other
man (it hath been thought) can have a right to convey
or transfer it without his confent, either tacitly or ex-
prefsly given. This confent may perhaps be tacitly
given when an author permits his work to be publilhed
without any referve of right, and without ftamping
on it any marks of ownerlhip •, it is then a prefent
to the public, like the building of a church, or the
laying out a new highway : but in cafe of a bargain for
a fingle impreffion, or a total fale or gift of the copy¬
right ; in the one cafe the reverfion hath been thought
to continue in the original proprietor j in the other
the w'hole property, with its exclufive rights, to be
perpetually transferred to the grantee. On the other
hand, it is urged, that though the exclufive right of
the manufeript, and all which it contains, belongs
undoubtedly to the owner before it is printed or pub¬
lilhed ; yet from the inftant of publication, the exclu-
five right of an author or his afifigns to the foie com¬
munication of his ideas immediately vanilhes and eva¬
porates $ as being a right of too fubtile and unfub-
ftantial a nature ta become the fubjedt of property
at the common law, and only capable of being guard¬
ed by pofitive flatute and fpecial provifions of the ma¬
gi (Irate.
The Roman law adjudged, that if one man wrote
any thing, though ever fo elegantly, on the paper or
parchment ,of another, the writing fhould belong to
the original owmer of the materials on which it wTas
written: meaning certainly nothing more thereby
than the mere mechanical operation of writing,, for
which it diredted the feribe to receive a fatisfadfion:
efpecially as, in wrorks of genius and invention, fuch
as a pidlure painted on another man’s canvas, the
fame law gave the canvas to the painter. We find
no other mention in the law of any property m the
works of the underftanding, though the fale of literary
copies, for the purpofes of recital or multiplication, is
certainly as ancient as the times of Terence, Martial,
and Statius. Neither with us in Britain hath there
been (till very lately) any final determination upon the
right of authors at the common law. It w7as deter¬
mined in the cafe of Miller v. Taylor, in B. R. Pafch.
9 Geo. III. 1760, that an exclufive copy-right in au¬
thors fubfifted by the common law. But afterwards, in
3 ] c g a
the cafe of Donald/on, v. Becket, before the houfe of Copy-right
lords, which was finally determined a 2d . February ^
1774, it was held, that no copy-right fubfifts in authors, 1.^—y »... t
after the expiration of the leveral terms created by the
ftatute 8 Ann. c. 19. This rtatute declares, that the.
author and his affigns (hall have the whole liberty of
printing and reprinting his works for the term of 14
years, and no longer •, and alfo protedts that property
by additional penalties and forfeitures j diredting farther,
that, if at the end of that term, the author himfelf be
living, the right lhall then return to him for another
term of the fame duration.
COQUES, Gonzalo, an efteemed painter of por¬
traits and converfations, was born at Antwerp in 1618,
and was a difciple of the old David Ryckaert } under
whofe diredlion he applied himfelf diligently to cultivate
thole promifing talents which he poffelTed j not only by
pradliling the beft rules adminillered to him by his
inftrudtor, but alfo by ftudying nature with Angular
attention. He was a great admirer of Vandyck; and
fixing on the manner of that great artift as his model,
had the happinefs of fo far fucceeding, that next to him
he was efteemed equal to any other painter of his time.
In the fchool of Ryckaert he had been accuftomed to
paint converfations, and he frequently compofed fubjedts
of fancy like Teniers, Oftade, and his mailer •, and by
that habit' he introduced a very agreeable ftyle of
portrait-painting, in a kind of hiftorical converfation,
which feemed much more acceptable to perfons of tafte
than the general manner of painting portraits, and
procured him great reputation and riches. In that way
he compofed feveral fine pidtures for King Charles I.
and likewife feveral for the archduke Leopold, and
the prince of Orange j which latter prince, as a mark
of refpedf, prelented Coques with a rich gold chain,
and a gold medal, on which the bull of that prince
was impreffed. He died in 1684. He had an excel¬
lent pencil ; his portraits were well defigned, with
eafy natural attitudes ; he difpofed the figures in his
compofition fo as to avoid confufion or embarraffment:
he gave an extraordinary clearnefs of colour to his
heads and hands; and his touch was free, firm, and
broad, a cireumftanee very uncommon in works of a
fmall fize.
COQUIMBO, a port town of Chili, in South
America, fituated at the mouth of a river of the lame
name, which difeharges itfelf into the Pacific ocean.
W. Long. 75. 10. N. Lat. 30. 8.
COR caroli, in jdfironomy, an extra-conftellated
ftar in the northern hemifphere, fituated between the
Coma Beremcis and Urfa major, lo called by Dr Halley
in honour of King Charles.
Con-Tlydrce, a fixed ftar of the firft magnitude, in
the conftellation of Hydra.
CoR-Leonis, in AJlronomy, a fixed ftar of the] fir It
magnitude in the conftellation Leo.
CoR’Meille, a noted plant, common in the highlands
of Scotland. Its roots dried are the fupport of the
highlanders in long journeys, amidft the barren hills
deftitute of the fupports of life and a fmall quantity,
like the alimentary powders, will for a long time re¬
pel the attacks of hunger. Infufed in liquor it is an
agreeable beverage, and, like the nepenthe of the
Greeks, exhilarates the mind. From the fimilitude
f
COR [ 654 ] COR
Cdr-mciHc of found iu the name, it feems to be the fame with
Corim chara, the root difeovered by the foldiers of Cjefar at
^ ”r‘ ~ . Dyrrhachium, which fteeped in milk was fuch a relief
to the famiftied army. Or we may reafonably believe
it to have been the Caledonian food defcribed by Dio,
of which the quantity of a bean would prevent both
hunger and third $ and this, fays the hiltorian, they
have ready for all occafions.
CORACIAS, the Roller, a genus of birds of the
order of picae. See Ornithology Index.
CORACO-brachialis, in Anatomy, the name of a
mufcle in the arm, ferving to raife it upwards.
CORACOIDES, in Anatomy, a fmall Ihort procefs
of the fcapula. See Anatomy Index.
CORACOMANTES, in antiquity, perfons who
foretold events from their obfervations on crows.
CORALLINA, or Coral, in Zoology, a genus
belonging to the order of vermes zoophyta. See
Helminthology Index.
CORAL Fishery. Red coral is found in the Me¬
diterranean, on the fliores of Provence, from Cape de
la Couronne to that of St Tropez j about the ifles of
Majorca and Minorca 5 on the fouth of S’.cily ; on the
coaits of Africa ) and laftly, in the Ethiopic ocean,
about Cape Negro.
CoKAL-Slone, a name for a kind of red and white
perfon?, at the head of whom was the late Frederic
prince of Wales. Captain Coram died in 1751 j and
was interred, at his own delire, in a vault under the
chapel of the Foundling Hofpital.
CORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran.
CORAX, the trivial name of a fpecies of Corvus.
See Ornithology Index.
CORANICH, among the Scotch and Irifh, the cu-
Horn of tinging at funerals, anciently prevalent in thofe
countries, and Hill pra£tifed in feveral parts. Of this
cullOm Mr Pennant gives the following account. “ I
had not the fortune to be prefent at any in North
Britain j but formerly aflilted at one in the fouth of
Ireland, where it was performed in the fulnefs cf horror.
The cries are called by the Irilh the u/ogohne and huU
lulu; two words very expreffive of the found uttered on
thele occafions; and being of Celtic Hock, etymologifts
would fwear to be the origin of the eMMym of the
Greeks and ululatus of the Latins. Virgil is very fond
of uling the laH whenever any of bis females are diftref-
fed *, as are others of the Roman poets, and generally on
occafions limilar to this. It was my fortune to arrive
at a certain town in Kerry at the time that a perfon of
fome diflinftion departed this life 5 my curiofity led me
to the hcufe, where the funeral feemed conducted in the
purelt clailical form.
Cms
r 11
Co:.-
agate which breaks in veins, and is found in Italy and
fome parts of Saxony. That of Rochlitz in Saxony
is the moH celebrated, and is found in globules which
have a kind of cruft about them.
CORALLINES, a genus belonging to the vermes
zoophyta. See Helminthology Index.
CORALLODENDRON. See Erythrina, Bo¬
tany Index.
CORALLOIDES (frutices). See Eschara and
Keratophyta.
CORAM, Captain Thomas, a gentleman remark¬
ably diftinguifhed by his humanity, was born about
the year 1668, and {pent the early part of his life in
the ftation of mafter of a veffel trading to our colonies.
Afterwards refiding in the eaftern part of the metro¬
polis, among fea-faring people, where bufincfs often
obliged him to come early into the city, and return
late, he frequently faw young children expofed in the
Hreets through the indigence or cruelty of their pa¬
rents. This excited His compaflion and induced him
to projedl the foundation of an hofpital for foundlings.
In this humane defign he laboured with indefatigable
diligence for feventeen years; and by his application
procured a number of the nobility and gentry to pa¬
tronize and carry the fcheme into execution, and at
length obtained the royal charter for it. He was alfo
highly inftrumental in promoting the trade of America,
by procuring a bounty upon naval ftores imported from
our colonies. He was likewife eminently concerned
in fetting on foot the colonies of Georgia and Nova
-Scotia. His laft charitable defign, in which he lived
to make fome progrefs, was a fcheme for uniting the
North American Indians more clofely to the Britifn
interefl, by an eftablilhment for the education of Indian
girls. In ftiort, he fpent the greateft part of life in
labouring for the public, and experienced a fate too
‘common in thofe who devote their talents to fuch
laudable purposes; being at laft indebted ror fubiuhence
to the voluntary fubferiptions of feme public-Spirited
Quodcunque afpiceret luBus, gemitufque Jonah ant,
Formaque non taciii funeris intus erat.
In (hort, the conclamatio was fet up by the friends in
the fame manner as Virgil deferibes that confequential
of Dido’s death 3
Lamentis, gemituque, et fesmineo ululatu
TeBa fremunt.
Immediately after this followed another ceremony, fully
defcribed by Camden in his account of the manners of
the ancient Irilh 3 the earneft expoftulations and. re¬
proaches given to the deceafed for quitting this world,
were Hie enjoyed fo many bleffings, fo good a hulband,
and fuch fine children. This cuftom is alfo of great
antiquity, for Euryalus’s mother makes the fame addrefs
to her dead fon.
  Tunc ilia JeneBce
Sera niece requies ? potuifh rehquere folam,
Crudelis ?
But when the time approached for carrying out the
corpfe, the cry was redoubled,
Tremulis ululatihus cethera complent;
a numerous band of females waiting in the outer court
to attend the hearfe, and to pay in chorus the laft tribute
of their voices. The habit of this farrowing train, and
the negledt of their perfons, were admirably fuited to the
occafion j their robes were black and flowing, refem-
bling the ancient palla 3 their feet naked, their hair long
and diflievelled : I might truly fay,
Ut qui conduBi plornnt in funera, dicunj
Et faciunt prope plura dolentibus exanimo.
The corpfe was carried Howdy along the verge of a
molt beautiful lake, the ululatus was continued, and
the
C O R
the whole proceflion ended among the venerable ruins
, of an old abbey.”
CORBAN, in Jewifh antiquity, were thofe offerings
which had life, in oppofition to the minchab, or thofe
which had not. It is derived from the word karab,
which dignifies “ to. approach becaufe the vi&ims
were brought to the door of the tabernacle. The corban
were always looked upon as the moll {'acred offerings.
The Jews are reproached with defeating, by means of
the corban, the precept of the fifth commandment,
which enjoins the refpeft due to parents. For when
a child had no mind to relieve the wants of his father
or mother, he would fay to them, “ It is a gift (cor¬
ban) by whatfoever thou mighteft be profited by me
i. e. “ I have devoted that to God which you alk of me,
and it is no longer mine to give.”
Corban is alfo a ceremony which the Mahometans
perform at the foot of Mount Arrafat in Arabia, near
Mecca. It confifts in killing a great number of ftieep,
and dillributing them among the poor.
CORBEILS, in Fortification, little balkets about a
foot and a half high, eight inches wide at the bottom
and twelve at the top j which being filled with earth,
are frequently fet one againft another upon the para¬
pet or elfewhere, leaving certain port holes, from whence
to fire upon the enemy under covert without being
feen by them.
CORBEL, in Archite&ure, the reprefentation of a
balket, fometimes feen on the heads of caryatides. The
word is alfo ufed for the vafe, or tambour, of the Co¬
rinthian column 5 fo called from its refemblance to a
balket, or becaufe it was firft formed on the model of
a balket.
Corbel, or Corbil, is alfo ufed, in building, for a
Ihort piece of timber placed in a wall, with its end
flicking out fix or eight inches, as occafion ferves, in
manner of a Ihouldering-piece. The under part of the
end thus flicking out is fometimes cut into the form of
a boultin j fometimes of an ogee, and fometimes of a
face, &c. according to the workman’s fancy j the up¬
per fide being plain and flat.
Corbel is alfo ufed by fome archite£ls for a niche
or hollow left in walls for images, figures, or llatues to
Hand in.
CORBET, Richard, bifliop of Norwich, and an
eminent poet, was born at Ewell in Surrey, toward
the latter end. of the 16th century; and educated at
Oxford, where he was efteemed one of the moll cele¬
brated wits of the univerfity. Entering into holy or¬
ders, he became a popular preacher, and was made
chaplain to King James I. : when, after feveral prefer¬
ments in the church, he was, in 1629, made bifliop of
Oxford ; and, in 1632, was tranflated to the fee of Nor¬
wich. He was very hofpitable, and always a generous
encourager of public defigns. He died in 1635. There
have been feveral editions Saf his poems publilhed under
the title of Poemata Stromata*
CORBEY, a town of Picardy in France, with a fa¬
mous abbey of Benediftine monks. It is feated on the
river Somme, ro miles call of Amiens, and 75 north of
Paris. E. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. 49. 55.
CORCELET, in Entomology, is that part of the body
of an infeft which is analogous in its fituation to the
breaft in other animals. Many have called it the breaft in
[ 65s ]
COR
Cord.
thefe alfo, but improperly ; becaufe the breafl of other •Correlet
animals is the place of the lungs and trachea, but _".
thefe organs are in the fly clafs diftributed through the ^
whole body.
CORCHORUS, a genus of plants belonging to
the polyandria clafs; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 37th order, Columnece. See Botany
Index*
CORCULUM, a diminutive from cor “ the heart,”
little heart; the effence of a feed, -and principle of
life of the future plant, attached to and contained
within the lobes. It confifts of two parts, termed by
Linmeus Plumula and Rostellum. The former is
the radicula of Grew and other naturalifts. The cor-
culum is in fa£t the embryo of the future vegetable;
and is attached by two trunks of veffeis to the lobes at
their union. The firft of its two parts mounts upward,
and becomes the trunk. The other ftrikes into the
ground, and is the rudiment of the root. The lobes
and heart of the feed are diftindlly vifible in the bean,
and other feeds of that clafs, efpecially after remaining
fome time in water or earth.
The principle of life is feated either at the fummit
or bafe of the’feed. From this circumftance are con-
ftrudled the two firfl claffes in Caefalpinus’s method,
containing trees and fnrubs only.
CORCYRA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
Ionian fea, oppofite to Thefprotia a diftrift of Epi¬
rus, called Scheria and Pheeacia by Homer. In Calli¬
machus it is called Drepane ; its moll ancient name, ac¬
cording to the Scholiaft, from the curvity of its figure.
Famous for the fliipwreck of Ulyffes and the gardens of
Alcinous. Now Corfu.
Cgrcyra, a cognominal town of the ifland; for¬
merly powerful, and capable of coping with mighty
Hates; fituated about the middle of the call fide of
the illand, called The Town of the Phceavians by Ho¬
mer. Now Corfu, from the of the middle age,
the name of the citadel. It was a colony of the Co¬
rinthians. Corcyrcei, the people. E. Long. 19. 48.
Lat. 39. 50. _ ^ # '
Corcyra Nigra, an ifland in the Adriatic, on the
coaft of Dalmatia (Pliny) ; called Melana by the
Greeks, to diftinguifh it from the illand in the Ionian
fea. The epithet Nigra was added, from its woods of
tall trees with which it is almoft covered. Now Cur-
%ola.
CORD, or Chord, an affemblage of feveral threads
of hemp, cabled or twifted together by means of a
wheel. See Cordage. The word comes from the-
Greek which properly fignifies aninteftine or gut,
of which cords may be made. See Chord.
Magical Cord, an inftrument in great ufe among
the Laplanders, and by them fuppofed to be endued
with a number of virtues. It is a cord or rope with
three knots tied in it. They ufe many magical rites
and ceremonies in the tying of this cord; and, when
thus prepared, it is fuppofed to have power over the
winds; and they will fell, by means of it, a good wind,
or at leaft the promife of one, to a Ihip. If they un¬
tie only one of thefe knots, a moderate gale fucceeds ;
if two, it is much ftronger : and if three, a ftorm is
fure to follow.
Cord of Wood, a certain quantity of wood for burn-
ing,
COR [ 656 ] COR
Ing, To called becaufe formerly meafured with a cord.
The dimenfions of a ftatute cord of wood are eight
feet long, four feet high, and four feet broad.
Cord-ZTW, is new wood, and fuch as, when brouglit
by water, comes on board a veffel, in oppofition to that
which is floated.
CORDAGE, a term ufed in general, for all forts
of cord, whether fmall, middling, or great. See
Rope.
The naval cordage of the earlier ages was in all
probability enly thongs of leather. Thefe primitive
ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third
century. The nations to the north of the Baltic had
them in the ninth or tenth centuries: and the inhabi¬
tants of the weftern ifles of Scotland make ufe of them
at prcfent j cutting the {kin of a feal, or the raw and
failed hide of a cow, into long pieces, and fattening
the plough to their horfes with them, or even twitting
them into ftrong ropes of 20 or 30 fathoms length.
But thefe, in the fouth of our ifland, and on the conti¬
nent, were early fuperfeded by the ufe of iron chains.
The very maritime and commercial nation of the Ve-
neti, that were fo ultimately connefted with the Belgse
of Britain, ufed iron chains for their cables in the days
of Caefar. But in the more diftant and refined coun¬
tries of the fouth, both thongs and thefe had long given
place to the ufe of vegetable threads and the arts of
combining them into ftrength. In this manner the
Greeks appear to have ufed the common rufhes of their
country, and the Carthaginians the fpartum or broom of
Spain. And as all the cordage of the Romans was
made of thefe materials at their laft defcent on our ifland,
fo the art of manufacturing them would be neceflarily
introduced with the Roman fettlements among the Bri¬
tons. Under the direftion of Roman artifts their thongs
of leather would naturally be laid afide, and the junci,
or ruflres of the plains, worked up into cordage.
And what remarkably coincides with this opinion is,
that the remains of old cables and ropes are ftill dif-
tinguiflied among the Britifti failors by the name of old
junk.
The nations of Roman Britain, and the tribes of
Caledonia and Ireland, had inherited, from their ear-
lieft anceftors, many of the ruder arts of navigation.
Their (hips were large open boats, framed of light
timbers ribbed with hurdles and lined with hides.
Thefe were furniftied with mafts and fails. The lat¬
ter were formed of hides, as the tackle was of thongs.
They were a&ually of hides among the Veneti, as late
as the days of Csefar ; and they were never furled
but only bound to the matt. But thefe flight lea-boats,
and their rude furniture, would foon be difmiffed by
the provincials for the more fubftantial veflels and more
artificial fails of the Romans. The Roman fails, which
were compofed of flax in the days of A gricola, were af¬
terwards made of hemp 5 and our own are therefore de¬
nominated cannabis or canvas by our mariners at pre-
fent. And about the fame period affuredly did the junk
of the Britilh cordage give way to the fame materials j
the ufe of hempen ropes upon land, and of hempen nets
for hunting, being very common among the Romans in
the firft century.
CORD AT ED, an appellation frequently given by
naturalifts to things fomewhat refembling a heart.
CORDED, in Heraldry. A crofs corded, feme au¬
thors take for a crofs wound or wrenched about with Cord*
cords; others, with more probability, take it for a crofs ||
made of two pieces of wood. Cordot
CORDELERAS, mountains of South America,
otherwife called Andes.
CORDELIER, a Francifcan, or religious of the
order of St Francis. The Cordeliers are clothed in
thick gray cloth, with a little cowl, a chaperon, and
cloak of the fame j having a girdle of rope or-cord
tied with three knots 5 whence the name.—They are
otherwife called Minor Friars, their original name.
The denomination Cordelier is faid to have been firft
given them in the war of St Louis againft the infidels;
wherein the Friars Minor having repulfed the barba¬
rians, and that king having inquired their name, it
was anfwered, they were people cordeliex, “ tied with
ropes.” The Cordeliers are to a man profeffed Sco-
tifts.
CORDEMOI, Geralde, a learned philofopher and
hiftorian, born at Paris, made himfelf known to P*L
Boffuet, who placed him about the dauphin in the qua¬
lity of reader. He inftrufled that young prince with
great afliduity; and in 1675 was received into the
French academy. He wrote a general hiftory of France
during the firft races of the French kings, in two vols ^
and fix difeourfes on the diftinftion between Body and
Soul, which were printed together in 1702 in quarto.
He died in 1684. M. Cordemoi followed the principles
of Defcartes.
CORDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 41 ft order, Afperifoliee. See Botany
IndcK.
CORDIAL, in Medicine, whatever raifes the fpirits,
and gives them a hidden ftrength and cheerfulnefs •, as
wine, fpirits, the effluvia of flowers, fruit, and many
other fubftances.
CORDON, in Fortification, a row of {tones, made
round on the outfide, and fet between the wail of the
fortrefs which lies aflope, and the parapet which ftands
perpendicular, after fuch a manner, that this difference
may not be offenfive to the eye ; whence the cordons
ferve only as an ornament, ranging round about the
place, being only ufed in fortifications of ftone-work :
for in thofe made with earth the void fpace is filled up
with pointed flakes.
CORDUBA, in Ancient Geography, an illuftrious
city of Bsetica, on the right or north fide of the Bse-
tis. Built by Marcellus, according to Strabo j but
which Marcellus is not fo clear. It was the firft co¬
lony fent into thofe parts by the Romans; and fur-
named Patricia, becaufe at firft inhabited by principal
men, both of the Romans and natives. It is men¬
tioned by Sil. Italicus in the fecond Punic war j and
hence it is probable the firft Marcellus was the foun¬
der, and not the Marcellus engaged in the civil war
between Caefar and Pompey. It W’as famous for the
birth of the two Senecas and of Lucan (Martial), and
for its rich produce in oil (Statius, Martial). Still re¬
taining its name a little altered. W. Long. 5. Lat.
37. 45.
CORDOUA, or Cordova, a city of Andalufia m
Spain, fituated on the river Guadalquiver, in a very
extenfive plain. The circumference is large, but it is
not peopled in proportion to its extent, for there are
COR [657
a great many orchards and gardens within the walls.
' There are many fuperb ftruftures, palaces, churches,
and religions houfes j particularly the cathedral, which
is very magnificent : It was formerly a mofque when
the Moors poffeffed the town ; for which reafon it ftill
retains the name of Mexquita, which has the fame
meaning. The cathedral is very rich in plate; four of
the Giver candlefticks cofl 850I. a-piece. The re¬
venue of the fee amounts to 3500I. per annum ; but as
the bifiiops cannot devife by will, all they die poffeffed
of efeheats to the crown. The fquare called the Plcza
Major is furrounded with very fine houfes, under which
are piazzas. The trade is flourilhing on account of
the river j and confifts of wine, lilk, and Cordovan
leather. In the neighbourhood of this place are a vaft
number of orange and lemon trees, which renders their
fruits exceeding cheap. The belt horfes in Spain come
from hence.
Cordova was the ancient Corduba mentioned in the
preceding article. After the fall of the Roman em¬
pire, it was fubjefled to the dominion of the Goths •,
but in the eighth century it was raifed by the Moorifli
princes to a ftate of fplendor unequalled in any other
part of the world. In the year 755, Abdoulrahman, only
heir-male of the Qmmiad line, having paffed over from
Africa at the head of a few defperate followers, found
means to raife a rebellion in Spain •, when, after a
battle fought on the banks of the Guadalquiver, in
which he overthrew the lieutenant of the Abaffid ca¬
liph ofDamafcus, he became king of all the Moorifh
poffeffions in the fouth of Spain, and in 759 fixed
his royal refidence at Cordova. Then began thofe
fiourifhing ages of Arabian gallantry and magnificence
which rendered the Moors of Spain fuperior to all their
cotemporaries in arts and arms, a*id made Cordova
one of the moft fplendid cities of the world. Agri¬
culture and commerce profpered under the happy fway
of this hero ; and the face of the country was changed
from a feene of defolation, which the long wars and
harfir government of the viceroys had brought on, into
a moft populous flouriftung ftate, exceeding in riches,
number of inhabitants, aftivity, and induftry, any
prior or fubfequent era of the Spanifti hiftory. He
added new fortifications to the town, built himfelf a
magnificent palace with delicious gardens, laid caufe-
ways through the marlhes, made excellent roads to open
ready communication between the great towns, and in
786 began the great mofque, which he did not live to
finifh.
During the courfe of two centuries, this court con¬
tinued to be the refort of all profeffors of the polite
■arts, and of fuch as valued themfelves upon their mili¬
tary and knightly accompliftiments; while the reft of
Europe was buried in ignorance, debafed by brutality
of manners, or dift rafted by fuperftitious difputes.
England, weakened by its heptarchy, vras too inconfi-
derable even to be mentioned in the political hiftory of
the times. France, though it had a gleam of reputa¬
tion under Charlemagne, was ftill a barbarous unpo-
liftied nation $ and Italy was in utter confufion \ the
frequent revolutions and change of mafters rendering
it impoffible for learning, or any thing good, to ac¬
quire a permanent footing in fo unftable a foil : Greece,
though ftill in poffdTion of the arts and luxury of an¬
cient Rome, had loft all vigour, and feemed abforbed
Vol. VI. Part II.
1
COR
in the moft futile of all purfuits, viz. that of fcholaftic
argument and religious fubtilities.
The refidence of the Ommiad caliphs was long con-
fpicuous for its fupreme magnificence, and the crowds
of learned men who were allured to it by the protec¬
tion offered by i.ts fovereigns, the beauty ol the country,
the wholefomenefs of the climate, and the variety ot
pleafures that returned inceffantly in one enchanting
round.
Cordova became the centre of politenefs, induftry,
and genius. Tilts and tournaments, with other coftly
(hows, wTere long the darling paftimes of a wealthy
happy people j and this was the only kingdom in the
weft wdiere geometry, aftronomy, and phyfic, were
regularly iludied and praftifed. Mufic was no lefs
honoured; for we find, that in 844 a famous mufician
called All Zeriab came to fettle at Cordova, and form¬
ed feveral pupils, who were fuppofed to equal the moft
celebrated performers that were ever known even n
the Eaft. That architefture was greatly encouraged,
we need no other proof than the great and expenfive
fabrics undertaken and completed by many of thfrfa
Spanifh monarchs. Whatever faults may be juftly
condemned in their manner by the connoiffeur, accul-
tomed to the chafte noble graces of the Grecian pro¬
portions, certainly nobody can behold what remains of
thefe Maorifti edifices, without being ftrongly impreffed
with a high idea of the genius of the artifts, as well as
the grandeur of the prince who carried their plans into
execution.
The fultans not only gave the moft diftinguifhed pro¬
tection to arts and faiences, and to the perfons learned
in any of them, but were themfelves eminently verfed
in various branches of knowledge. Alkahem II. col-
lefted fo immenfe a quantity of manuferipts that before
the end of his reign the royal library contained no lefs
than 600,000 volumes, of which the very catalogue fill¬
ed 40 huge'folios. The univerfity of Cordova was
founded by him, and under fuch favourable aufpices
rofe to the higheft pitch of celebrity.
Abdoulrahman was fucceeded by his fon Hiffem,
whole paffion for glor^ and architefture was not in the
leaft inferior to that of his father. He put the finifti-
ing hand to the mofque, which the^ plunder of the
fouthern provinces of France enabled him to complete
in the courfe of a few years. The bridge over the
Guadalquiver was a work of Hiffem’s after his own
plan.
Alkahem fucceeded Hiffem.
Ahdoulrabman II. was alfo pafnonately fond of build¬
ing. He was the firft that brought the fupplies of
water to Cordova by means of leaden pipes laid upon
aquedufts of ftone. The quantity was fo confiderable,
that every part of the palace, the mofques, baths,
fquares, and public edifices, had all of them their
fountains conflantly playing. A great many of thefe
works ftill fubfift. ‘ He paved the whole city, andereft-
ed feveral mofques.
After him reigned Mahomet Almundar, Abdallah,
and Abdoulrahman III. who furpaffed all his predecef-
fors in fplendor, riches, and expence. His fubjefts vkd
with each other in profufion and magnificence. This
monarch was fucceeded by his fon Alkahem II. who
left a minor to fucceed him, and the kingdom^ to be
governed by the famous vifir Mahomet Abenamir, fur-
0 a O named
Cordoua.
COR .
Cordoua named Ahnan%ory or “ the defender,” from his great
il vi€iories and wife conduct. His defcendants inherited
. orca‘ , from him the vifr(h:p, and a power as abfolute as if
they had been caliphs, until the weaknefs of the fove-
reigns encouraged, and the infolence of the minifters
provoked, the grandees to difturb the Rate with their
Jealoufies and diffenfions. Thefe broils occafioned fuch
a feries of civil war and anarchy, as overthrew the
throne of Cordova, and deftroyed the whole race of
Abdoulrahman. Thus the glorious edifice, founded
by the valour and prudence of that conqueror, and ce¬
mented by fimilar virtues in many of his fucceflbrs,
funk into nothing as foon a» the feeptre devolved upon
weak enervated princes, whofe indolence and incapacity
transferred the management of every thing to a vifir.
Many petty kingdoms fprung up out of the ruins of this
mighty empire ; and the Chriflians foon found opportu¬
nities of dedreying, by feparate attacks, that tremendous
power, which when united had proved an overmatch
for their utmoft force.
New Cczdoua, a confiderable town of South Ame¬
rica, in the province of Tucuman, with a biiliop’s fee,
175 miles from St Jago. W. Long. 62. $. S. Lat. 32,
30.
CORDQUAN, a famous pharos or light-houfe of
France, in Guienne, at the mouth of the river Girond.
The architecture is extremely fine ; and it is placed
there to hinder veffels from running on the fand-banks
at the mouth of the river. W. Long. 1. 9. N. Lat.
45- 36- .
CORDUS, Valerius, a learned botamft, was tne
fon of Ericius Gordus, a phyfician and poet of Ger¬
many. Having learned the languages, he applied him-
feif to the ftudy of botany, in the profecution of which
he examined the mountains of Germany, and travelled
into Italy •, but being wounded in the leg by the kick of
a horfe, died at Rome in 1554. He wrote Remarks on
Diofcorides, and other works.
CORDWAINERS, or Cordiners, the- term where¬
by the ftatutes denominate fhoemahers. The word is
formed from the French corJonnier, which Menage de¬
rives from corduan, a kind of leather brought from
Gordoua, whereof they formerly made the upper lea¬
thers of their fhoes. Others derive- it from corde,
“ rope,” becaufe anciently {hoes were mads of cords j
as they fliil are in fome parts of Spain, under the
name of alpargales. But the former etymology is bet¬
ter warranted ; for, in effect, the French workmen
who prepare the oorduas are Rill called cordouan-
niers.
In Paris they have two pious focieties under the
title of freres cordonniers, “ brothers fhoemakers,”
eftablifhed by authority towards the middle of the 17th
* See Crij- century ; the one under the protection of St Crifpin *,
tiru the other of St Crifpianus, two faints who had formerly
honoured the profeffion. They live in community, and
under fixed ftatutes and officers ; by which they are di¬
rected both in their fpiritual and fecuLar concerns. The
produce of their ffioes goes into a common ftock, to fur-
nidi neceffaries for their lupport 5 the reft to be diftri-
buted among the poor.
COREA, a peninfula lying to the north-eaft of
China, between 99 and 109 degrees of E. Long, and
between 32 and 46 of N. Lat. It is. divided into 8
provinces, which contain 40 cities of the 1 ft rank, 51
. 5
3 ] C O K
of the 2d, and 72 of the 3d. The capital of the whole c„(,
is Han-ching, where the king refides. The Jefuits'-.-Y ,
fay, the people are wail made, of a fweet and tradable
difpofition, and fond of learning, mufic, and dancing,
and in general refemble the Chinefe, The homes
are mean, being covered with thatch •, and they have
no beds, but lie on the floor. They have little filk,
and therefore make ufe of linen cloth in its room.
Their trade confifts in white paper, pencils, ginfeng,
gold, filver, iron, yellow varnifb, fowls whole tails are
three feet long, horfes no mere than three feet in
height, fable firms, caftor, and mineral fait. In general
it is a fertile country, though abounding in mountains.
It is tributary to China.
M. Grofier relates an obfervation concerning the
natural hiftory of Corea, which, in his opinion, fur-
r.ithes a new proof of the revolutions which the furface
of our globe has undergone. An ancient Chinefe
book afierts, that the city where Kipe, the king of
Corea, eftabliflred his court, was built in a place 'iliich
forms at prefent a part of the territories of Tong-
ping-fan, a city of the fir ft clafs in the province of
Petcheli. “ If this (fays he) be admitted as a faft,
w’e may from thence conclude, that thefe territories
formerly belonged to Corea; and that the gulf. of
Lea-tong, which at prefent feparates this kingdom
from the province of Petcheli, did not then exift, and
that it has been formed fince \ for it is not probable
that the fovereign would have fixed his refidence with¬
out the boundaries of his kingdom, or in a place where
he was feparated from it by a wide and extenfive fea.
This conjeclure is confirmed by certain faffs admitted
by the Chinefe. Thus when furnamed the Greatf
undertook to drain and carry off t.h? waters which
had inundated the low grounds of feveral provinces,
he began by the river Hoang-ho, the overflowing of
which caufed the gveateft devaftation. He went in
fearch of its fource to the bofom of Tartary, from
whence he dirtffed its courfe acrofs the provinces of
Chan-fi, Chen-fi, Honan, and Petcheli. Towards its-
mouth, in order to weaken the rapidity of its waters,
he divided them into nine channels, through which he
caufed the river difeharge itfelf into the eaftern fea
near the mountain of Kie-chc-chan, which then formed
a promontory. Since that time to the prefent, that is,.
about 3990 years, the. river Hoang-ho has departed'
fo much from its ancient courfe, that its mouth at
prefent is about fix degrees farther fouth. We muff
alfo remark, that the mountain Kie-che-chan, which
was formerly united to the main land o£Yong-ping-
fou, ftands at prefent in the fea at the diftance of about
50 leagues to the fouth of that city. If the fea has
been able to cover with its waters that extent of ter¬
ritory which at prefent forms part of the gulf of Lea-
tong, may we not be allowed to fuppofe that like in¬
undations may have formed fucceffively the whole or
that gulf, the ancient exiitence of which feems fo ill
to agree with the refidence of the kings of Corea in
the territory of Yong-ping-fou ? It is true, the Chi¬
nefe hiftory makes no mention of fo confiderable a
phyfical revolution : but it is equally filent with re¬
gard to the 500 lys (50 leagues) extent of ground
which is at prefent covered by the fea beyond the . I
mountains of Kie-che-chan. Befides, of all the changes
which the furface of our globe experiences, thefe only-
aid
COR [6
are mentioned in hiflory, which happen fuddenly, and
-'which confequently make more impreffion on the
tninds of men.
Corea chiefly produces wheat, rice* and ginfeng,
with a kind of palm tree which yields a gum capable
of producing a yellow varnilh little inferior to gilding.
H;nee alfo are exported caftor and fable Ikins 5 al-
fo gold, fllver, iron, and foffil fait j a kind of fmall
brufhes for painting, made of the hair of a wolf’s tail,
are likewife manufaftured here, which are exported
to China and highly efteemed there. The fea coafts
abound in fifh, and great numbers of whales are found
there every year towards the north-ead. Several
of thefe, it is faid, have in their bodies the harpoons
Of the French and Dutch, from whom they have
tfcaped in the northern extremities of Europe 5 which
kerns to indicate a palfage from the European into
the Alia tic' Teas round the continents of Europe and
Afia.
A confiderable quantity of the paper of Corea is
Annually imported into China * indeed the tribute due
to the emperor is partly paid with it every year. It
is made of cotton, and is as llrong as cloth, being writ¬
ten upon with a fnsall hair-brufh or pencil; but muft
be done over with alum-water before it can be written
upon in the European manner. It is not purchakd
by the Chbefe for writing, but for filling up the
fquares of their fafh-windows; becaufe, when oiled, it
refills the wind and rain better than that of China. It
iis ufed likewife as wrapping paper ; and is ferviceable
to the tailors, who rub it between their hands until it
becomes as To ft and flexible as the fined cotton cloth,
indead of which it is often employed in lining clothes.
It has alfo this lingular property, that if iube too thick
“for the purpofe intended, it may be eafily fplit into two
cr three leaves, each of which is even dronger than
the bed paper of China.
The Coreans are well made, ingenious, brave, and
traftable; are fond of dancing, and diow great docility
in acquiring the fciences, to which they apply with great
ardour, and which they honour in a particular manner.
The northern Coreans are larger fixed and more ro-
buft than thofe of the fouth ; have a tade for arms,
and become excellent foldicrs. Their arms are crofs-
bows and long fabres. Men of learning are didinguidi-
ed from other claffes of people by two plumes of fea*
thers in their caps; and when merchants prefent the
’Coreans with any books for fale, they drefs themfelves
iff the riched attire, and burn perfumes before they
’treat concerning the price.
The Coreans mourn three years, as in China, for a
father or mother : but the link of mourning for a bro¬
ther is confined to three months. Their dead are not
Interred until three years after their deceafe; and when
the ceremony of interment is performed, they place
feround the tomb the clothes, chariot, and horfes of
the deceafed, with whatever elfe he fhowed the great-
fed fondnefs for while alive; all which they leave to
be carried off by the allidants. Their houfes, as in
China, confid only of one dory, and are very ill built;
in the country being compofed of earth, and in cities
generally of brick, but all thatched with draw ; the
Walls of their cities are coridrufled after the Chinefe
inanner, with fquSre turrets, battlements, and arched
agates. Their writing, drefs, religious ceremonies, and
59 ] COR
creed, as well as the greater part of their cuftoms, are
borrowed from the Chinefe. Their ivomen, however,
are lefs confined, and have the liberty of appearing in
public with the other fex, for which they are often ridi¬
culed by their neighbours. They differ from the Chi¬
nefe alfo in their ceremonies of marriage, and in the
manner of contra£ling it; the parties in this country
taking the liberty to choofe for themfelves, without
confulting the inclinations of their parents, or fuffering
them to throw any obdacles in their way. /
COREIA, in antiquity, a fedival in honour of Pro-
ferpine, named Core, Kogu, which, in the Moloflian dia¬
lect fignifies a beautiful woman.
CORELLI, Arcangelo, the famous Italian mu-
fician and compofcr, a native of Fufignano, in the ter¬
ritory of Bologna, was born in 1653. He entertain¬
ed an early propenfity to the violin ; and as he advan¬
ced in years, laboured inceflantly in the practice of
that indrument. About the year 1672, his curiofity
led him to vifit Paris, probably with a view’ to attend
the improvements which were making in mufic under
the induence of Cardinal Mazarin, and in confequence
of the edablidiment of a royal academy ; but notwith-
dandiug the chara£ler which he brought with him, he
Was driven back to Rome by Lully, whofe jealous
temper could not brook fo formidable a rival as this il-
ludrious Italian. In the year 1680 he vifited Germany,
and met with a reception fuitable to his merit from
mod of the German princes, particularly the elector of
Bavaria ; in whofe fervice he was retained, and con¬
tinued for fome time. After about five years day abroad,
he returned again to Rome, and there purfued his dudies
with great afliduity.
The proficiency of Corelli on his favourite indru-
rtient the violin was fo great, that the fame of it fpread
throughout Europe. The dyle of his performance
W'as learned, elegant, and pathetic ; and his tone firm
and even. Mr Geminiani, who was tvell acquainted
with, and had dudied it, ufed to referable it to a
fweet trumpet. A perfon who had heard him per¬
form fays, that whilft he was playing on the violin,
it wras ufual for his countenance to be didurbed, bis
fcyes to become as red as fire, and his eye-balls to roll
as in agony.
Corelli wTas highly favoured by that great patron
of poetry and mufic, Cardinal Ottoboni. Crefcefnbini
fays, that he regulated the mufical academy held at
the palace of his eminence every Monday afternoon.
Here it was that Mr Handel became acquainted with
him ; and in this academy a ferenata of Mr Handel,
entitled II Trionfo del Tempo, wTas performed, the
overture to rvhich was in a dyle fo new and lingular,
that Corelli was confounded in his fird attempt to play
it.
During the refidence of Corelli at Rome, befides
thofe of his own country, many perfons were ambi¬
tious of becoming his difciples, and learning the prac¬
tice of the violin from the greated mader on that in-
drument the world had then heard of. Of thefe it is
Lid the late Lord Edgecumbe was one : and that the
fine mezzotinto print of Corelli by Smith was feraped
from a pi&ure painted by Mr Hugh Howard at Rome
for that nobleman.
Corelli died at Rome in 17x3 ; and was buried in
the church of the Rotunda, othervafe called the Pan-
4 O 2 theon,
Cores.
Corelli.
COR
t.licon, in the iirlt chapel on the left hand of the en¬
trance. Over the place of his interment is a fepul-
chral monument to his honour, with a marble bull there¬
on, erc&cd at the expence of Philip William, count
palatine of the Rhine, under the care and direction of
Cardinal Ottoboni.
For many years after his deceafe, this excellent mu-
fician was commemorated by a folemn mufical per¬
formance in the Pantheon, on the anniverlary of his
death. In the year 1730 an eminent matter, now liv¬
ing, was prefent at that folemnity, who relates that
at it the third and eighth of his concertos were per¬
formed by a numerous band, among whom were many
who had been the pupils of the author. He adds, that
thefe two pieces were performed in a flow', dixtin£t,
and firm manner, without graces, and juft as they are
wrote j and from hence concludes, that this was the
manner in which they were played by the author him-
felf.
He died pofTefled of about 6000I. fterling. He
was a paffionate admirer of pi&ures, and lived in an
uninterrupted friendfhip with Carlo Cignani and Carlo
Marat : thefe two eminent painters were rivals for his
favour ; and for a feries of years prefented him at times
with pictures, as well of other mailers as of their own
painting. The confequence was, that Corelli became
poffefied of a large and valuable colleftion of original
paintings; all which, together with the fum above-
mentioned, he bequeathed to his dear friend and pa¬
tron Cardinal Ottoboni, who, referving the pictures to
himfelf, generoufly diftributed the reft of his effeCts a-
rnong the relations of the teftator.,
Corelli is faid to have been remarkable for the
mildnefs of his temper and the modefty of his deport¬
ment } neverthelefs, he was not infenfible of the re-
fpeCt due to his fkill and exquifite performance. Cib¬
ber, in the Apology for his Life, p. 340. relates, that
when he was playing a folo at Cardinal Ottoboni’s, he
difcovered the cardinal and another perfon engaged
in difcourfe, upon which he laid down his inftrument j
and being afked the reafon, gave for anfwer, that he
feared the mufic interrupted their converfation.
The compofitions of Corelli are celebrated for the
harmony refulting from the union of all the parts 5
but the finenefs of the airs is another diftinguiftiing
charaCteriftic of them : the allemand in the 10th folo
is as remarkable for fpirit and force, as that in the
xith is for its enchanting delicacy j his jigs are in a
Ryle peculiarly his own : and that in the 5th folo was
never equalled. In the gavot movements in the 2d
and 4th operas, the melody is diftributed with great
judgment among the feveral parts. In his minuets
alone he feems to fail; Bononcini, Mr Handel, and
Guifeppe Martini, have excelled him in this kind of
airs.
It is faid there is in every nation a flyle both in
fpeaking and writing, which never becomes obfolete 5
u certain mode of phrafeology, fo confonant and con¬
genial to the analogy and principles of its refpeCHve
language, as to remain fettled and unaltered. ThisJ.
but with much greater latitude, may be faid of mufic ;
and accordingly it may be obferved of the compofi¬
tions of Corelli, not only that they are equally intelli¬
gible to the learned and unlearned, but that the im-
^regions made by them have been found to be as du-
[ 6 So ]
COR
rable as general. His mufic is the language of na- Cord';
tore } and, for a feries of years, all that heard it be- II
came fenfible of its effects: of this there cannot be a t ^
ftronger proof than that, amidft all the innovations' ^
which the love of change had introduced, it continued
to be performed, and was heard with delight, in
churches/ in theatres, at public folemnities and fefti-
vities, in all the cities of Europe, for near 40 years.
Men remembered, and would reler to paffages in it as
to a claffic author $ and even at this day, the mailers
of the fcience do not hefitate to pronounce of the com-
pofitions of Corelli, that, of fine harmony and elegant
modulation, they are the moft perfect exemplars.
COREOPSIS, Tickseeded Sunflower ; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging ta the fyngenefia clafs; and in
the natural method ranking under the 49th order,
Gompojitce. See Botany Index.
CORFE castle, a borough-town in Dorfetlhire in
England, which takes its name from a ftsong caftle, be¬
longing to the crown, that ftood there, but which is now
in ruins. It fends two members to parliament. W.
Long. 2. 8. N. Lat. 50. 33.
CORFU, an ifland in the Ionian fea, at the mouth
of the gulf of Venice, formerly called Corcyra and
Phtzacia, famous for the gardens of Alcinous. It be¬
longs at prefent to the Venetians; and forms the bul¬
wark of Chriftendom againft the Turks, who have
often attempted to reduce it, but without fuccefs. It
is well fortified, and has 50 caftles •, and tlje number of
the inhabitants is laid to be about 50,000. The inha¬
bitants are of the Greek church ; and the Venetians
fend them a governor and magiftrates, which are chan¬
ged every two years. The foil is very fruitful, and
produces a great deal of wine, olives, and feveral other
fruits, particularly figs, which are exceedingly good..
The chief city is likewife called Corfu : fee the follow¬
ing article.
Corfu, a city of the illand of that name, belonging
to the Venetians. It is a large place, ftrongly forti¬
fied, and defended by a garrifon of about 10,000 men ;
which, however, in the opinibn of a late traveller, do
not appear adequate to the extent of the fortifications.
A number of very excellent brafs and iron cannon are
mounted on the different forts, which, he obferves, are
fo divided, that it would take treble the number of
their garrifon to defend them. However, the republic
of Venice is generally at peace with the different Eu¬
ropean nations, and the ancient power of the Turks
being much decayed, they have little to apprehend;
though to prevent any fudden furprife, the Venetians
keep a formidable fquadron in the harbour of Corfu,
and the works have been much improved by Major-
General Paterfon.—In the late war they had with the
Turks, this town was attacked by an army of 80,000
men, and attempted to be ftormed feveral times by the
enemy; but the garrifon, which confifted of 12,000
men, under the command of Count Schulenburg, made
fo brave and gallant a defence, that they always repul-
fed them, and obliged them to raife the liege, and a-
bandon the place with confiderable lofs. For this piece
of fervice the republic has caufed a magnificent ftatue
to be ere&ed in memory of the count, with an elegant
Latin infeription, fetting forth the many eminent fer-
vices of his military atchievements. The circumfe¬
rence of the city is about four miles 3 the number of
inhabitants
COR r 661 1 COR
inhabitants on the whole illand is computed at about
50,000, the greateft part of whom are Greeks.
This iiland is the rehdence of the governor-general,
whofe jurifdi&ion extends over all the iflands fubjeft to
the republic of Venice, in the Levant feas, and is con-
fidered as one of the greateft honours they can confer
on a fubjeft- He is always a nobleman of the firft
rank, and has his appointment for three years only, in
which time he makes a tolerable addition to his for¬
tune, and on his return to Venice is generally advanced
to the honours of the fenate. In the city are many
handfome Greek churches, the principal of which is
that of St Speridione, or the cathedral. It is embel-
liflied with fome excellent paintings, and moft fuperb-
ly ornamented. The body of the faint from *whom it
was named, is preferved entire in a rich ftirine within
the church. The Greeks are moft of them fuch fana¬
tics as to be continually offering their devotions at this
fhrine, believing that through the interceflion of the
faint they will obtain all their wrants; and that by of¬
ferings of money their fins will be forgiven them ; by
which means the church has amaffed an immenfe trea-
fiire. The relic of the faint is depofited in a filver
coffin, richly decorated with precious ftones. It is in
an amazing ftate of prefervation: he having died in
the ifland of Cyprus upwards of 700 years ago ; and
after remaining 400 years there, was tranfported to
this place.—Befides the grand fleet, the Venetians have
another of galleys, that are manned by convifts whofe
crimes are not of fuch a nature as to merit death.
The chief diverfions of this place in the winter are
operas j they have always a company of comedians
for the feafon from Naples. In the fummer they pafs
their time in walking upon the ramparts; few except
the governor and great officers of ftate are permitted
to keep carriages. The Corfu people perfeftly re¬
ferable the Zanteots in their manners (fee Zante) ;
though it muft be obferved, in praife of the former,
that affaffinations are uncommon among them, their
laws being too fevere to permit fuch pra£ti<;es with im¬
punity. E. Long. 19. 48. N. Lat. 39. 50.
CORIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leorr
and province of Eftremadura, towards the confines of
Portugal* w’ith a bifliop’s fee. It is feated on a little
river called Alagon^ in a very fertile plain. There is
nothing remarkable but the cathedral church, except
at a little diftance a river without a bridge, and a
bridge without a river. This was caufed by an earth¬
quake, which turned the river another way. W. Long.
6. 46. N. Lat. 39. 59. - .
CORIANDRUM, Coriander; a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 45th order, UmbeUatce. See
Botany Index.
CORIARIA, Tanners or Myrtle-leafed Sumach ;
a genus of plants belonging to the dicecia clafs ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 54th order,
Mifcellanece. See Botany Index. This plant is much
ufed in the fouth of France, where it grows naturally,
for tanning of leather, whence its name of tanner1 s fu-
mach. It alfo dyes a beautiful black colour.
COR1DOR, or Corridor, in. Fortification, a road
or way along the edge of the ditch, without-fide ; en-
compafling the whole fortification. . The word comes
&om the Italian coridore, or the Spanifh coridor.
It is alfo called the covert-way, becaufe covered with Condor
a glacis, or efplanade, ferving it as a parapet.—The Cor||5tj1
condor is about 20 yards broad. . ‘
Coridor is alfo ufed in archite&ure for a gallery or
long aifle around a building, leading to feveral cham¬
bers at a diftance from each other, fometimes wholly in-
clofed, and fometimes open on one fide.
CORINNA, a Grecian lady, celebrated for her
beauty and poetic talents, was born at Theffu, a city
of Boeotia, and was the difciple of Myrtis another
Grecian lady. Her verfes were fo efteemed by the
Greeks, that they gave her the name of the lyric
mufe. She liyed in the time of Pindar, about 495 yeais
before Chrift ; and is faid to have gained the prize of
lyric poetry from that poet; but Paufanias obferves
that her beauty made the judges partial.
CORINTH, a celebrated city of antiquity, for
fome time the moft illuftrious of all the Greek cities.
It is faid to have been founded 1514 years before
Chrift, by Sifyphus the fon of Molus, and grandfather
of Ulyffes. Various reafons are given for its name, but
moft authors derive it from Corinthus the fon of Pe-
lops. It was fituatedon the fouth part of the ifthmus
which joins the Peloponnefus, now the Morea, to the
continent. It confifted of a citadel built upon an emi¬
nence, and thence named ; befides which
it had two maritime towns fubje£l to it, named Zf-
cJurum ^A Cenchrece. The whole ftate extended fcarce
half a degree in length or breadth ; but fo advan-
tageoufly were the above-mentioned ports fituated,
that they might have gained the Corinthians a fupe-
riority, if not a command, over all Greece, had not
their advantageous fituation inclined them to com-
,merce rather than war. For their citadel was almoft
impregnable ; and commanding both the Ionian and
ZEgean feas, they could eafily cut off all communica¬
tion from one half of Greece with the other; for
which reafon this city was called one of the fetters of:
Greece.
But as the genius of the Corinthians led them to
commerce rather than martial exploits, their city be¬
came the fineft in all Greece. It was adorned with
the moft fumptuous buildings, as temples, palaces,
theatres, porticoes, &c. all of them enriched with a
beautiful kind of columns, which from the city were,
called Corinthian. But though the Corinthians feldom
or never engaged in- a war with a view of enlarging
but rather, of defending their little ftate, they did
not forget to cultivate a good difeipline both in time
of peace and of war. Hence many brave and experi¬
enced generals have been furniffied by Corinth to the^
other Grecian cities, and it was not uncommon for the.
latter to prefer a Corinthian general to any of their
own.
This city continued to preferve its liberty till the
year before Ghrift 146, when it was pillaged and burnt
by the Romans. It was at that time the ftrongeft place,
in the world: but the inhabitants were fo difhearten-
ed by a preceding defeat, and the death of their gene¬
ra), that they had not prefence of mind enough even
to Ihut their gates. The Roman conful Mummius,,
was fo much furprifed at this, that at firft he could
fcarce believe it; but afterwards fearing an ambufeade,
he advanced with all poflible caution. As he met with
no refiftance, his foldiers had nothing to do but de-
Corinth.
COR [ 662 ] COR
ftrcy the few inhabitants that had not fled, and plun¬
der the city. Such of the men as had ftaid were all
put to the fwdrd, and the women were fold for Haves.
After this the city was ranfacked by the greedy fol-
diers, and the fpoils of it are faid to have been im-
menfe. There were more veffels of all forts of metal,
more fine pictures and ftatues done by the greateft
mafters, in Corinth, than in any other city in the
world. All the princes of Europe and Afia who had
any tafie in painting and fculpture furniftied them-
felvcs here with the richeft moveables: here were
caft the fineft ftatues for temples and palaces, and all
the liberal arts brought to their greateft perfe&ion.
Many ineftimable pieces of the moft famous painters
and ftatuaries fell into the hands of the ignorant fol-
diers, who either deftroyed them, or parted with them
for a trifle. Polybius the hiftorian was an eye witnefs
to this barbarifm of the Romans. He had the mortifi¬
cation to fee two of them playing at dice on a famous
pi&ure of Ariftides, which was accounted one of the
wonders of the world. The piece was a Bacchus, fo
exquifiteiy done, that it was proverbially fsid of any
extraordinary performance, “ It is as well done as
the Bacchus of Arif ides P This mafieily piece of
painting, however, the foldiers willingly exchanged
for a more convenient table to play upon. But when
the fpoils of Corinth were put up to fale, Attalus
king of Pergamus offering for it 600,000 fefterces,
near ^oool. of our money, Mummius was furprifed
at fuch a high price offered for a piflure, and imagined
there muft be fome magical virtue in it. He therefore
interpofed his authority, and carried it to Rome, not-
withftanding the complaints of Attalus. Here this
famous pidture was lodged in the temple of Ceres,
where it was at laft deftroyed by fire, together with
the temple. Another extraordinary inftance of the
ftupidity of Mummius is, that when the pidlures were
put on board the tranfports, he told the mafters of
the veffels very ferioufly, that if any of the things were
either loft or fpoilod, he would oblige them to find
others at their own coft; as if any other pieces could
have fupplied the lofs of thofe ineftimable originals,
done by the greateft mafters in Greece. When the
city was thoroughly pillaged, fire was fet to all the
corners of it at the fame time. The flames grew more
violent as they drew near the centre, and at laft
uniting there made one prodigious conflagration.
At this time the famous metalline mixture is faid to
have been made, which could never afterwards be
imitated by art. The gold, filver, and brafs, which
the Corinthians had concealed, were melted, and ran
down the ftreets in ftre*ms, and when the flames
were extinguished, a new metal v;as found, compofed
of feveral different ones, and greatly efteemed in after
ages.
The town lay defolate until Julius Coefar fettled
there a Roman colony ; when, in moving the rubbhh
and digging, many vafes were found of brafs or earth
finely emboffed. The price given for thofe curiofities
excited induftry in the new inhabitants. They left
no burying-place unexamined ; and Rome, it is faid,
was filled with the furniture of the fepulchres of Co¬
rinth.
Strabo was at Corinth foon after its reftoralion by
the Romans. He deferibes the fite as follows. “ A
lofty mountain, in perpendicular height as much as Corinf
three ftadia and a half (near half a mile, the afeent '"T*
30 ftadia (3^ miles,) ends in a pointed fummit called
Acrocorinthus. Of this the portion to the north is the
moft fteep : beneath which lies the city on a level area
at the foot of the Acrocorinthus. The circuit of the
city alone has been 40 ftadia (5 miles), and as much
of it as was unftieltered by the mountain has been
walled about. Within the inclofure was comprehend¬
ed alfo the Acrccorinlhus, where the mountain was ca*
pable of receiving a Wall j and as we afeended, the ve-
itiges were plain 5 fo that the whole circumference ex¬
ceeded 85 ftadia (near 11 miles). On the other fides,
the mountain is lefs fteep, but rifes very high, and is
vifible all around. Upon the fummit is a fmall temple
of Venus; and below it the fpring Pirene, which does
not overflow, but is always full of pellucid“and pot¬
able water. They fay it unites with fome other hid¬
den veins, and forms the fpring at the mountain foot,
running into the city, and affording a fufficient fupply
for the ufe of the inhabitants. In the city is plenty of
Wells, and in the Acrocorinthus, as they fay, for we
did net fee any. There they relate the winged hoife
Pegafus was taken as he was drinking, by Bellerophon.
Below Pirene is the Sifypheum, feme temple or pa¬
lace of white ftone, the remains not inconfiderable.
From the fummit is beheld to the north Parnaffus and
Helicon, lofty mountains covered with fnow 5 and be¬
low both, to the weft, the Crrffean gulf bounded by
Phocis, by Boeotia and the Megaris, and by Corinthia
and Sicyonia oppofite to Phocis. Beyond all thtfe are
the mountains called the Oueian, ftretching as far as
Boeotia and Citbseron from the Scironian rocks on the
road to Attica.” Strabo faw likewife Cleon from thence.
Cenchreoe was then a village. Lechseum had fome in¬
habitants.
New Corinth had flouriftied 217 years when it was
vifited by Paufanias. It had then a lew antiquities,
many temples and ftatues, especially about the agora
or market-place, and feVeral baths. The emperor
Hadrian introduced water from a famous fpring at
Stymphalus in Arcadia ) and it had various fountains
alike copious and ornamental. The ftream of one ii-
fued from a dolphin, on which was a brazen Nep¬
tune j of another, from the hoof of Pegafus, on
whom Bellerophon was mounted. On the right
hand, coming along the road leading from the market¬
place toward Sicyon, was the odeum and the theatre,
by which was a temple of Minerva. The old gymna-
fium was at a diftance. Going from the market-place
toward Lechajum was a gate on which were placed
Phaeton and the Sun in gilded chariots. Pirene enter-
. ed a fountain of white marble, from which the cur¬
rent paffed in an open channel. They fuppofed the
metal called Corinthian brafs to have been immerged
while red hot in this water. On the way up to the
Acrocorinthus were temples, ftatues, and altars ; and
the gate next Tenea, a village with a temple of Apol¬
lo, fixly ftadia, or feven miles and a half diftant, on the
road to Mycenae. At Lechaeum was a temple and a
brazen image of Neptune. At Cenchrem were tem¬
ples \ and by the v.-ay from the city a grove of cy-
prefs trees, fepulchres, and monuments. Oppofite was
the Bath of Helen, water tepid and fait, flowing plen¬
tifully from a rock into the fea. Mummius had ruined
the
«k)'
COR [ 663
h. the theatre of Corinth, and the munificence of the great
Athenian Attxcus Herodes was difplayed in an edifice
with a roof inferior to few of the moft celebrated ftruc-
tures in Greece.
The Roman colony was referved to fijffer the fame
calamity as the Greek city, and from a conqueror more
terrible than Mununius, Alaric the favage deftroyer
of Athens and univerfal Greece. In a country haraffed
with frequent wars, as the Peloponnefus has fince
been, the Acrocorinthus was a poll too confequential
to be neglefted. It was befieged and taken in 1456
by Mahomet II.: the defpots or lords of the Morea,
brothers of the Greek emperor who was killed in
defending Confiantinople, refufing payment of the arrears
of the tribute, which had been impofed by Sultan
Moral in 1447- The country became fubjedV to the
Turks, except fuch maritime places as were in the
poffellion of the Venetians j and many of the principal
inhabitants were carried away toConftantinople. Corinth,
with the Morea, was yielded to the republic at the
conclufion of the war in 1698, and again by it to the
Turks in 1715.
Corinth retains its old name, and is 01 confideraole
extent, (landing on a high ground, beneath tne Acro¬
corinthus, with an eafy defcent toward the gulf of
Lepanto; the houfes fcattered or in parcels, except
in the bazar or market-place. Cypreffes, among
which tower the domes of mofques, with corn-fields,
and gardens of lemon and orange trees, are interipeifed.
The air is reputed bad in fummer, and in autumn
exceedingly unhealthy.. Wheler relates, that_from the.
top of the Acrocorinthus or citadel, he enjoyed one
of the mod agreeable profpecls which this world can
afford. He gueffed the walls to be about two miles
In compafs, inclofing mofques, witn houfes and chmches
moftly in ruins. An hour was confumed in going up
on horfeback. It was a mile to the IoOl of tue mil >
and from hence the way was very deep wito many
traverfes. The families living below were much in-
feded by corfairs, and on every alarm flocked up to the
caftle..
According to Dr Chandler, Corinth nas preferved
but few monuments of its Greek or Roman citizens.
The chief remains, he informs us, are at the fouth-
wed corner of the town, and above the^ bazar or m^r*
ket; 11 columns fupporting their architraves, of ^ the
Doric orde®, fluted, and wanting in height near half
the common proportion to the diameter. Within
them, towards the wedern end, is one taller, though
not entire, which, it is likely, contributed to fudam the
roof. They have been found to be done, not marble ;
and appeared brown, perhaps from a crud formed on the
outfide. The ruin he judges to be of very remote
antiquity, and a portion of a fabric erefled not only
before the Greek city was dedroyed, but be.ore the
Doric order had attained to maturity. lie iulpedts
it to have been the Sifypheutn mentioned by otra o.
North of the bazar dands a large rnafs of brickwork,
a remnant, it may be conjectured, of a bath, or o t .e
gymnafium. . r
The inhabitants are mod of them Chrubans ol
the Greek church, who are allowed liberty of con-
ffcience by the*1 Turks. E. Long. 28. 13* -*•' ■
38. 14. . ,
Corinth, the ijlhmus of, in the Morea, is a net*
] COR
of land which joins the Morea to Greece, and reaches
from the gulf of Lepanto to that of Egina. Julius
Caefar, Caligula, and Nero, attempted to cut a chan¬
nel through it, but in vain; and they tnerefore at-
terwards built a wall acrofs it, which they called
Hexamilium, becaufe it was fix miles in length. 1h,s
was demolillied by Amurath II. and afterwards rebuilt
by the Venetians, but ivas levelled a fecond time by
Mahomet II.
CORINTHIAN, in general, denotes fomething
belonging to Corinth ; thus we fay, Corinthian brafs,
Corinthian order, &c.
Coring hi an Brafs. See Brass and Corinth.
Corinthian Order, in Jlrchite&ure, the fourth or¬
der of architefture, according to Scamozzi ; but M.
Le Clerc makes it the fifth, being the mod noble
and delicate of all the five. See Architecture,
N° 47.
CORIO, BerNARDINE, an hidorian, born of an
illudrious family at Milan, in the year 1460. He was
fecretary of date to that duchy j and Lewis duke ol
Sforza appointed him to. write the hidory of ivlilan.
He died in 1500. The bed edition of his hidory is
that of 1503, in folio. It is printed in Italian, and is
very fcarce,
CORIOEANU5, C. Marcius, a famous Roman
captain, took Corioh a town of the \ ollci, whence he
had his furname *, at lad, difguding the people, he
was baniflied Rome by the tribune Decius. He went
to the Volfci, and perfuading-them to take up arras
againd the Romans, they encamped within four miles
of the city. He would not liden to propofals ot peace,
till he was prevailed upon by, his wife Veturia, and
his mother Volumnia, who were followed by all the
Roman ladies in tears. He was put to death by
the Volfci as a traitor that had made them quit their
con quell 1 upon which the Roman lauies went into
mourning; and in the fame place where his blood
was fpilled there was a temple confecrated to feminine
virtue.
COR IS, a genus of plants belonging to the pentan-
dria clafs. See Botany Index. _
Coris Is alfo ufed in the Eall Inales fci a kind Oi
{hells which oafs for money.
CORISPERMUM, Tickseed, a genus of plants-
belonging to the monandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the I 2th order, lloloraceee. S^e
Botany Index. r
CORITANI, in Ancient Geography, a people ot
Britain, occupying widely the inland parts, as North¬
ampton, Leiceder; Rutland, Lincoln, Nottingham, and.
Derbyfliires, (Camden).
CORK, the bark of a tree of the fame name, fuercus
Suber, Lin. See Quercus, Botany Index.
To take off the bark, an medion is made from
the top to the bottom of the tree, and at each extremity
another round the tree, perpendicular- to tne fim.
When the tree is 15 years old, it may be barked for
eight years fucceffively 5 and the quality or tne bark
improves with the age of the tree When ftrjpped
from the tree, which does not therefore die, the badr
is piled up in a pond or ditch, and leaded witn heavy
dones to datten it, and reduce it into tables : hence u
is removed to be dried •, and when fufficienlly ary, put
in bales for carriage. If care be not taken to dnp the
CrU
COR r 664 ] COR
Cork, bark, It fplits and peels of itfelf j being puftied up by
another bark formed underneath.
The cork-tree, as well as the ufes to which the bark
Is applied, was known both to the Greeks and Romans.
Pliny informs us that the Romans employed it to Hop all
kinds of veffcls j but the ufe of it for this purpofe does
nqt appear to have been very common till the inven¬
tion of glafs bottles, of which, according to Profeffor
Beckman, there is no mention before the 15th cen¬
tury.
Other vegetable produ&ions have been fometimes
employed inftead of cork. The Spondias Lutea, a tree
which grows in South America, particularly in moift
places, and which is there called monbin or monbain, is
fometimes brought to England for the purpofe of Hop¬
ping veffels. The roots of liquorice are applied to the
fame ufe, and on that account, this plant is much cul¬
tivated in Sclavonia, and exported to other countries.
A tree called nyjja, which grows in North America,
has been found alfo to anfwer as a fubflitute for
cork.
The chief ufe of cork is, to put In {hoes, flippers,
8cc. and to Hop bottles. The Spaniards burn it to
make that kind of light black called Spanifh blach,
which is uied by painters. The Egyptians made cof¬
fins of cork} which being lined with a refinous com-
pofition, preferved dead bodies unccrrupted. The
Spaniards line Hone wills with it, which not only
renders them very warm, but corredls the moiflure of
the air.
FoJJil-Conx, a name given to a kind of Hone which
is a Ipecies of amianthus, confifling of flexible fibres
loofely interwoven, and fomewhat refembling vegetable
cork. It is the lightefl of all Hones; by fire it is
infulible. It poffeffes the general qualities of amianthus.
See Mountain Cork, Mineralogy Index.
Cork, in Latin comitatus Corcagienfis, a county of
the province of Munfier in Ireland. It is the moH
populous and confiderable county of the kingdom, next
to that of Dublin, containing near a million of acres,
and being divided into 15 baronies. It is bounded on
the north-eaft by the county of Waterford; on the
weft by Kerry; by Limerick on the north ; and by the
fea on the fouth and fouth-eaft. Including Deftnond
it is 85 miles in length and 50 in breadth ; but is
very unequal both wrays. Though a confiderable part
01 the country is foggy, mountainous and barren, yet
by the induftry of the inhabitants it is pretty well cul¬
tivated and improved, and contains feveral good towns
and harbours.
Cork, a city of Ireland, and capital of the county
of that name. It is an epifcopal fee, and is the largeft
and moft populous of any in the kingdom, Dublin
alone excepted. It is fituated on the river Lee, 15
miles from its mouth. It is a place of great trade,
the harbour here being one of the fineft in the world.
Though fmaller veffels can come up to the quay, yet
the larger generally ride at a place called Pajfage.
This city, together with its liberties, makes a county.
It was bu:lt or rather fortified by the Danes, in the
ninth century; The greateft part of it Hands on a
marfhy ifland fnrrounded by the river Lee, which alfo
runs through the city, and divides it into feveral ca¬
nals. On this account fome have thought the air very
moifl and unwholefome. Complaints have alfo been
made againfl the water as impure j but, from comparing Cos
the bills of mortality with thofeef other cities, it appears ^—y*
that the city of Cork is far from being unhealthy.
This hath been accounted for from the influx of the
tide, by which a Hagnation of air is prevented. The
firfl charter of Cork was beflowed by Henry III. and
afterwards ratified by, Edward I. Edward II. and
Edward III. Edward IV. granted a new charter;
and the city received many favours from the lucceeding
monarchs. King James I. gave the citizens a new and
ample charter; and King Charles I. what is called the
Great Charter, by which, among others, a claufe in
King James’s charter wras enforced, making this city a
county of itfelf. The fee of Cork is reputed worth
2700). a-year. The chapter confifis of a dean, chanter,
chancellor, treafuxer, archdeacon, and twelve preben¬
daries. The church is dedicated to St Barr or Finbarr;
and the diocefe is divided into five deaneries. There is
very little to be found in ancient writers concerning
the foundation of the cathedral of Cork ; yet it is
generally aferibed to St Barr in the feventh century.
Many of its biihops have been great benefaftors to it.
Through length of time the church became quite
ruinous; but it hath lately been completely rebuilt, and
is now an elegant modern flru&ure. To defray the
expence, the parliament laid a tax on all coals confumed
in the city of Cork. The deanery is reputed to be
worth 400I. a-year.
Cork is much improved and enlarged ; feveral broad
flreets have been lately added, by filling up the canals
that formerly ran through them, and are now built
up with elegant houfes ; the parade is very fpacious,
and is adorned with an equeflrian ftatue of King
George II. It hath the largefi export in the king¬
dom, particularly of beef, hides, tallow, butter, filh,
and other proviiions. It is partly fituated on feveral
iflands, formed by the river Lee, which are banked
and quayed in, fomewhat like the towns in Holland;
and partly on rifing grounds, on the north and fouth
fides of the river. The earl of Marlborough befieged
and took it from King James’s army in 1690; when
the duke of Grafton, who ferved as a volunteer, was
flain in the attack. It contains about S600 houfes,
and upward^ of 73,000 inhabitants. It hath twelve
companies of foot quartered in the barracks. Befides
a Hately cathedral, built from the foundation, between
1725 and 1735, by the produce of a duty upon coals,
as above noticed, it is adorned with feveral handfome
parifii churches. It has alfo an elegant exchange for
the merchants, a new and beautiful cuftomhoufe, a
town-hall, feveral fine hofpitals, and various other
public flruftures. The city poffeffes an annual reve¬
nue of about 1300I. out of which the mayor enjoys
for his falary and the fupport of his dignity 500I. The
wealth and grandeur of Cork arife from its capacious
and commodious haven, where almofi any number of
flaps may lie with cafe and fafety. According to
fome accounts, when there has been no war, 1200
veffels have reforted hither in a year. Ships from
England, bound to all parts of the Wefi Indies, take
in here a great part of-their provifions ; and on the
1’ame account the haven of Cork is vifited by thofe
alio of mofl other nations. The flaughtering feafon,
continues from the month of Augufl to the latter end
of January ; in which fpace it has been computed, that
fs.
COR [ 665 ] C O It
tligy kill and cure feldoni fewer than 150,090 head of
black cattle. The reil of their exports cordiit of buU
ter, candles, hides raw and tanned, linen cloth, pork,
calves, lambs, and rabbit Ikins, tallow, wool for Eng.
land, linen and woollen yarn, and worded. The
merchants of Cork carry on a very ex ten five trade to
almofl all parts of the known world ; fo that their
commerce is annually increafing. The produce of the
cuftoms fame years lince exceeded 60,cool, and the
number of Ihips that they employ is double to what
it was forty years ago. The only thing that feemed
to be wanting to the fecurity of the port of Cork was
fuppiied in the earl of Chetferneld’s memorable admi-
niftration, by building a fort on the great ifiand, to
command the entrance of the haven. The outlets of
Cork are cheerful and pleafant. The country around
the city, on both fides of the river, is hilly and pi<flu-
xefque; and the harbour called the Cove, is one of
the bed in the. world ; the entrance is fafe, and the
whole navy of England might ride in it, lecure from
everv wind that blows. Ships of burden, however, -
are obliged to unload at Paffage, five miles and a half
from Cork, the channel not admitting veffels of above
I jo tons.
Cork. Jacket or Wai/lcoat, is an invention of one
Mr Dubourg, a gentleman very fond of fwimming,
hut fubject to the cramp, which led him to confides
of fome method by which he might enjoy his favourite
diverfion with fafety. The waiftcoat is compofed of
four pieces of cork, two for the breads and two for the
back ; each pretty near in length and breadth to the
-quarters of a waideoat without flaps •, the whole is co¬
vered with coarfc canvafs, with two holes to put the'
arms through 3 there is a fpace left between the two
back-pieces, and the fame betwixt each back and
bread-piece, that they may fit the eafier to the body.
Thus the waidcoat is only open before, and may be
faftened on the wearer with drjngs 3 or, it it (hould be
thought more fecure, with buckles and leather draps.
This waidcoat does not weigh above 12 ounces, and
may be made up for about five or fix findings expence.
Mr Dubourg tried his waidcoat in the Thames, and
found that it not only fupported him on the water, but
that two men could not fink him, though they ufed
their utmod efforts for that purpofe. If thofe who ufe
the fea occafionally, and efpeciaily thofe who are obli¬
ged to be a'lmod condantly there, were to have thofe
waidcoats, it would be next to impoflible that they
{hould be drowned. It would alfo be of vad fervice to
thofe that, for the fake of health, bathe in the fea 3
and even the mod delicate and timorous young lady
might by the help of one of thefe jackets venture into a
rough fea. See j4i&-Jacket and BAMBOO-Habit.
CORMANDEL. See Coromandel.
COR-MASS, the name of a grand procedion, faid
to have been edabliflied at Dunkirk during the domi¬
nion of Charles V. and renewed on St John’s day, the
24th of June. After the celebration of high mafs, the
proceffion, confiding of the feveral tradefmen of the
town, begins. Each perfon has a burning taper of
wax in his hand : and after each company comes a pa¬
geant, followed by the patron-faint, ufually of folid
fdver, richly wrought and adorned. The companies
are followed by mufic 3 and after the muficians,^ the
triars in the habits of their order, the fecular prieds,
Vox. VI. Part U.
and then the abbot magnificently adorned, and preced- Orr-r;
ed by the hod. Machines like wile of various fan tad;-, JTT
cal forms and devices, and as varioufiy accoutered, form
a part of the fhow cn this occafion 3 which is deicribed
as one of the mod fuperb and magnificent in tha
world, by an eye-witnefs, in 1755.
CORMORANT, a corruption of corvorant. See
Pelicanus, Ornithology Index.
CORN, the grain or feeds of plants feparated from
the fpica or ear, and ufed for making bread.
There are feveral fpecies of corn, fuch as wheat,
rye, and barley, millet and rice, oats, maize, and len¬
tils, peafe, and a number of other kinds 3 each of
which has its ufefulnefs and propriety.
Europe, in every part of it 3 Egypt, and fame other
cantons of Africa, particularly the coafts of Barbary j,
and fome parts of America cultivated by the Europeans,
particularly New England, New France, and Acadia,
are the places which produce corn. Other countries
have maize and rice in lieu of it 3 and fome parts.of A-
merica, both in the idands and continents, fimple roots,
fuch as potatoes and minioc.—Egypt was anciently the
moft fertile of all other countries in corn 3 as appears
both from facred and profane hiftory. It furnilhed a
good part of the people fubjedt to the Roman empire,
and was called the dry nurfe of Rome and Italy. Bri¬
tain, France, and Poland, teem now in the place of E-
gypt, and with their fuperfiuities funport a good part of
Europe.
For the firft clifcovery and culture of corn, authors
are much divided 3 the common opinion is, that in the
firfl ages men lived on the fpontaneous fruits of the
earth 3 as acorns, and the nut or maft produced by
the beech 3 which, they fay, took its name fagus,
from the Greek Qayoi, I eat. It is added that they had
not either the ufe of corn, or the art of preparing or
making it eatable.
Ceres has the credit of being the firft that fhowed
the ufe of corn, on which account fhe was placed
among the gods 3 others gave the honour to Triptole-
mus ; others {hare it between the two, making Ceres
the firft difeoverer, and Triptolemus, the firft planter
and cultivator of corn. Diodorus Siculus afenbes the
whole to Ifis 3 on which Polydore Virgil obferves, he
does not differ from the reft 3, Ifis and Ceres being in
reality the fame. The Athenians pretend it was among
them the art began 3 and the Cretans or Candiots, Si¬
cilians, and Egyptians, lay claim to the fame. Some
think the title of the Sicilians belt fupported, that be¬
ing the country of Ceres : and authors add, fhe did not
teach the fecret to the Athenians, till fhe had firft in-
ftruffed her own countrymen. Others fay, Ceres paffed
firft into Attica, thence into Crete, and, laft of all, into
Sicily : many of the learned, however, maintain it was
in Egypt the art of cultivating corn firft began 3 and it
is certain there was corn in Egypt and the Eaft long
before the time of Ceres.
Corn is very different from fruits, with refpedl to
the manner of its prefervation 3 and is capable of be¬
ing preferved in public granaries, for prefling occa-
fions, and of being kept for feveral centuries.—A little
time after the fiege of Metz, under Henry II. of
France, in the year 1578, the due d’Efpemon laid
up vaft ftores of corn in the citadel 3 which was pre¬
ferved in good plight to the year 1707, when the
4P French
\
COR [ 666 ] COR
Frcncli king and his letinue, cafl'ing that way, ate
bread baked thereof.
The chief thing that contributes to the prefervation
of corn is a cruft which forms on its i’urface, by the
germination of the grain next underneath, to the
thicknefs of an inch and a half. Oil that at Metz
people walked, without its giving the leaft w’ay. At
Sedan was a granary cut in a rock, wherein a heap of
corn was preferved a hundred and ten years : it was
covered with a cruft a foot thick.
For die prefervation of corn, the firft method is to
let it remain in the fpike : the only expedient for con¬
veying it to the iflands and provinces of America. The
inhabitants of thofe countries fave it in the 'ear, and
raife it to maturity by that precaution : but this me¬
thod cf preferving it is attended with feveral incon-
veniencies among us; corn is apt to rot or fprout, if
any the leaft moifture is in the heap j the rats likewife
infeft it, and our want of ftraw alfo obliges us to fepa-
rate the grain from the ear. The fecond is to turn out
and winnow it frequently^ or to pour it through a
trough or mill-hopper, from one floor to another j be¬
ing thus moved and aired every 15 days, for the firft
6 months, it will require lefs labour for the future, if
lodged in a dry place : but if, through negleft, mites
fhould be allowed to ilide into the heap, they will foon
reduce the corn to a heap of duft : this muft be avoid¬
ed by moving the corn anew, and rubbing the places
adjacent with oils and herbs, whofe flrong odour may
ebace them away; for which garlic and dwarf-elder
-■re very efTeftual y they may likewife be expofed to
the open fun, which immediately kills them. When
the corn has been preferved from all impurities for
the fpace of two years, and has exhaled all its fires, it
may be kept for 50 or even 100 years, by lodging it
in pit? covered with ftrong planks clofely joined to¬
gether } but the fafer u'ay is to cover the heap with
quicklime, which fhould be dilfolved by fprinkling it
over with a fmall quantity of water; this caufes the
grains to {hoot to the depth of two or three fingers j
and inclofes them with an incruftation, as above men¬
tioned, through which neither air nor infefts can pa-
netrate.
Indian Corn, or Maize. See Zea, Botany Index.
Corn Butterfli/, method cf deftroying it. See A-
CR i culture Index.
CoRN-Crah. See Rallus, Ornithology Index.
Corn Mill, a water-engine for grinding corn. See
Mechanics.
Corn, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
CORNS, in Surgery, hard excrefcences, confifting
cf indurations of the fkin arifing on the toes, and fome-
times on the fides of the feet, where they are much
expofed to the preflure of the fhoes. By degrees they
prefs therofelves farther down, between the mufcular
fibres on thefe parts, and by their irritation occafion
extreme pair. Many cures have been preferibed, but
the total removal of them is always found to be at¬
tended with great difficulty. It has been recommended
to foften them with plafters, and then to pull them up
by the roots, to apply caufiic, &c. but the beft cure is
iu bath them frequently in warm water, and pare away
as much as poffible of the indurated fkin without draw¬
ing blood.
CORNAGE, an ancient tenure, the fervice where-
5
of was to blow a horn when any invafion of the Scots Con ,
was perceived. This tenure vTas very frequent in the ||!?
northern counties near the Pifts wall 5 but bv ftat. Coir'ti
12 Car. II. all tenures are converted into free and^*"^
common focage.— An old rental calls cornage, newt,
geldt, q. d. neat-geld. Lord Coke lays, in old books it
is called horngeld.
CORNARISTS, in ecclefiaftlcal hiftorv, the dif-
ciples of Theodore Cornhert, an enthufiaftic fecretavy
fcf the ftates of Holland. Fie wrote at the fame time
againft the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinifts. He
maintained that every religious communion needed
reformation 5 but he added, that no perfon had a right
to engage in accompliftiing it without a mifiion fup-
ported by miracles. He was alfo of opinion, that a
perfon might be a good Chrifiian without being a
member of any vifible church.
CORNARIUS, or HaGuenbot, John, a celebra¬
ted German phyfician, born at Zwickow in Saxony.
His preceptor made him change his nr-me of Haguen-
bot to that of Cornarius, under which he is moft
known. At 20 years of age he taught grammar, and
explained the Greek and Latin poets and orators to
his fcholars; and at 23 was licentiate in medicine.
He found fault with moft of the remedies provided
by the apothecaries 5 and obferving, that the greateft
part of the phyficians taught their pupils only what is
to be found in Avicenna, Rhafis, and other Arabian
phyficians, he carefully fought for the writings of the
beft phyficians of Greece, and employed about 15 years
in translating them into Latin, especially the works of
Hippocrates, Aetius, Eginetes, and a part of thofe of
Galen. Meanwhile he praffifed phyfic with reputa¬
tion at Zwickow, Frankfort, Marpurg, Nordhaufen,
and Jena, where he died of an apoplexy in 1558,
aged 58. He alfo wrote feme medicinal trealifes j
publiftied editions of feme poems of the ancients on
medicine and botany ; and tranflated feme of the
works of the fathers, particularly thofe of Bafil, and a
part of thofe of Epiphanius.
CORNARO, Lewis, a Venetian of noble extrac¬
tion, memorable for having lived healthful and a&ive
to above 100 years of age by a rigid courfe of tempe¬
rance. By the ill condufl of fome of his relations he
was deprived of the dignity of a noble Venetian $ and
feeing himfelf excluded from all employments under
the republic, he fettled at Padua. In his youth he
was of a weak conftitution ; and by irregular indul¬
gence reduced himfelf at about 40 years of age to
the brink of the grave, under a complication of difor-
ders ; at which extremity he was told that he had no
other chance for his fife but by becoming fober and
temperate. Being wife enough to adopt this wholo-
fome counfel, he reduced himfelf to a regimen of which
there are very few examples. He allowed himfelf no
more than 12 ounces of food and 14 ounces of liquor
each day ; which became fo habitual to him, that when
he was above 70 years of age, the experiment of add¬
ing two ounces to each by the advice of his friends,
had like to have proved fatal to him. At 83 he wrote
a treatife which has been tranflated into Englilh, and
often printed, entitled, “ Sure and Certain Methods of
attaining a Long and Healthful Life in which he re-*
lates his own ftory, and extols temperance to a degree
of enthufiafm. At length the yolk of an egg became
fuffioieHt.
C O R [ 667 ] COR
a] lufficient for a meal, and fometimes for two, until he When a Campanian lady made once a {how of her
died with much eafe and compofure in 1566. The jewels at Cornelia’s houfe, and entreated her to favour
nf the Spectator, N0 iq;, confirms the fact her with a fight of her own, Cornelia produced her
two fons, faying, “ Thefe are the only jewels of which
I can boafi.”
w Cornelia Lex, de civitate, rvas enadted, in the year
of Rome 670, by L. Corn. Sylla. It confirmed the
Sulpician law, and required that the citizens of the
eight newly eledted tribes (hould be divided among the
35 ancient tribes.—Another, de judicus, in 673, by the
fame. It ordained, that the praetor {hould always ob-
ferve the fame invariable method in judicial proceed¬
ings, and that the procefs fliould not depend upon his
will.-—Another de fimptibus, by the fame. It limited
the expences which generally attended funerals.—A-
nother de retigione, by the fame, in 677. It reltorsd to
the college of priefis the privilege of choofing the
priefts, which by the Domitian law had been lodged
in the hands of the people.—Another, de municipus, by
the fame ; which revoked all the privileges which had
been iome time before granted to the ieveral towns
that had afiifted Marius and Cinna in the civil wars.-—-
Another de mcgiflratibus, by the fame ; which gave
the power of bearing honours, and being promoted be¬
fore the legal age, to thofe who had followed the tr«
tereft of Sylla ; while the fons and partizans of his
enemies, who had been prcfcribed, were deprived of
the privilege of {landing for any office in the irate.-
Cornelia.
writer of the Spectator, N° 195, confirms the fact
from the authority of the Venetian ambaffador at that
time, who was a defeendant of the Comaro family.
CORNAVII, (Ptolemy), a people of Britain be¬
ginning in the very heart of the ifland, and extending
to Cheiier. Now Warwick, V/orc-'jler, Salop, Stafford,
and Chef Arc (Camden).
CORNEA tunica, in Anatomy, the fecond coat of
the eye j fo called from its fubftance refembling the horn
of a lantern, in Latin cornu. See Anatomy Index.
CORNEILLE, Peter, a celebrated French poet,
was born at Rouen in the year 1606. He was brought
up to the bar, which.he attended for fome little time ;
•but formed with a genius too elevated for fuch a pro-
feflion, and having no turn for buiinefs, he foon de-
ferted it. An affair of gallantry occafioned his writ¬
ing his firit piece, entitled Melite; which had prodi¬
gious fuccefs. Encouraged by the applaufe of the
public, he wrote the Cid, and the other tragedies that
have immortalized his name. In his dramatic works
he difeovers a majelty, a {Length and elevation of ge¬
nius, fcarce to be found in any other of the French
.poets ; and, like our • immortal Shakefpeare, feems
better acquainted with nature than with the rules of
‘critics. Corneille was received into the French aca¬
demy in 1647, and died dean of that academy in 1684,
aged 78. Befides his dramatic pieces, he wrote, a
Iranflation, in French verfe, of the “ Imitation of Jefus
Chrift,” &c. The befit edition of his works is that of
1682, in 4 vols 12mo.
CORNEILLE, Thomas, brother of the former, was a
member of the French academy and of. that of inferip-
tions. He difeovered in his youth a great inclination
to poetry 5 and at length publifiied feveral dramatic
pieces in 5 vols i2mo, feme of which were applauded
by the public, and a£led with fuccefs. He alfo wrote,
1. A tranflation of Ovid’s Metamorphofes, and fome
•of Ovid’s Epiftties; 2. Remarks on Vauglas ; 3•
Diclionary of Arts, 2 vols folio 5 and, 4. An Uni-
verfal Geographical and Hiftorical Diftionary, in 3
vols folio.
Corneille, Michael, a celebrated painter, was born
■at Paris in the year 1642 > and_was infirudled by ids
father, who vras himfelf a painter of great merit.
Having gamed a prize at the academy, young Corneille
obtained a penfion from Louis XIV. j anu was fent to
Rome, where that prince had founded a fchooi xor
young artifts of genius. Having ftudied there^ lome
time, he gave up his penfion, and applied to the an¬
tique with great care. He is laid to have equalled
Carache in drawing, but in colouring he was deficient.
Upon his return from Rome, he was choien picfeiior
in the academy of Paris} and was employed by the
above prince in all the great works he was carrying
on at Verfailles and Trianon, where are ftill to be ieen
fome noble efforts of his genius.
CORNEL-tree. See Cornus, Botany Index.
CORNELIA, daughter of Scipio Africanus, was
the mother of Tiberius and Caiifr Graccnus. one was
courted by a king, but (he preferred being the wife
of a Roman citizen to that of a monarch. Her ik-
tues have been dtfervedly commended, as well as toe
wholefome principles (he. inculcated in her two iono.
Another de magijlratibus, by the fame, in 673. It or¬
dained, that no perfon {hould exercife the lame office
within ten years diftance, or be inveffed with two dif¬
ferent magifiracies in one year.—Another, de magifra-
tibus, by the fame, in 673* It divefted the tribunes
of the privilege of making laws, interfering, holding
affemblies, and receiving appeals. All fuch as had
been tribunes were incapable of holding any other of¬
fice in the fiate by that law.—Another, ds majefate, by
the fame, in 670. It made it treafon to lend an army
out of a province or engage in a war without orders,
to influence the foldiers to (pare or rsnfom a captive
general of the enemy, to pardon the leaders of robbers
or pirates, or for the abfence of a Roman citizen to a
foreign court without previous leave. 1 he punifhment
was aqiue el ignis interdibiio.—Another by the fame.
It gave the power to a man accufed of murder, either
by poifon, weapons, or falfe accufations, and the fet-
ting fire to buildings, to choofe whether the jury that
tried him fliould give their verdicr clam or palam, viva
voce, or by ballot. Another by the fame, which made
it aqiue et ignis interdiEiio to fuch as were guilty of for¬
gery, concealing and altering of wills, corruption, xalle
accufations, and the debafing or counterfeiting of^ the
public coin. All fuch as were acceffory to this offence
were deemed as guilty as the offender.—-Another, de
pecuniis repetundis ; by which a man conviefed of pecu¬
lation or extortion in the provinces was condemned to
fuffer the aqiue et ignis interdiclio.—Another, by.the
fame; which gave the power to fuch as were lent into
the provinces with any government, of retaining their
command and appointment without a renewal of it by
the fenate, as w as before obferved.—Another by . the
fame-, which ordained, that the lands of proferibed
perfons (houlfl be common, efpecially thofe about Vo-
] a tense and Fefulae in Etruria, which Sylla divided
■&mo\w his foldiers.—Another by C. Cornelius tribune
0 x4?2 of
Cornelia
Cornicu-
lurn.
G O Ft
of the people, in 685. It ordained, that no perfon
fhould be exempted from any law according to the
general cuftom, unlefs 200 fenators were prefent in the
fenate ; and no perfon thus exempted could hinder
the bill of his exemption from being carried to the
people for their concurrence.—Another, by Naffica, in
582, to make war againft Perfeus, fon of Philip king
or Macedon, it he did not give proper fatisfaftion to
the Roman people.
CORNELIAN. See Carnelian.
CORNER, in a general fenfe, the fame with Angle.
CORNET, in the military art of the ancients, an
inftrument much in the nature of a trumpet j which
when it only founded, the enfigns were to march alone
without the foldiers} whereas when the trumpet only
founded, the foldiers were to move without the enfigns.
I he cornets and buccinae founded the charge and re¬
treat ; and the cornets and trumpets founded during the
ecurfe of the battle. See Plate CLXIV.
Cornet, in modern military economy, denotes an
svfficer in the cavalry w?ho bears the enfign or colours of
a troop.
d he cornet is the third officer in the company, and
commands in the ablencc of the captain and lieutenant,
lie takes his title from his enfign, which is fquare *,
and is fuppofed to be called by that name from cornu,
becaufe placed on the wings, w7hich form a kind of
points or horns of the army. Others derive the name
trom coronet; alleging, that it was the ancient cuftom
for thefe officers to wear coronets or garlands on their
heads.
_ CORNEUS, the name by which Linnaeus calls a
kind of tin ore, found in black columns, with irregu¬
lar fides, and terminating in prifms.
CORNICHE, Cornish, or Cornice, in Architec¬
ture, the uppermoft member of the entablature of a
column, as that which crowns the order. See Ar¬
chitecture, Chap. I. and the Plates.
Corniche, is alfo ufed, in general, for all little
proje&ures in mafonry or joinery, even where there
are no columns, as the corniche of a chimney, beau-
fet, &c.
Corniche Ring, in a piece of ordnance, is that next
from the muzzle-ring, backward.
CORNICULARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the
Roman army, whofe bufinefs was to aid and affift the
military tribune in quality of a lieutenant.
The cornicularii \vent the rounds in lieu of the tri¬
bune, vifited the watch, and were nearly what the aids
major are in the French army.
x he denomination corniculanus was given them from
a> IjtCe horn, called cormculum, which they ufed in
giving orders to the foldiers: though Salmafius de¬
rives it from corniculum, the creft of a head-piece j it
being an obfervation of Pliny, that they wore iron or
brais horns on their helmets j and that tjiefe were called
cornicula.
In the Notitia Imperii we find a kind of fecrelary or
regifter of the fame name. His bufinefs was to attend
the judge, and enter down his fentiments and decifions.
I he critics derive the word, in this fenfe, from corm¬
culum, a little horn to put ink in.
CORNICULUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
khe Sabines, to the eaft of Cruflumerium, towards the
Anio, It was burnt down by Tarquin; but rcfloved
COR
again, after the expulfion of the kings, (Floras). Now Comics
in ruins, called ilMonte Genaro, (Holftenius). lum
CORNISH DIAMOND, a name given by many peo- r il
pie to the cryfials found in digging the mines of tin in 1 0rnff^
Cornwall. See Cornwall.
CORNIX, the trivial name of a fpecies of Corvus,
See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
CORNU. See Horn.
Cornu Ammonis, in Natural Hi/lory, foffil {hells,
called alfo ferpent-Jlones, or fnakc-Jlones.
They are found of all fizes, from the breadth of a
fixpence to more than two feet in diameter, and'fome
even larger j fome of them rounded, others greatly
compreffed, and lodged in different ffrata of ftones and
clays; fome again are fmoolh, and others varioufty
ridged, their ftriae and ridges being either ftraight, irre¬
gularly crooked, or undulated. See Snaee-Stones.
Cornu Cervi. See Hartshorn.
CORNUCOPIA, among the ancient poets, a horn
out of which proceeded plenty of all things ; by a par¬
ticular privilege which Jupiter granted his nuife, fup-
poied to be the goat" Amalthea. The fable is thus
interpreted : That in Libya there is a little territory
fiiaped not unlike a bullock’s horn, exceedingly fertile,
given by King Ammon to his daughter, Amalthea,
whom the poets feign to have been Jupiter’s nurfe.
In ArchiteBure and Sculpture the cornucopia, or
horn of plenty, is reprefented under the figure of a
large horn, out of which iffuc fruits, Sowers, &c. On
medals, F. Joubert obferves, the cornucopia is given to
all deities.
CORNUCOPIiE, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the triandria clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 4:h order, Gramince. See
Eotany Index.
CORNUS, Cornel-tree, Cornelian Cherry, or
Dog-wood •, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 47th order, Stellatce.
CORNUTIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 40th order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
CORNWALL, the moll wefterly county of Eng¬
land, bounded by the Britilh channel on the f:uth,
and the Brifiol channel on the north, the two feas meet¬
ing near the Land’s End 6n the weft, and on the eaft
by the river Tamar, which feparates it from Devon-
fhire. Its name is fuppofed by fome to be compound¬
ed of cam, fignifying “ a rock” in the Britifh lan¬
guage, and Gauls or Waules, the name the Saxons
gave to the Britons. Others, however, think it is
derived from the Latin cornu, or the Britifii iern, “ a
horn;” on account of its running out into the fea
fomewhat in the form of a horn. Blither the ancient
Britons (as well as in Wales) retired on the intrufion
of the Saxons, where they oppofed their further con-
quefts. In this part of the ifland they formed a king¬
dom that exifted for many years after under different
princes, amongft whom were Ambrofius Aurelius, and
the juftly celebrated Arthur; nor were they fub-
dued till the middle of the 7th century, from which
time Cornwall was confidered as fubjedt to the Weft
Saxon kings, who began their fovereignty in 519,
and continued it till 828, under 18 fovereigns,
the hit of whom was the great Egbert, who fub-
dwe4‘
[ 668 ]
1
COR
11. (Jued all the others j and by uniting them,
—J the kingdom of England, when this country was in¬
cluded in the county of Devon, then the 9th divifion j
and that accounts for Alfred’s not mentioning Corn¬
wall, which, on forming the circuits after the Norman
conqueft, is included in the weilern circuit. In 1337,
Edward III. eredled it into a dukedom, and invelted
with it Edward the B/ack Prince. But this, according
to the exprefs words of the grant, is limited to the
tirft born fon and heir, on which account Richard II.
was created duke of Cornwall by charter. So was
Henry V. by his father Henry IV. Henry VI. de¬
livered the duchy to his fon Prince Edward,' and Ed¬
ward IV. created his fon Edward V. duke of Cornwall,
as did Henry VII. his fon, afterwards Henry VIIL
upon the death of his elder brother Arthur. James I.
created his fon Henry duke of Cornwall, which title
on his deceafe came to his brother Charles. The cl-
deft fons of fucceeding kings have enjoyed this title by
inheritance. Thefe not only appoint the flierifF, but all
writs, deeds, -&c. are in their name, and not in the
king’s j and they have alfo peculiar royalties and pre¬
rogatives dillindt from the crown, for which they ap¬
point the officers. This county is 80 miles long, 40
broad, and 250 in circumference ; containing 960,000
acres, and 126,000 inhabitants. It is divided into
9 hundreds; has 27 market towms, viz. Launcefton,
Truro, Falmouth, Helfton, Saltafh, Bodmyn, St Ives,
Tregony, Camelford, Fovvey, St Germains, Penryn,
Callington, St Auftle, Eaft Looe, Padftow, St Co-
lomb, Penfance, Grampond, Lefkard, Leftwithiel, St
Mawes, St Michael, Newport, Market Jew, Stratton,
and Redruth j 1230 villages, 191 parishes, 89 vica¬
rages: provides 640 men to the militia, and pays 8 parts
of the land-tax. Its chief rivers are the lamar, Fale,
Cober, Looe, Camel, Fowe, Haile, Lemara, Kenfe,
and Aire. Its principal capes or headlands are the
Land’s-end, the Lizard, Cape Cornwall, Headman’s-
head, Rame-head, &c. and a duller of iflands, 144 in
number, called the Sally IJIes, fuppefed formerly to
have been joined to the main land, though now' 30
miles diflant} abounding with antiquities, particularly
druidical.
As Cornwall is furrounded by the fea on all fides
except the eaft, its climate is fomewhat different frorn
that of the other parts of Britain. The reafons ot
this difference will be eafily underftood from w’hat is
obferved concerning the climate of America. I he
fummers in Cornwall are lefs hot, and the w'inters lefs
cold, than in other parts of England, and the fpring
and harveft are obferved to be more backw'nrd. High
and fudden winds are^alfo more common in this than
in other counties of England. 1. he county is rocky
and mountainous j but the mountains are rich in me¬
tals, efpecially tin and copper. !he valleys are very
pleafant and fertile, yielding great plenty both of corn
and pafture. The lands near the fea-coaft are J03*
nured and fertilized with fea-weed, and a kind of fand
iormed by the particles of broken {hells as they are
dafhed againft each other by the fea. Cattle of ail
forts are fmaller here than in the other counties of
England j and the wool of the fheep, which are rnoidy
without horns, is very fine, and the fleih, both or them
and the black cattle, extremely delicate.. The coun¬
ty is well fiipplitd with fifh from the. fea and the many
[ 669 ] C O R
formed rivers with which it is watered. The meft noted of ^ Cornwall.
the fea-fifh is the pilchard; of which prodigious quan- ^
titles are caught from July to November, and export¬
ed to different parts, efpecially to Spain. It is faid that
a million have been fometimes taken at a fingle draught.
The natives are remarkable for their ftrength and ac¬
tivity, as well as their dexterity in wreftling, in which
exercife the Cornifh hug is highly extolled.
This county has been long famous for its mines of
different metals ; but the principal produce is tin.
The Phenicians'early vifited thefe coafts for this ar¬
ticle, fome think 400 or 450 years before Chrift 3 and
the mines continued to be wrought with various fuc-
cefs at different periods. In the time of King John
they appear to have yielded no great emolument; the
right of w'orking them being wholly in the king as
earl of Cornwall, and the mines farmed by the Jew's
for roo merks 3 and according to this proportion the
10th of it, 61. 13s. 4d. is at this day paid by the
crown to the bifhop of Exeter. In the time of Rich¬
ard king of the Romans and earl of Cornwall, the tin-
mines were immenfely rich 3 the Jews being farmed out
to him by his brother Henry III. what intereft they
had was at his difpofal. The Spanifh tin-mines being
flopped by the Moors, and none difeovered in Ger¬
many, the Malabar coaft, or the Spanifh Weft Indies,
Cornwall an<J its earls had all the trade of Europe for
it. The Jews being banifhed the kingdom, 18 Edw. I,
they wTere again neglefled till the gentlemen of Black-
more, lords of feven tithings beft ftored at that time
with tin, obtained of Edmund earl of Cornwall, fon of
Richard king of the Romans, a charter under his own
feal, with more explicit grants of privileges, courts,
pleas, parliaments, and the toll-tin or YTTth of all the
tin railed. At this time too the right of bounding or
dividing tin-grounds into feparate partitions for the
encouragement of fearching for it feems to have been
firft appointed, or at leaf! adjufted. This charter was
confirmed 33 Edward I. and the Cornifh fepavated
from the Devonfhire tinners. Their law’s, particular¬
ly recited in Plowden’s Commentaries, p. 237, were
further explained 50 Edw. III. confirmed and en¬
larged by parliament, 8 Rich. II. 3 Ed. IV. 1 Ed. VI..
1 and 2 P. and M. and 2 Eliz. and the w’hole fo-
ciety divided into four parts under one general warden
to do juftice in law and equity, from whofe fentence
lies an appeal to the duke of Cornw'all in council, or
for want of a duke of Cornw’all to. the crown. The
lord-w'arden appoints a vice-warden to determine all
ftannery difputes every month : he alfo conftitutes four
ftewards, one for each of the precinfts before men¬
tioned, who hold their courts every three, weeks, and
decide by juries of fix perfons* with an appeal referved
to the vice-warden, lord wrarden, and lord of the prince’s
council. In difficult cafes the lord-warden, by com-
miffion, iffues his precept to the four principal towns
of the ftannery diftridls, who each chccfe fix members 3
and thefe tw'enty-four ftanr.ators conftitute the pailia-
ment of tinners. Each ftannator choofes an affiftant,
making a kind of {landing council in a different apart¬
ment to give information to the prince. Whatever •
is enadfed by the body of tinners muff be figned by
the ftannators, the lord-warden, or his deputy, and
by the duke or the king, and thenceforw'ard has with
regard to tin affaus all the authority of an a<ff of the-
whole-
COR [ 670 ] CO R
•Cornwall.
whole legislature. Five towns are appointed in the
moll convenient parts of the county for the tinners to
bring their tin to every quarter of a year. Thefe are
Lelkard, Leftwithiel, Truro, Heliton, and Penfance,
the laid added by Charles II. for the conveniency of
the weftern tinners. In the time of Henry VIII.
there were but two coinages at Midfummer and Mi¬
chaelmas ; two more at Chriftmas and Lady-day were
added, for which the tinners pay an acknowledgment
called Pq/2 grocis., or qd. for every hundred of white
tin then coined. The officers appointed by the duke
allay it j and if well purified ftamp it by a hammer
with the duchy leal, the arms of Richard earl of Corn¬
wall, a lion rampant G. crowned O. within a bordure
of bezants S ; and this is a permiffion to the coiner to
fell, and is called coining the tin. Every hundred of
white tin fo coined pays to the duke 4s. The tin of
the whole county, which, in Carew’s time, in the laft
century, amounted to 30,000!. or 40,000!. yearly, has
for 24 years laft paft amounted one year with another
to i8o;OOol. or 190,000!. fterllng. Of this the duke
of Cornwall receives for his 4s. duty on every hundred
of white tin above 10,cool, yearly: the bounders or
proprietors of the foil about -gth at a medium clear,
or about 30,000k yearly j the remainder goes to the
adventurers in the mine, who are at all the charge of
working. Tin is found collected and fixed in lodes
and floors, or in grains and bunches in the natural
rock, or loofe and detached in {Ingle feparate ftones
called Jhodes orJirearns, or in a continued courfe of fuch
ftones called the beuheyl or living Jlream, or in an are¬
naceous pulverized ftate. It is moft eafiiy difcovered
by tracing the lodes by the fcattered fragments of them
called foodcs, by leave of the lord of the foil or the
bounder. The tin being divided among the lords and
adventurers, is ftamped and worked at the mill; and
being thus drefted is carried under the name of black
tin to the melting-houfe, where it is melted by Welffi
pit-coal, and poured into blocks of 3201b. weight, and
carried to the coinage town. Mundic, a fcarce metal
or mineral ore, of a white, brafiy, or brown colour, is
found in large quantities, intermixed with tin, copper,
and lead, and Ibmetimes by itfelf. Iron ore is found
in Cornwall, but the working it does not anfwer.
There is no richer copper, nor a greater variety, any
where than in this county. Silver, if really found
here in the reigns of Edward I. and II. has been rare¬
ly found fince, nor do the lead mines anfwer. Very
late difccveries have proved that Cornwall has more
gold than was formerly imagined. What is called the
Cornijh diamond is a figured cryftal generally hexagonal
and pyramidical, or columnar, or both, of a fine clear
water, and of all our baftard diamcncL m this nation
efteemed the beft, and tome of different colours, black,
yellow, &c. The clearer thefc are, the better they
will bear engraving for feals.
In privileges and language Cornwall xeeras to be
another kingdom. By 21 Elizabeth it was ordered
that all duty on Ccrnifh cloth exported ffiould be re¬
mitted to every Englishman within the duchy of Corn¬
wall. This was firft granted by tire Black Piince,
in confideratlon of their paying 4?. for the coinage of
every hundred.of tin; whereas Devonikire pays no
more than 8J. They have allb by grant from Richard
earl of Cornwall, confirmed 25 Henry III. freedom to
take fand out of the fea and carry it through the Conn-
country for manure; whereupon in the following ||'
reign, on an inquifition made, we find a complaint that^llaf
Saltaih had lately taken 12s. yearly for each barge ^
that carried fand up .the Tamar ; whereas nothing
ought to have been demanded. They ftill continue
this ancient method of improving their land, carrying
it ten miles up into the country, and great part of
the way on horfes backs. Mr Ray fuppofes the vir¬
tue of this fand depends chiefly on the fait mixed
with it, which is fo copious that in many places fait
-is boiled up out of a lixivium made of the fea fand ;
and the reafon why fand when it has lain long in the
fun and wind proves lefs enriching and ufeful is, that
the dews and rain evaporate great part of its fait.
They had. likewife a privilege of trading to all parts
of the world, granted them by Charles I. in recom-
penfe of their loyalty.
The number of boroughs in this fmall county was
greatly increafed by Edward VI. who added feven
to the original fix, Mary two, Elizabeth fix, making
in all 2r, fending 40 members befides the county two.
Eight of thefe boroughs had an immediate or re¬
mote conneclion with the demefne lands of the duchy ;
the reft belonged to religious houfes, or powerful fa¬
milies, or were old boroughs, which had legal immu¬
nities granted to them by their princes or lords.
The Corniih language is a dialed! of that which
till the Saxons came in was common to all Britain,
and more anciently to Ireland and Gaul; but the in¬
habitants of this ifland being difpeifed before thofe
conquefts, and driven into Wales and Cornwall, and
thence into Bretagne, the fame language, for want of
frequent intercourle, became differently pronounced
and written, and in different degrees mixed with dif¬
ferent languages. Hence came the Welfli, the Cornifti
and the Armoric dialedls, whofe radicals are fo much
alike that they are known and admitted by the inha- ;
bitants of either country ; but the grammar fo varied
that they cannot converfe. The Corniih is reckoned
the moft pleafing of the three. It was fpoken fo ge¬
nerally here down to the reign of Henry VIII. that Dr
John Moreman, vicar of Mynhinet, is faid to have
been the firft who taught his parifhioners the Lord’s
prayer, the creed, and ten commandments in Eng-
lilh, and at the Reformation the natives defired the
fervice in Engliih. The older people in fome pariflies
retained their original language to the middle of the
laft century : and the laft fermon was preached in it
in 1678. When Mr Ray was here, 1662, he could
find but one perfon who could write this language ;
and it is now fo nearly extinft, that Mr Barrington,
in 1768, could only find one old woman who could
fcold in it, and flie. is fince dead.
CORODY. bee Revenue.
COROLLA, among botanifts, the moft confpicu-
cus part of a flower, furrounding the organs of gene-
ration, and compofed of one or more flower-leaves,
moft commonly called petals, to diftinguifh them from
the leaves of the plant ; according as there is one, two,
or three of thefe petals, the corolla is faid to be arono-
petalous, dipetalous, tiipetalous, Sec.
COROLLARY is a confequence drawn from fome-
thing already advanced or demonftrated : thus, it be¬
ing dernonftrated that a triangle which has two equal
fides,
roro
dd
-r J
COR [
fide', lias alfo two angles equal 5 this corollary will fol¬
low that a triangle which has three fides equal, has alfo
its three angles equal.
COROLIST/E, a name by which Linnaeus diftin-
guidies thofe fyllematic botanifts who have arranged
vegetables from the regularity; figure, number, and
other circutnflances, of the petals, or beautiful coloured
leaves of the flowers. The befl: iyftems of this kind are
thofe of Rivinus and Tournefort. The former proceeds
upon the regularity and number of the petals ; the lat¬
ter, with much more certainty, on their regularity and
figure.
COROLLULA, a term ufed by botanifts to exprefs
the little partial flowers which make up the compound
6/
]
C O K
there. They were not difeouraged either by the dif- Coroman-
ficulty of conveying goods from the inland parts of the >
country, where there was no navigable river; by the
total want of harbours, where the fea at one feafon
of the year is not navigable ; by the barrennefs of the
coafts, for the moft part uncultivated and uninhabited y
nor by the tyranny and fludlualing ftate of the go¬
vernment. They thought-that ftlver would be indu-
ftrioufly fought after; that Pegu would furnifh timber
for building, and Bengal corn for fubfiftenee ; that a
profpercus voyage of nine months would be more
than fufficient to complete their ladings; and that by
fortifying them (elves they ftrould be fecure againfl
the attacks of the weak tyrants that oppreffed thefe
ones. ^
COROMANDEL, the eaftern coaft of the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges in Afia. It is bounded-
on the north by Golconda, on the eaft by the bay of
Bengal, on the fouth by Madura, and on the weft by
Bifnacrar. This coaft fo much refembles that of O-
rixa, that the Abbe Raynal choofes to confider them
as one, and gives to both the general name of Coro¬
mandel. Here an exceffive heat reigns from the be¬
ginning of May to the end of Oftober. It begins at
nine in the morning, and continues till nine in the
evening. During the night it is arlayed by a fea-bieeiS
from the feuth-eaft ; and moft commonly this refrefh-
ing gale begins at three in tile afternoon. Xhe air is
left inflamed during the reft of the year, though in ail
feafons it is very hot. It rains almoft continually^ du¬
ring the months of ^November and Deccmoer. Xhis
immenfe tra£l is covered with a parched fand. for the
extent of two miles, and fometimes only one mile along
the coaft.
This country was at firft neglefted by the Europe¬
ans for many reafons. It was feparated by inacce;-
fible mountains from Malabar, where theie boid ad¬
venturers endeavoured to fettle themfelves. . Spices
and aromatics, which were the principal objefts of
their attention, were not to be found there.. In fhort,
civil diffenfions had banifhed from it tranquillity,, fecu-
rity, and induftry. At that period the empire of
Bifnagar, to which this vaft country was.fubjedl, was
falling to ruin. The governors of Vifapour, the
Carnatic, Galconda, and Orixa, threw off their depen¬
dence, and affumed the title of. kings. X hole or
Madura, Tanjore, Myfore, Gmgi, and fome othms,
likewife ufurped the fovereign authority., though they
retained their ancient title of Nnick. X his revolution
had juft happened when the Europeans appeared on
the coaft of Coromandel. The foreign trade, was at
that time inconfiderable ; it confifted only of diamonds
from Golconda, which were carried to Gahcut ano
S'urat, and from thence to Ormus. or Suez, whence
they were circulated through all Europe and A ia.
Maffulipatan, the richeft and moft popumus city ot
thefe countries, was the only market that was known
for linens; they were purchafed at a great fair an¬
nually holden there by the Arabian and Malayan ve-
fels that frequented that bay, and by caravans arns e
from diftant parts. The linens were exported to the
fame places with the diamonds. 'Xhe fondnefs for the
manufa&ures of Coromandel, which began to prevm
here, infpired all the European nations trading to the
Indian feas with the refolution of forming teiUements
countries.
The firft European colonies were eftablifhed near
the (here. Seme of them obtained a fettiement by
force ; moft of them were formed with the confent
cf the fovereigns; and all were confined to a very
narrow tra£f of land. The boundaries of each vera
marked out by a hedge cf thorny plants, which was
their only defence. In proccfs of time fortification's
were raifed ; and the fecurity derived from them,
added to the lenity of the government, foon increafed
the number of colonifts. The fpleridor and indepen¬
dence of thefe fettlements feveral times raifed the jea-
loufy of the princes in whofe dominions they were
formed; but their attempts to demolifh them proved
abortive. Each colony increafed in profperity in pro¬
portion to the riches and the wifdom of the nation
that founded it. None of the companies that exer-
cifed an exclufive privilege beyond the Cape of Good
Hope had any concern in the trade of diamonds. Xhis
was always left to private merchants, and by degrees
fell entirely into the hands of the Englilh, or the Jews
and Armenians that lived under their proteftion. At
prefent this, grand objedl of luxury and induftry is much
reduced. The revolutions that have happened in In-
doftan have prevented people from reforting to thefe
rich mines; and the anarchy in which this unhappy
country is plunged leaves no room to hope that they
will be again attended to. The whole of the com¬
mercial operations on the coaft of Coromanael is con¬
fined to the purchafe of cottons. The man u fa during
of the white cotton brought there differs fo little from
ours, that it would be neither interefling nor inftruc-
tive to enter into a minute defeription of it. The-
procefs ufed jn making their printed coutons, winch
was at firft fervilely followed in Europe, has fince
been rendered more iimple, and brought to greater
perfefhon by our manufaclurctS. Lne painted cot¬
tons which are brought thither we have no'i yet attempt¬
ed to imitate. Thofe who imagine we have been
prevented from undertaking this branch merely by
the high price of labour among us, are miftaken. Na¬
ture has not given us the wild fruits and drugs necef-
fary for the compofition of thofe bright.and indelible
colours which conftitute the principal merit of the In¬
dian manufactures; nor has the furniftied us with the
waters that ferve to fix them. The Indians do not
univerfally obferve the fame method in painting their
cottons; either becaufe there are fome niceties pecu¬
liar to certain provinces, or becaufe different foils pro¬
duce different drugs for different ufes. We fhould
tire the patience of cur readers were we to trace the
C G Pi
H.VH-ftmjM-
del.
Ganges
fioiv ana pninful progrefs of the Indians In the art of
painting their cottons. It is natural to believe that they
owe it to length of time, rather than to the fertility
of ihsir genius. What feems to authorife this conjec¬
ture is, that they have Hopped in their improvements,
and have not advanced a fingle Hep in the arts for
many ages; whereas we have proceeded with ama¬
zing rapidity. Indeed, were vve to coniider only the
want of invention in the Indians, we Ihould be tempt¬
ed to believe, that, from time immemorial, they have
received the arts they cultivate from fomc more in-
duHrious nation ; but when it is remembered that
thefe arts have a peculiar dependence on the materials,
gums, colours, and productions of India, we cannot
but be convinced that they are natives of that country.
It may appear fomewhat furprifing that cottons paint¬
ed with all forts of colours Hiould be fold at fo moderate
a price, that they are almoft as cheap as thofe that have
only two or three. But it mail; be o'qferved, that the
merchants of the country fell to all the companies a
■large quantity of cottons at a time 5 and that the demand
for cottons painted with various colours makes but a
fmall article in their aflortments, as they are not much
edeemed in Europe,
Though cottons of all forts are in forre degree ma-
r.ufaftured through the whole country of Indoflan,
which extends from Cape Comorin to the banks of the
it is obfervable, that the fineft are made
the eaHern part, the common ones in the centre,
and the coarfe ones in the moil weftern parts. Ma¬
nufactures are eflablifhed in the European colonies,
and upon the coalt: they are more frequent at the
diflance of five or fix leagues from the fea, where cot¬
ton is more cultivated, and provifions are cheaper.
The purchafes made there are carried 30 or 40 leagues
farther into the country. The Indian merchants fet¬
tled in the European factories have always the ma¬
nagement of this bufinefs. The quantity and quality
of the goods wanted are fettled with thefe people :
the price is fixed according to the patterns: and at
the time a contrail is made, a third or fourth part
of the money agreed on is advanced. This arrange¬
ment is owing to the necefiity thefe merchants them-
felves are under of advancing money to the workmen
by the partners or agents who are difperfed through
the whole country of keeping a watchful eye upon
them, for fear of lofing what they have advanced j and
of gradually leffening the fum, by calling for the cot¬
tons as fafi as they are worked off. Without thefe
precautions, nothing could be depended on in an op-
preflive government, where the weaver cannot work
on'his own account, either becaufe his circumflances
will not permit, or becaufe he dares not venture to
difcover them for fear of exactions. The companies
that have either fuccefs or good management, con-
ftantly keep the Hock of one year in advance in their
fettlements. By this method they are fure of having
the quantity of goods they have occafion for, and of
the quality they choofe, at the mofi convenient time :
not to mention that their workmen, and their mer¬
chants, who are kept in conflant employment, never
leave them. Such nations as want money and credit
cannot begin their mercantile operations till the ar¬
rival of their {hips. They have only five or fix months
at molt to execute the orders fent from Europe. The
6
r 672 1 -coE
goods are manufaflured and examined in hafie j and C@fW
they are even obliged to take fuch as are known to be del,
bad, and would be rejected at any other time. The'—V**
necefiity they are under of completing their cargoes,
and fitting out their veffels before hurricanes come on,
leaves no room for nicety of infpe&ion. It would be
a mifiake to imagine that the country agents could be
prevailed upon to order goods to be made on their
account in hopes of felling them with a reafonable
advantage to the company with whom they are en¬
gaged, For, befides that the generality of them
are not rich enough to embark in fo large an un¬
dertaking, they would not be certain of finding their ac¬
count in it. If the company that employ them fiiould
be hindered by unforefeen accidents from fending the
tiiual number of fliips, thefe merchants would have no
vent for their commodities. The Indians, the form
of whofe drefs requires different breadths and lengths
from thofe of the cottons fabricated for our ufe, would
not purchafe them } and the other European compa¬
nies would be provided, or certain of being provided,
with whatever the extent of their trade required, and
their money enabled them to purchafe. The plan of
procuring loans, which was contrived to remedy this
inconvenience, never has nor can be ufeful. It has
been a cufiom, time immemorial, in Indoflan, for
every citizen who borrows money to give a written
inftrument to his creditor.. This deed is of no force
in a court of judicature, unlefs it is ligned by three
witneffes, and bears the day of the month and the
year when it was made, with the rate of interefi
agreed upon by the parties. If the borrower fails to
fulfil his engagements, he may be arrefled by the ■■
lender himfelf. He is never imprifoned, becaufs
there is no fear of his making his efcape. He would
not even eat, without obtaining leave of his creditor.
The Indians make a three-fold divifion of interefi:
one kind they call vice ; another neither vice nor vir¬
tue ; and a third, they fay, is virtue. The firft is four
per cent, a month ; the fecond two; and the third one.
The laid is, in their opinion, an adl of beneficence
that only belongs to the moft heroic minds. Yet,
though the Europeans, who are forced to borrow,
meet W’ith this treatment, it is plain they cannot avail
themfelves of the indulgence without being involved in
ruin.
The foreign trade of Coromandel is not in the hands
of the natives. In the wefiern part, indeed, there
are Mohammedans knowm by the name of ChaliaSy
who, at Naour and Porto-Nuovo, fend out {hips to
Acheen, Merguy, Siam, and the eaftern coaft. Befides
veffels of confiderable burden employed in thefe voy¬
ages, they have fmaller embarkations for the coafting
trade for Ceylon and the pearl fifhery. The Indians
of Maffulipatan turn their attention another way.
They import from Bengal w'hite calicoes, which they
dye or print, and fell them again at the places from
whence they had them, at 35 or 40 per cent, advan¬
tage. Excepting thefe tranfa&ions, which are of very
little confequence, the whole trade is veiled in the
Europeans, wdio have no partners but a few Banians
and Armenians fettled in their colonies. The quanti¬
ty of calicoes exported from Coromandel to the dif¬
ferent ports of India may be computed at 3500 bales.
Of thefe the French carry 8co to Malabar, Mocha,
and
Dior
de
^oro
-V
COR J[ 6^
ii. and the ifle of France •, the Englidi, 1200 to Bombay,
Malabar, Sumatra, and the Philippine idands; and the
_j Dutch 1500 to their different fettlements. Except
jOO bales deftined for Manila, each of the value of 100
guineas, the others are of fuch an ordinary kind that
they do rv. exceed 30 guineas at prime coft ; fo that
the whole number of bales does not amount to more than
about 150,000k
Coromandel furnifhes Europe with 9500 bales ; 800
of which are brought by the Danes, 2500 by the
French, 3000 by the Englifh, and 3200 by the Dutch.
A considerable part of thefe callicoes are dyed blue,
or ftriped blue and red for the African trade. The
Others are fine muflins, printed callicoes, and handker¬
chiefs from MafTulipatan, or Paliacate. It is proved by
experience that each of thefe bales cofts only about 42k
fterling ; confequenlly they ought to bring in to the
manufaftory where they are wrought near 360,000k
The payments are not entirely made in fpecie, either
in Europe or Afia j we give in exchange, cloths, iron,
lead, copper, coral, and fome other articles of lefs value.
On the other hand, Alia pays with fpices, pepper, rice,
fugar, corn, and dates. All thefe articles taken together
may amount to about 210,000k ; and from this calcu¬
lation it follows, that Coromandel receives annually
from Europe about 300,000k in money. The Britilh,
who have acquired the fame fuperiority on this coaft
that they have elfewhere, have formed on it feveral
fettlements.
CORONA, among anatomifls, denotes that edge of
the glans penis where the preputium begins.
CORONA, or J/a/o, in 0/>izcs, a luminous circle, fur¬
rounding the fun, the moon, the planets, or fixed ftars.
Sometimes thefe circles are white, and fometimes co¬
loured like the rainbow. Sometimes one only is vi¬
able, and fometimes feveral concentric coronas make
their appearance at the fame time. I hofe which have
been feen about Sirius and Jupiter were never more
than three, four, or five degrees in diameter j thole
which furround the moon are alfo fometimes no more
than three or five degrees j but thefe, as well as thofe
which furround the fun, are of very different magni¬
tudes, viz. of 12° o', 22° 35', 30° O', 38° O', 41* 2',
45° O', 46° 24', 47° o', and 90°, or even larger than
this. Their diameters alfo fometimes vary during the
time of obfervation, and the breadths both of the co¬
loured and white circles are very different, viz. of 2, 4,
or 7 degrees. .
The colours of thefe coronas are more dilute than
thofe of the rainbow ; and they are in a different or¬
der, according to their fize. In thofe which Newton
obferved in 1692, they were in the following order,
reckoned from the infide. In the innermoft were
blue, white, and red j in the middle were purple, blue,
green, yellow, and pale red ; in the outermoft, pale
blue and pale red. Mr Huygens oblerved red next
the fun, and a pale blue outw7ards. Sometimes they
are red on the infide and white on the outfide.. M.
Weidler obferved one that was yellow on the infide
and white on the outfide. In France, one was obfer¬
ved in 1683, the middle of which wTas white*, a ter
which followed a border of red j next to it was bnie,
then green, and the outermoft circle wras a bright red.
In 1728, one was feen of a pale red outwardly, then
Vol. VI. Part II.
3 ] C O R -
followed yellow, and then green, terminated by a ^
white.
Thefe coronas are very frequent. In Holland, M.
Mufchenbroeck fays, 50 may be feen in the day-time,
almoft every year j but they are difficult to be obfer¬
ved, except the eye be fo lituated, that not the body
of the fun, but only the neighbouring parts of the
heavens can be feen. Mr Middleton lays, that this
phenomenon is very frequent in North America } for
that there is generally one or two about the fun every
week, and as many about the moon every month.
Halos round the fan are very frequent in Raffia. M.
ALpinus fays, that from the 23d of April 1758, ta the
20th of September, he himlelf had obferved no lefs
than 26, and that he has fometimes fecn twice as many
in the fame fpace of time.
Coronas may be produced by placing a lighted candle
in the midft of fleam in cold weather. Aifo, if glats
window's be breathed upon, and the flame of a candie
be placed fome feet from it, while the fpedlator is alto
at the diftance of fome feet from another part of a
window, the flame will be furrounded with a coloured
halo. And if a candle be placed behind a glafs receiver,
when air is admitted into the vacuum within it, at a
certain degree of denfily, the vapour with which it is
loaded will make a coloured halo round the flame.
This was obferved by Otto Guericke. In December
1736, M. Mufchenbroeck obferved, that when tne
glafs window’s of his room were covered with a thin
plate of ice on the infide, the moon appearing through
it was furrounded with a large and varioufly coloured
halo j and, opening the window, he found that it arofe
entirely from that thin plate of ice, for none was feen
except through it.
Similar, in fome refpeas, to the halo, was the re-
markable appearance which M. Bouguer defcribes, a#
obferved by himfelf and his companions on the top oi
Mount Pinchinca, in the Cordilleras. VV hen the fun
was juft rifing behind them, fo as to appear white,
each of them faw his own fhadow projefted upon it,
and no other. rI he diftance was fuch, that all the
parts of the fhadow were eafily diftinguifhable, as the
arms, the legs, and the head ; but what furprifed tnem
moft was, that the head was adorned with a kind of
glory, confifting of three or four fmail concentric
crowns, of a very lively colour, each exhibiting ail^ the
varieties of the primary rainbow’, and having the circle
of red on the outfide. The intervals between thefe
circles continued equal, though the diameters ot them
all w’ere conftantly changing. The laft of them was
very faint, and at a confiderable diftance was another
great white circle, which furrounded the whole.
near as M. Bouguer could compute, the diameter or
the fir ft of thefe circles was about 5t degrees, that o*.
thefecond 11, that of the third 17, and fo on: but
the diameter of the white circle was about 76 degrees.
This phenomenon never appeared but in a cloud con¬
fiding of frozen particles, and never in drops of ram
like the rainbow. When the fun wTas not in the hori¬
zon, only part of the w'hite circle w’as vifible, as M.
Bouguer frequently obferved afterwards.
Similar alfo to this curious appearance was one that
was obferved by Dr M‘Feat in Scotland. This gen¬
tleman obferved a rainbow round his ftradow in the
4 Q. mift’
Corona.
——y—1
COR [ 67-4 ] COR
Corona, rnii^ when he was upon an eminence 'above, it. In
this fituation the whole country round feemed, as it
were, buried under a vail deluge, and nothing but the
tops of diftant hills appeared here and there above the
flood : fo that a man would think of diving down into
it with a kind of horror. In thofe upper regions the
air, he fays, is at that time very pure and agreeable to
breathe in. At another time he obferved a double
range of colours round his fliadow in thefe circumftances.
The colours of the outermoft range were broad and very
(liiiinct, and everywhere about two f^et diflant from
the fliadovv. Then there was a darkiih interval, and
after that another narrower range of colours, clofely
furrounding the fliadow, which was very much con-
trabied. This perfon feems to think that thefe ranges
of colours are caufed by the infleblion of the rays of
light, the fame that occafioned the ring of light which
funounds the fhadbws of ail bodies, obferved by M.
* Edit?. Marakli, and this author*. But the prodigious variety
EfTays, vol. with which thefe appearances are exhibited feems to
v p. f]10W many of them do not refult from the general
laws of reflection, refraction, or inflexion, belonging
to tranfparent fubftances of a large mafs; but upon
the alternate reflection and traiflmifflon of the diffsrent
kinds of rays, peculiar to fubftances reduced to the form
of thin plates, or confiding of feparate and very minute
parts. But where the dimenfions of the coronas are
pretty conftant, as in the uiual and larger halo, which
is about half the diameter of the rainbow, they may,
perhaps, be explained on the general principles of refrac¬
tion only.
Defcartes obferves, that the halo never appears when
it rains : from which he concludes that this phenomenon
is occafioned by the refrabiion of light in the round
particles of ice, which are then floating in the atmo-
fphere p and though thefe particles are Sat when they
fall to the ground, he thought they muft be protuberant
in the middle, before their defeent} and according to
this protuberancy he imagined that the diameter of the
halo would vary.—In treating of meteors, Gaflendi
fuppefed that a halo is the fame tiring with the rainbow,
the rays of light being in both cafes twice refraGed and
once refleGed within each drop of rain or vapour, and
that all the diflerence there is between them arifes from
their different fituation with refpeG to the obferver.
Bor, wThereas, when the fun is behind the fpeGator, and
confcquently the rainbow before him, his eye is in the
centre of the circle ; when he views the halo, with his
face towards the fun, his eye is in the circumference of
the circle j fo that according to the known principles
of geometry, the angle under which the objeG appears
in this cafe muft; be juft half of what it is in the other.
Though this writer fays a great deal upon the fubjeG,
and endeavours to give realbns why the colours of the
halo are in a different order to thofe of the rainbow,
he does not deforibe the progrefs of the rays of light
from the fun to the eye of the fpeGator when a halo is
formed by them, and he gives no figures to explain his
ideas.
Dechales, alfo, endeavours to (how that the genera¬
tion of the halo is fimilar to that of the rainbow'. If,
Kate fays he, a fphere of glafs or cryftal, AB, (fig. 1.) full
€LXIV. 0f water) ]je placed in the beams of the fun fhining
tT' *• from C, there will net only be two circles of coloured
light on the fide next the fun, and which ccnfiilute the
two rainbows j but there will alfo be another on the ^
part oppofile to the fun, the rays belonging to which
meeting at E, afterwards diverge, and form the co¬
loured circle G, as will be vifible, if the light that is
tranfmitted through the globe be received on a piece
of white paper. The colours alfo will apjbar to an
eye placed in any part of the furface of the cone FBG.
Meafuring the angle FEH, he found it to be 23 de¬
grees. They were only the extreme rays of this cone
that v.’ere coloured like thofe of the rainbow..
This experiment he thought fuftrciently illuftrated
the generation of the halo ; fo that whenever the tex¬
ture of the clouds is fuch, as not entirely to intercept
the rays of the fun or moon, and yet have fome degree
of denfity, there will always be a halo round them, the
colours of the rainbow appearing in thofe drops which
are 23 degrees diftant from the fun or moon. If the
fun be at A (fig. 2.), and the fpeGator in B, the halo^
will be the circle DFE, DBE, being 46 degrees, or
twice 23.
Tire reafon why the colours of the halo are more
dilute than thofe of the rainbow, he fays, is owing
principally to their being formed not in large drops of
rain, but in very fmall vapour ; for if the drops of water
were large, the cloud would be fo thick, that the rays,
of the fun could not be regularly tranfmitted through,
them; and, on the other hand, he had obferved, that
when the rainbow is formed by very thin vapours, the
colours hardly appear. As for thofe circles of colouts
which are fometimes leen round candles, it was his
opinion that they are owing to nothing but moifture on
the eye of the obferver 5 for that he could never produce
this appearance by means of vapour only, if he wiped his
eyes carefully •, and he had obferved that fuch circles,
are vifible to fome perfons and not to others, and to the
fame perfons at one time and not at another.
The moft confiderable of all the theories refpeGing
halos, and that which has met with, the moft favourable
and longeft reception, is that of Mr Huygens, Sir Ifaac
Newton mentions it with refpeG, and Dr Smith, in
his Complete Syftem of Optics, does not fo much as
hint at any other. The occafion of Mr Huygens pub-
liftiing his thoughts on this fubjeG, was the appearance
of a halo at Paris, on the 12th of May 1667, of which
he gave an account in a paper read at the Royal
Academy in that city, which was afterwards tranfiated,
and publilhed in the Englifh Philofophical TranfaGions,
and which may be feen in Lowthorp’s Abridgment,
vol. ii. p. 189. But this article contains nothing more
than the heads of a difeourfe, which he afterwards
compofed, but never quite finfihed, on this fubjeG \ and
which has been tranflated, with fome additions, by Dr
Smith, from whom the following account is chiefly
extraGed.
Our philofopher had been firft engaged to think par¬
ticularly upon this fubjeG, by the appearance of five
funs at Warfaw, in 1658^ prefently after which, he
fays, he hit upon the true caufe of halos, and not long
after of that of mock funs alfo.
To prepare the way for the following obfervations,
it muft be remarked, that if we can conceive any kind
of bodies in the atmofphere, which, according to the
known laws of optics, will, either by means of reflec¬
tion
c O R [ 675 ] CO R
Uorona. tion or refraftion, produce the appearance, in quellion,
when nothing elfe can be found that will do it, we
muft acquiefce in the hypothefis, and fuppofe fuch bo¬
dies to exitl, even thqugh we cannot give a fatisfa&ory
account of their generation. Now, two fuch bodies
are affumed by Mr Huygens; one of them a round
ball, opaque in the centre, but covered with Ti tranfpa-
rent {hell j and the other is a cylinder, of a fimilar
compolition. By the help of the former he endea¬
vours to account for halos, and by the latter for thofe
appearances which are called mock funs. Thofe bo¬
dies which Mr Huygens requires, in order to explain
thefe phenomena, 'are not, however, a mere aflump-
tion; for fome fuch, though of a larger fize than his
purpofe requires, have been aftually found, confiding
of fhow within and ice without. They are particularly
mentioned by Defcsrtes.
The balls with the opaque kernel, which he fuppo-
fed to have been the caufe of them, he imagines not to
exceed the fize of a turnip-feed 5 but, in order to il-
ludrate this hypothefis, he gives a figure of one, of a
3- larger fize, in ABCDEF, (fig. 3.) reprefenting the
kernel of fnow in the middle of it. If the rays of
light, coming from GH, fall upon the fide AD, it is
* snanifell they will be fo refrafled at A and D, as to
bend inwards •, and many of them will ftrike upon the
kernel EF. Others, however, as GA and HD, will
only touch the fides of the kernel j and being again
refracted at B and C, will emerge in the lines BK, CK,
eroding each other in the point K, whole neareft di-
(tance from the globule is fomewhat lefs than its appa¬
rent diameter. If, therefore, BK and CK be produced
Fig. 4. towards M and L, (fig. 4.) it is evident that no light
can reach the eye placed within the angle LKM, but
may fall upon it when placed out of that angle, or ra¬
ther the cone reprefented by it.
For the fame reafon, every other of thefe globules
will have a fliadow behind it, in which the light of the
fun will not be perceived. If the eye be at N, and
that be conceived to be the vertex of a cone, the fides
of which NR, NQ, are parallel to the fides of the
former cone KL, KM, it is evident that none of the
globules within the cone QNR can fend any rays of
the fun to the eye at N. But any other globule out
of this cone, as X, may fend thofe rays, which are
more refracted than XZ, to the eye 5 fo that this
will appear enlightened, while thofe within the cone
will appear obfeure. It is evident from this, that
a certain area, or fpace, quite round the fun, muff
appear dark} and that the fpace next to this area
will appear luminous, and more fo in thofe parts that
sre neareft to the obfeure area becaufe, he fays, it
may eafily be demonftrated, that thofe globules which
are neareft to the cone QNR exhibit the iargeft image
of the fun. It is plain, alfo, that a corona ought to
be produced in the fame manner, whatever be the
fun’s altitude, becaufe of the fpherical figure of the
globules.
To verify this hypothefis, our philofopher advifes us
to expofe to the fun a thin glafs bubble, filled with
water, and having fome opaque fubftance in the centre
of it ; and he fays v/e (hall find, that we {hall not be
able to fee the fun through it, unlefs at a certain di-
ftance from a place oppofite to the centre of it ; but
«s icon as we do perceive the light, the image of the
fun will immediately appear the biighteft, and colour- Corona,
ed red, for the fame reafon as in the rainbow. w—
Thefe coronas, he fays, often appear about the
moon, but the colours are fo weak as to appear only
white. Such white coronas he had alfo feen about
the fun, when the fpace within them appeared fcarce
darker than that without. This he fuppofes to hap¬
pen when there are but few of thofe globules in the
atmofphere; for the more plentiful they are, the more
lively the colours of the halo appear 5 at the fame time
alfo the area within the corona will be the darker.
The apparent diameter of the corona, which is gene¬
rally about 45 degrees, depends upon the fize of the
dark kernel j for the larger it is with refpe£i to the
whole globule, the larger will be the dark cone behind
it.
The globules that form thefe halos, Mr Huygens
fuppofes to have confifted of foft fnow, and to have
been rounded by continual agitation in the air, and
thawed on their outfides by the heat of the fun.
To make the diameter of the halo 45 degrees, lie
demonftrates that the femidiatneter of the globule muft
be to the femidiameter of the kernel of fnow very near¬
ly as 1 coo to 480 5 and that to make a corona of ico
degrees, it muft be as icoo to 680.
Mr Weidler, in his Commentary on parhelia, pub-
lifhed. at Wirtemberg in 1733, obftrves that it is
very improbable that fuch globules as Mr Huygens’s •
hypothefis requires, with nuclei of fuch a precife pro¬
portion, fliould exift; and if there were luch bodies,
he thinks they would be too fmall to produce the ef-
fe&s aferibed to them. Bcfides, he obferves that ap¬
pearances exaftly fimilar to halos are not uncommon,
where fluid vapours alone are concerned; as when a
candle is placed behind the fteam of boiling water in
frofty weather, or in the midft of the vapour ifluing
copioufly from a bath, or behind a receiver when the
air is fo much rarefied as to be incapable of fupportinp
the water it contains. The rays of the fun twice re-
fleffed and twice refracted within fmall drops of water
are fufficient, he fays, without any opaque kernel, to
produce all the appearances of the halos that have the
red light towards the fun, as may be proved by experi¬
ment. That the diameter of the halos is generally half
of that of the rainbow, he accounts for as GafTendi did
before him.
M. Mariotte accounts for the formation of the fmall
coronas by the tranfmiflion of light through aqueous
vapours, where it fuffers two refradlions, without any
intermediate refie&ion. He {hows that light which
comes to the eye, after being refracted in this man- *
ner, will be chiefiy that which falls upon the drop
nearly perpendicular; becaufe more rays fall upon
any given quantity of furface in that fituation, fewer
of them are reflefted with fmall degrees of obliquity,
and .they are not fo much fcattered after lefra&ton.
The red will always be outerrnoft in thele coronas,
as confifting of rays which fuffer the leaft refra&ion.
And whereas he had feen, when the clouds were dri¬
ven brilkly by the wind, halos round the moon, vary¬
ing frequently in their diameter, being fomethnes of
two, fometimes of three, and fometimes of four de¬
grees ; fometimes alfo being coloured, fometimes only
white, and fometimes difappearing entirely ; he con¬
cluded that all thefe variations arofe from the differ-
4 & 2 ent
C O K [ 676 ] COR
Corona, ent thicknefs of the clouds, through which fometimes
““'V—J more and fometimes lefs light was tranfmitted. He
fuppofed, alfo, that the light which formed them
might fonietimes be refleded, and at ether times re-
fracled. As to thofe coronas which confift pf two or¬
ders of colours, he imagined that they were produced
by fmall pieces of fnow, which, when they begin to
diiTolve, form figures which are a little convex towards
their extremities. Sometimes, alfo, the fnow will be
melted in different fhape.s j and in this cafe, the co¬
lours of feveral halos will be intermixed, and confufed ;
and fuch, he fays, he had femetimes obferved round the
fun.
M. Mariotte then proceeds to explain the larger co¬
ronas, namely thofe that are about 45 degrees in dia¬
meter, and for this purpofe he has recourfe to equian¬
gular prifms of ice, in a certain pofition with refpeft
to the fun j and he takes pains to trace the progrefs
of the rays of light for this purpofe j but this hypothe-
fis is very improbable. In fome cafes he thought that
thefe large coronas were caufed by haililones, of a py¬
ramidal figure j hecaufe after two or three of them had
been feen about the fun, there fell the fame day feveral
fuch pyramidal hailllones. M. Mariotte explains par¬
helia by the help of the fame fuppoudons. See Parhe¬
lia.
Sir Ifaac Newton does not appear to have given
any particular attention to the lubjet! of halos, but he
has hinted at his fentiments concerning them occafion-
ally j by which we perceive that he confidered the
larger and lefs variable appearances of this kind as
produced according to the common laws of refraflion,
but that the lefs and more variable appearances de¬
pend upon the fame caufe with the colours of thin
plates. -
He concludes his explication of the rainbow with
the following obfervation on halos and parhelia?. “ The
light which comes through drops of rain by two re-
fra&ions, without any refledlion, ought to appear the
ftrongell: at the difbnce of about 20 degrees from
the fun, and to decay gradually both ways as the di-
ftance from him increafes. And the fame is to be un-
derftood of light tranfmitted through fpherical hail-
ftones : and if hail be a little flatted, as it often
is, the tranfmitted light may be fo ftrong, at a little
lefs dirtance than that of 26 degrees, as to form a halo
about the fun or moon ; which halo, as often as the
hailftones are duly figured, may be coloured, and then
it muft be red within by the leaft refrangible rays,
and blue without by the moft refrangible ones : efpe,-
cially if the hailftones have opaque globules of fnow
in their centres to intercept the light within the halo,
as Mr Huygens has obferved, and make the infide of
it more diftimftly defined than it would otherwife be.
For fuch ha lift ones, though fpherical, by terminating
the light by the fnow, may make a halo red within, and
colourlefs without, and darker within the red than
without, as halos ufe to be. For of thofe rays which
pafs clofe by the fnow, the red-making ones will be
the leaft refra&ed, and fo come to the eye in the
liraighteft lines.”
Some farther thoughts of Sir Ifaac Newton on the
fubjeft of halos we find fubjoined to the account of
his experiments on the colours of thick plates of glafs,
which he conceived to be fimilar to thofe which are ex-
6
hibited by thin ones. “ As light refle&ed by a lens C'oroT(1 1
quickfilvered on the back fide makes the rings of
colours above deferibed, fb (he fays) it ought to make
the like rings in paftlng through a drop of water. At
the firft refleblion of the rays within the drop, fome
colours ought to be tranfmitted, as in the cafe of a lens,
and others to be refle&ed back to the eye. For in-
ftance, if the diameter of a fmall drop or globule of
water be about the 50odth part of an inch, fo that a
red-making ray, in pafling through the middle of this
globule, has 250 fits of ealy tranfmiflion within the
globule, and all the red-making rays which are at a
certain diftance from this middle ray round about it
have 249 fits within the globule, and all the like rays
at a certain further diftance round about it have 248
fits, and all thofe at a certain farther diftance 247 fits,
and fo on ; thefe concentric circles of rays, after their
tranfmiflion, falling on a white paper, will make con¬
centric rings of red upon the paper, fuppofing the •
light which paffes through one Angle globule ftrong
enough to be fenfible 5 and in like manner the rays of
other colours will make rings of other colours. Sup-
pofe now that in a fair day the fun fneuld dune through
a thin cloud of fuch globules of water or hail, and that
the globules are all of the fame fize, the fun feen
through this cloud ought to appear furrounded with
the like concentric rings of colours, and the diameter
of the firft ring of red ftiould be 7^°, that of the fe-
cond io^0, that of the third 120 33', and according as
the globules of water are bigger or lefs, the ring ftiould
be lefs or bigger.”
This curious theory cur author informs us was con¬
firmed by an obfervation which he made in 1692. He
faw by reflection, in a veffel of ftagnating water, three
halos, crowns, or rings of colours about the fun, like
three little rainbows concentric to his body. The co¬
lours of the find, or innermoft crown, were blue next
the fun, red without, and white in the middle, between
the blue and red. Thofe of the fecond crown were
purple and blue within, and pale red without, and
green in the middle. And thofe of the third were
pale blue within, and pale red without. Thefe crowns
inclofed one another immediately, fo that their colours
proceeded in this continual order from the fun out¬
ward ; blue, white, red j purple, blue, green, pale,
yellow, and red \ pale blue, pale red. The diameter
of the fecond crown, meafured from the middle of
the yellow and red on one fide of the fun, to the
middle of the fame colour on the other fide was 9-j
degrees or thereabouts. The diameters of the firft
and third he had not time to raeafure ; but that of the
firft feemed to be about five or fix degrees, and that
of the third about twelve. The like crowns appear
fometimes about the moon ; for in the beginning of
the year 1664, on February .19th at night, he faw two
fuch crowns about her. The diameter of the firft
or innermoft was about three degrees, and that of
the fecond about five degrees and a half. Next about
the moon was a circle of white j and next about that
the inner crown, which was of a bluifti green within,
next the- white, and of a yellow and red without4
and next about thefe colours were blue and green on
the infide of the outer crown, and red on the outfide,
of it.
At the fame time there appeared a hale at the di¬
ftance
Corona
II
Coronary
Arteries.
C O II ’[ 677
fiance of about 22° 35'from the centre of the moon.
It was elliptical j and its long diameter n as perpendi¬
cular to the horizon, verging below fartheii from the
/ moon. He was told, that the moon has lometimes
three or more concentric crowns of colours encompaf-
fing one another next about her body. The more
equal the globules of water or ice are to one another,
the more crowns of colours will appear, and the co-
C O R
lours will be the more lively. The halo, at the di-
Hance of 22i degrees from the moon, is of another
fort. By its being oval, and more remote from the
moon below than above, he concludes that it was
made by refradlion in fome kind of hail or fnow float¬
ing in the air in an horizontal pofture, the refracting
angle being about 50 or 60 degrees. Dr Smith, how¬
ever, makes it fufficiently evident, that the reafon why
this halo appeared oval, and more remote from the
moon towards the horizon, is a deception of fight, and
the fame with that which makes the moon appear
larger in the horizon.
Dr Kotelnihow having, like Dr Hallev, made very
accurate obfervations to determine the number of pof-
fible rainbows, confiders the coloured halo which ap¬
pears about a candle as the fame thing with one of
thefe bows which is formed near the body of the fun,
but which is not vifible on account of his exceflive
fplendor.
Lartly, M. Mufchenbroeck concludes his account of
coronas with obferving, that fome denfity of vapour,
or fome thicknefs of the plates of ice, divides the light
in its tranfmiflion through the fmall globules of water,
or their interflices, into its feparate colours: but what
that denfity was, or what was the fize of the particles
which compofed the vapour, he could not pretend to
determine.
Corona, among botanifis, the name given by fome
to the circumference or margin of a radiated com¬
pound flower. It correfponds to
noeus; and is exemplified in the
petals which occupy the margin
flower.
Corona Aujlralis or Meridional’s, Southern Crown,
a conftellation of the fouthern hemifphere, whofe ftars
in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 13, in the Britifh cata¬
logue 12.
Corona Borealis, the Northern Crown or Garland,
in AJlronomij, a conflellation of the northern hemi¬
fphere, whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are eight, in
Tycho’s as many, and in Mr Flamftead’s 21.
Corona Impenalis, in Concholorij. a name given by
fome authors to a kind of voluta, differing from the
other (hells of that family, by having its head orna¬
mented with a number of points, forming a fort of
crown. See Voluta, Conchology Index.
CORONALE, in Anatomy, the firit future of the
fkull. See Anatomy Index.
CORONALE os, the fame with os frontis. See
Anatomy Index.
CORONARY vessels, in Anatomy, certain vef-
fels which furnifli the fubftance of the heart with
blood.
Coronary Arteries, are two arteries fpringing out
of the aorta, before it leaves the pericardium. See
Anatomy Index.
the radius of Lin-
flat, tongue-fhaped
of the daify or fun-
Co to nary Vein, a Vein diffufed over the exterior fur-
face of the heart. See Anatomy Index.
Stomachic Coronary, a vein inferted into the trunk of
the fpienic vein, which, by uniting with the mefenteric,»
forms the vena porta. See Anatomy Index.
CORONARIAL, in Botany, the 10th order of
plants, in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method.
Under this name, inftead of the more obvious one /V-
baccce, Linnaeus collects a great number of genera, molt
of which furnifh very beautiful garden flowers, viz.
albuca, cyanella, fritillaria, helonias, hyacinthus, hv-
poxis, lilium, melanthium, ornithogalum, fcilla, tulipa,
agave, aletris, aloe, anthericum, aiphodelus, bromelia,
burmannia, hemerocallis, polyanthes, tillandfia, vera-
trum, yucca.
CORONATION, the ceremony of invefting with
a crown, particularly applied to the crowning of" kings,
upon their fucceeding to the fovereignty. See King.
CORONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Boeotia,
near Mount Helicon, and the lake Copais, fituated 011
an eminence : famous for the defeat of the Athenians
and Boeotians by Agefilaus. Another Corona of Thef-
faly; having Narthacium to the ealf, and Lamia near
the Sperchius to the north (Ptolemy).
CORONE,in Ancient Geography, a town of Mefleniaj
fituated on the fea, giving name to the Sinus Coronmus,
(Pliny) 5 now Golfo di Coron. Paufanias takes it to be
the ICpea of Homer; but Strabo Thuria, and Pliny
Pedafus, now Coron, in the territory of Belvidere, in the
Morea. E. Long. 22. N. Lat, 36. 30.
CORONELLI, Vincent, a famous geographer, was
born at Venice. His fkill in the mathematics having
brought him to the knowledge of the count d’Eftrees,
his eminence employed him in making globes for
Louis XfV. With this view Coronelli fpent fome time
at Paris, and left a great number of globes there, which
are efteemed. In 1685, he was made cofmographer
to the republic of Venice ) and four years after public
profeflbr of geography. He founded an academy of
cofmography at Venice ; and died in that city in 1718.
He publiftied about 400 geographical charts, an abridgr
ment of cofmography, feveral books on geography, and
other works.
CORONER (coronator), an ancient officer in Eng¬
land, fo called becaufe be hath principally to do with
pleas of the crown, or fuch wherein the king is more
immediately concerned. And in this light the lord
chief juftice of the king’s bench is the. principal coro¬
ner in the kingdom 5 and may, if he pleafes, exercife
the jurifdi£lion of a coroner in any part of the realm.
But there are alfo particular coroners for every county
in England j ufually four, but fometimes fix, and fome-
times fewer. This officer is of equally authority with
the fheriff; and was ordained, together with him, to
keep the peace, when the earls gave up the wardlhip
of the county.
He is chofen by all the freeholders of the county
court; and by the ftatute of Weftminfter I. it was en,-
afred, that none but lawful and difereet knights fhould
be chofen ; but it feems now fufficient if a man have
lands enough to be made a knight, whether he be really
knighted or not; for the coroner ought to have an
eftate fufficient to maintain the dignity of his office.,
and anfwer any flees that may be made upon him for
his *
Corenary
Vein
II
Coroner.
COR [ 678 ] COR
Coroner his mi {behaviour 5 and, if he hath not enough to an¬
il fwer, his fine {hall be levied on the county, as a pu-
, oro”ti a’, nifhment for eletling an infufficient officer. Now,
indeed, through the culpable negleft of gentleman of
property, this office has been fuffered to fall into dif-
repute, and get into low and indigent hands; fo that
although formerly no coroners would be paid for fer-
ving their country, and they were by the aforefaid
ffatute of Wellminfter 1. exprefsly forbidden to take
a reward under pain of great forfeiture to the king,
yet for many years paft they have only defired to be
chofen for the fake of their perquifites j being allow¬
ed fees for their attendance by the ftatute 3 Hen. VIL
c. 1. which Sir Edward Coke complains of heavily,
though fines his time thofe fees have been much en¬
larged.
The Coroner is chofen for life j but may be removed,
cither by being made (heriff or chofen verderor, which
are offices incompatible with the other 5 and by the
ffatute 25 Geo. II. c. 29. extortion, negleft, or mifbe-
haviour, are alfo made caufes of removal.
The office and power of a coroner are alfo, like
thofe of the fherift', either judicial or minifterial ; but
principally judicial. This is in a great meafure afeer-
tained by ftatute 4 Edw. I. De officio coronatoris ; and
confifts, firft, in inquiring, when any perfon is {lain, or
dies fuddenly, or in prifon, concerning the manner of
his death. And this muff be fuper vijum corporis ; far
if the body is not found, the coroner cannot fit. He
mult alfo fit at the very place where the death hap¬
pened. And his inquiry is made by a jury from four,
five, or fix, of the neighbouring towns, over whom he
is to prelide. If any be found guilty by this inqueft
of murder, he is to commit to prifon for farther trial,
and is alfo to inquire concerning their lands, goods,
and chattels, which are forfeited thereby ; but whe¬
ther it be murder or not, he muft inquire whether
any deodand has accrued to the king, or the lord of
the franchife, by this death and muft certify the
whole of this inquifition to the court of king’s bench,
-or the next affizes. Another branch of his office is to
inquire concerning fhipwrecks ; and certify whether
wreck or not, and who is in pofieffion of the goods.
Concerning trealure-trove, he is alfo to inquire con¬
cerning the finders, and where it is, and whether any
one be fufpe&ed of having found and concealed a trea-
fure ; “ and that may well be perceived (faith the old
ftatute of Edw. I.), where one liveth riotoufiy, haunt¬
ing taverns, and hath done fo of long time j” where¬
upon he might be attached and held to bail upon this
fufpicion only.
The minifterial office of the coroner is only as the
ffieriff’s fubftitute. For when juft exception can be
taken to the Iheriff, for fufpicion of partiality (as that
he is interefted in the fuit, or of kindred to either plain¬
tiff or defendant), the procefs muft then be awarded to
the coroner, inftead of the {heriff, for execution of the
king’s writs.
CORONET. See Crown.
Coronet, or Carnet, of a horfe, the lowed: part of
the paftern, which runs round the coffin, and is diftin-
guiftied by the hair joining and covering the upper part
of the hoof.
CORON ILL A, jointed-podded Colutea ; a genus
of plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs, and in the
natural method ranking under the 3 2d order, Popiho. Coro*,;
nacece. See Botany Index.
CORONOID, and Condyloid, proceffes. See Cor!>ori
Anatomy Index.
CORPORA CAVERNOSA, in Anatomy, two fpongi.^"
ous bodies, called alfo corpora nervofa and corpus ft>on-
giofum. See Anatomy Index.
Corpora Pyratnida/ia, are two protuberances of the
under part of the cerebellum, about an inch long*, {b
called from their refemblancc to a pyramid. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
Corpora Striata. See Anatomy Index.
CORPORAL, an inferior officer under a fevgeant,
in a company of foot, who lias charge over one of the
divifions, places and relieves fentinels, and keeps good
order in the corps de garde ; he alfo receives the word
from the inferior rounds which paffts by his corps de
garde. This officer carries a fufee, and is commonly
an old fddier j there are generally three corporals in
each company.
Corporal of a Ship of War, an officer under the ma¬
iler at arms, employed to teach the officers the ex»
ercife of fmall arms, or of mulketry *, to attend at the
gangway, on entering ports, and obferve that no fpi-
rituous liquors are brought into the (hip, unlefs by ex-
prefs leave from the officers. He is alfo to extinguiih
the fire and candles at eight o’clock in winter, and
nine in fummer, when the evening gun is fited 5 and
to walk frequently down in the lorver decks in his
watch, to fee that there are no lights but fuch as are
under the charge of proper fentinels.
Corporal {Corpar ale), is alfo an ancient church-
term, fignifying the facred linen fpread under the cha¬
lice in the eucharift and mafs, to receive the fragments
of the bread, if any chance to fall. Some fay it was
Pope Eufebius who firft enjoined the ufe of the corpo¬
ral; others aferibe it to St Sylvefter. It was the cu-
ftom to carry corporals, with fome folemnity, to fires,
and to heave them againft the flames, in order to ex¬
tinguiih them. Philip de Comines fays, the pope
made Louis XI. a prefent of the corporale whereon my
lord St Peter fung mafs.
CORPORATION, a body politic or incorporate,
fo called, becaufe the perfons or "members are join¬
ed into one body, and are qualified to take, grant,
&c.
Of corporations there is a great variety fuhfifling,
for the advancement of religion, of learning, and of
commerce ; in order to preferve entire and for ever
thofe rights and immunities, which, if they were
granted only to thofe individuals of which the body
corporate is compofed, wmuld upon their death be ut¬
terly loft and extinft. To fhow the advantages of
thefe incorporations, let us confider the cafe of a col¬
lege in either of our univerfities, founded ad Jludendum
et orandum, for the encouragement and fupport of re¬
ligion and learning. If this was a mere voluntary af-
fembly, the individuals which compofe it might in¬
deed read, pray, ftudy, and perform fcholaftic exer-
cifes together, fo long as they could agree to do fo *,
but they could neither frame nor receive any laws or
rules of their conduft j none at leaft which would
have any binding force, for went of a coercive power
to create a fufficient obligation. Neither could they
be capable of retaining any privileges or immunities:
COR [ 679 ] COR
Corpora- for, if fuch privileges be attacked, which of all this
, unconnected aiTembly has the right or ability to de-
fend them ? And, when they are difperfed by death or
otherwife, how thall they transfer thefe advantages to
another fet of ftudents, equally unconnefted as them-
felves ? So alfo, wuth regard to holding ettates or other
property, if land be granted for the purpofes of religion
or learning to 20 individuals not incorporated, there is
no legal way of continuing the property to any other
, perfons for the fame purpofes, but by endlefs convey¬
ances from one to the other, as often as the hands are
charged. But when they are confolidated and united
into a corporation, they and their fucceffors are then
confidered as one perfon in law : as one perfon, they
have one will, which is colledled from the fenfe of the
majority of the individuals : this one will may eftablifh
rules and orders for the regulation of the whole, which
are a fort of municipal law's of this little republic ; or
rules and flatutes may be prefcribed to it at its crea¬
tion, which are then in the place of natural laws:
the privileges and immunities, the eftates and poffef-
fions, of the corporation, when once veiled in them,
will be for ever veiled, without any new conveyance
to new fucceffions ; for all the individual members
that have exiiled from the foundation to the prefent
time, or that ihall ever hereafter exill, are but one
perfon in law', a perfon that never dies : in like
naanner as the river Thames is Hill the fame river,
though the parts which compofe it are changing every
inllant.
The original invention of thefe political conllitutions
feems entirely to belong to the Romans. They w’ere
introduced, as Plutarch fays, by Numa ; who finding,
upon his acceffion, the city torn to pieces by the two
rival fa£lions of Sabines and Romans, thought it a
prudent and politic meafure to fubdivide thefe two in¬
to many fmaller ones, by inllituting feparate focieties
of every manual trade and profeffion. They were
afterwards much confidered by the civil law', in which
they were called umverjitates^ as forming one wrhole
cut of many individuals j or collegia, from being
gathered together: they w'ere adopted alfo by the ca¬
non law, for the maintenance of ecclefialtical difcipline j
and from them our fpiritual corporations are derived.
But our laws have confiderably refined and improved
upon the invention, according to the ufual genius
of the Englilh nation, particularly w'ith regard to foie
corporations, confiding of one perfon only, of which
the Roman lawyers had no notion j their maxim being
that Tres faciunt collegium; though they held, that
if a corporation, originally confiding of three perfons,
be reduced to one, Si univerfitas ad unum redit; it
may dill fubfid as a corporation, Et Jlet nomen univer-
fuatis.
As to the feveral forts of corporations, the fird di-
vifion of them is into aggregate and foie. Corporations
aggregate confid of many perfons united together into
one fociety, and are kept up by a perpetual fucceflion
of members, fo as to continue for ever : of w'hich kind
are the mayor and commonalty of a city, the head and
fellows of a college, the dean and chapter of a cathe¬
dral church. Corporations foie confid of one perfon
only and his faccelfors, in fome particular dation, who
are incorporated by law, in order to give them fome
legal capacities and advantages, particularly that of
5
perpetuity, which in their natural perfons they could Corpora-
not have had. In this fenfe the king is a foie corpora- ^on■
tion; fo is a bidiop j fo are fome deacons and prebenda- ' ‘r _ v
ries, didindl from their feveral chapters j and fo is every
parfon and vicar. And the necedity, or at lead ufe,
of this inditution will be very apparent, if we confider
the cafe of a parfon of a church. At the original en¬
dowment of paridi-churches, the freehold of the church,
the church-yard, the parfonage-houfe, the glebe, and
the tithes of the parilh, were veded in the then parfon
by the bounty of the donor, as a temporal recom-
penfe to him for his fpiritual care of the inhabitants,
and with intent that the fame emoluments ftiould ever
afterwards continue as a recompenfe for the fame care.
But how was this to be elfe&ed ? The freehold w-as
veded in the parfon ; and if we fuppofe it veded in
his natural capacity, on his death it might defeend to
his heir, and wmuld be liable to his debts and incum¬
brances : or at bed, the heir might be compellable, at
fome trouble and expence, to convey thefe lights to
the fucceeding incumbent. The law therefore has wife¬
ly ordained, that the parfon, quatenus parfon, {hall ne¬
ver die, any mere than the king j by making him and
his fuccedbrs a corporation. By which means all the
original rights of the parfonage are preferved entire to
the fuccelTor ; for the prefent incumbent, and his pre-
deceffor who lived feven centuries ago, are in law one
and the fame perfon 5 and what was given to the one
was given to the other alfo.
Another divifion of corporations, either foie or ag¬
gregate, is into ecclejiqfiical and lay^ Ecclefiadical cor¬
porations are, where the members that compofe it are
entirely fpiritnal perfons, fuch as bidiops, certain deans
and prebendaries, all archdeacons, parfons, and vicars,
which are foie corporations ; deans and chapters at
prefent, and formerly prior and convent, abbot and
monks, and the like, bodies aggregate. Thefe are
eredled for the furtherance of religion, and perpetu¬
ating the rights of the church.—Lay corporations are
of two forts, civil and eleemofynary. The civil are fucli
as are erefted for a variety of temporal purpofes. The
king, for inftance, is made a corporation, to prevent in
general the poffibility of an interregnum or vacany of
the throne, and to preferve the pciTeflions of the crown
entire ; for immediately upon the demife of one king,
his fiicceifor is in full poiTeflian of the regal rights and
dignity. Other lay corporations are erected for the
good government of a town or particular difirift, as a
mayor and commonalty, bailiff and burgeffes, or the
like : fome for the advancement and regulation of ma-
nufa£lures and commerce; as the trading companies
of London and other towns : and fome for the better
carrying on of divers fpecial purpofes j as church war¬
dens, for converfation of the goods of the parifh; the
college of phyficians and company of furgeons in Lon¬
don, for the improvement of the medical fcience ; the
royal fociety for the advancement of natural know¬
ledge ; and the fociety of antiquarians for promoting
the ftudy of antiquities. The eleemofynary fort are
fuch as are conflkuted for the perpetual diftribution of
the free alms or bounty of the founder of them to
fuch perfons as he has diredled. Of this kind are all
hofpitals for the maintenance of the poor, fick, and
impotent j and all colleges, both in our univerfities and
out of them : which colleges are founded for two pur¬
pofes 1
COR r 680 1 COR
Corpora- pofes: 1. For the promotion of piety and learning by
' tlon• , proper regulations and ordinances. 2. For imparting
v affiitance to the members of thofe bodies, in order to
enable them to profecute their devotion and ftudies
with greater eafe and afliduity. And all thefe eleemo-
fynary corporations are, ftriftly fpeaking, lay, and not
ecclefiaftical, even though compofed of ecclefiaftical
perfons, and although they in fome things partake of
the nature, privileges, and reftridlions of ecclefiaftical
bodies.
Having thus marfhalled the feveral fpecies of cor¬
porations, let us next proceed to confider, 1. How
corporations in general may be created. 2. What are
their powers, capacities, and incapacities. And, 3. How
they may be diflblved.
I. Corporations, by the civil law, feem to have been
created by the mere aft and voluntary affociation of
their members j provided fuch convention was not con¬
trary to law, for then it was illicitum collegium. It does
not appear that the prince’s confent was neceffary to be
aftually given to the foundation of them ; but merely
that the original founders of thefe voluntary and friend¬
ly focieties (for they were little more than fuch) fhould
not eftablifh any meetings in oppofition to the laws of
the ft ate.
But in England the king’s confent is abfolutely ne¬
ceffary to the ereftion of any corporation, either im¬
pliedly or exprefsly given. The king’s implied con¬
fent is to be found in corporations which exift by force
of the common law, to which our former kings are
fuppofed to have given their concurrence •, comnson
law being nothing elfe but cuftom, arifmg from the
univerfal agreement of the whole community. Of
this fort are the king himfelf, all bifhops, parfons, vi¬
cars, church-wardens, and fome others; who by com¬
mon law have ever been held (as far as our books can
fhow us) to have been corporations, virtute officii and
this incorporation is fo infeparably annexed to their
offices, that we cannot frame a complete legal idea of
any of thefe perfons, but we muft alfo have an idea of
a corporation, capable to tranfmit his rights to his fuc-
ceffors, at the fame time. Another method of impli¬
cation, whereby the king’s confent is prefumed, is as
to all corporations by prefcription, fuch as the city of
London, and many others, which have exifted as cor¬
porations, time whereof the memory of man runneth
out to the contrary 5 and therefore are looked upon in
law to be well created. For though the members
thereof can ftiow no legal charter of incorporation,
yet in cafes of fuch high antiquity the law prefumes
there once was one; and that by the variety of acci¬
dents, which a length of time may produce, the char¬
ter is loft or deftroyed. The methods by which the
king’s confent is exprefsly given, are either by aft of
parliament or charter. By aft of parliament, of which
the royal affent is a neceffary ingredient, corporations
may undoubtedly be created : but it is obfervable, that
moft of thofe ftatutes which are ufually cited as ha¬
ving created corporations, do either confirm fuch as
have been before created by the king } as in the
cafe of the college of phyficians, erefted by charter
10 Hen. VIII. which charter was afterwards confirm¬
ed in parliament : or, they permit the king to ereft a
corporation in futuro with fuch and fuch powers j as is
the cafe of the bank of England, and the fociety of the
Brhiffi fiffiery. So that the immediate creative aft is Corpora ;
ufually performed by the king alone, in virtue of his tion. ;
royal prerogative. -v»
All the other methods therefore whereby corpora¬
tions exift, by common law, by prefeription, and by
aft of parliament, are for the moft part reducible to
this of the king’s letters patent, or charter of incorpo¬
ration. The king’s creation may be performed by the
words creamus, erigimus} fundamus, incorporamus, or
the like. Nay it is held, that if the king grants to a
fet of men to have gildam mercatoriym, “ a mercantile
meeting or affembly,” this is alone fufficient to incorpo¬
rate and eftabllih them for ever.
The king (it is faid) may grant to a fubjcft the
power of etefting corporations, though the contrary
was formerly held j that is, he may permit the fubjeft ]
to name the perfons and powers of the corporation at
his pleafure; but it is really the king that erefts, and
the fubjeft is but the inftrument; for though none but
the king can make a corporation, yet qui facit per ali-
um,facit per fe. In this manner the chancellor to the
univerfity of Oxford has power by charter to ereft cor¬
porations ; and has aftually often,exerted it in the erec¬
tion of feveral matriculated companies, now fubfifting,
of tradefmen fubfervient to the ftudents.
When a corporation is erefted, a name muft be given
to it j and by that name alone it muft fue and be fued,
and do all legal afts.
II. After a corporation is fo formed and named, it
acquires many powers and rights, which we are next to
confider. Some of thefe are neceffarily and infeparably
incident t© every corporation •, which incidents as foon j
as a corporation is duly erefted, are tacitly annexed of
courfe. As, 1. To have perpetual fucceffion. This is
the very end of its incorporation j for there cannot be
a fucceffion for ever without an incorporation ; and
therefore all aggregate corporations have a power
neceffarily implied of elefting members in the room
of fuch as go off. 2. To fue or be fued, implead or
be impleaded, grant or receive, by its corporate name,
and do all other afts as natural perfons may. 3. To
purchafe lands and hold them, for the benefit of them-
felves and their fucceffors: which two are confe-
quential to the former. To have a common feal.
For a corporation being an invifible body, cannot ma-
nifeft its intention by any perfonal aft or oral dif-
courfe : it otherwife afts and fpeaks only by its com¬
mon feal. For though the particular members may
exprefs their private confents to any aft by words or
figning their names, yet this does not bind the corpora¬
tion j it is the fixing of the feal, and that only, which
unites the feveral affents of the individuals who com-
pofe the community, and makes one joint affent of the
whole. 5. To make by-laws or private ftatutes for
the better government of the corporation ; which are
binding upon themfelves, unlefs contrary to the laws
of the land, and then they are void. But no trading 1
company is with us allowed to make bye-laws which
may affeft the king’s prerogative or the common pro¬
fit of the people, under penalty of 40I. unlefs they
be approved by the chancellor, treafurer, and chief
juftices, or the judges of affize in their circuits ; and
even though they be fo approved, ftill, if contrary to
law, they are void. Thefe five powers are infeparably
incident to every corporation, at leaft to every corpo¬
ration
I
I « /
COR [ 681 ] COR
Corpora- ration aggregate : for two of them, though they may
L tlon• , be pradtifed, yet are very unneceffary to a corporation
foie; viz. to have a corporate feal to teftify his foie
aiTent, and to make flatutes for the regulation of his
own condudl.
Corporations have a capacity to purchafe lands for
tnemfelves and lucceffors ; but they are excepted out
of the ftatute of wills jr fo that no devife of lands to a
corporation by will is good $ except for charitable ufes,
by Hat. 43 Eliz. c. 4. which exception is again great¬
ly narrowed by the Hat. 9 Geo. II. c. 36. And alfo,
by a great variety of ftatutes, their privilege even of
purchafing from any living granter is much abridged j
fo that now a corporation, either ecclefiaftical or lay,
mud have a licenfe from the king to purchafe, before
they can exert that capacity which is vefled in them
by the common law : nor is even this in all cafes fuffi-
cient. Thefe ftatutes are generally called the ftatutes of
mortmain. See Mortmain.
. The general duties of all bodies politic, confidered
mmeni. ;n corporate capacity, may, like thofe of natural
perfons, be reduced to this lingle one j that of adding
up to the end or defign, whatever it be, for which
they were created by their founder,
III. How corporations may be diffolved. Any par¬
ticular member may be disfranchifed, or lofe his place
in the corporation, by adding contrary to the laws of
the fociety, or the laws of the land : or he may iefign
it by his own voluntary add. But the body politic may
alfo itfelf be diffolved in feveral ways j which difiblu-
tion is the civil death of the corporation j and in this
cafe their lands and tenements lhall revert to the per-
fon, or his heirs, who granted them to the corpora¬
tion ; for the law doth annex a condition to every
fuch grant, that if the corporation be dilfolved, the
granter lhall have the lands again, becaufe the caufe
ot the grant faileth. The grant is indeed only during
the life of the corporation ; which may endure for
ever : but when that life is determined to be the dif-
folution of the body politic, the granter takes it back
by teverfion, as in the cafe of every other grant for life.
The debts of a corporation, either to or from it, are
totally extinguithed by its dilfolution 5 fo that the
members thereof cannot recover, or be charged with
them, in their natural capacities: agreeable to that
maxim of the civil law, Si quid univerjitati debetur, fin-
guhs non debetur ; nee, quod debet univerjitas.jinguh ds-
bent.
A corporation may be diflblved, 1. By add of par¬
liament, which is boundlefs in its operations. 2. By
the natural death of all its members, in cafes of an ag¬
gregate corporation. 3, By furrender of its franchifes
into the hands of the king, which is a kind of fuicide.
4. By forfeiture of its charter, through negligence or
abufe of its franchifes, in which cafe the law judges
that the body politic has broken the conditions upon
which it was incorporated, and therefore the incor¬
poration is void. And the regular courfc is to biing an
information in nature of a writ of quo warranto, to
inquire by what warrant the members now exercile
their corporate power, having forfeited it by fuch and
fuch proceedings. The exertion of this add of law,
for the purpofes of the date, in the reigns of King
Charles and King James II. particularly by feizing the
charter of the city of London, gave great and iuld of-
Yol. VI. Part II.
fence $ though perhaps, in Idriddnefs of law, the pro- Corpora-
ceedings in molt of them were fufficiently regular;
but the judgment againft that of London was reverfed Corpulency.
by add of parliament after the revolution j and by the '  M ■ 1
fame Idatute it is enadted, that the franchifes of the
city of London (hall never more be forfeited for any
caufe whatfoever. And becaufe by the common law
corporations were diflblved, in calc the mayor or head
officer was not duly eledded on the day appointed in the
charter or eftabliffied by prefeription, it is now pro¬
vided, that for the future no corporation {hall be dilfol-
ved upon that account, and ample diredlions are given
for appointing a new officer, in cafe there be no elec¬
tion, or a void one, made upon the charter or preferip-
tive day.
CortorjITIon A&, is that which prevents any perfon
from being legally eledded into any office relating to
the government of any city or corporation, unl«fs
within a twelvemonth before he has received the facra-
raent of the Lord’s Supper according to the rites of the
church of England ; and which enjoins him to take the
oaths of allegiance and fupremacy when he takes the
oath of office ^ otherwife his eleddion is void.
CORPOREAL, thofe qualities which denominate
a body. See Incorporeal.
CORPOREITY, the quality of that which is cor¬
poreal, or has body j or that which conftitutes or de¬
nominates it fuch. The corporeity of God was the
capital error of the Anthropomorphites. Some au¬
thors reproach Tertullian with admitting a corporeity
in the Deity ; but it is manifeid, by body he means no
more t\ia.n fub/lance. The Mahometans reproach the
Samaritans at this day, with a belief of the corporeitv
of God. Many of the ancients believed the corporeity
of angels.
CORPSE, a dead body.
If any one, in taking up a dead body, Reals the
ffiroud, or other apparel, it will be felony. Stealing on¬
ly the corpfe itfelf is not felony •, but it is puniffiable as
a mifdemeanor by indiddment at common law.
CORPS, in rlrchitediure, is a term borrowed from
the French, fignifying any part that projedds or advan¬
ces beyond the naked of a wall; and which ferves as
a ground for fome decoration or the. like.
Corfs de Battail/e, is the main body of an army
drawn up for battle.
Corps de Garde, a poll in an army, fometimes under
covert, fomelimes in the open air, to receive a body of
foldiers, who are relieved from time to time, and axe
to watch in their turns, for the fecurity of a quarter, a
camp, Ration, See. X he word is alfo uled for the men *
who watch therein. It is ufual to have, befide the
great, a little corps de garde, at a good diflance before
the lines ; to be the more readily advertiled of the ap¬
proach of the enemy.
CORPULENCY', the Rate of a perfon too much
loaded with fldh or fat.
Corpulency is the occafion of various difeafes, and
particularly the apoplexy. It was held infamous amor,a
the ancient Lacedaemonians.
Sennertus mentions a man that weighed 600 pounds,
and a maid 36 years of age who weighed 450. Bright
of Malden, who died at the age of 29 years in 17*30,
weighed 616 pounds.. Chiapin Vitelli, marquis of
Cercna, a noted SpaniRi general in his time, from an
4 ^ exceffive
COR [ 682 ] COR
Corpulency exceflive corpulency, is faid to have reduced hlmfelf by
Corrado vinegar, to fuch a degree of leannefs, that
. Y 1 he could fold his fldn feveral times round him.
Caftile foap, in the form of a bolus, an electuary,
pills, or diffolved in a gill or more of foft water, from
one to four drachms taken at bed-time, is ftrongly
recommended with a view of reducing corpulency, in
a difcourfe on its nature, caufes, and cure, by Mal¬
colm Flemyng, M. D. Lond. 1760. See Medicine
Index.
CORPUS, in Anatomy, is applied to feveral parts
of the animal ftrufture •, as corpus callofum, corpus
cavernofum, &c. See Anatomy Index.
Corpus is alfo ufed in matters of learning, for feve¬
ral works of the fame nature colle&ed and bound to¬
gether.
Gratian made a colleftion of the canons of the
church, called corpus canonum. The corpus of the civil
law is compofed of the digeft, code, and inftitutes.
We have alio a corpus of the Greek poets j and ano¬
ther of the Latin poets.
Corpus Chrijli, a feftival of the church of England,
kept on the next Thurfday after Trinity Sunday, in-
ftituted in honour of the eucharift $ to %vhich alfo one
of the colleges of Oxford is dedicated.
CORPUSCLE, in Physics, a minute particle, or
phylical atom, being fuch as a natural body is made
up of. By this word is not meant the elementary
particles, nor hypoftatical principles of chemifts 5 but
fuch particles, whether of a fimple or compound na¬
ture, whofe parts will not be diffolved nor diflipated by
ordinary degrees of heat.
CORPUSCULAR philosophy, is that way of
philofophifing which endeavours to explain things, and
to account for the phenomena of nature, by the mo¬
tion, figure, reft, pofition, &c. of the corpufdes, or the
minute particles of matter.
Mr Boyle fums up the chief principles of the cor-
pufcular hypothefis, which now flourifties under the me¬
chanical philofophy in thefe particulars :
I. They fuppofe that there is but one catholic or
univerfal matter, which is an extended, impenetrable,
and divifible fubftance, common to all bodies, and ca¬
pable of all forms. 2. That this matter, in order to
form the vaft variety of natural bodies, muft have mo¬
tion in fome or all its affignable parts j and that this
motion was given to matter by God the Creator of all
things, and has all manner of direftions and tendencies.
3. Matter muft alfo be aftually divided into parts, and
each of thefe primitive particles, fragments, or atoms
of matter muft have its proper magnitude or fize,
as alfo its peculiar figure or fhape. 4. They fup¬
pofe alfo, that thefe difterently fized and ftiaped par¬
ticles may have as different orders and pofitions, where¬
of great variety may arife in the compofition of bodies.
CORRADINI DE Sezza, Peter Marcellinus, a
learned civilian and cardinal, born at Sezza, in 1658,
acquired the efteem and confidence of Clement XI.
and died at Rome in 1743. He was the author of a
learned and curious work, entitled, “ Verus Latium
profanum et faerum,” 2 vols folio j and a hiftory of
Sezza,in 410.
CORRADO, Sebastian, an Italian grammarian of
the 16th century, taught the Greek and Latin tongues
at Reggio, where he formed an academy of polite li¬
terature j and at length removed to Bologna, in or- Corrsfo
der to be profeffor of thofe languages. He wrote fe- |l
veral works, the moft efteemed of which are, “ ^ue-
Jlura in qua Ciceronis vita refertur,” an excellent 'r""
performance j and, “ de Lingua Latina.'‘', He died
in 1556.
CORRECTION, in Printing, the aft of retrench¬
ing the faults in a work j or the reading which the
corrector gives the firft proofs, to point out and amend
the faults to be reftified by the compofitor.
The correftions are placed on the margin of each
page, right againft the line where the faults are found.
There are different charafters ufed to exprefs different
correftions, as D or dele, for any thing to be ef¬
faced or left out. When any thing is to be infer ted,
the place is marked in the line with a caret a, and the
infertion added in the margin. When a word, fyl-
lable, &c. is to be altered, it is erafed out of the
proof, and that to be put in its room written in the
margin j always obferving, if there be feveral miftakes
in the fame line, that the correftions in the margin be
feparated by little bars, or ftrokes, |. If a fpace be
omitted, its place is marked with a caret, and the
margin with %. If a fpace be wrong placed, as in
the middle of a word, the two parts are connefted
with a cu rve, and the fame charafter put in the
margin. If a letter be inverted, it is expreffed on
the margin with g. If any thing be tranfpofed, it is
marked thus : JhorteJl jare the^follies^beji; for the
JhorteJl follies are the bejl; and in the margin is added tr.
in a circle. If Roman charafters are to be changed for
Italic, or vice verfa, a line is drawn under them thus,
and Roman or Italic added in the margin : if to capi¬
tals, a double line. If a word or fentence is entirely
omitted, the place is marked with a caret, and in the
margin is inferted the word out. If the letters of
a word ftand too far afunder, a line is drawn under
them, and in the margin is put a crooked line or
hook, thus .
Correction Houfe, a place of confinement, where
vagrants and perfons guilty of crimes of an inferior
degree, fuft'er punilhment by being obliged to labour
for a certain period of time, as for months or years,
according to the nature of the crime. The benefits
arifing to fociety, and the reformation of offenders,
from this mode of puniftiment, have been varioufly efti-
mated by different writers, according to the view's
which they have taken of the effefts and confequences
which are fuppofed to follow the confinement and re-
ftraint to which the criminal is fubjefted. It has
been regarded as one of the greateft defefts of the
laws of this country, that, excepting the puniftiment
of death, there is no other which is accompanied with
that degree of feverity and terror to aw’C or reftrain
offenders from the commiffion of crimes. To this pur-
pofe are the following oblervations of Dr Paley. The
laws of England, he fays, “ are not provided with any
other puniftiment than that of death, fufficiently terri¬
ble to keep offenders in awe. Tranfportation which is
the puniftiment fecond in the order of feverity, anfwers
the purpofe of example very imperfeftly $ not only be-
caufe exile is in reality a flight puniftiment to thofe who
have neither property, nor friends, nor regular means
COR [ 683 ] COR
$ ;(ftion. of fubfiftence at home, but becaufe the punifhment,
v. -v—^ whatever it be, is unobferved and unknown. A tranf-
ported convid may fuffer under his fentence, but his
bufferings are removed from the view of his country¬
men j his mifery is unfeen j his condition (trikes no
terror into the minds of thofe for whofe warning and
admonition it was intended. This chafm in the fcale
of punilhment produces alfo two farther imperfeftions
in the adminiftration of penal juflice ; of which the
firft is, that the fame punifliment is extended to crimes
of very different charaders and malignancy •, and the
fecond, that puniflrments, feparated by a great interval,
are afligned to crimes hardly diitinguilhable in their
guilt and mifchief.”
This defed, it has been fuppofed, might be made up
by the proper management of houfes of corredion. For
as the objed of puniffment is not only the amend¬
ment of the offender, but is alfo intended to operate as
an example to others, both thefe objeds feem to be
more certainly attained by the confinement and labour
to which criminals are fubjeded in houfes of this de-
fcription than by any fpecies of puniihment provided
by the laws of Britain. It is greatly to be regretted
that the puniffiments inflided by the laws of this coun¬
try, whether imprifonment or exile, pain or infamy,
have rarely the effed of producing any reformation of
the criminal. On the contrary, he often returns to the
world more hardened in crime, and more determined
in his wicked courfes. Houfes of corredion might
probably in this refped be attended with more benefi¬
cial confequences. This feems to be the cafe with the
Amfterdam houfe of corredion, an account of which in
this view will not, it is hoped, be unacceptable to our
readers. It is extraded from the Journal of the Tra¬
vels of M. Thouin.
The Amfterdam corredion houfe, from the employ¬
ment of the prifoners confined in it, is called the rafping-
Jioufe, and is deftined to the reception of thofe malefac¬
tors whofe crimes do not amount to a capital offence.
Their punifhment cannot fo properly be denominated
folitary confinement as a fequeftration from fociety du¬
ring a limited term of years. The building is fituated
in a part of the fuburbs to the north-eaft of the city.
The exterior has nothing remarkable, either with re¬
fped to form or extent. It is detached from the ftreet
by a fpacious court, which contains the keeper’s lodge,
together with apartments for the different fervants be¬
longing to the eftablifhment. Over the gate, which
opens from this court into the prifon, are placed tw’o
flatues, as large as life, reprefenting two men in the ad
of fawing a piece of logwood.
The inner court is in the form of a fquare, round
which are arranged the apartments of the prifoners, to¬
gether with the neceffary warehoufes. One part of the
ground ftory is divided into different chambers; the
other ferves as a depot for the logwood, and the imple¬
ments employed in its preparation.
The keeper, whofe countenance, contrary to the ge¬
neral cuftom of perfons of his profeflion, was ftrongly
indicative of urbanity and gentlenefs, introduced M.
Thouin into an apartment where two prifoners were at
work in fawfing a large log of Campeachy wood. The
faw is compofed of four blades joined together, with
very ftrong, large, and fharp teeth, which make a fcif-
fure in the wood of nearly two inches in breadth. The
operation is repeated, till the pieces become too fmall to Corretlion.
undergo the faw, when they are ground in mills peculi-1 v
arly conflru£led for this purpofe.
This employment requires an extraordinary exertion
of ffrength, and is at firft a fevere penance even to robuft
perfons j but habit, addrefs, and pra&ice, foon render it
eafy j and the prifoners in a fhort time become compe¬
tent to furnifh, without painful exertion, their weekly
contingent of 200 lb. weight of fawed pieces. After
completing this talk, they even find time to fabricate a
variety of little articles in wood and draw, which they
fell to thofe wrho vifit the prifon, or difpofe of, by means
of agents, in the town.
M. Thouin next infpe&ed three apartments of dif¬
ferent dimenfions, which opened into the inner court.
The one was inhabited by four, the fecond by fix, and
the third by ten prifoners. The furniture of the rooms
confifted in hammocks, with a mattrefs, a blanket, and
a coverlid to each, tables, chairs, and ftools, glafs and
earthen veffels, and various other articles of convenience.
Every thing in thefe apartments was diftinguifhed by
neatnefs and propriety j and notwithftanding the num¬
ber of inhabitants allotted to each was fully adequate to
the dimenfions of the rooms, the fenfes were not offend¬
ed with any difagreeable feent, and the air was in every
refpeft as pure and wholefome as the furrounding atmo-
fphere.
In an obfeure part of the building are a number of
cells, in which formerly thofe prifoners ,w’ho revolted
againft the proper fubordination of the place, or ill-
treated their comrades, were confined for a few days.
But the keeper affured M. Thouin that thefe cells had
not been made ufq of for upwards of 10 years. They
are dark gloomy dungeons, wfith only a fmall aperture
for the admiflion of light and air. The fuppreflion of
this barbarous and coercive punifliment does honour to
the humanity of government.
The (lore-rooms are filled with various kinds of wood
for the purpofes of dyeing ; as the hcematoxylum cam-
pechianum, the morus tinBoria, the ccefalpima fappan,
&c. They are all exotics, with the exception of the
evonymus Europceus* The warehoufes were not of fuf-
ficient extent to contain the quantity of wToodr which
was depofited in piles in different parts of the court..
The prifoners, amounting to 76 in number, were
uniformly habited in coarfe woollens ; wear very good
(lockings, large leather fhoes, white ftiirts, and caps or
hats. They are, by the rules of the houfe, obliged to
frequent ablutions, which greatly contribute to the pre-
fervation of their health. There was only one fick per-
fon amongft them ; and, what is not a little remarkable,
almoft all the prifoners had formerly lived in large com¬
mercial towns very few villagers were amongft them.
They had all been fentenced to imprifonment for theft;
but it depends upon themfelves, by reformation and good
behaviour, to fhorten the term of their confinement,,
which many of them frequently do.
The keeper, whofe humanity to the unfortunate per¬
fons committed to his care entitles him rather to the
title of their proteftor than their gaoler (and M. Thouin
informs us, that the prifoners generally called him by
no other name father), aflifts them with his coun-
fels and friendly admonitions. He regifters every w^eek,
in a book appropriated to this purpofe, both the in-
flances of good and bad behaviour, which is annually
4 K 2. fubmitted-
COR [ 684 ] COR
“orredtion, fubmitted to the examination of the magiftracy, who,
from this report, abridge or prolong the term of con¬
finement, according to the degree of indulgence which
each prifoner appears to merit. Cafes frequently hap¬
pen w’here a malefactor, condemned to an imprifonment
of eight years, by his good behaviour procures his en¬
largement at the expiration of four ; and fo on in pro¬
portion for a Ihorter term. But great attention is paid
to difcriminate between aCtual reform and. hypocritical
artifice.
The reward ©f good behaviour is not, however, con¬
fined to>, or withheld till, the period of aftual liberation.
Their reftoration to fociety is preceded by a progreflive
amelioration of their lot. Their work is gradually ren¬
dered lefs laborious, they are accommodated with leparate
apartments, and employed in the fervices of domeftic
economy. The keeper even entrufts them with com-
miflions beyond the precindls of the prifon ; and fcarce
a fingle inftance has occurred of their abufing this in¬
dulgence. By this prudent management, a confiderable
faving is effefted in the expence of the eftablilhment, at
the fame time that it tends to wear away prejudice, and
to initiate the prifoners by gradual advances into the re¬
ciprocal duties of focial life.
M. Thouin made particular inquiries whether it W’as
cuftomary for perfons after their difcharge to be con¬
fined a fecond and third time, as- is but too often the
cafe in many countries, for a repetition of their offence.
He was informed, that fuch inftances very rarely occur j
but the cafe is not without precedent, as he obferved in
the perfon of a young Jew, who was then in the rafp-
ihg-houfe for the third time. The cafe of this man is
fomewhat extraordinary. During the period of his de¬
tention, he always conforms, with the moft fcrupulous
obfervance, to the rules of the place, and gives general
fatisfaftion by his exemplary conduft. But fuch, as he
himfelf avowed to our traveller, is his conftitutional pro-
penfity to thieving, that no fooner is the term of his im¬
prifonment elapfed, than he returns with redoubled ar¬
dour to his lawlefs courfes. It is not fo much for the
fake of plunder, as to gratify his irrefiftible impulfe,
that he follows this vicious life $ and M. Thouin adds,
that he recounted his different exploits with as much
exultation and triumph as a veteran difplays when re-
hearfing his warlike atchievements.
Another falutary regulation in this inftitution, from
which the beft confequences refult, is the indulgence
granted to the prifoners of receiving the vifits of their
wives and miftreffes twice every week. Proper care,
however, is taken to guard againft the introduction of
difeafe 5 and the ladies, in one fenfe, purchafe their ad-
miffion by giving a trifling fum of money at the gate,
which becomes the perquifite of the aged prifoners,
whofe wants are of a different nature from their youth¬
ful comrades. Thus the pleafures of one clafs contri¬
bute to the comforts of the other 5 and the entrance
money, trifling as it is, keeps away a crowd of idle va¬
gabonds, who have no acquaintance with the prifoners.
The ladies at their vifits are permitted to eat and drink
with their lovers ; and when the converfation becomes
too animated for a third perfon to be prefent, the reft
of the company obligingly take the hint, and leave them
to enjoy a tete a-tete.—By this prudent regulation,
many hurtful confequences attendant on a total feclu-
iksn from female fociety are guarded againft.
M. Thouin concludes his account with ebferving, Correftio* j
that the rafping-houfe at Amfterdam bears a greater re- II
femblance to a wrel!-crdered manufactory than to a pri- it'orro^on. j
fon. It were to be wilhed, that all fimilar inftitutions'
were conducted upon a fimilar plan.
But it is probable that folitary confinement and lefs
intercourfe with their friends rvouid have a better et-
feCt in reforming the habits of offenders than the in¬
dulgences which M. Thouin confiders as fo beneficial.
The philofopher whom we formerly quoted obferVes,
that “ of reforming puniftiments none promifes fo much
fuccefs as that of- ibhtary imprifonment, or the confine¬
ment of criminals in feparate apartments. This improve¬
ment of the Amfterdam houfe of correction would aug¬
ment the terror of the punilhment, would feclude the
criminal from the fociety of his fellow-prifoners, in
which faciety the worfe are fure to corrupt the better j
would wean him from the knowledge of his com¬
panions, and from the love of that turbulent pernicious
life in which his vices had engaged him j Would raife up
in him reflections on the folly of his choice, and difpofe
his mind to fuch bitter and continued penitence, as
might produce a lafting alteration in the principles of
his conduCt.”
In addition to the confinement and labour wThich of¬
fenders undergo in houfes of correction, fome are fub-
jeCt to whipping at certain ftated intervals. The be¬
nefit arifing from this mode of punilhment, with regard
to the reformation of the criminal, has been juftly quef-
tioned. If any good effeCt is to be expeCted from this
difcipline, it muft be inflicted in private. It has been
obferved by one * who knew nature well, that punilh- * fieuk
ment which deprives a man of all fenfe of honour will
never contribute to make him virtuous j and it is ge¬
nerally found that the foldier who has once been whip¬
ped, becomes quite indifferent to propriety of conduCt.
Falling, which is not attended with Ihame, promifes to
be a more effectual punilhment of profligacy.
CORRECTOR, in general, denotes fomething that
mends the faults or bad qualities of others.
Corks.cior of the Staple, a clerk belonging to the
ftaple, whofe bulinefs is to write down and record the
bargains that merchants make there.
Corrector, in Medicine or Pharmacy, an ingredient
in a compofition, whiph guards againft or abates the
force of another.
CORREGIDOR, the name of an officer of juftice in
Spain, and countries fubjeCt to the Spanilh government.
He is the chief judge of a town or province.
CORREGIO. See Allegri.
CORRELATIVE, fomething oppofed to another in
a certain relation. Thus father and fon are correlatives.
Light and darknefs, motion and reft, are correlative and
oppofite terms.
CORRIGIOLA, in Botahy, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 45th order, Mifcellanece. See
Botany Index.
CORROBORANTS, or Corroborative Medi~
cities. See Strengtheners.
CORROSION, in a general fenfe, the aClion of
gnawing away, by degrees, the continuity of the parts
of bodies.
Corrosion, in Chemiftry, an aCtion of bodies, by
means of proper menftruums, that produces new com¬
binations.
i ruption.
^ L KJ{
rrofion binations, and a change of their form, vfilhout con¬
verting them to fluidity.
CORROSIVE sublimate mercury. See Che¬
mistry Index.
CORRUGATOR muscle. See Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
CORROSIVES, in Surgery, are medicines which
corrode whatever part of the body they are applied to.
Such are burnt alum, white precipitate of mercury,
white vitriol, red precipitate of mercury, butter of an¬
timony, lapis infernalis, &c.
CORRUPTlCOLiE, a feft who rofe out of the
Monophyfltes in Egypt about the year 519, under their
chief Severus, the pretended patriarch of Alexandria.
Their diftinguifliing doftrine, whence they derived
their name, was, that the body of Jefus Chrifl was cor¬
ruptible ; that the fathers had owned it j and that to
deny it was to deny the truth of our Saviour’s paflion.
On the other hand, Julian of Halicarnaffus, another
Eutychian, a refugee, as w’ell as Severus, in Alexan¬
dria, maintained that the body of Jefus Chrift had been
always incorruptible 5 that to fay it was corruptible,
was to make a diftindlion between Jefus Chriit and
the Word, and by confequence to make two natures in
Jefus Chrift.
The people of Alexandria were divided between the
two opinions; and the partifans of Severus were called
corrupticolce, q. d. worlhippers of fomething corruptible:
fometimes they were denominated corruptibiles; and
the adherents of Julian incorruptibiles or phantajiajlce.
The clergy and fecular powers favoured the firft $ the
monks and the people the latter.
CORRUPTION, the deftrufiion, extin&ion, or at
lead ceffation for a time, of the proper mode of exiftence
of any natural body. See Putrefaction.
Coxrwption of Blood, in Law, one of the confequen-
ces of an attainder j and is both upwards and down¬
wards j fo that an attainted perfon can neither inherit
lands or other hereditaments from his anceftors, nor
retain thofe he is already in poffeflion of, nor trar.fmit
them by defcent to any heir; but the fame fliall efcheat
to the lord of the fee, fubje£t to the king’s fuperior
right of forfeiture; and the perfon attainted (hall alfo
obftruft all defcents to his pofterity, wherever they are
obliged to derive a title through him to a remoter an-
ceftor. See Attainder.
This is one of thofe notions which our laws have
adopted from the feudal conftitutions, at the time of
the Norman conqueft ; as appears from its being un¬
known in thofe tenures which are indifputably Saxon,
or gavel kind : wherein though by treafon, according
to the ancient Saxon laws, the land is forfeited to the
king, yet no corruption of blood, no impediment of
defcents, enfues ; and on judgment of mere felony, no
efcheat accrues to the lord. But by the law of England,
derived as above, a man’s blood is fo univerfally cor¬
rupted by attainder, that his fons can neither inherit to
him nor to any other anceftor, at leaf! on the part of
their attainted father.
This corruption of blood cannot be abfolutely remo¬
ved but by authority of parliament. The king may
excufe the public punifhment of an offender; but can¬
not abolifh the private right which has accrued, or may
accrue, to individuals as a coafequence of the crimi-
r/dl’s attainder. He may remit a forfeiture in which
Corlica.
nment.
O J ^ W ^
the interefl: of the crown is alone concerned ; but he Corruption
cannot wipe away the corruption of blood ; for therein
a third perfon hath an intereft, the lord who claims by 1
efcheat. If therefore a man hath a fon, and is attainted,
and afterwards pardoned by the king : this fon can never
inherit to his father, or father’s anceftors ; becaufe his
paternal blood, being once thoroughly corrupted by
his father’s attainder, muft continue fo : but if the fon
had been born after the pardon, he might inherit; be¬
caufe, by the pardon, the father is made a new man,
and may convey new inheritable blood to his after-born
children.
This corruption of blood, thus ariflng from feudal
principles, but perhaps extended farther than even
thefe principles will warrant, has been long looked upon
as a peculiar hardftiip : becaufe the oppreflive parts of
the feudal tenures being now in general abolilhed, it
feems unreafonable to referve one of their moft ine¬
quitable confequences; namely, that the children ftiould
not only be reduced to prefent poverty (which, how¬
ever fevere, is fufficiently juftified upon reafons of pub¬
lic policy), but alfo be laid under future difficulties of
inheritance, on account of the guilt of their anceftors.
And therefore in moft (if not all) of the new felonies
treated by parliament fince the reign of Henry VIII.
it is declared that they {hall not extend to any cor¬
ruption of blood : and by the ftatute 7 Anne, c. 21.
(the operation of which is poftponed by the ftatute
17 Geo. II. c. 39.) it is enabled, that after the death
of the late pretender and his fons, no attainder for
treafon fliall extend to the difinheriting any heir, nor
the prejudice of any perfon, other than the offender
himfelf; which provifions have indeed carried the re¬
medy farther than was required by the hardftiip above
complained of; which is only the future obftru£Iion of
defcents, where the pedigree happens to be deduced
through the blood of an attainted anceftor.
CORSAIR, a pirate or perfon who fcours the
feas, efpecially the Mediterranean, with a veffel armed
for war, without commiflion from any prince or power,
to plunder merchant veffels. The word comes from
the Italian carfare, of corfo, or a curjibus, by reafon
of their courfes, or excurfions.—The name is com¬
monly given to the piratical cruifers of Barbtry, wha
had their rife about the beginning of the 16th cen¬
tury.
A corfair is diftingulfhed from a privateer in this,
that the latter does it under a commiffion, and only at¬
tacks the veffels of thofe at war with the ftate whence
his commiffion is derived. The puniftiment of a corfair
is to be hanged, without remifiion ; whereas privateers
are to be treated as prifoners of war. All eorfair
vefl'els are good prizes.
CORSELET, a little cuirafs : or, according to
others, an armour or coat made to cover the whole
body, anciently worn by the pikemen, ufually placed in
the front and flanks of the battle, for the better refifting
the enemy’s affaults, and guarding the foldiers placed
behind them.
CORSICA, an ifland in the Mediterranean, be¬
tween 8° and io° E. Long, and 410 and 430 N. Lat.
On the fouth it is feparated from Sardinia, by the
ftrait of Bonifacio ; to the eaft it has the Tufcan fea ;
to the north the gulf of Genoa ; and to the weft it is
oppoftte the coafts of France and Spain. It is 150
miles
Corfica,
Cor fried.
C O 11 [ 686 ] COR
wiles from north to foutb, and from 40 to 50 in breadth. fufpected perfon, who at the fame
It was known to the ancient Greeks by the names of
Callifta and Cyrnus, and to the Romans by its prefent
appellation. On the coaft are many excellent har¬
bours. It is mountainous, but fruitful valleys are in-
terfperfed } and it has fome fine lakes and rivers. With
refpeft to produfts, Corfica has nothing peculiar to it-
felf} but from the earlieft times it has been famous for
its fwarms of bees, and produces vaft quantities of ho¬
ney, which, however, is reckoned bitter, on account
of the box and yew with which the country abounds.
The mountains are rich in lead, iron, copper, and di¬
ver j a mine of the latter was opened in the year 1767,
from which a quintal of mineral produced 18 ounces
of filver. There are alfo mines of alum and faltpetre.
The granite of Corfica is nearly equal to the oriental.
Porphyries, jafper, talc, amianthus, emeralds, and
other precious ftones, are found fcattered in the moun¬
tains } and the fouth coatl abounds with beautiful
coral. After many revolutions, this ifland was, for
fome centuries, under the dominion of the Genoefe,
whofe tyranny was fuch, that the Corficans were
almoft in a perpetual ftate of infurre&ion. In 1736,
a German adventurer, Theodore baron Newhoff,
brought fome i fii tance to them, and, on his afiu-
rances of more powerful aid, they elefted him king *,
but, as he could not fubllantiate his promifes, he
was obliged to leave the ifland. He came to Eng¬
land, was thrown into the Fleet prifon, releafed by
an aft of infolvency (after having regiftered his
kingdom of Corfica for the benefit of his creditors),
and fuffered to die in extreme indigence. The Ge¬
noefe tired of the con tell, fold the fovereignty to
France, in 1767, and the celebrated Paoli, who had
been elefted to the chief command, in 1755, was
obliged to abandon the ifland in 1769. After the
French revolution, in 1789, Corfica was admitted as
an eighty-third department of France, at the particu¬
lar requeft of a deputation, of which Paoli was at the
head. In confequence, however, of fome events
which followed the revolution of 1792, Paoli revolted j
the French, by the afliftance of the Englifli, were ex¬
pelled from the ifland j and Corfica, on the 19th of
June 1794, was declared annexed to the crown of
Great Britain, according to a new conftitution which
had been previoufly formed. In Oftober 1796, how¬
ever, the Englilh found it expedient to evacuate the
ifland, of which the French immediately took pofief-
fion, and again united it to their republic, dividing it
into two departments, Golo and Liamone; of the
former of which Baftia is the chief town, and of the
latter Ajaccio.
CORSNED, or Morse*, of Execration, a fpe-
# See cies of trial or purgation * anciently in ufe among us,
and which probably arofe from an abufe of revelation
in the dark ages of fuperftition. It confifted of a piece
of cheefe or bread, about an ounce in weight, which
was confecrated with a form of exorcifm j defiring of
the Almighty that it might caufe convulfions and pale-
nefs, and find no paffage if the man wTas really guil¬
ty j but might turn to health and nourifiiment if he
was innocent ; as the water of jealoufy among the Jews
was, by God’s efpecial appointment, to caufe the belly
to fwell, and the thigh to rot, if the woman was guil¬
ty of adultery. This corfned was then given to the
time alfo received
the holy facramcnt : if indeed the corfned was not, as
fome have fufpefted, the facramental bread itfelf: till,
the fubfequent invention of tranfubftantiation prefer-
ved it from profane ufes with a more profound refpeft
than formerly. Our hiflorians aflure us, that God¬
win, earl of Kent, in the reign of King Edward the
Confeffor, abjuring the death of the king’s brother, at
lafl: appealed to his corfned, “ per buccellam deglutien-
dam abjuravit” which ftuck in his throat and killed
him. This cuftom has been long fince gradually abo-
lilhed, though the remembrance of it liill fubfifls in
certain phrafes of abjuration retained among the com¬
mon people : as, “ I will take the facrament upon it j
May this morfel be my lafl; and the like.
CORT, Cornelius, a celebrated engraver, was born
at Hoorn in Holland in 1536. After having learned
the firft principles of drawing and engraving, he went
to Italy to complete his ftudies, and vifited all the
places famous for the works of the great mafters. At
Venice he was courteoufly received by Titian j and en¬
graved feveral plates from the pictures of that admi¬
rable painter. He at laft fettled at Rome, where he
died in 1578, aged 42. According to Bafan, he was
“ the belt engraver with the burin or graver only that
Holland ever produced. We find in his prints,” adds
he, “ correftnefs of drawing, and an exquifite tafte.”
He praifes alfo the tafle and lightnefs of touch with
which he engraved landfcapes, and that without the
afliftance of the point. It is no fmall honour to this
artift, that Agoftino Carracci was his fcholar, and imi¬
tated his ftyle of engraving rather than that of any
other mafter. His engravings are very numerous (151
according to Abbe Marolles), and by no means un¬
common.
CORTES of Spain, a term purely Spanifh^ figni-
fying the courts, i. e. the ftates or affembly of the
ftates, at Madrid.
Cortes, or Cortez, Ferdinand, a Spanilh ge¬
neral, famous for the conqueft of Mexico, and other
viftories over the natives of South America j but in¬
famous for the cruelties he committed upon the van¬
quished, without regard to rank, age, or fex. It pro¬
bably was on this account he was but coolly received
on his return to Europe by his royal mafter Charles
V. : It is even afferted that the emperor alked him
who he was ? to which Cortez replied j “ I am the
man who gave you more provinces than your ancef-
tors have left you towns.” Fie died in 1554, aged 63.
See Mexico.
CORTEX, in Botany, the rind or coarfe outer
bark of plants. The organization of the outer and
inner barks, which differ principally in the finenefs
of their texture, is particularly explained under the
article Plants.
Wounds of the bark, and its reparations from the
wood, whether naturally or artificially made, are eafi-
ly cured, and made to unite again by proper care. If
feftions be made in the rinds of the alh and fycamore
of a fqaare figure, three fides cut, and the fourth un¬
cut, and the wdiole be afterwards bound round with a
pack-thread, it will all unite again, only leaving a fear
in each of the three fides where it was cut. If feveral
parts of the bark of either of thefe trees be cut off, and
entirely feparated from the tree 3 fome Ihallower, lea¬
ving
Corfnci
Cortex.
n
Cortex
'orufca-
tion.
COR [ 687 ] COR
ving a part of the bark on, and others deeper, to the
wood itfelf } thefe pieces being again put into their
places, and bound on with a pack-thread, will not in¬
deed unite, but a frelh bark will grow in their places,
and thruft them away ; but if they be firft carefully
laid on in the exaft direction in which they originally
grew, and then the whole part beyond the wound on
every fide covered witlr a large plafter of diachylon,
or the like, and this bound over with pack-thread to
keep all firmly in their places, the pieces of bark, whe¬
ther cut off lhallow or deep down to the very wood
of the tree, will firmly unite themfelves to the places
where they originally grew. This cure will be per¬
formed in about three wreeks j but the outer rind of
the feparated pieces will not be plump, but fomewhat
(hrivelled ; the edges alfo will recede fomewhat from
their original place j fo that there remains a fort of
fear all round. Thefe experiments are bed made in
the fpring feafon j for in the autumn and winter, the
fap arifing but weakly, the parts that fiiould unite
wfither before that is brought about. The fuccefs of
thefe experiments has made fame think that the whole
branch of a tree feparated and bound on again might
unite w'ith the reft. But the experiments that have
been made in the moft favourable manner for fuch a
trial have all proved vain, the branch cut off withering
aitvays in a few days, horvever well united and carefully
kept on.
Cortex Peruvianus. See Cinchona, Botany and
Materia Medica Index.
Cortex Winteranus. See Wintera, Botany and
Materia Medica Index.
CORTONA, Pietro da. See Berretini.
Cortona, a very ancient town of Italy, mentioned
by many of the Roman hiftorians. It was originally
called Carton, and lay to the northward of the lake
Thrafymenus. It ftill retains the name of Cortona.
E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 43. 15.
CORTONESE, Pietro Palo. SeeGoBBo.
CORTUSA, Bear’s-ear Sanicle j a genus of
plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs 5 and in the
natural method ranking under the 2ift order, Preciee.
See Botany Index.
CORUNNA, or Groyne, a port-town of Galli-
cia in Spain, fituated on a fine bay of the Atlantic
ocean, about 32 miles north of Compoftella, and
20 fouth-weft of Ferrol. W. Long. 9. o. N. Lat.
43- °-
CORUS, Omer, Homer, or Chomer, in the Jew-
ilh antiquities, a meafure containing 10 baths or 75
gallons and five pints, as a meafure of things liquid,
and 32 pecks and 1 pint as a meafure for things dry.
The corns or omer wTas moft commonly a meafure for
things dry j and the greateft that was ufed among the
Jew’s. It contained, according to the rabbins, 10
ephahs or 30 fata or feahs. Corns is the moft ufual
term in the hiftorical writers, and omer or chomer among
the prophets.
Corus is alfo ufed in fome of our old w’riters for
eight bufhels or a quarter ; decern coros tritici, Jive de¬
cern quarteria.
CORUSCATION, a glittering or gleam of light
iffuing from any thing. It is chiefly ufed for a flafh
of lightning darting from the clouds in time of thun¬
der.
There is a method of producing artificial corufca- Cpnucatbn
tions, or fparkling fiery meteors, which will be vifible, t'Qrvub' .
not only in the dark but at noon-day, and that from
two liquors a&ually cold. The method is this. Fif¬
teen grains of folid phoi’phoms are to be melted in
about a drachm of water $ wdien this is cold, pour upon
it about two ounces of oil of vitriol $ let thefe be fhaken
together, and they will at firft heat, and afterwards they
will throw up fiery balls in great number, which will
adhere like fo many ftars to the fides of the glafs, and
continue burning a confiderable time; after this, if a
fmall quantity ot oil of turpentine is poured in, without
(baking the phial, the mixture will of itfelf take fire,
and burn very furioully. The vefifel ftiould be large,
and open at the top.
Artificial corufcations may alfo be produced by
means of oil of vitriol and iron, in the following ma-
ner : Take a glafs body capable of holding three quarts j
put into this three ounces of oil of vitriol and twelve
ounces of water j then warming the mixture a little,
throw in, at feveral times, twro ounces or more of
clean iron filings 3 upon this an ebullition and white
vapours will arife : then prefent a lighted candle to
the mouth of the veffel, and the vapour will take fire,
and afford a bright fulmination or flalh like light¬
ning. Applying the candle in this manner feveral
times, the effe£f: will always be the fame 3 and fome-
times, the fire will fill the whole body of the glafs, and
even circulate to the bottom of the liquor 3 at others,
it will only reach a little way down its neck. The
great caution to be ufed in making this experiment is
the making the vapour of a proper heat : for, if too
cold, few vapours will arife 3 and, if made too hot,
they will arife too faft and will only take fire in the
neck of the glafs, without any remarkable corufca-
tion.
CORVORANT, formerly written Cormorant. See
Pelicanus, Ornithology Index.
CORVUS, the Raven or Crow kind, a genus of
birds of the order of picae. See Ornithology
Index.
Corvus {Raven'), in Ajlronomy, a conftellation of
the fouthern hemifphere 3 whofe itars in Ptolemy’s ca¬
talogue are 7 3 in Tycho’s as many 3 in the Britannic
catalogue 9.
Corvus, in Roman antiquity, a military engine, or
rather gallery, moveable at pleafure by means of pul¬
leys 3 chiefly ufed in boarding the enemy’s {hips to co¬
ver the men. The conftruftion of the corvus was
as follows : They eredled on the prow of their veffels
a round piece of timber of about a foot and a half
diameter, and about 12 feet long; on the top of which
they had a block or pulley. Round this piece of tim¬
ber they laid a ftage or platform of boards, four feet
broad, and about 18 feet long, which was well framed
and fattened with iron. The entrance wras long-ways,
and it moved about on the above-mentioned upright
piece of timber as on a fpindle, and could be hoifted
up within fix feet of the top : about this was a fort
of parapet knee-high, which was defended with up¬
right bars of iron (harpened at the end, and towards
the top there was a ring, by the help of which and a
pulley or tackle, they raifed or lowered the engine at
pleafure. With this moveable gallery they boarded
the enemy’s veffels (when they did not oppofe fide to
5 fide),
COR
Corrus fide), fometimes on their bow
ftern, as occafion beft ferved.
and fometimes on their
When they had grap-
[ 688 ]
C O R
Co^ci“ma' pled the enemy with thefe iron fpikes, if they happened
, ^' . to fwing broadfide to broadfide, then they entered from
all parts j but in cafe they attacked them on the bow1,
they entered two and two by the help of this machine,
the foremoft defending the foreparts, and thofe that fol¬
lowed the flanks, keeping the bofs of their bucklers le¬
vel with the top of the parapet.
CORY ATE, Thomas, a very extraordinary per fo¬
liage, who feems to have made himfelf famous by his
whimfical extravagancies, was the fon of a clergyman,
and born at Oldcombe in Somerfetfhire in 15/7- He
acquired Greek and Latin at Oxford , and coming to
London, was received into the houfehold of Henry
prince of Wales. If Coryate was not over witty him-
ielf, he got acquainted with the wits of that time, and
ferved to exercife their abilities, having more learning
than judgment. He was a great peripatetic : for, in
1608, he took a long journey on foot; and after he
returned, publiflied his travels under the following
firange title : Crudities hajlihj gobbled up in jive months
Travels in France, Savoy, Italy, Rhetia, Helvetia, fame
parts of High Germany, and the Netherlands, Lond.
1611, 4to. In 1612 he fet out again with a refolution
to fpend ten years in travelling : he went firft to Con-
flantinople ; and after travelling over a great part of the
Eaft, died of a flux at Surat in the Eait Indies. Some
of the accounts of his peregrinations are to be found in
Purchas’s Pilgrimages.
CORYBANTES, in antiquity, priefts of Cybele,
who danced and capered to the found of flutes'and
drums. See Crctalum.
Catullus, in his poem called Atys, gives a beautiful
description of them, reprefenting them as madmen.
Accordingly Maximus Tyrius fays, that thofe poffeffed
with the fpirit of Corybantes, as foon as they heard
the found of a flute, were feized with an enthufiafm,
and loft the ufe of their reafon. And hence the
Greeks ufe the word xegt>/3«yTS/y, to corybantrze, to figni-
fy a perfon’s being tranfported or poffeffed with a deviL
See Enthusiasm.
Some fay that the Corybantes were all eunuchs; and
that it is on this account Catullus, in his Atys, always
ufes feminine epithets and relatives in fpeaking of
them.
Diodorus Siculus remarks, that Corybas, fon of Ja-
fon and Cybele, paffing in Phrygia with his uncle
Dardanus, there inftituted the worlhip of the mother
of the gods, and gave his own name to the priefts.
Strabo relates it «s the opinion of fome, that the Co¬
rybantes were children of Jupiter and Calliope, and
the fame with the Cabiri. Others fay the word had
its origin from this, that the Corybantes always walked
dancing (if the expreflion may be allowed) or tofling
the head, xcgtiwrevTSs ficttvoivi.
CORYBANTICA, a feftival held in Crete, in me¬
mory of the Corybantes, who educated Jupiter when
he was concealed in that ifland from his father Saturn,
who would have devoured him.
CORYCEUM, in. antiquity, that part of the gym-
nafium where people undreffed. It was otherwife called
apodyterion.
CORYCOMACHIA, among the ancients, was a
fert of exercife in which they pufhed forwards a. ball.
fufpended from the ceiling, and at its return either
caught it with their hands, or fuffered it to meet their
body. Oribafius informs us it was recommended for
extenuating too grofs bodies.
CORYDALES, in Botany, an order of plants in
the Fragmenta Methodi Naturalis of Linnaeus, contain¬
ing the following genera, viz. epimedium, hypecoum,
leontice, melianthus, pinguicula, and utricularia.
CORYDALIS, in Botany. See Fumaria, Bota¬
ny Index.
CORYLUS, the Hazel j a genus of plants be¬
longing to the moncecia clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 50th order, Amentasece. See
Botany Index.
CORYMBIFERfE, in Botany, the name of an or¬
der or divifion of the compound flowers adopted by
Linnseus after Ray and Vaillant, in the former editions
of his Fragments of a Natural Method. Ihis title in
the later editions is changed for Difeoidece, another
name borrowed from Ray’s Method, but ufed in a
fomewhaf different fenfe.
CORYMBIUM, in antiquity, an ornament of hair
worn by the women. Its form was that of a corym-
bus.
CORYMBIUM \ a genus of plants belonging to ths
fyngenefia clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
—The calyx is diphyllous, uniflorcus, and prifmatical j
the corolla monopetalcus and regular; there is one
woolly feed below each floret.
CORYMBUS, properly fignifies a clufter of ivy
berries. Among botanifts, it is a mode of flowering
in which the leffer or partial flowrerftalks are produ¬
ced along the common ftalk on both fides 5 and though
of unequal lengths, rife to the fame height, fo as to
form a flat and even furface at the top. See Botany
Index.
CORYNOCARPUS, in Botany, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs. See Botany In¬
dex.
CORYPHA, Mountain Palm, or Umbrella Tree $
a genus of plants of the order of Palma", belonging to
the monoecia clafs. See Botany Index.
CQRYPHiENA, a genus of fifties belonging ta
the order of thoracici. See Ichthyology Index.
CORYPHAEUS, in the ancient tragedy, was the
chief or leader of the company that compofed the cho¬
rus : (See Chorus).—The word is formed from the
Greek “ tip of the head.” The coryphaeus
fpoke for all the reft, whenever the chorus took part in
the aftion, in quality of a peffon of the drama, during
the courfe of the afts. Hence coryphaeus had paffed
into a general name for the chief or principal of any
company, corporation, fe£!, opinion, &c. Thus Eu-
ftatius of Antioch is called the corypheeus of the council
of Nice j and Cicero calls Zeno the coryphaus of the
Stoics.
CORYVREKAN, a dangerous whirlpool on ths
weft coaft of Scotland, between the ifle of Scarba and
the north point of Jura. It is fo named from a young
Danifti prince, who perilhed in this place : its dread*
ful vortex extends above a mile in circuit. Many
fmaller whirlpools and rapid currents are found in this
neighbourhood } dangerous to thole who are ftrangers
to the coaft.
6 CORYZA,
foryea-
machia
6
ir'/za
It
ino"’
I, mcy.
C OS. t 689 ]
CORYZ A, in Medicine, a catarrh of the nofe. See
Medicine Index.
CORZOL A, or Curscola, an ifland in the gulf of
Venice, divided from Ragufa in Dalmatia by a narrow
tlrait. E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 42. 35.
COS,
ifland
COS
Cofmology.
h Lon;
or Coos,
the coafl
m Ancient
of Caria,' ’
Geography, a noble
on tnc coatt or C-ana,'m the Hither Afia, 15
miles to the of Halicarnaflus, 100 in compafs,
called Meropis; and hence Thucydides joins both
names together, Cos Meropis; it had a cognominal
town Cos, but originally called AJhjpalcra, mentioned
by Homer; with a port locked or walled round,
(Scylax, Mela). The ifland was fruitful, and yielded
a generous wine, (Strabo). It boafted of Hippocrates
and Apelles ; each at the head of his feveral profefhon.
It was the country of Philetas, an excellent elegiac
poet, who flourifhecl in the time of Philip and Alexan¬
der : the preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphus : fo thin
and light that he was obliged to wear lead to pre¬
vent the being blown away by a puff of wind (iElian,
Athenaeus) ; much commended by Propertius. The
veftes Coer, made of filk, were famous for their finenefs
and colour, (Horace, Propertius, Tibullus). In the
fnburbs of Cos flood the temple of iEfculapius, a
noble ftruclure, and extremely rich.
Cos, the IVhe'Jlone, in Natural IIflora, a genus of vi-
trefeent ftones, conlifh’ng cf fragments of an indetermi¬
nate figure, fub-opaque, and granulated.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, forne con-
fifting of rougher, and others of fmoother, or even of
altogether impalpable particles; and ufed not only for
vAjetifones, but alfo for mill-ftones, and other the hke
putpofes.
Cos turcica, Turhey-JIone, a fpecies of Hones
which is arranged in the filiceous clafs. It is .of a
dull white, and often of an unequal colour ; fome
parts appearing more compaft than others. Its fpecific
gravity is 2.598 : it ftrikes fire with Reel, and effer-
vefees with acids. Mr Kirvvan found that 100 parts
of it contain 25 of carbonate of lime, and no iron.
Cronffedt is of opinion that there are probably two
forts of Rones known by this name, as that de-
feribed by Wallerius neither gives fire with Reel nor
effervefees with acids. It is ufed as a whetRcne ; and
thofe ef the fineR grain are the befl hones for the
moR delicate cutting tools, and even for razors, lancets,
&c.
COSCINOMANCY, the art of divination bv
means of a fieve. The word comes from cri-
brum, “ a fieve,” and [hxithoi, divination. The fieve
being fufpencled, after rehearfing a formula of words,
it is taken between two fingers only; and the names
of the parties fufpefled repeated : he at whofe name the
fieve turns, trembles, or (hakes, is reputed guilty of the
evil in qutRion.
This muR be a very ancient practice : Theocritus,
in his third Idyllion, mentions a woman very fkilful in
it. It was fometimes alfo praflifed by fufpending the
fieve by a thread, or fixing it to the points of a pair of
Risers, giving it room to turn, and naming, as before,
trie parties fufpe&ed; in which v&mv.zx cofcinoman-
cy is Rill praflifed in fome parts of England. It ap¬
pears from Theocritus, that it was not only ufed to
find out nerfons unknown, but alfo to difeover the fecrels
cf thofe that were known.
Vox.. VI. Part II.
CO-SECANT, in Geometry, the fecant of an arch Co-fecant
which is the complement of another to 90°. See
Geometry.
COSENAGE, in Ztfuq a writ that lies where the
trefail, that is, the tritavus, the father- of the befail, or
great grandfather, being feized in fee at his death of
certain lands or tenements, dies; a firanger enters,
and abates; then Rial! his heir have this writ of cofe-
nage ; the form of which fee in Fitz. Nat. Br.
fol. 221.
, COSENING, in Law, an offence whereby any
thing is done deceitfully, in or cut of contracts, which
cannot be fitly termed by any efpecial name. In the
civil law it is calledJlellionatus. See Stellionate.
COSENZA, the capital of the Hither Calabria, in
the kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 16. 35. N. Lat.
39. 15. It is an archbilhop’s fee.
COSHERING, in the feudal cuRoms, a kind of
right of the lords to lie and feaR themfelves and their
lollowers at their tenants houfes. The word cojhering
may perhaps be derived from the old Englifli word cojbe,
a cot or cottage.
CO-SINE, in Trigonometry, the fine of an arch which
is the complement of another to 9c*. See Geome¬
try.
COSPTETIC, in Phyfic, any medicine or preparation
which renders the flein foft and white, or helps to beautify
and improve the coinpDxion; as lip falves, cold creams,
cerufe, &c.
C03M1CAL, a term in AJlronomy, exprefiing one
of the poetical rilings of a Rar : thus a Rar is faid to rife
cofrnicaliy when it rifes with the fun, or with that point
of the ecliptic in which the fun is at that time ; and the
cofmical letting is when a Rar fets in the weR at the
lame time that the fun rifes in the eaR.
COSMOGONY, in Phiflcs, figrufies the fciencc of
the formation of the univerfe. It is formed of xirpt;,
the world, and yivtftxi, I am born.
In our conjectures about the formation of the world
there are two principles which we ought never to lofe
fight of: I. That of creation ; for certainly matter
could not give itfelf exiRence, it muR have received it.
2. That of a Supreme Intelligence directing this creation,
and the arrangement of the parts of matter, in confe-
quence of which this world was formed. See Crea¬
tion and Geology.
COSMOGRAPHY, the defeription of the world ;
or the art which teaches the conflrudion, figure, difpo-
fition, and relation of all the parts of the world, with
the manner of reprefenting them on a plane. The word
comes from xerpot, world, and I dejeribe.
Cofmography confiRs chiefly of two parts : AJlro¬
nomy, which fliews the AruCture of the heavens, and
the difpofition of the Rars; and Geography, which fhows
thofe of the earth.
COSMOLABE (from xotrpts, world, and ’hxp&z'itn,
J talc'), an ancient mathematical inRrument, ferving to
meafure diRances both in the heavens and on earth.
The Cofmolabe is in a great meafure the fame with the
aRrolabe. It is alfo called pantacofm, or the umverfal
injlrumen!, by L. Morgard, in a treatife written ex-
prefsly upon it, printed in 1612. *
COSMOLOGY’ (from world, and 2.«yoj,
difeourfe), the fcience of the world in general. This
Wolfius calls general, or tranfccrdintal cofmolcgy, and
4 S has
COS [ 690 ] cs o s
Coi'mology has written a treatife on the fuhjeft, wherein he endta-
Jl vours to explain how the world arifes from fimple fub-
■ ~s' , ftances; and treats of the general principles, of the mo¬
difications of material things, of the elements of bodies,
of the laws of motion, of the perfection of the world,
and of the order and courfe of nature.
COSMOPOLITE, or Cosmopolitan, a term
fometimes ufed to fignify a perfon who has no fixed
living or place of abode, or a man who is a ftranger
nowhere. The word comes from the Greek noa-pez,
world, and city.— One of the ancient philofopjiers
being interrogated what countryman he was ? anfwered,
he was a coftnopolite, i. e. an inhabitant or citizen of the
world.
COSSACKS, a name given to the people inhabiting
the banks of the rivers Dnieper and Don, near the Black
fea and borders of Turkey. The word implies irregular
troops of horfe. Thefe people are divided into European
and Afiatic Coffacks. The firft confiit of the Zaporog,
who dwell below the cataraCt of the Dnieper, fome on
the fide next to Ruffia, and others on the oppofite fide of
the river ; the Lower and Upper Coffacks; the Bielgorod
* Coffacks; and a part of the Don Coffacks. The
Afiatic Coffacks are compofed of the reft of the Don
Coffacks, the Grebin Cofiacks, the Yaik Coffacks, and
the Weftern Calmucks, who retiring from thofe that in¬
habited the fouth borders of Siberia under Yaiuki Can,
fettled upon the Wolga, and are dependent upon
Ruffia.
The Coffacks xvere known by that name ever fince
the 948111 year of .ChrifL They dwelt upon Mount
Caucafus, in the place now called Cabardy ; and xvere
reduced under the Ruffian dominion by Prince Mftiflaw
in the year 1021. Many Ruffians, Poles, and others,
who could not live at home, have, at different times,
keen admitted among the Coffacks: but the latter,
abftrafted from thefe fugitives, mult have been an ancient
and well governed nation.
Toward the beginning of the 16th century, the
Zaporog Coffacks fixed their habitations on the fpa-
cious plains that extend along the banks of the Dnie¬
per. They had undergone confiderable hardfhips from
the incurfions of the Tartars, for which they after-
wards found means to avenge themfelves in an ample
manner. The Poles being fenfible horv ferviceable
the Coffacks. might be in defending them from the ra¬
vages of the Tartars, and even the Ruffians, propo-
fed to them terms of alliance. In 1562, they folemn-
ly took them under their prote&ion, and engaged to
pay them an annual fubfidy ; in return for which the
Coffacks were to keep on foot a fufficient body of troops
for the defence of the Polilh dominions. With a view
to bind them ffill more ftrongly by ties of intereft, the
Poles gave them the whole country between the rivers
Dnieper and Neifter, and the borders of Tartary.
The Coffacks applied themfelves with great induftry
to the cultivation of this fertile fpot; fo that in a fhort
time it was interfberfed with large towns and handfome
villages. Befides, they continually haraffed the Turks,
and did them great damage by their incurfions ;
and, in order to prevent the latter from purfuing
them, or making reprifals, they poffeffed themfelves
of feveral fmall iflands in the Dnieper, where they
kept their magazines, &c. The hettman or ge¬
neral of the Coffacks was not in the lead fubordinate
6
to the field marffral of Poland ; but acled in concert Cuffacks.
with him as an ally, and not as a fubjedt of that repub- '”"“v—•
lie. But this alliance, though of fuch manifeft advan¬
tage to both parties, was not of long duration. The
Poles, feeing the vaft improvements made by the Cof¬
facks, in the country they had given up to them, be¬
came envious of them, and adlually made an attempt
to bring them into fubjedlion, as we have feen in the
hiffory of Poland. In 1648 the Coffacks gained great
advantages over them, and next year came to an ac¬
commodation, in which they not only preferved their
old immunities, but obtained additional privileges.
The refult of all was, that thefe Coffacks remained
under the protedlion of Ruffia; and as their former
country was entirely laid wafte in the late wars, they
fettled in the Ruffian Ukraine, upon receiving formal
affurances from the court of Ruffia, that no alteration
ffiould be made in their political conftitution, and that
no taxes whatever ffiould be laid upon them. The
Coffacks, on the other hand were always to keep in
readinefs a good body of troops for the fervice of
Ruffia : but in the year 1708 Mazeppa, their hettman
or chief, went over from the Ruffians to the Swedes ;
upon which Peter I. refolved to prevent fuch revolts
for the future. To this end, after the battle of Pul-
towa, he fent a ftrong detachment into the above-men¬
tioned little iffands in the Dnieper, whither the Cof¬
facks had fled with their wives and children, and all
their eifefls; and ordered them all to be put to the
fword without diffinftioh, and the p’under to be di¬
vided among his foldiers. He likewife fent a great
number cf men into their country, and caufed feveral
thoufands of the Coffacks to be carried to the coaffs of
the Baltic, where they were put to all forts of hard
labour by which means he in a manner extirpated the
whole nation.
What diftinguifhes the Zaporog Coffacks from all
other people is, that they never iuffer any women in
their fettlements, as the Amazons are faid not to have
fuffered any men among them. The women of thefe
Coffacks live in other iffands of the Dnieper. They
never marry, nor have any family : all their male chil¬
dren are enrolled as feldiers, and the females are left
with their mothers. The brother often has children
by his filler, and the father by his daughter. They
know no laws but thofe which cuftom has introduced,
founded on their natural wants ; though they have
among them fome priefts of the Greek perfuafion. They
ferve in the armies as irregulars ; and wee to, thofe who
fall into their hands.
The country of thefe Coffacks, who are an affem-
blage of ancient Roxelans, SarmatTans, and Tartars, is
called the Qcraine or Ukraine. It lies upon the bor¬
ders of Ruffia and Poland, Little Tartary, and Turkey,
and was anciently a part of Scythia. By virtue of the
lafi: treaty fettled between Ruffia and Poland, in 1693,
the latter remains in poffeffion of all that part of the
Ukraine which is fituated on the weft of the Dnie¬
per, and is now but poorly cultivated. That on the
eaft fide, inhabited by the Coffacks, is in a much bet¬
ter condition, and extends' about two hundred and
fixty miles in length, and as many in breadth. It is
one continued fertile plain, watered by a great num¬
ber of fine rivers, diverlified with pleafant woods, and
yields foch plenty of all forts of grain, pulfe, tobacco,
honey
' C O S ' [ 691 ] CO s
ilacks. honey and wax, as to fupply a great part of the Ruf-
-ar-"' j]an empire with thofe commodities- Its padores are
exceeding rich, and its cattle very large ; but the in¬
habitants are greatly plagued by* locults, which infeft
this line country. The houfes in the Ukraine are,
• like thofe of the Ruffians, moftly built with tim¬
ber.
The Ccffacks are tall and well made, generally hawk-
nofed, and of a good mien. They are hardy, vigorous,
brave, and extremely jealous of what is mod valuable
in life, their liberty -7 fickle and wavering, but fociable,
cheerful, and fprightly. They are a very powerful
people, and their forces confitf wholly of cavalry.—-
Their dialeft is a compound of the Polilh and Ruffian
languages ; but the latter is the mod predominant.
They were formerly Pagans or Mahometans j but up¬
on their entering into the Polilh fervice, they were
baptized Chriftians of the Romiffi communion; and
now that they belong to Ruffia, they profefs themfelves
members of the Greek church.
Each of their towns, with the didridl belonging to
it, is governed by an officer called ottomann or aita-
viann.
The Don Co Racks, fo called from their refidence
upon the banks of the river Don, greatly refemble
thofe already deferibed. In the year 1559, when the
Czar Evan Rafilowitz was emperor of Ruffia, they vo¬
luntarily put themfelves under his proteftion, and are
at this time on a pretty equal footing with the other
Ruffian fubje&s. They have feveral towns and vil¬
lages upon the banks of the Don \ but are prevented
from extending themfelves farther up the country, by
the fcarcity of freda water and wood in many places.
Their chief fupport is grazing and agriculture, and oc-
cafionally robbing and plundering, for which they
want neither capacity nor inclination. Every town is
governed by a rnagidrate called tamann; and the ta-
manns, with their towns, are under, the jurifdi£lion of
two ottomanns, who refide at Tlherkaiky. The troops
of thele Coffacks likewife confilf entirely of cavalry.
In this country all the towns and villages are fortified
and encompafied with pallifades, to defend them againll
the incurfions of the Calmucks and Kuban Tartars, with
whom they are continually at war. The Coffacks, in
general, are of great fervice to garrifon towns by way
or defence, or to purfue an enemy ; but are not fo
good at regular attacks.
The Sielffi Coffacks, who are alfo called Haidamacks,
have their particular hettman. They inhabit the Ruf¬
fian, Poliffi, and Turkiffi dominions, along the banks
of the Dnieper.
The Yaik Coffacks dwell on the fouth fide of the
river Yaik ; and upon the fuccds of the Ruffian arms
in the kingdom of Adracan, voluntarily fubmitted to
them. In dature they greatly refemble the other Cof¬
facks •, though by their booriffi manner of living, and
intermarriages with the Tartars, they have not the
ffiape and air peculiar to the red; of their countrymen.
Their natural difpofitions and cudoms are. howTever,
nearly the fame. Hufbandry, fiffiing, and feeding of
cattle, are their principal employments; and, like the
other tribes, they let flip no opportunity of making
depredations on their neighbours. Their continual’
wars with the Kara Kalpacs and the Kafatlhaia-Horda
oblige them to keep their towns and villages in a date
of defence. They are indeed flibjeft to Ruffian wai- CoiTackj
Vv'odes, to whom they pay an annual tribute in corn, ^ j! ^
wax, honey, and cattle; but they have alio their par- <
ticular chiefs, who govern them according to their an¬
cient cuftoms. Though the generality of the Yaik
Coflacks profefs the Greek religion, yet a great many
relics of Mahometanifm and Paganifm are dill found
among them. Being naturally bold and hardy, they
make excellent foldiers; and they are not fo turbu¬
lent as the other Coffacks. They live entirely at
peace with the Calmucks and their other neighbours,
and even maintain a commercial' intercourle with
them.
C05SE DE Gekiste, an order of knighthood in-
dituted in 1234, by Louis IX. at his marriage with
Margaret of Provence. The motto on the collar of
this order was Exaltat humiles.
COSSET, among farmers, a colt, calf, or lamb,
bro*ghtup by hand without the dam.
COSTA, Christopher, a celebrated botanift of
the 16th century, was born in Africa, of a Portuguefe
father, and went into Afia, to perfeft himfelf in the
knowledge of fimples, where he was taken prifoner,
but found means to make his efcape, and after feveral
voyages, pra&ifed phyfic at Burgos. He wrote,
I. A Treatife on Indian drugs and medicines. 2. His
Voyages to the Indies. 3. A book in praife of Wo¬
men ; and other works.
COSTAL, an appellation given by anatomiffs to fe¬
veral parts belonging to the fides ; thus we meet with
codal mufcles, vertebrae, &c.
COS TANZO, Angelo di, an Italian hifforian and
poet, lord of Catulopa, rvas born in 1507, of a noble
and ancient family of Naples, and died about 1591.
He wrote, 1. A Hiftory of Naples, from 1250 to
1489 ; the belt edition of which is that of Aquila, in
1582, in folio, very fcarce. 2. Italian poems, which
are edeemed, and have had ieveral editions.
COSTA-RICCa, a province of North America in
New Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala, bound¬
ed on the north-e.aft by the Northern ocean, on the
fouth-weft by the South lea, on the north-weft by Ni¬
caragua, and on the fouth-caft by Veragua. The loil
is not very fertile, though there is plenty of cattle.
Carthagena is the capital town.
COSTARD, George, a clergyman of the church
of England, and author of leverai learned works, wa-s
born about the year 1710. He was educated at Wad-
ham college, Oxford; and took the degree of M. A.
in 1733* The firft ecclefiailicil fituation in which he
was placed was that of curate of Iffip in Oxfordihire.
In 1747 he publilhed, in 8vo, Some Obfervations tend¬
ing to illuftrate the Book of Job. In 17^0 he pub-
lidied Two Differtations: I. On the meaning of the
word Kejt'.a, mentioned in Job, chap. xlii. ver. n.
II. On the Signification of the word Hermes.
he publilhed in 8vo, at Oxford, Differtaiiones II. Critico-
facra:, quorum prima explicatur E%eh. xiii. 18. altera
vero, 2 Reg. xi 22. In 1755 he wrote a letter to Dr
Birch, which is preferved in the Briijfh Mufeum, refpect-
ing the meaning of the phrafe fpheera barbarica. Some
time after this he undertook to publiih a fecond edition
of Dr Hyde’s Hiftoria Religionis veierum Perfarum, eo-
rumque Magorum; and which was accordingly printed
under his infpe&bn and with his corrections, at the Cla-
4 S 2 rendon
Coward
II
Coitus.
* Blnclji.
Comment.
COS' [ 692 ] COT
renjon Piefs at Oxford, in 410. In 1760, Mr Coitard’s
cxtenfive learning having now recommended him to the
notice of Lord Chancellor Nortbington, lie obtained, by
the favour of that nobleman, in June 17C4, the vicarage
of Twickenham in Middlefex, in which fituation he
continued till his death. In 1767, he publifhed, in one
volume quarto, The Hiftory ot Aftronomy, with its
application to Geography, Hiftory, and Chronology
occaftonally exemplified by the Globes. This work
was chiefly intended for the ufe of Undents, and con¬
tains a full and diftinbh view of the fevetal improve¬
ments made in geography and aftronomy. Mr Coftard
has thown, by a gradual deduction, at what lime, and
by whom, tire principal difeoveries have been made in
geography and aftronomy > how each difeovery has
paved the way to what followed; and by what eafy
Heps, through the revolution of fo many ages, tbefe
very ufeful fciences have advanced towards their pre-
fent Hate of perfeflion. In 1778, he publifhed, in
8 vo, A Letter to Nathaniel Braffey Halhed, Efq.
containing fome Remarks on his Preface to the Code
of Gentoo Laws. This appears to have been the laft
of his publications. It contains fome ciilicifms which
were intended to invalidate the opinion which Mr Hal¬
hed had conceived concerning the great antiquity of
the Gentoo laws •, and fome arguments againft a no¬
tion which had been adopted by feveral writers, drawn
from the obfervation of natural phenomena, that the
world is far more ancient than it is reprefented to be
by the Hebrew chronology. Mr Coftard died on the
loth of January 1782. He was a man of uncommon
learning, and eminently {killed in Grecian and oriental
literature. His private chara£ier was amiable, and he
was much refpefled in the neighbourhood in which he
lived for his humanity and benevolence. Befides the
works already mentioned, he wrote fome others*, and
was alfo the author of learned papers, inferted in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions, on aftronomical and chro¬
nological fubjedls.
COSTIVENESS, a preternatural detention of the
feces, with an unufual drynefs and hardnefs thereof,
and thence a fuppreffion of their evacuation. See Me¬
dicine Index.
■ COSTMARY, the Engiifh name of a fpecies of
tanfy. See Tanacetum, Botany Index.
COSTS, in Law, imply the expences of a fuit reco¬
vered by the plaintiff, together with damages. Cofts
were net allowed by the common law, the amercement
of the vanquifhed party being his only punifhment •,
but they are given by ftatute*. Cofts are allowed in
chancery for failing to make anfwer to a bill exhibited,
or making an infufficient anfwer ; and if a firft anfwer
be certified by a mailer to be infufticient, the defendant
is to pay 40s. 3I. for a fecond infufficient anfwer ; 4I.
for a third, &c. But if the anfwer be reported good,
the plaintiff ihali pay the defendant 40s. cofts.
COSTUME, a rule or precept in painting, by
which the artift is enjoined to make every perfon and
thing fuftain its proper chara&er, and not only obferve
the ftory, but the circumftances, the feene of adlion,
j/ne country or place, and take cave that tne habits,
amxs, manners, proportion, and the like, exaflly corre¬
spond.
COST US. a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
nandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the eighth order, Scitaminece. See Botany Index.
COTA, Rodriguez, a Spanifti poet in the ibih
century, was the author of the Tragi comedia de Cajijlo
y Melibea, which has been tranilated into Lapin by
Gafper Barthius, and into French by James de La-
vardin. The Spaniards fet a great value op this per¬
formance.
CO-TANGENT, the tangent of an arch which is
the complement of another to 90. See Geometry.
COT BUS, a town of Germany in Lower Lufatia.
It is a ftrong important place, and has been fubjeeff to
the king of Pruffia ever fince the year 1645. It is
feated on the river Spree, 60 miles feuth-by-eaft of
Beilin, and 55 fouth-eaft of Wirtemburg. Here are
a great number of French Proteftants, who have intro¬
duced manufatftures; and this place is noted for excel¬
lent beer, pitch, and the cultivation of flax. E. Long.
15. 29. N. Lat. 51. 40.
COTE, a term ufed in courfing, to exprefs the ad¬
vantage one greyhound has over another when he runs
by the fide of it, and putting before it, gives the hare a
turn. See Coursing.
Cote Gave, a kind of refufe wool, fo clung or clot¬
ted together that it cannot be pulled afunder. By
13 Rich. II. flat. 1. c. 9. it is provided, that neither
denizen or foreigner make any other refufe of wool,
but cot-gare and villein. So the printed ftatute has
it 5 but in the parliament roll of that year it is coddand,
and villein. Cot, or cote, fignifies as much as cottage
in many places, and was fo ufed by the Saxons accord¬
ing to Verftegan.
COTELERIUS, John Baptist, fellow of the Sor-
bonne, and king’s Greek profeffor, was born at Nifmes
in Languedoc in 1627. He made a colledlion of the
fathers who lived in the apoftolic age, which he pub-
liftied at Paris in two volumes folio in 16725 all re¬
viewed and correfled from feveral MSS. with a Latin
tranflaticn and notes. He alfo publifhed Monument a
Ecclefice Greecce, in 3 vols 5 being a colleftion of Greek
tradls out of the king’s and M. Colbert’s libraries, and
which had never been puhliffied before 5 to thefe he
added a Latin tranflation and notes. He intended a
farther profecution of this work ; but his intenfe ftudies
broke his conftitution, and deprived him of life in 1686.
Befides his great fkill in languages and ecclefiaftical
antiquities, Cotelerius was remarkable for his probity
and candour.
Cod'4
Coterie,
COTERELLUS. Cotcrius and Coterellus, accord¬
ing to Spelman and Du Frefne, are fervile tenants 5
but in Doomfday and other ancient MSS. there ap¬
pears a diftinftion, as well in their tenure and quality
as in their name 5 for the cotarius hath a free foccage
tenure, and paid a ftated firm or rent in provifions or
money, with fome occafional cuftomary fervices; where¬
as'the coterellus feems to have held in mere villenage,
and his perfon, iffue, and goods, were difpofable at the
pleafure of the lord.
COTERIE, a term adopted from the French tra¬
ding affociations or partnerfhips, where each perion
advances his quota of flock,' and receives his proportion
of gain 5 and which retains its original meaning when
applied to little affemblies or companies affociated for
mirth and ecod humour, where each one furnifhes his
quota
if
COT [ 693 ] .COT
nterse quota of pleafantry. Here they coin new words not un-
!l derftood elfevvhere, but which it becomes fafliionable for
I’ott- others to ufe j and they are thought ridiculous who are
^ ‘ ignorant of them. It has been fometimes ufed to fig-
nify a club of ladies.
COTES, Roger, an excellent mathematician of
the 18th century. He early difeovered an inclination
to the mathematics j and at 17 years of age, was ad¬
mitted a penlioner of Trinity college, Cambridge. In
1706, he was appointed profeflbr of aftronomy in the
profedbrfhip founded by Dr Plume archdeacon of Rc-
chefter, being chofen the fil'd: in that chair for his great
merit and learning. In the year 17x3, at the requeft
of Dr Richard Bentley, he publifhed at Cambridge,'
in qto, a fecond edition of Sir Ifaac Newton’s Princi-
pia, with all the improvements which the author had
annexed thereto: to which he prefixed an excellent
preface. He prepared feveral ufeful books for the
public j and wrote A Defcription of the great Meteor
which appeared on the 6th of March 1716, publifiied
in the Phiiofophical Tranfaftions. Pie lived but a
little while to carry on the difeourfes for which he
was eminently qualified 5 dying in the prime of his age
in 1716, to the great regret of all the lovers of the
fciences.
COTESWOLD, feveral (heep-cotes, and fheep
feeding on hills. It comes from the Saxon cote, i. e.
cafa, “ a cottage,” and wo/d, “ a place where there is
no wood.”
COTHURNUS, Buskin, a very high fiioe or
patten raifed on foies of cork, worn by the ancient
a&ors in tragedy, to make them appear taller and more
like the heroes they reprefented, mod of whom were
fuppofed to be giants. It covered the greated part of
the leg, and was tied beneath the knee. JEfchylus is
faid to have invented the cothurnu'. See Buskin.
COTICE, or Cotise', in Heraldry, is the fourth
part of the bend j which with us is feldom or ever
borne but in couples, with a bend between them ;
whence probably the name 5 from the French cote,
“ fide they being borne, as it were, 'afide of the
bend. A bend thus bordered is faid to be cotifed, co-
tice. He bears fable on a bend cotifed argent three
cinquefoils.
COTILLON, the name of a well-known brifk
dance, in which eight perfons are employed. The term
is French, and fignifies an under-petticoat.
COTRONE, a town in the Hither Calabria dand-
ing on the fite of the ancient Croton, though not oc¬
cupying the fame extent of ground : (See Croton).
It is fortified with fingle walls, and a cadle erefted by
Charles V. Its private buildings are poor and fordid,
the dreets difmal and narrow. Cheefe and corn are
the principal commodities. For the dowage of corn,
there are ranges of granaries in the fuburbs •, and the
annual export is about 20,000 tomoti. The cheefe is
tolerably good •, but has a great deal of that hot acrid
tade fo common to all cheefe made with goats milk.
The wine is not unpleafant, and appears fufceptible of
improvement by better management in the making and
keeping.
COTT, a particular fort of bed-frame, fufpended
from the beam of a (hip for the officers to deep in
between the decks. This contrivance is much more
convenient at fea. than either the hammocks or fixed
cabins: being a large piece of canvas fewed into the C°tt
form of a died, about fix feet long, and one foot deep, c )}
and from two to three feet wide. It is extended by a
fquare wooden frame with a canvas bottom, equal to
its length and breadth, to retain it in an horizontal po¬
ll tion.
COTTAGE, Cottagium, is properly a little
houfe for habitation without lands belonging to it :
dat. 4. Edw. I. But by a later datute 31 Eliz. c. 7,
no man may build a cottage unlefs he lay four acres of
land thereto •, except it be in market-towns or cities,
or within a mile of the fea, or for the habitation of
labourers in mines, failors, foreders, fhepherds, &c.
and cottages erefted by order of judices of the peace for
poor impotent people are excepted out of the datute.
The four acres of land to make it a cottage within the
law are to be freehold, and land of inheritance ; and
four acres holden by copy, or for life or lives, or for any
number of years, will not be fufficient to make a lawful
cottage.
Coil ON, in Commerce, a foft downy fubdance
found on the gofiypium, or cotton-tree. See Gossyfi-
um, Botany Index.
Cotton is feparated from the feeds of the plant by a
mill, and then fpun and prepared for all forts of fine
work, as dockings, waidcoats, quilts, tapedry, curtains,.
&c. With it they likewife make muflin ; and fome¬
times it is mixed with wool, fometimes with filk, and
even with gold itfelf.
The fined Tort comes from Bengal and the coad of
Coromandel.
Cotton makes a very confiderable article in com¬
merce. and is didinguiftied into cotton-wool and cotfon-
thread. The fird is brought modly from Cyprus, St
John d’Acre, Smyrna, and the Ealt and Wed Indies
the mod edeemed is white. Thofe who buy it in bales
ffiould fee that it has not been wet : moidure being
very prejudicial to it.
Of cotton-thread, that of Damas, called cotton d"'ounce,
and that of Jerufalem, called ba%as, are the mod edeem¬
ed ; as alfo that of the Wed India iflands. It is to be
chofen white, fine, very dry, and evenly fpun. The
other cotton threads are the half bazas, the rames, the
beledin, and gondezel j the payas and mountafiri, the
geneguins, the baquins, the joflelaffars, of rvhich there
are two forts. Thofe of India, known by. the name of
Tutucorin, Java, Bengal, and Surat, are of four or
five forts, diItinguifiled by the letters A, B, C, &c.
They are fold in bags, with a deJuftion of one pound
and a half on each of thofe cf Tutucorin, which are
the deared, and two pounds on each bag of the other
forts. For thofe of Fielebas, Smyrna, Aleppo, and
Jerufalem, the dedu&ion at Amderdam is eight in
the hundred for the tare, and two in the hundred for
weight, and on the value one per cent, for prompt pay¬
ment.
Cotton of Siam, is a kind of filky cotton in the An¬
tilles, fo called becaufe the grain was brought from Siam.
It is of an extraordinary finenefs, even furpaffing filk in
foftnefs. They make hofe of it there preferable to filk
ones for their ludre and beauty. They fell from 10
to 12 and 15 crowns a pair, >but there are very few
made unlefs for curiofity.
The manner of packing Cotton as pra&ifed in the
Antilles, The bags are rryde of coarfe cloth, of which
they
c o
•' I -
1
they laks thre,e ells
one ell three inches.
t 694
C O T
and a half each) the breadth is
When the bag has been well
foaked in water, they hang it up, extending the mouth
ot it to crofs pieces of timber nailed to polls fixed in
the ground feven or eight feet high. He who packs
it goes into the bag, which is hx feet nine inches deep,
or thereabouts, and preli'es down the cotton, which an¬
other .hands him, with hands and feet; ohferving to
tread it equally everywhere, and putting in but little at
a time, .l he oeft time of packing is in rainy moift
weather, provided the cotton be under cover. The bag
fliould contain from goo to 320 pound?. The tare a-
bated in the Antilles is three in the hundred. Cotton
being a production applicable to a gr«at variety of ma¬
nufactures, it cannot be too much cultivated in cur own
plantations that will admit of it. ~
Cotton-Spinning, the art or procefs of reducing cot¬
ton-wool into yarn or thread.
i he mo ft fimple method for this purpofe, and the
only one in ufe for a long .time in this country, was by
the hand upon the well-known domeftic machine call¬
ed a one-thread %vhee!. But as the demand for cotton-
goods began to increafe, other inventions were thought
ot for expediting this part of the mar.ufadlure. About
50 years ago, one Paul and others of London con¬
trived an engine for a more eafy and expeditious me¬
thod of fpinning cotton, and for which they obtained
a patent; but the undertaking did not prove fuccefsful.
Some years thereafter, various machines were con-
flrudfsd by different perfons fer facilitating the fpinning
of cotton ; but without producing any very material
or lading advantage, At length, about the year 1767,
ivlr James Hargrave, a rveaver in the neighbourhood
of Blackburn in Lancafhire, conflrudled a machine by
which a great number of threads (from 20 to 80)
might be fpun at once, and for which he obtained his
majefly’s letters-patent. This machine is called a jen¬
ny, and is the belt contrivance for fpinning waoj' or
Jhute that ha? hitherto appeared. It is now commonly
fconflrufted for 84 tnreads ; and jvith it one perfon can
fpin 100 Englifli nanks in the day, each hank contain¬
ing 840 yards.
Carding of cotton, as a preparation for fpinning,
ufed formerly to be performed by the hand, with "a
tingle pair of cards upon the knee ; but this being a
tedious method, ill tuited to the rapid operations of
tne new fpinnin'g machines, other methods were con¬
trived for affording a quicker and more adequate fup-
fdy* The fir ft improvement for this purpofe was
like wife made by Mr Hargrave ; and confifted in ap¬
plying two or three cards to the fame board, and fix¬
ing them to a (tool or flock ; whence they obtained the
ftaine of Jiock-cards. With thefe, one woman could
perform two or three times as much work as fhe could
do before in the common way. A ftill more expediti¬
ous method of carding, horvever, by what are common¬
ly called cylinder cards, was foon afterwards invented,
and is that which is now roof! commonly pradtifed : but
3s feveral perfons lay claim to this invention, it is not
eafy to determine to whom in particular the merit of it
is due,
I he next and mod capital improvements which this
branch of manufacture received were from Mr Ark¬
wright, a native of Lancafhire, afterward Sir Richard
Arkwright of Croniford in Berbyfhire, He fix'd brought
which he
for fpin-
challenged
it expired.
forward his new method of fpinning cotton -in 1-768, C0
for whim he obtained a patent in 1769. In
he obtained another patent for engines
had condrufted to prepare the materials
ning ; though one of thefe patents, being
at law, was fet afide fume years before
I he remit of Mr Arkwright’s different inventions and
improvements is a combination of machinery, by which
cotton is carded, roved, and fpun, with the utmoft ex¬
scinds and equality ; and fuch a degree of perfection
attained in fpinning warp, as is not to be equalled in
any other part of the world. To thefe improve¬
ments this country. is entirely indebted for the great
extent of its cotton manufactures; large buildings
having been ereCted for that branch both in England
and Scotland, many of which contain feveral thou-
fands of fpindles, each driven by one or more large
water wheels; and fome -of fuch extent as to fpin at the
rate of one thoufand yards of twid or warp yarn in the
minute.
Other machines have been invented at diiTerent times,
and a variety of improvements made by different me¬
chanics and manufacturers ; -one of which in particular
we muft not omit to mention. It is calied a mule, be¬
ing a kind of mixture of machinery between the warp*
machine of Mr Arkwright and the ‘luoo/’-machine or
hand jenny of Mr Hargrave ; and was alfo invented in
Lancafhire. This machine bids fair to be of great ufe
in fpinning cotton-yarn for muffins to a degree of fine-
nefs never before known in this country, being neariy
equal in quality to thofe ufually brought from India.
Cotton-Mills, are large buildings with peculiar ma¬
chinery for carding, roving, and fpinning cotton : (fee
the preceding article). Thefe were entirely unknown
in this country before the different inventions and im¬
provements of Meffrs Arkwright and Hargrave ; fince
which time great numbers have been ereCted in Eng¬
land, many in Scotland, and fome in Ireland.
The firff ereCtions of the kind were by Meflrs Ark-
wright and Hargrave, both in the town of Notting¬
ham, and both nearly at the fame time. The engines
were then driven by horfes ; but fince that time they
have been chiefly ereCted upon water-falls in different
parts of the country ; particularly the warp-machines,
which are better adapted for being driven by water
than any other. The moft extenfive of thefe is in the
village and neighbourhood of Cromford in Derbyflfire,
and under the immediate infpeCtion of Sir Richard Ark¬
wright. The firft that w?as creCted in Scotland was for
Mr Peter Brotherfton, under the infpeCtion and direc¬
tion of Mr John Hacket from Nottingham ; and is in
the neighbourhood of Pennycuick near Edinburgh.
Since which time many have been ereCted in the neigh¬
bourhood of Glafgowq Paifley, Lanark, Perth, &c.
Many are driven by fleam-engines.
General State of the Cotton Manufactory. The fa¬
cilities which the manufacturers of Great Britain had
fuddenly acquired, and the immenfe capitals w-hich
they have fo recently laid out in expenfive machinery
and other heavy eflabliftiments for carrying on the
cotton trade, are unparalleled in the annals of the
world. Above 140 cotton mills are now (1787) built
in Great Britain, of which nearly two-thirds have
been erected within thefe feven years. Befides thefe,
there are above 20,5-00 hand-mills or jennies for fpin-
COT [ 695
rung the finite for the twifted yarn fpun by the water¬
mills.
Above a million of money was within this time
funk in mills, hand engines, and other machines, in¬
cluding the grounds and neceffary buildings.
Expence of water-mills, - L. 715,000
Ditto of hand jennies, houfes,!
buildings, and auxiliary ma- > 285,000
chinery, fuppofed at leall, J
]
COT
of the immenfe return it makes for labour more than
any other branch of the cotton manufactory. Eaft In¬
dia cotton wool has been Ipun into one pound of yarn
worth five guineas j and when wove into muflin, and
afterwards ornamented by children in the tambour, has
extended to the value of 15I. ; yielding a return of
5900 per cent, on the raw material.
But the ftate of the raw materials, and the progref-
five and ailonithing increafe of this manufacture, will
be belt explained by what follows :
Cotton.
Total, L. 1,000,000
A power had been alfo created of working nearly
two millions of fpindles 5 and men, women, and chil¬
dren were trained to this bufinefs, capable of carrying
the cotton manufacture almolt to any extent. In
1787, the power of fpindles capable of being worked
was efiimated as follows :
In the water-mills, - - _ 286,000
In the jennies, - - - 1,665,100
Total fpindles, 1,951,100
In the branches applicable to muflin and callico, it
was calculated that employment was given to 100,000
men and women, and at leaft 60,000 children j many
of the latter having been taken from different pariflies
and hofpitals in Great Britain.
The quantity of the raw material of cotton wool
confumed in this manufacture, which did not amount
to 6,000,000 pounds in 1781, and w’as only about
11,000,000 pounds fix years ago, had amounted in the
year 1787 to the enormous height of 22,000,000 lb.
and upwards; and the aftoniflung rapidity of this in-
creaie is in iome meafure to be attributed to the exten-
fion of tkefe branches to the goods of India, particu¬
larly the callicoes and muffins.
.Britifh callicoes were firft made in Eancafhire about
the year 1772, but tbe progrefs was flow till within
thefe lair 12 years. The quantity manufactured has
fince extended from about 50,000 to 1,000,000 of
pieces made in the courfe of a fingle year.
Britifli muffins were not laccefsfully introduced un¬
til the year 1781, and were carried to no great extent
until 1785, after which period the progrefs during two
vears became rapid beyond all example. The acquifi-
tion of cotton wool of a fuperior quality from Deme-
rara and the Brazils, and the improvements made in
the fpinning fine yarns upon the mule jennies, had gi¬
ven a fpring to this branch of the cotton manufaClory,
which extended it beyond what it was poflible to have
conceived. Above half a million pieces of muffin of
different kinds, including fhawls and handkerchiefs,
were computed to be annually made in Great Britain j
while the quantity not only increaied daily vrith the
new acceffion of powers that were burfting forth upon
the country, but the quality was exceedingly improv¬
ed ; and fince a yearly fupply of about 300 bales ot Eafl
Indian cotton has been obtained by the way of Ouend,
yarns have been^Tpun, and muffins have been wove,
equal to any from India. Nothing, therefore, but a
fine raw material appeared wanting to enable the Bri-
tifh manufaflurer to carry this branch to the greateft
•extent: and, of all others, it is that fpecies of cotton
goods which deferves mofi to be encouraged, becaufe
Cotton Wool ufed in
the Manufacture.
1781, lb.5,101,920
1782, 11,206,810
i783> 9>546,i79
1784, 11,280,238
i7s5> 17,992,888
1786, 19,151,867
1787, 22,600,000
Suppofed Value when
Manufactured.
L. 2,000,000
3,900,000
3,200,000
3,95°,000
6,000,000
6,500,000
7,500,000
Such was the progrefs of the Brit’.fh cotton manu¬
factory till 1787 j when, with efiablifliments and me¬
chanical powers capable of bringing forward immenfe
quantities of goods into the confumption, this manu-
fa&ure was checked by a great and fudden reduction
of the prices of Eaff India goods of the fame fpecies,
which were fold above 20 per cent, on an average un¬
der the loweft prices at which the Biitiih manufacturer
can afford to fell without lofs.
This conduct in the Eaft India Company quickly
operated to the great prejudice of the Britifh manu¬
factures ; and there is no faying how far thefe might
be reduced, fhould that company be allowed to prefs
goods upon the market at prices which have no rela¬
tion to the original coft, and under cireumftanees where
every idea of _ protecting duties is annihilated in the
effect of the general fyftem.
The home-manufaCture of this article, however, in
all its different branches, ha« been greatly extended,
and is likely to be carried on with greater advantage
to the manufacturer than ever it was before.
Lavender Cotton. See Santolina, Botany In¬
dex.
Phiiofopine Cotton, a name given to the flowers of
zinc, on account of their white colour, extreme light-
nefs, and refemblance to cotton.
Flax made to referable Cotton. See Flax.
Silh-CoTTON. Sec Bombax, Botany Index.
Cotton Weed. See Gnaphalium, Botany Index.
Cotton, Sir Robert, a moft eminent Engfifh anti¬
quarian, defeended from an ancient family, was born
in 1570. In his 18th year he began to collect ancient
records, charters, and other MSS. £amden, Selden,
and Speed, acknowledged their obligations to him in
their refpeCtive works. He was'highly diftinguifhed
by Queen Elizabeth, and by James I. who created
him a baronet. He wrote many things himfelf *, but
our principal obligations to him are for his valuable li¬
brary, confifting of curious manuferipts, &c. which he
was 40 years in collecting. At hi? death in 1631, he
left the property of it to his family, though defigned
for public ufe. A large acceffion was made to this li¬
brary by private benefactions before the death of the
founder, and afterwards by the purehafes of Lis heirs,
aud
I
Cotton
Cotyledo-
COT [ 696
and donations of others, who added to it a great num¬
ber of books, chiefly relating to the hiftory and antiqui¬
ties of our own nation. An aft of parliament was ob-
c
o u
the chorion of fome anj-
tained, at the requeft of Sir John Cotton, in 1790, for
preferving it after his deceafe, under the above deno¬
mination, for public ufe. It is now fixed in the Britiih
Mufeum. For fiatutes relating toil, fee 12 and 13
W. III. c. 3. and 5 Anne cap. 30.
Cotton, Charles, a burlefque poet, was defcended
of a good family, and lived in the reign of Charles II.
and James II. His moft celebrated piece is Scarrom-
ties, or Traveflie of the firft and fourth books of the
ALneid. But though, from the title, one would be
apt to imagine it an imitation of Scarron’s famous
Traveftie of the fame author, yet upon examination,
it will be found greatly to excel not only that, but
every other attempt of the fame kind that has been_
hitherto made in any language. He has alfo tranflated
feveral of Lucian’s dialogues, in the fame manner, un¬
der the title of The Scoffer Scoff'd;—and written ano¬
ther poem of a more ferious kind, entitled The Wonders
of the Peak. The exaft period of either Mr Cotton’s
birth or his death, is nowhere recorded ; but it is pro¬
bable the latter happened about the time of the revo¬
lution. Neither is it better known what his circum-
itances were with rcfpeft to fortune : they appear,
however, to have been eafy, if one may judge from the
turn of his writings, which is fuch as ieems fcarcely
polTible for any one to indulge whofe mind was not
perfeftly at cafe. Yet there is one anecdote told of
him, which feems to (how that his vein of humour
could not reftrain itfelf on any confideration. viz. that
in confequence of a fingle couplet in his Virgil Tra-
‘vejiie, wherein he has made mention of a peculiar kind
of ruff worn by a grandmother of his who lived in the
Peak, he loff an eftate of 400I. per annum ; the old
lady, whofe humour and lefty difpofition he could by
no means have been a ft ranger to, being never able to
forgive the liberty he had taken with her; and having
her fortune wholly at her dilpofal, although (lie had ,
before made him her foie heir, altered her will, and
gave it away to an abfolute flranger.
COTTUS, or Butl-hea», a genus of fifties belong¬
ing to the order of thoracici. See Ichthyology
Index.
COTULA, May-WEED, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the fyngenefia clafs. See Botany Index.
Cotula, or Cotyla, a liquid meafure in ufe among
the ancients.
Fannius fays the cotyla was the fame tiling with the
hemina, which was half a fextary.
At cotylas, quas Jiplaced, dixiffe licebit
Heminas rsccpit gcminas fextanas unus.
Chorier cbferves, that the cotyla was ufed as a dry
meafure as well as a liquid one ; from t-hc authority of
Thucydides, who in one place mentions two cotylae of
wine, and in another two cotylse of bread.
COTURNIX. See Tetrao, Ornithology In-
COTYLEDON, Navel wort, a genus of plants
belonging to the decandria clafs; and ranking under
the natural order Succulentce. See Botany Index.
COTYLEDONES, in Anatomy, are certain glan¬
dular bodies, adhering to
mals.
Cotyxedones, in Botany, the perifhable porous
fide lobes of the feed, which involve, and for fome
time furnilh nouriftiment to, the embryo plant. See
Botany Index.
’ COi YTrO, the goddefs of all debauchery. Her
feftivals, called Cotyttia, were celebrated by the Athe¬
nians, Corinthians, Thracians, &c. during the night.
Her priefts were called bapta, and nothing but debau¬
chery and wantonnefs prevailed at the celebration. A
feftival of the fame name was obferved in Sicily, where
the votaries of the goddefs carried about boughs hung
with cakes and fruit, which it was lawful for any per*
fon to pluck off. It was a capital puniftiment to re¬
veal whatever was feen or done at thefe facred feftivals.
It colt Eupolis his life for an unfeafonable refteftion
upon them. The goddefs Cotytto is fuppofed to be
the fame as Proferpine.
COUCH, in Painting, denotes a lay, cr impreffion
of colour, whether in oil or w ater, wherewith the pain¬
ter covers his canvas, wall, wainfeot, or other matter
to be painted.
The word is alfo ufed for a lay or impreffion on any
th .g, to make it firm and confiftent, or to fereen it
from the weather.
Paintings are covered with a couch of varnifh ; a
canvas to be painted muft firft; have two couches of
fize, before the colours be laid ; two or three couches
of white lead are laid on wood, before the couch of
gold be applied : the leather-gilders lay a couch of
water and whites of eggs on the leather, before they
apply the gold or filver-leaf.
The gold-wire-draweis alio ufe the word couch for
the gold or filver leaf wherewith th^y cover the mafs
to be gilded or filvered, before they draw it through
the iron that is to give it its proper thicknefs.
The gilders ufe couch for the quantity of gold or
filver leaves applied on the metals in gilding or filver-
ing. Each couch of gold is about one leaf, or twTo at
moft, and each of filver three to gild : if the gilding
be hatched, there are required from eight to twelve
couches ; and only three or four if it be without hatch¬
ing. To filver there are required from four to ten
couches, according to the beauty of the work.
CoucH-Grafs. See Triticum, Botany Index.
COUCH ANT, in Heraldry, is underftood of a lion,
or other beaft, when lying down, but with his head
railed ; which diftinguift'.es the poflure of couchant
from dormant, wherein he is fuppofed quite ftretched
out and afteep.
COUCHE, in Heraldry, denotes any thing lying
along : thus chevron-couche, is a chevron lying ikie-
wife, with the twro ends on each fide of the fhield,
which ft ould properly reft on the bafe.
COUCHER, or Courcher, in our ftatutes, is ufed
for a faftor, or one that continues in fome place op
country for traffic ; as formerly in Gafcoign, for the
buying of wines. Anno 37 Edw. III. c. 16.
Coucher, is alfo ufed for the general book in which
anv religious houie or corporation regifter their parti¬
cular afts. Anno 3 and 4 Edw. VI. c. 10.
COUCHING of a Cataract, in Surgery. See
Surgery Index.
COVE,
Vtylcdo.
tl3S
CoucW.
C O V [ 697 ] C O V
!nV<s COVE, a fmall creek or bay, where boats and fmall
-enant. veffels may ride at anchor, (heltered from the wind and
  ' fea.
COVENANT, in Law, is the confent and agree¬
ment of two or more perfons to do, or not to do, Tome
aft, ©r thing, contrafted between them. *Alfo it is
the declaration the parties make, that they will (land
to fuch agreement, relating to lands or other things j
and is created by deed in writing, fealed and executed
by the parties, or otherwife it may be implied in the
contraft as incident thereto. And if the perfons do not
perform their covenants, a writ or aftion of covenant
is the remedy to recover damages for the breach of
them.
Covenant, in ecclefiaftical hillory, denotes a con¬
traft or conventian agreed to by the Scotch in the
year 1638, for maintaining their religion free from
innovation. In 1581, the general affembly of Scotland
drew up a confeffion of faith, or national covenant,
condemning epifcopal government, under the name of
hierarchy, which was figned by James I. and which he
enjoined on all his fubjefts. It was again fubfcribed
in 1590 and 1596. The fubfcription was renewed in
1638, and the fubfcribers engaged by oath to maintain
religion in the fame (late as it was in 1580, and to re-
jeft all innovations introduced fince that time. This
oath annexed to the confelTion of faith received the
name of the covenant: as thofe who fubfcribed it were
called covenanters.
Covenant, in Theology, is rriuch ufed in conneftion
with other terms ; as, 1. The Covenant of Grace is that
which is made between God and thofe who believe the
gofpel, whereby they declare their fubjeftion to him,
and he declares his acceptance of then^ and favour
to them. The gofpel is fometimes denominated a
covenant of grace, in oppofition to the Mofaic law.
2. Covenant of Redemption denotes a mutual flipulation,
tacit or exprefs, between Chrift and the Father,
relating to the redemption of finners by him, previous
to any aft on Chrift’s part under the charafter of
Mediator. 3. Covenant of Works fignifies in the
language of fome divines, any covenant whereby God
requires perfeft obedience from his creatures, in fuch a
manner as to make no exprefs provifion for the pardon
of offences to be committed againft the precepts of it,
on the repentance of fuch fuppofed offenders, but pro¬
nounces a fentence of death upon them : fuch, they
fay, was the covenant made with Adam in a ftate
of innocence, and that made with Ifrael at Mount
Sinai.
Solemn League and CorsNANT, was eftablilhed in the
year 1643, and formed a bond of union between Scot-
• land and England. It was fworn and fubfcribed by
many in both nations j who hereby folemnly abjured
popery and prelacy, and combined together for their
mutual defence. It was approved by the parliament
and affembly at Weftminfter, and ratifled by the gene¬
ral affembly of Scotland in 1645. ^*nS Charles I. dif-
approved of it when he furrendered himfelf to the
Scots army in 1646: but in 1650 Charles II. declared
his approbation both of this and the national covenant
by a folemn oath ; and in Auguft of the fame year,
made a farther declaration at Dunfermline to the fame
purpofe, which was alfo renewed on occafion of his
coronation at Scone in 1651. T’he covenant was ra-
Vol. VI. Part II.
tilled by parliament in this year; and the fubfcription Covenant,
of it required by every member, without which the, Cpventry^
conftitution of the parliament was declared null and
void. It produced a feries of diftraftions in the fub-
fequent hiltory of that country, and was voted illegal
by parliament, and provilion made againft it. Stat. 14
Car. II. c. 4.
Ark of the Covenant, in Jewifti antiquity. See Ark.
COVENTRY, a town of Warwicklhire, in Eng¬
land, lituated in W. Long. 1. 26. N. Lat. 52. 25. It
is an ancient place, and is fuppofed to derive its name
from a convent formerly fituated here. Leofric, earl
of Mercia, who rebuilt the religious houfe after it had
been deftroyed by the Danes, and was lord of the
place about the year 1040, is faid, upon fome provo¬
cation, to have loaded them with heavy taxes. Be¬
ing importuned by his lady, Godina, to remit them,
he confented, upon condition that Ihe (hould ride na¬
ked through the town, which he little imagined (he
would ever comply with. But he found himfelf mif-
taken: for Ihe accepted the offer, and rode through
the town with her long hair fcattered all over her
body ; having firft enjoined the citizens not to venture,
on pain of death, to look out as (he paffed. It is faid,
however, that a certain taylor could not help peep¬
ing : and to this day there is an effigy of him at the
window whence he looked. To commemorate this
extraordinary tranfaftion, and out of refpeft to the
memory of their patronels, the citizens make a procef-
fion every year, with the figure of a naked woman
on horfeback. After Leofric’s death, the earls of
Chefter became lords of the city, and granted it many
privileges. At length it was annexed to the earldom
of Cornwall; and growing confiderable, had divers
immunities and privileges conferred upon it by feveral
kings; particularly that of a mayor and two bailiffs
by Edward III. 5 and Henry VI. made it, in conjunc¬
tion with fome other towns and villagesj a diftinft coun¬
ty, independent of the county of Warwick. But af¬
terwards Edward VI. for their difloyalty, deprived them
of their liberties, which were not reftored till they
had paid a fine of 500 merks. By a charter from
James I. an alderman is allotted to each ward, with
the powers of the juftices of the peace within the city
and its liberties. The walls were ordered to be de-
molifhed at the Reftoration ; and now nothing remains
of them but the gates, which are very lofty. Coventry
is noted- for the two parliaments which were held in it;
the one called the parliament of Dunces, and the other
of Devils. The former was fo called on account of the >
exclufion of the lawyers ; and the attainders of the duke
of York, the earls of Saliftmry, Warwick, and March,
procured the other the epithet of Devils. The town-
houfe of Coventry is much admired for its painted
window's, reprefenting feveral kings and others that have
been benefaftors to the city. The chief manufaftures
carried on here are temmies and ribbands.
Coventry fends two members to parliament, and gives
title of earl to an ancient family of the fame name.^—
Coventry is a bifhop’s fee. The biftioprick is faid to
have been founded by Ofwy king of Mercia, in the
year 656 or 657 ; and although it hath a double name,
yet, like Bath and Wells, it is a fingle diocefe. It was
fo extremely wealthy, that King Offa, by the favour of
Pope Adrian, conftituted it an archiepifcopal fee 5 but
4 T this
C O U [
this title was laid afide on the death of that king.
107J, Peter, the 34th bifliop, removed the fee to Chef-
ter. In 1102, Robert de Limfey, his immediate fuc-
ceffor, removed it to Coventry ; and Hugo Novant,
the 41ft bithop, removed it back to Litchfield, but
with great oppofition from the monks of Coventry.
The difpute was finally fettled in a manner nearly
iimilar to that which is mentioned between Bath and
Wells. Here it was agreed that the bilhop Ihould be
ftyled from both places, and that Coventry fhould
have the precedence •, that they Ihould choofe the bi¬
lhop alternately •, and that they Ihould both make one
chapter to the bilhop, in which the prior of Coventry
ihould be the chief man. Matters continued thus till
the Reformation, when the priory of Coventry being
diflblved by King Henry VIII. the flyle of the bilhop
continued as before. But an a£t of parliament pafied
33d of King Henry VIII. to make the dean and
chapter of Litchfield one foie chapter to the bilhop.
This fee hath given three faints to the church ; and to
the nation one lord chancellor, three lord treafurers,
three prefidents of Wales, one chancellor to the univer-
fity of Cambridge, and one mailer of the wardrobe.
The old church built by King Ofwy being taken down
by Roger de Clinton, the 37th bilhop, he built the
beautiful fabric that now Hands in 1148, and dedicated
it to the Virgin Mary and St Chad. During the
grand rebellion, the church fuffered much •, but foon
after the Reftoration, it was repaired and beautified.
This diocefe contains the whole counties of Stafford
and Derby (except two parilhes of the former), the
large!! part of Warwicklhire, and nearly one half of
Shroplhire, in which are 555 parilhes, of which 250
are impropriate. It hath four archdeaconries, viz.
Stafford, Derby, Coventry, and Shrexvfbury. It is
valued in the king’s books at 559I. 18s. 2|d. and is
computed to be worth annually 2800I. The clergy’s
tenth is 590I. 16s. ii-^-d. To this cathedral belong
a bilhop, a dean, a precentor, a chancellor, a trea-
furer, four archdeacons, twenty-feven prebendaries,
five prielt-vicars, fevcn lay clerks or Tinging men,
eight chorilters, and other under officers and fer-
vants.
CO-VERSED SlNE, in Geometry, the remaining
part of the diameter of a circle, after the verfed fine is
taken from it. See Geometry.
COVERT, in Law.—Femme Covert denotes a wo¬
man married, and fo covered by, or under the protec¬
tion of, her hufinnd.
CorsRT Way, or Corridor, in Fortification, a fpace
of ground, level with the field on the edge of the ditch,
three or four fathoms broad, ranging quite round the
half moons and other works towards the country. It
has a parapet raifed on a level, together with its ban¬
quets and glacis. See Fortification.
COVERTURE, in Law, is applied to the Hate and
condition of a married woman, who is under the power
of her hulband, and therefore called femme convert.
COUGH, in Medicine. See Medicine Index.
Cough, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
Cough, called the hulk, is a dileafe to which young
bullocks are fubje£l. In this diforder the wind-pipe
and its branches are loaded with fmall taper worms.
Farmers count the difeafe incurable \ but fumigations
698 ] c o u
In with mercurials, as cinnabar, or with feetids, as tobacco,
might prove ferviceable.
COUHAGE, or Stinking Beans a kind of kidney-,
beans imported from the Eaft Indies, where they are
ufed as a cure for the dropfy. The down growing on
the oulfide of the pod is fo pointed as, like a nettle, to
fling the flelh, though not with fo painful a fenfation.
This, by a corruption of the word, is called cowitch.
See Dolichos, Botany Index.
COVIN, a deceitful compa£l or agreement between
two or more to deceive or prejudice a third perfon :
As, if a tenant for life confpire with another, that this
other (hall recover the land which the tenant holds in
prejudice of him in reverfion. Dr Skinner takes the
word to be a corruption of the Latin conventum, and
therefore writes it coven. See Conspiracy.
COVING, in building, is when houfes are built
projedfing over the ground-plot, and the turned pro-
jedfure arched with timber, lathed and plaftered.
COVIN US, among the ancients, a kind of chariot,
in which the Gauls' and Britons ufed to fight in battles.
COUL, or Cowl. See Cowl.
COULTER, in Hujbandry, an iron inflrument,
fixed in the beam of a plough, and ferving to cut the
edge of each furrow. See Agriculture.
COUNCIL, or Counsel, in a general fenfe, an
affembly of divers confiderable perfons to concert mea-
fures relative to the ftate.
In Britain, the law, in order to affifl the king in the
difeharge of his duties, the maintenance of his dignity,
and the exertion of his prerogative, hath afligned him,
a diverfity of councils to advife with.
1. The firfl of thefe is the high court of parliament.
See Parliament.
2. The peers of the realm are by their birth here¬
ditary counfellors of the crown j and may be called
together by the king, to impart their advice in all
matters of importance to the realm, either in time of
parliament, or, which hath been their principal ufe,
when there is no parliament in being. Accordingly,
Bradlon, fpeaking of the nobility of his time, fays, they
might properly be called “ confules & confulendo ; reges
enim tales fibi affociant ad confulendum.” And in the
law-books it is laid down, that the peers are created
for two reafons: 1. Ad confulendum, 2. Ad defenden-
dum, regem: for which reafons the law gives them
certain great and high privileges; fuch as freedom
fx-om arrefls, &c. even when no parliament is fitting j
becaufe the law intends, that they are always affiHing
the king with their counfel for the common-wealth,
or keeping the realm in fafety by their prowefs and
valour.
Inflances of conventions of the peers, to advife the
king, have been in former times very frequent j though
now fallen into difufe, by reafon of the more regular
meetings of parliament. Sir Edward Coke gives us an
extraft of a record, 5 Henry IV. concerning an ex¬
change of lands between the king and the earl of Nor¬
thumberland, wherein the value of each was agreed
to be fettled by advice of parliament (if any fhould
be called before the fealf of St Lucia), or otherwife
by advice of the grand council of peers, which the king
promifes to affemble before the faid feaft, in cafe no
parliament fhall be called. Many other inftances of
' • this
Council.
C O U [ 699 ] c o u
ancil. this kind of meeting are to be found under our ancient
*■ kings: though the formal method of convoking them
^ rnent1^^ *oeen lonS t^at vs’hen King Charles I. in
W"* ’ 1640, iffued out writs under the great leal to call a
council of all the peers of England, to meet and attend
his majetly at York, previous to the meeting of the
|i long parliament, the earl of Clarendon mentions it as
a new invention, not before heard of: that is, as he
explains himfelf, fo old, that it had not been praftifed
in fome hundreds of years. But though there had not
for long time before been an inftance, nor has there been
any fince, of affembling them in fo folemn a manner,
yet in cafes of emergency, our princes have at feveral
times thought proper to call for, and confult as many
of the nobility as could eafily be brought together j
as was particularly the cafe with King James II. after
the landing of the prince of Orange ; and with the
prince of Orange himfelf before he called the conven¬
tion parliament which afterwards called him to the
throne.
Befides this general meeting, it is ufually looked
upon to be the right of each particular peer of the
realm, to demand an audience of the king, and to lay
before him with decency and refpeft fuch matters as
he lhall judge of importance to the public weal. And
therefore, in the reign of Edward II. it was made an
article of impeachment in parliament againrt the two
f Hugh Spencers, father and fon, for which they were
banilhed the kingdom, “ that they by their evil covin
would not fuffer the great men of the realm, the king’s
good counfellors, to {peak with the king, or to come
near him ; but only in prefence and hearing of faid
Hugh the father and Hugh the fon, or one of them,
and at their will, and according to fuch things as
pleafed them.”
3. A third council belonging to the king, are, ac¬
cording to Sir Edward Coke, his judges of the courts
of law, for law-matters. And this appears frequently
in the Englilh ftatutes, particularly 14 Edward III.
c. 5. and in other books of law. So that when the
king’s council is mentioned generally, it muft be de¬
fined, particularized, and underftood, fecundum Jubjec-
tam materiem; “ according to the fubjeft matter
and if the fubjeft be of a legal nature, then by the
king’s council is undetllood his council for matters of
law; namely, his judges. Therefore, when by ftatute
16 Richard II. c. 5. it was made a high offence to im¬
port into England any papal bulls, or other pio-
ceffes from Rome •, and it was ena£fedv that the of¬
fenders fhould be attached by their bodies and brought
before the king and his council to anfwer for fuch of¬
fence ; here, by the expreffion of king’s council, were
underftood the king’s judges of his courts of juftice, the
fubjeft matter being legal: this being the general way
of interpreting the word council.
4. But the principal council belonging to the king
is his privy council, which is generally by way of
eminence, called the council. For an account of its
conftitution and powers, fee the article Privt Coun¬
cil.
dulic Council. See Aulic.
Common Council, in the city of London, is a court
wherein are made all the bye-laws which bind the citizens.
It confifts, like the parliament, of two houfes ; an upper,
compofed of the lord-mayor and aldermen j and a
6
lower, of a number of common-council men, chofen
by the feveral wards, as reprefentativcs of the body of
the citizens.
Council of War, an aftembly of the principal offi¬
cers of an army or fleet, occafionally called by the ge¬
neral or admiral to concert meafures for their conduit
with regard to fieges, retreats, engagements, &c.
Council, in church hiftory, an affembly of prelates
and doitors, met for regulating matters relative to the
doitrine or difcipline of the church.
National Council, is an affembly of the prelates of
a nation under their primate or patriarch.
Oecumenical ox GeneralCovNCiL, is an affembly which
reprefents the whole body of the univerfal church. The
Romanifts reckon eighteen of them 5 Bullinger, in his
Treatife de Conciliis, fix 5 Dr Prideaux, feven ; and
Biflrop Beveridge has increafed the number to eight*
which, he fays, are all the general councils which have
ever been held fince the time of the firft Chriftian em¬
peror. They are as follows: 1. The council of Nice,
held in the reign of Conftantine the Great, on account
of the herefy of Arius. 2. The council of Conftan-
tinople, called under the reign and by the command of
Theodofius the Great, for much the fame end that the
former council was fummoned. 3. The council of
Ephefus, convened by Theodofius the younger at the
fuit of Neftorius. 4. The council of Chalcedon, held
in the reign of Martinus, which approved of the Eu-
tychian herefy. 5. The fecond council of Conftanti-
nople, affembled by the emperor Juftinian, condemned
the three chapters taken out of the book of Theodo-
rus of Mopfueftia, having firft decided that it was law¬
ful to anathematife the dead. Some authors tell us,
that they like wife condemned the feveral errors of
Origen about the Trinity, the plurality of worlds, and
pre-exiftence of fouls. 6. The third council of Con-
ftantinople, held by the command of Conftantius Po-
gonatus the emperor, in which they received the defi¬
nitions of the five firft general councils, and particularly
that againft Origen and Theodorus of Mopfueftia. 7.
The fecond Nicene council. 8. The fourth council of
Conftantin@ple, affembled when Louis II. was emperor
of the WeiV. The regulations -which they made are
contained in twenty-feven canons, the heads of which
are fet down by M. du Pin, to whom the reader is
referred.
COUNSEL, in a geneial fenfe, fignifies advice ot
inftru&jon how to behave in any difficult matter.
Counsel, or Advocates, in Englilh courts of law,
are of two fpecies or degrees j Barristers, and Ser¬
jeants. See thefe articles; alfo Advocate.
From both thefe degrees fome are ufually fele£led
to be his majefty’s counfel, learned in the law ; the two
principal of whom are called his attorney-general, and
folicitor-general. The firft king’s council, under the de¬
gree of feijeant, was Sir Francis Bacon, who was made
fo honoris caufa, without either patent or fee ; fo that
the firft of the modern order (who are now the fworn
fervants of the crown, with a {landing falary) Ferns to
have been Sir Francis North-} afterwards lord keeper
of the great feal to King Charles II. Thefe king’s
counfel anfwer, in fome degree, to the advocates of the
revenue, advocati fifei, among the Romans. For they
muft not be employed in any cafe againft the crown
without fpecial licenfe j in which reftridlion they agree
4 T 2 with
e o u [ 700 ] c o u
Counfel with the advocates of the fife; but, in the imperial
1 H law, the prohibition was carried ftill farther, and per-
. Co^nt' , Haps was more for the dignity of the fovereign j for,
excepting fome peculiar caufes, the fifeal advocates
were not permitted to be at all concerned in private
Blackjlone'sfoais between fubjeft and fubjeft. A cultom has of
Comment, late years prevailed of granting letters patent of pre¬
cedence to fuch barrifters as the crown thinks proper
to^ honour with that mark of diftin&ion ; whereby they
are entitled to fuch rank and preaudience as are affign-
ed in their refpe&ive patents 5 fometimes next after
the king’s attorney-general, but ufually next after his
xnajefty’s counfel next being. Thefe, as well as the
queen’s attorney and folicitor-general, rank promifeu-
oufly with the king’s counfel j and, together with
them, fit within the bar of their refpe&ive courts : but
receive no falaries, and are not fworn ; and therefore
are at liberty to be retained in caufes againft the crown.
And all other ferjeants and barrifters indiferiminately,
(except in the court of common pleas, where only fer¬
jeants are admitted), may take upon them the protec¬
tion and defence of any fuitors, whether plaintiff or de¬
fendant 5 who are therefore called their clients; like
the dependants on the ancient Roman orators. Thefe
indeed praftifed gratis, for honour merely, or at moft
for the fake of gaining influence ; and fo likewife it is
eftabliihed with us, that a counfel can maintain no
aftion for his fees 3 which are given, not as locatio vel
conduclio, but as quiddam honorarium; not as a falary
or hire, but as a mere gratuity, which a counfellor
cannot demand without doing wrong to his reputa¬
tion 3 as is alfo laid down with regard to advocates in
the civil law, whofe honorarium wTas direfted, by a
decree of the fenate, not to exceed in any cafe 10,000
fefterces, or about 80I. of Englifh money. And in
order to encourage due freedom of fpeech in the law¬
ful defence of their clients, and at the fame time to
check the unfeemly licentioufnefs of proftitute and il¬
liberal men (a few of whom may fometimes infinuate
themfelves even into the moft honourable profeflions),
it hath been holden that a counfel is not anfwerable for
any matter by him fpoken, relative to the caufe in
hand, and fuggefted in the client’s inftru£lions 5 although
it ftiould reflect upon the ,reputation of another, and
even prove abfolutely groundlefs 3 but if he mentions
an untruth of his own invention, or even upon inftruc-
tions, if it be impertinent to the caufe in hand, he is
then liable to an action from the party injured. And
counfel guilty of deceit and collufion are punilhable by
the ftatute Weftm. I. 3 Edw. I. c. 28. with imprifon-
ment for a year and a day, and perpetual filence in the
courts : a punifhment ftill fometimes infli&ed for grofs
mifdemeanors in practice.
COUNSELLOR, in general, a perfon •who advifes
another: thus we fay, a counfellor at law, a privy
coun ellor, &c.
Counsellor at Law, a perfon retained by a client,
to plead his caufe in a public court ©f judicature.
See Advocate, Barrister, Counsel, and Ser¬
jeant.
Privy Counsellor. See Privy Council.
COUNT, (Comes), a nobleman who poffeffes a do¬
main eredted into a county. See Viscount.
Englifh and Scottifh counts we diftinguifh by the
title of earls; foreign ones ftill retain their proper
5
name. The dignity of a count is a medium between Count,
that of a duke and a baron. According to the modern ''“—'/'"■•J
ufe, moft plenipotentiaries and ambaffadors affume the
title of counts, though they have no county 3 as the
count d’Avaux, &c.
Anciently, all generals, counfellors, judges, and fe-
cretaries of cities under Charlemagne, were called
counts ; the diftinguifhing character of a duke and count
being this, that the latter had but one town under him,
but the former had feveral.
A count has a right to bear on his arms a coronet,
adorned with three precious ftones, and furmounted with
three large pearls, wkereof thole in the middle and
extremities of the coronet advance above the reft.
Counts were originally lords of the court, or of
the emperor’s retinue, and had their name comites, a
comitando, or a cotnmeando : hence thofe wdio were
always in the palace, or at the emperor’s fide, were
called counts palatine, or comites a latere. See Pa¬
latine.
In the times of the commonwealth, comites among
the Romans was a general name for all thofe who
accompanied the proconfuls and propraetors into the
provinces, there to ferve the commonwealth 3 as the
tribunes, praefedts, feribes, &c.
Under the emperors, comites were the officers of
the palace. The origin of what we now call counts
feems owing to Auguftus, who took feveral fenators to
be his comites, as Dion obferves, i. e. to accompany
him in his voyages and travels, and to affift him in the
hearing of caufes 3 which were thus judged with the
fame authority as in full fenate. Gallienus feems to
have abolifhed this council, by forbidding the fenators
being found in the armies 3 and none oi his fucceffors
re-eftabliftied it.
Thefe counfellors of the emperor were really counts,
comites, i. e. companions of the prince 3 and they
fometimes took the title thereof, but always with the
addition of the emperor’s name whom they accom¬
panied : fo that it was rather a mark of their office
than a title of dignity. Conftantine was the firft who
converted it into a dignity 3 and under him it was
that the name was firft given abfolutely. The name
once eftabiilhed, was in a little time indifferently con¬
ferred, not only on thofe who followed the court,
and accompanied the emperor, but alfo on moft
kinds of officers 3 a long lift whereof is given us by Du
Cange.
Eufebius tells us, that Conftantine divided the counts
into three claffes 3 the firft bore the title of illujlres ;
the fecond that of clarijftmi, and afterwards fpeciabiles ;
the third were called perfeBiJJimi. Of the two firft claffes
was the fenate compofed : thofe of the third had no
place in the fenate, but enjoyed feveral other of the
privileges of fenators.
There were counts who ferved on land, others at
fea 3 fome in a civil, fome in a religious, and fome
in a legal capacity 3 as comes cerarii, comes facrarum
largitionum, comes facri conjijlorii, comes cur ice, comes
capellce, comes archiatrorum, comes commerciorum, comes
vejiiarius, comes horreorum, Comes opfomorum or annonce,
comes domejlicorum, comes equorum regiorum or comes
Jlabuli, comes domorum, comes excubitorum, comes notan- s
orum, comes legum or profejfor m jure, comes limitum or
marcarutn, comes portus Romce, comes patrimonii. &c.
The
c o u
The Franks, Germans, &c, parting into Gaul and
* Germany, did not abolifh the form of the Roman go*
vernment: and as the governors of cities and provinces
were called counts, comites, and duhes, duces, they con¬
tinued to be called fo. They commanded in time of
war; and in time of peace they adminiltered jullice.
Thus, in the time of Charlemagne, counts were the
ordinary judges and governors of the cities.
Thele counts of cities were beneath the dukes and
counts who prefided over provinces ; the firft being
conftituted in the particular cities, under the jurifdic-
tion of the latter. The counts ot provinces were in
nothing inferior to dukes, who themfelves were only
governors of provinces. Under the laft of the fecond
race of French kings, they got their dignity rendered
hereditary, and even ufurped the fovereignty when
Hugh Capet came to the crowm 5 his authority was
not fufficient to oppofe their encroachments; and hence
it is they date the privilege of wearing coronets in their
arms 5 they affumed it then, as enjoying the rights of
fovereigns in their particular diftrifts or counties.
But, by degrees, moft of the counties became reunited
to the crown.
The quality of count is now become very different
from what it was anciently j being now no more than
a title, which a king grants, upon ere&ing a territory
into a county, with a referve of jurifdi£tion and fove¬
reignty to himfelf. At firft there w-as no claufe in
the patent of ere&ion intimating the reverfion of the
county to the crown in default of heirs male *, but
Charles IX. to prevent their being too numerous, or¬
dained that duchies and counties, in default of heirs male,
fhould return to the crown.
The point of precedence between counts and mar-
quifes was formerly much controverted : the reafon
was, that there were counts who were peers of France,
but no marquifes : but the point was given up, and
marquifes took place $ though anciently, w’hen counts
were governors of provinces, they were on a level even
with dukes.
William the Conqueror, as is obferved by Camden,
gave the dignity of counts in fee to his nobles 5 annex¬
ing it to this or that county or province, and allotting
for their maintenance a certain proportion of money,
arifing from the prince’s profits in the pleadings and
forfeitures of the provinces. To this purpofe he quotes
an ancient record, thus : Hen. II. Rex Anglice his
verbis comitem creavit; fciatis nos fecijfe Hugonem
Bigot comitem dc Norf, itfc. de tertio denarii dc Norwich
et Norfolk, ficut aliquis comes Anglice, is’c.
The Germans call a count, graaf, or graff; which,
according to a modern critic, properly fignifiesyz/^e;
and is derive^ from gravio or grajfio, of yg<*(p<w / write.
They have feveral kinds of thefe counts or grafts 5
as landgraves, marchgraves, burg-graves, and palf-graves,
or counts palatine. Thefe laft are of two kinds : the
former are of the number of princes, and have the
inveftiture of a palatinate ; the others have only the
title of count palatine without the inveftiture of any pa¬
latinate. Some affert, that by publicly profefling the
imperial laws for twenty years, the perfon acquires the
dignity of a count palatine ; and there are inftances of
profeffors in law who have affumed the title accordingly;
but there are others who queftion this right.
Count, in Law, denotes the original declaration in
G O U
a real a&ion ; as the declaration is in a perfonal one :
the libellus of the civilians anfwers to both. Yet,
count and declaration are fometimes confounded, and
ufed for each other; as, count in debt, count in appeal,
&c.
CovNT-Wheel, in the ftriking part of a clock, a
wheel which moves round once-in 12 or 24 hours. It
is fometimes called the locking-wheel. See Clock-Ma¬
ting*
COUNTER, a term which enters into the compofi-
tion of divers words of our language, and generally
implies oppofition ; but when applied to deeds, means an
exact copy kept of the contrary party, and fometimes
figned by both parties.
CouNTKR-Changed, in Heraldry, the intermixture or
oppofition of any metal with a colour.
CovNTRR-Flory, in Heraldry, is faid of a treffure
whole flowers-de-luce are oppofite to others. See He¬
raldry.
CovNiKR-Drawing, in Painting, is the copying a
defign, or painting, by means of a fine linen-cloth, an
oiled paper, or other tranfparent matter, where the
ftrokes appearing through are followed with a pencil,
with or without colour. Sometimes it is done on
glafs, and with frames or nets divided into fquares
with filk or with thread, and alfo by means of in-
ftruments invented for the purpofe, as the parallelo-
Sram*
CovNTER-Ermine, in Heraldry, is the contrary of
ermine, being a black field with white fpots.
COUNTERFEITS, in Law, are perfons that ob¬
tain any money or goods by counterfeit letters or falfe
tokens, who being convifled before juftices of aflize or
of peace, &c. are to fuffer fuch punifhment as (hall be
thought fit to be infli&ed under death, as imprifonment,
pillory, &c.
COUNTER-foil, or CouNTER^cd?, in the exche¬
quer, that part of a tally which is kept by an officer of
the court.
CovNTER-Guard, in Fortification, is a work raifed
before the point of a baftion, confifting of two long
faces parallel to the faces of the baftion, making a
falient angle; they are fometimes of other ffiapes, or
otherwife fituated.
Counter-Light, or Counter-jour, a light oppofite to
any thing, which makes it appear to difadvantage. A
fingle counter-light is fufficient to take away ail the
beauty of a fine painting.
CovNTER-March, in military affairs, a change of the
face or wings of a battalion, by which means thofe that
were in the front come to be in the rear. It alfo figni-
fies returning, or marching back again.
Counter-Mine, in War, a well and gallery drove
and funk till it meet the enemy’s mine, to prevent its
effeft.
Counter-Paled, in Heraldry, is when the efcutcheon
is divided into twelve pales parted per feffe, the two
colours being counter-changed ; fo that the upper are of
one colour and the lower of another.
CovNTER-Part, in Mufc, denotes one part to be ap¬
plied to another. Thus the bafs is faid to be a counter¬
part to the treble.
Covnter-Paffant, in Heraldry, is when two lions are
in a coat of arms, and the one feems to go quite the
contrary way from the other.
[ 70T ]
Counter,*
C G U [702 C O U
Counter- CouNTER -Pomt, In Mujic, a term derived from the
pmnt Latin prepofition conti'a and the verb pungere ; becaufe
Counters. t^le mu^lcal charafters by which the notes in each part
——■> are fignified are placed in fuch a manner, each with re-
fpe£l to each, as to fhow how the parts an liver one ano¬
ther. See Composition.
Count ER-Pointed (Centre-points'), in Heraldry ^ is
when two cheverons in one efcutcheon meet in the
points, the one riling as ufual from the bafe, and the
other inverted falling from the chief j fo that they are
counter to one another in the points. They may alfo
be counter-pointed when they are founded upon the
tides of the ihield, and the points meet that way, called
counter-pointed in fejfe.
COUNTERPOISE, in the manege, is the liberty
of the aftion and feat of a horfeman ; fo that in all
the motions made by the horfe, he does not incline his
body more to one fide than to the other, but continues
in the middle of the faddle, being equally on his ftir-
rups, in order to give the horfe the proper and reafonable
aids.
COUNTER-potent Qcontrc-potence), in Heral¬
dry, is reckoned a fur as well as vaire ermine j but
compofed of fuch pieces as reprefent the tops of
crutches, called in Trenchpotences, and in old Englilh
patents.
CouNTER-Proof, in rolling-prefs printing, a print
taken off from another frelh printed j which by be¬
ing paffed through the prefs, gives the figure of the
former, but inverted. To counter prove, is alfo to
pals a delign in black lead, or red chalk, through
the prefs, after having moiftened with a fponge both
that and the paper on which the counter-proof is to be
taken.
CouNTER-^nartered (contre-ecartele'), in Heraldry,
denotes the eicutcheon, after being quartered, to have
each quarter again divided into twm.
CouNTER-Saliant, is when two beafts are borne in
a coat leaping from each other dire&ly the contrary
way.
CouNTER-Scarp, in Fortification, is properly the ex¬
terior talus or Hope of the ditch 5 but it is often taken
for the covered w^ay and the glacis. In this fenfe we
fay, the enemy have lodged themfelves in the counter-
Icarp. Angle of the counter-fcarp, is that made by
two fides of the counter-fcarp, meeting before the mid¬
dle of the curtain.
CouNTER-Signing, the figning the writing of a fupe-
rior in quality of fecretary. Thus charters are figned
by the king, and counter-ligned by a fecretary of Hate,
or lord chancellor.
CovNTER-Time, in the manege, is the defence or re¬
finance of a horfe that interrupts his cadence, and the
meafure of his manege, occalioned either by a bad
horfeman or by the malice of a hotfe.
Countep, is alfo the name of a counting-board in a
fhop, and of a piece of metal wdth a ftamp on it, ufed in
playing at cards.
Counter of a Horfe, that part of a horfe’s fore¬
hand which lies between the (boulders and under the
neck.
Counters in a /hip zrz two. 1. The hollow arch¬
ing from the gallery to the lower part of the ftraight
‘piece of the Hern, is called the upper-counter. 2. The
lower counter is between the tranfom and the lower part Counter
of the gallery. ||
Counter, is alio the name of twro prifons in the city ^ount)'
of London, viz. the Poultry and Woodftreet. " , cour^
COUNTORS, Countours, or Counters, lias
been uled for fetjeants at lawq retained to defend a
caufe, or to fpeak for their client in any courfe of
law.
It is of thefe Chaucer fpeaks :
•———A flieriff had he been, and a contour,
Was nowhere fuch a worthy vavafour.
They were anciently called ferjeant contours.
COUNTRIES, among the miners, a term or ap¬
pellation they give to their works under ground.
COUNTRY, among geographers, is ufed indiffer¬
ently to denote either a kingdom, province, or Itffer
diftrift. But its moft frequent ufe is in contradiftindtion
to town.
CouNTRr-Dance is of Englilh origin, though now
tranfplanted into almoft all the countries and courts of
Europe. There is no eftablifhed rule for the compoli-
tion of tunes to this dance, becaufe there is in mulic no
kind of time whatever which may not be meaiured by
the motions common in dancing; and there are few
fong tunes of any note within the laft century, that have
not been applied to country-dances.
COUNTY, in Geography, originally fignified the
territory of a count or earl, but now it is ufed in the
fame fenfe with (hire; the one word coming from the
French, the other from the Saxon.—In this view, a
county is a circuit or portion of the realm ; into fifty-
two of which the whole land, England and Wales, is
divided for its better government and the more eafy ad-1
minilfration of juftice.
For the execution of the laws in the feveral counties,
excepting Cumberland, Weltmoreland, and Durham,
every Michaelmas term officers are appointed, under
the denomination of fierijfs. Other officers of the fe¬
veral counties are, a lord lieutenant, who has the com¬
mand of the militia of the county 5 cuftodes rotulo-
rum, joffices of peace, bailiffs, high-conftable, and co»
roner.
Of the fifty-two counties, there are three of fpecial
note, whch are therefore termed counties palatine, as
Lancafter, Chefter, and Durham. See Palatine.
CouNTY-Corporate, is a title given to feveral cities,
or ancient boroughs, on which our monarchs have
thought fit to beflow extraordinary privileges; annex¬
ing to them a particular territory, land, or jurifdiclion ;
and making them counties of themfelves, to be go¬
verned by their own fheriffs and magiftrates.
County Court, in Englifo Law, a court incident to
the jurifdidlion of the fheriff. It is not a court of re¬
cord, but may hold pleas of debt or damages under
the value of 40s. Over fome of which caufes thefe
inferior courts have, by the exprefs words of the fta-
tute of Gloucefter, a jurifdiftion totally exclufive of
the king’s fuperior courts. For in order to be en¬
titled to fue an aflion of trefpafs for goods before the
king’s jufticiars, the plaintiff is direfted to make affi¬
davit that the caufe of atffion does really and bona fde
amount to 40s. which affidavit is now unaccountably
difufed, except in the court of exchequer. The 11a-
tute
C O U [ 703 ] c o u
tutc aifo 43 Eliz. C. 6. which gives the judges in many which is frequently fwelled by the rams, and lays nearly
perfonal adhions, where the jury affefs lefs damages
6co acres under water. There are ftill vilible at
than 40s. a power to certify the fame and abridge
the plaintiff of his full cofts, was alfo meant to pre¬
vent vexation by litigious plaintiffs •, who, for pur-
pofes of mere oppreffion, might be inclinable to infti-
tute fuch fuits in the fupcrior courts for injuries of a
trifling value. The county court may alfo hold plea
of many real aftions, and of all perfonal adtions to any
amount, by virtue of a fpecial writ called jujlicies;
which is a writ empowering the fheriff for the lake of
difpatch to do the fame juftice in this county-court, as
might otherwife be had at Weftminfter. The free¬
holders of the county are the real judges in this court,
and the flieriff is the minifterial officer. The great
conflux of freeholders, which are fuppofed always to
attend at the county court (which Speiman c?\\s forum
plebeicc ft/litic* et theatrum comitivcc potefatis), is the
reafon wThy all adfs of parliament at the end of every
feflion were wont to be there publifhed by the flieriff;
wby all outlawries of abfconding offenders are there
proclaimed ; and why all popular eledtions which the
freeholders are to make, as formerly of fheriffs and con-
fervators of the peace, and ftill or coroners, verderors,
and knights of the fhire, muft ever be made in plena
comitatu, or in full county-court. By the ftatute 2
Edw. VI. c. 25. no county-court fhall he adjourned
longer than for one month, confiding of 28 days. And
this was alfo the ancient ufage, as appears irorn the
laws of King Edtvard the elder ; prepojitus (that is the
fheriff) adquartam circiterfeptimanam frequentempopuli
concionem ce/ebrato ; cuique jus dicito ; htefque jingulas
dirimito. In thofe times the county-court was a court
of great dignity and fplendour, the biftiop and tue
ealdorman (or earl), with the principal men of the fhire,
fitting therein to adminifter juftice both in lay and ec-
cleftaftical caufes. But its dignity was much impaired,,
when the bifhop was prohibited, and the earl negle&ed
to attend it. And, in modern times, as proceedings are
removeable from hence into the king’s fuperior courts,
by writ of pone or recordare, in the fame manner as from
hundred-courts and courts-barons ; and as the fame writ
of falfe judgment may be had, in nature of a writ of er¬
ror, this has occafioned the fame difufe of bringing ac¬
tions therein.
COUPAR, or Cupar, of Angus, a town of Scot¬
land, in the valley of Strathmore, and though defig-
nated in Angus, by far the greater part is fituated in
the county of Perth. jTne town is piaced on the Ifla,
and is divided by a rivulet into two parts ; that part
which lies fouth of this rivulet being all that belongs
• to the county of Angus. The ftreets. are well paved
and lighted, and the town has much improved of late
years ; there is a town-houfe and •fteeple on the fpot
where the pnfon of the court of regality flood. Ihe
linen manufafture is carried on to a confiderable extent,
nearly 200,000 yards of different kinds of cloth be¬
ing annuajly ftamped here. The- number of inhabi¬
tants in 1793, amounted to 1604. Cupar is diftant
about 12 miles from Perth, and nearly the fame di-
ftance from Dundee., The parifh of Cupar extends
about C miles in length from fouth-well to north-eaft,
- - miles in breadth ; it is divided
and is from I to 2
lengthways by an elevated ridge : a confide: able ex¬
tent of haugh ground lies on the banks of the ifla,
par, the veftiges of a Reman camp, faid to have been
formed by the army of /Igricola in his 7th expedition.
On the centre of this camp, Malcolm IV. in 1104*
founded and richly endowed an abbey for Ciftertian
monks ; from what remains, it muft have been a houfe
of confiderable magnitude.
Coupar, or Cupar, of Fife, a town in Scotland, ca¬
pital of the county of Fife, about 10 miles weft of
St Andrews; W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 56. 20. It
is fituated on the north bank of the Eden, nearly in
the centre of the county ; it boafts of great antiquity ;
the thanes of Fife, from the earlieft times of which
any account has been tranfmitted to us, held here
their courts of juftice ; and in the rolls of parliament,
affembled in the beginning of the reign of King Da¬
vid II. may be feen the names of commifiioners from
the royal borough of Cupar. It is governed by a pro-
voft, 3 bailies, a dean of guild, and 21 counfeilors.
The revenue of the town amounts to 43^' Per
annum. Cupar has the appearance of a neat, clean,
well built, thriving town. The ftreets are well paved,
and upw-ards of one third of the town is newly built.
The church is a neat new building, and the fpire is
much admired for its light and elegant appearance.
Adjoining to the town-houfe, the gentlemen of the
county lately built a room for county meetings, and
other apartments.. The prifons are on the oppofite fide
of the town-houfe. In Cupar, and the neighbouring
country, a confiderable quantity of coarle linens are
manufadured; about 500,000. yards are annually
ftamped, the aggregate value of which is nearly
30,000!. fterlingi Population of the towrn is about
3140. The parifh of Cupar is an irregular fquare of
5 miles, divided into two parts by the river Eden, the
banks of which are covered with numerous farm houfes,
and ornamented with elegant and ftately villas. Car~
fogie, the feat of Colonel Clephane, is an ancient man-
fion.. Gar lie bank, the property of James Wemyfs,
Efq. of Winthank, is celebrated for the treaty con¬
cluded on the 13th of June 1 559, between the duke
de Chattelherault, on the part of the queen-regent,
and the earl of Argyle commanding the forces of the
congregation. The population of the panfh (inclu¬
ding the town of Cupar) in 1793, amounted to 3702;
in 1801, there were 4463 inhabitants in the fame di-
ftri<5f.
COUPED, in Heraldry, is ufed to exprefs the head,
or any limb, of an animal, cut off from the trunk,
fmooth ; diftinguilhing it from that which is called
erafjed, that is, forcibly torn off, and therefore is ragged
and uneven.
Couped, is alfo ufed to fignify fuch croffes, bars,
bends, chevrons, &c. as do not touch the fides of the
efeutcheon, but are, as it were, cut off from them.
COUPEE, a motion in dancing, wherein one leg is
a little bent, and fufpended from the ground ; and with
the other a motion is made forwards.
The word in the original French fignifies a cut.
- COUPLE CLOSS, in Heraldry, the fourth part of a
a chevron, never borne but in pairs, except there be a
chevron between them, faith Guillim, though Bloom
gives an inftance to the contrary.
COUPLET, a divificn of a hymn, ode, fong, 84c.
wherein
C O U [ 704 ] c o u
Coupict 'wherein an equal number, or equal meafure, of verfes, is
ii found in each part; which divilions, in odes, are called
^ou.d ei. /iropjies% Couplet, by an abufe of the word, is fre¬
quently made to fignify a couple of verfes.
COURAGE, in Ethics, is that quality of the mind,
derived either from conftitution or principle, or both,
that enables men to encounter difficulties and dangers.
See Fortitude.
COURANT, a French term fynonymous with cur¬
rent, and properly fignifics running. See Current.
Courant, is alfo a term in mufic and dancing j
being ufed to exprefs both the tune or air and the dance.
With regard to the firft, courant or currant is a
piece of mulic in triple time : the air of the courant is
ordinarily noted in triples of minims ; the parts to be
repeated twice. It begins and ends when he who
beats the meafure falls his hands j in contradiftindlion
from the faraband, which ordinarily ends when the
hand is raifed. With regard to dancing, the courant
was long the moft common of all the dances pradtifed
, in England : it confifts, effentially, of a time, a Rep, a
balance, and a coupee 5 though it alfo admits of other
motions. Formerly they leaped their Reps ; in which
point the courant differed from the losv dance and pa¬
rades. There are Ample courants and figured courants,
all danced by two perfons.
COURAP, the modern name for a diflemper
very common in Java and other parts of the EaA
Indies. It is a fort of herpes or itch on the arm-pits,
groins, breaR, and face j the itching is almoR perpe¬
tual ; and the fcratching is followed by great pain and
a difeharge of matter, wffiich makes the linen flick fo
to the fldn as not eafily to be feparated without tear¬
ing off the cruR. Courap is a general name for any
fort of itch j but this diflemper is thus called by way
of eminence. It is fo contagious that few efcape it.
For the cure, gentle and repeated purging is ufed, and
externally the fublimate in a fmall quantity is a good
topic.
COURAYER, Peter Francis, a Roman Catho¬
lic clergyman, diflinguiffied by great moderation,
charity, and temper, concerning religious affairs, as
well as by learning, was born at Vernon in Normandy,
1681. While canon regular and librarian of the abbey
of St Genevieve at Paris, he. applied to our archbifliop
Wake for the refolution of fome doubts, concerning
the epifcopal fucceffion in England, and the validity
of our ordinations : he was encouraged to this by the
friendly correfpondence which had paffed between the
archbiffiop and M. du Pin of the Sorbonne. The arch-
biffiop fent him exaft copies of the proper records;
and on thefe he built his “ Defence of Engliffi Ordi¬
nations,” which wras publiffied in Holland, in 1727.
This expofed him to a profecution in his ovm country ;
he therefore took refuge in England 5 where he was well
received, and prefented the fame year by the univerfity
of Oxford with a doflor’s degree. As it is fomewhat
uncommon lor a Roman Catholic clergyman to be ad¬
mitted to degrees in divinity by ProteRant univerfities,
the curious may be gratified with a fight of the diplo¬
ma, and the do&or’s letter of thanks, in “ The prefent
State of the Republic of Letters, for June 1728.”
In 1736, he tranflated into French, and publiffied,
“ Father Paul’s Hiflory of the Council of Trent,” in
2 vols folio, and dedicated it to Queen Caroline; who
augmented to 200I. a penfion of 100I. a year, which Cqurap,
he had obtained before from the court. The learned II
Jer. Markland, in a letter to his friend Bowyer, Sep-,
tember $6, fays, “ Mr Clarke has given me F.
Courayer’s tranflation of the HiRory of the Council
of Trent; with whofe preface I am fo greatly pleafed,
that if he be no more a Papifl in other tenets than he
is in thofe he mentions (which are many, and of the
mofl diflinguifliing clafs), I dare fay there are very few
confiderate ProteRants who are not as good Catholics
as he is.” His works are many, and all in French :
he tranflated Sleidan’s “ HiRory of the Reformation.”
He died in 1776, after two days illnefs, at the age of
95 } and was buried in the cloifler of Weflminfler-
abbey. In this will, dated Feb. 3. 1774, he declares,
that he “ dies a member of the Catholic church, but
without approving of many of the opinions and fu-
perRitions which have been introduced into the Romiffi
church, and taught in their fchools and feminaries j
and which they have infifled on as articles of faith,
though to him they appear to be not only not founded
in truth, but alfo to be highly improbable.” And his
praftice w as conformable to this declaration j for at
London he conflantly W'ent to mafs, and at Ealling in
the country, whither he often retired, as conflantly at¬
tended the fervice of the pariffi church ; declaring at all
times, that he “ had great fatisfadtion in the prayers of
the church of England.”
COURBARIL. See Hymenea.
COURIER, or Currier, (from the French courir,
“ to run,”) a mtffenger fent pofl, or exprefs, to carry
difpatches.
The ancients too, had their couriers. We meet with
two kinds : 1. Thofe who ran on foot, called by the
Greeks hemerodromi, q. d. “ couriers of a day.”
Pliny, Corn. Nepos, and Caefar, mention fome of
thofe who wrould run 20, 30, 36, and in the circus
even 40 leagues per day. 2. Riding couriers (curfo-
res equitantes'), who changed horfes as the modern
couriers do.
Xenophon attributes the firfl couriers to Cyrus.
Herodotus fays they were very ordinary among the
Perfians, and that there was nothing in the world more
fwift than thefe kind of meffengers. “ That prince
(fays Xenophon) examined how far a horfe wTould go
in a day •, and built Rabies, at fuch diflances from each
other, where he lodged horfes, and perfons to take
care of them ; and at each place kept a perfon always
ready to take the packet, mount a freffi horfe, and for¬
ward it to the next Rage } and thus quite through his
empire.”
But it does not appear that either the Greeks or
Romans had any regular fixed couriers till the time
of Auguflus; under that prince they travelled in
cars 5 though it would appear that they afterwards
went on horfeback. Under the w'eflern empire they
were called viatores; and under that of Conflan-
tinople, curfores: whence the modern name. See
Post.
COURLAND, a duchy fiiuated between E. Long.
21. 26. and between N. Lat. 56. 30. and 57. 20. It
is bounded by the river Dwina, which divides it from
Livonia on the north ; by Lithuania, on the eafl j
by Samogitia, on the fouth, and by the Baltic fea on
the wefl} being 120 miles long and 30 broad. This
duchy
G O U
[ 705 ]
c o u
. irland
I y
duchy was formerly independent, and eleided their own
duke : but it is now fubject to Ruffia.
COURSE [roule'), in Navigation, the angle con¬
tained between the neareft meridian and that point of
the compafs upon which a fhip fails in any particular
direftion.
Course, in Architeffure, denotes a continued range
of ftones, level, or of the fame height, throughout the
whole length of the building ; and not interrupted by
any aperture. It forms a parapet to the intermedi¬
ate fpace between the body of the building and the
wings.
Course of Plinths, is the continuity of a plinth of
{lone or platter in the face of a building 5 to mark the
feparation of the itories.
Course is .alio ufed for the time ordinarily fpent
in learning the principles of a feience, or the ufual
points and q'ueftions therein. Thus, a ftudent is faid
to have tiniihed his courfe in the humanity, in philo-
fophy, &c.
Course is alfo ufed for the elements of an art ex¬
hibited and explained, either in writing or by adtual
experiment. Hence our courfes of philolophy, anatomy,
chemiltry, mathematics, &tc. probably fo called as go¬
ing throughout or running the whole length or ccurfe
of the arts, See.
COURSES, a name by which the principal fails of
a {hip are diiiinguilhed, viz. the main.fail, the fore¬
fail, and the mizen : the mizen ftay-fdl and fore fail
are alfo fometimes comprehended in this denomination j
as are the main ftay-fails of all brigs and fchooners.
See Sail.
COURSING, among fportfmen. There are three
feveral forts of courfes with greheunds: 1. At the hare 3
2. At the fox 3 and 3. At the deer.
For the deer, there are two forts of courfes 3 the
one in the paddock, the ether either in the foreft
or the purlieu. For the paddock courfe, there muft
be the grehound and the terrier, and the mongrel
grehound, whofe bulinefs it is to drive away the
deer before the grehounds are Hipped 3 a brace or
a leafti are the ufual number flipped at a time, fel-
dom at the utmoft more than two brace. In cour-
fing the deer in the foreft or purlieu, there are two
ways in ufe : the one is courfing from wood to wood 3
and the other, upon the lawns clofe by the keeper’s
lodge. In the courfing from wood to wood, the way
is to throw in fome young hounds into the wood to
bring out the deer 3 and if any deer come out that is
not weighty, or a deer or antler which is buck, fore,
or forrel, then you are not to flip your greheunds,
Ahich are held at the end of the wood, where the
keepers, who can guefs very well on thefe occafions,
expeft that the deer will come out. If a proper deer
came out, and it is fufpedled that the brace or leafh of
grehounds flipped after him will not be able to kill
him, it is proper to waylay him with a couple of frtlh
grehounds.
The courfing upon the lawn is the raoft agreeable
of all other ways. When the keeper has notice of this,
he will lodge a deer for the courfe 3 and then, by co¬
ming under the wind, the grehounds may be brought
near enough to be flipped for a fair courfe.
The beft method of courfing the hare, is to go out
pnd find a hare fitting j which is eafily done, in the
Voj*. VI. Par II.
fummer, by walking acrofs the lands, either ftubble, t Court nig.
fallow, or corn grounds, and calling the eye up and
down : for in fummer they frequent thofe places for
fear of the ticks, which are common in the woods at
that feafon 3 and in autumn the rains falling from the
trees offend‘‘them. The reft of the year there is
more trouble required 3 as the bullies and thicKets
muft be beat to roufe them, and oftentimes they will
lie fo clofe, that they will not ftir till the pole almoft
touches them : the fportfmen are always pleafed with
this, as it promifes a good courfe. If a hare lies near
any clofe or covert, and with her head that way, it
is always to be expedited that {lie will take to that im¬
mediately on being put up 3 all the company are there¬
fore to ride up, and put themfelves between her arid
the covert before ftie is put up; that (he may take the
other way, and run upon open ground. When a hare
is put up, it is always proper to give her ground, or
law, as it is called 3 that is, to let her run 12 fcore
yards, or thereabouts, before the grehounds are flip¬
ped at her 3 otherwife ftie is killed too foon, the greater
part of the fport is thrown away, and the pleafure ot
obferving the feveral turnings and windings that the
creature will make to get away is all loft. A good
fportfman had rather fee a hare fave herfeif after a fair
courfe, than fee her murdered by the greheunds as
foon as {he is up.
In courfing the fox, no other art is requited, than
{landing clofe, and in a clear wind, on the outfide of
fome grove where it is expected he will come out 3
and when he is come out, he mufl have head enough
allow'ed him, otherwife he will icturn back to the
covert. The floweft grehound will be able to over¬
take him, after all the odds of diftunce neceffary 3 and
the only danger is the fpoiling the dog by the fox,
which too frequently happens. For this reafon, no
grehound of any value ftiould be run at this courie 3
but the llrong, hard, bitter dogs, that will feize any¬
thing.
The laws of courfing eftablUheJ by the duke ot
Norfolk, and oilier fportfnysn of the kingdom of Eng¬
land, are thefe :
1. He that is ehofen fewterer or letter Icofe of the
dogs, fliall receive the grehounds matched to run
together into his leafli as foon as he comes into the
field 3 he is to march next to the hare-finder, or him
who is to ftart the hare, until he come to the form 3
and no horfeman or footman is to go before or fide-
ways, but all flrr.ight behind, for the fpace of about
40 yards. 2. A hare ought never to be courfed with
more than a brace of grehounds. 3. The hare-
finder is to give the hare three fohoes before he puts
her up from her form or feat, to the end that the dogs
may be prepared and attend her ftarting. If
there be not a particular danger of lofing the hare,
{he fliould have about twelve fcore yards law. 5. The
dog that gives the firft turn, if after that there be
neither cote, flip, nor wrench, wins the w-ager. 6. A
go-by, or bearing the hare, is counted equivalent
to two turn?. 7. If either dog turns the hare, he that
leads to the laft covert wins. 8. If any dog turns the
hare, ferves himfelf, and turns her again, it is as much
as a cote, and a cote is efteemed as much as two
turns. 9. If all the courfe be equal, he that bears
the hare {hall win 3 and if he be not borne, the courfe
4 U (hall
Courfing, {hall then be judged dead.
Court.
Blackjl.
Comment.
C O U { 7
io. It a dog take a fall
in his courfe, and yet perform his part, he may
challenge the advantage of a turn more than he
gave. ii. If a dog turn the hare, ferve him'elf,
and give divers cotes, and yet in the end (hall narid
itill in the field, the other dog, if he turns home to the
covert, although he gives no other, lhall be adjudged
to win the wager, is. If by misfortune a dog be rid
over in the courfe, that courfe {hall be adjudged void,
and he that did the mifchief is to make reparation to
the Owner. 13, If a dog gives the firft and laft turn,
and there be no other advantage betwixt them, he that
gives the odd turn wins. 14. A cote is when a gre-
hound goes endways by the fide of his fellow, and
gives the hare a turn. 15,. A cote ferves for two turns,
and two trippings or jerkings for a cole ; and if the
hare turns not quite about, fhe only wrenchetA, in the
fportfman’s phrafe. 16. If there be no cotes given by
either of the grehounds, but one ferves the other at
turning, then he that gives the moil turns wins the
v-’ager. 17. Sometimes a hare does not turn, but
wrenches-, for fhe does not turn, except {he turns as it
were round. In thefe cafes, two wrenches {land for
one turn. 18. He that comes in firit at the death of
the hare takes her up, and faves her from breaking ;
he cherifhes the dogs, and cleanfes their mouths from
the wool; he is adjudged to have the hare for his pains.
19. Finally, thofe who are judges for the leafh, mult
give their judgment before they depart out of the field,
.or elfe it is not to Hand as valid.
' COURT, an appendage to a houfe or habitation ;
confifting of a piece of ground inclofed with walls, but
open upwards.
Court is alfo ufed for the palace or place where a
king or fovereign prince refides.
Court, in a law fenfe, is defined to be a place
wherein juftice is judicially adminidered. And, as,
by our excellent conifitution, the foie executive power
of the laws is veiled in the perfon of the king, it will
follow that all courts of juftice, which are the me¬
dium by which he adminiiters. the laws, are derived
from the power of the crown. For whether created
by aft cf parliament or letters patent, or fubfifting by
prefcription (the only methods by which any court
of judicature can exift), the king’s content in the two
former is exprefsly, and in the latter impliedly, given.
In all thefe courts, the king is fuppofed in contem¬
plation of law to be always prefent ; but as that is in
faft impoflible, he is there reprefented by his judges,
whofe power is only an emanation of the royal prero¬
gative.
For the more fpeedy, univerfal, and impartial ad-
miniftration of juftice between fubjeft and fubjeft, the
law hath appointed a prodigious variety of couits,
ftome with a more limited, others with a more exten-
iive jurildiftion ; fome conftituted to inquire only,
others to hear and determine ; fome to determine in
the firfl: inftance, others upon appeal and by xvay of
review. See La\V, N° xcviii. xcix. c. cxli. clvi. clvii.
clviii, and the refpeftive articles in the order of the al¬
phabet. One diftinftion may be here mentioned, that
runs throughout them all; viz. that fome of tbein are
courts of record, others not of record*. A court of re¬
cord is that where the a£ts and judicial proceedings are
enrolled in parchment for a perpetual memorial and
06 1 c o u
teftimony : which rolls are called the records of the
court, and are of fuch high and fupereminent authori- L
ty, that their truth is not to be called in queftion. For
it is a fettled rule and maxim, that nothing {hall be
averred againft a record, nor (hall any plea, or even
proof, be admitted to the contrary. And if the exift-
ence of a record be denied, it {hall be tried by nothing
but itfelf; that is, upon bare infpeftion whether there
be any fuch record or not -, elfe there would be no end
of difputes. But if there appears any miftake of the
clerk in making up fuch record, the court will direft
him to amend it. All courts of record are the king’s
courts in right of his crown and royal dignity, and
therefore no other court hath authority to fine or im-
prifon : fo that the very erection of a netV jurlfdic-
tion, with power of fine or imprifonment, makes it in-
ftantly a court of records. A court not of record is
the court of a private man; whom the law will not
intruft with any -diferetionary power over the fortune
or liberty of his fellow fubjetts. Such are the ceurts-
baron incident, to every manor, and other inferior j.u-
rifdi&ions; where the proceedings are not enrolled or
recorded ; but as well their exiftence as the tryth of the
matters therein contained ft)all, if difpufed, be tried
and determined by a jury. Thefe courts can hold no
plea of matters cognizable by the common law, unlefs
under the value of 40s. ; nor of any forcible injury
whatfoever, nor having any procefs to arreft the perfon
of the defendant.
In every court there muft be at leaft three confti-
tuent parts, the aBor, reus, and judex : the aBor, or
plaintiff, who complains of an injury done ; the reus,
or defendant, who is called upon to make latisfaflion
for it ; and judex, or judicial power, which is to exa¬
mine the truth of the fa£t, to determine the law arifing
upon that fait, and, if any injury appears to have been
done, to afeertain, and by its officers to apply the re¬
medy. It is alfo ufual in the fuperior courts to have
attorneys, and advocates or counfel, as aftiftants. See
Attorney and Counsel.
Covut Baron, in Engl/jJj law, a court incident to
every manor in the kingdom, to be holden by the
ftevvard within the faid manor. This court-baron is
of two natures : the one is a cuftomary court, apper¬
taining entirely to the copyholders, in which their
eftates are transferred by furrender and admittance, and
other matters tranfailed relative to their tenures only.
The other is a Court of common law, and it is the
court of the barons, by which name the freeholders
w-ere fometimes anciently called : for that it is held be¬
fore the freeholders who owe fuit and fervice to the
manor, the Reward being rather the regifter than the
judge. Thefe courts, though in their nature diftimft,
are equally confounded together. The court we are
now confidering, viz. the freeholder’s court, wras com-
pofed of the lord’s tenants, who ivere the pares of each
other, and were bound by their feodal tenure to affiftt
their lord in the difpenfation of domeftic juftice. This
wras formerly held every three w7eeks; and its moft im¬
portant bufinefs is to determine, by writ of right, all
controverfies relating to the right of lands within the
manor. It may alfo hold plea of any perfonal actions,
of debt, trefpafs on the cafe, or the like, w'here the
debt or damages do not amount to 40s. Which is
the fame furn, or three marks, that bounded the ju-
rifdlclioa
Court.
G O U
■ iirdiction of the ancient Gothic courts In their loweft
inftance, or JlenJmg courts, fo called becaufe four were
J inftituted within every luperior diftrSa: or hundred.
But the proceedings on a writ of right may be remo¬
ved into the county-court by a precept from the (heriff
called a toll, quia tollit clique eximit caufam e curia baro-
num. And the proceedings in all other a&ions may
be removed into the fuperior courts by the king’s writs
of pone, or accedas ad curiam, according to the nature
of the fuit. . After judgment given, a writ alfo of
falfe judgment lies to the courts at Weftminfter to re¬
hear and review the caufe, and not a writ of error ;
for this is not a court of record ; and therefore, in
feme of thefe wuits of removal, the fixfl direftion given
is to caufe the plaint to be recorded, recordari facias
toque lam.
CouRT-Martial, a court appointed for the punifhing
offences in officers, foldiers, and failors, the powers of
which are regulated by the mutiny-bill.
For other courts, fee Admiralty, Arches, Bench,
Chancery, Chivalry, CoMMou-P/eas, County,
Duchy, Ecclesiastical, Faculty, Forest,
Hustings, Leet, Legate, Mayor, Piepoudre,
Prerogative, Requests, Stannary, SrAR-Ckam-
ber. University, &c.
COURTESY, or Curtesy, of England; a certain
tenure whereby a man marrying an heirefs feized of
lands of fee-ample, or fee-tail general, or feized as
heir of the tail fpecial, and getteth a child by hep that
cometh alive into the u'orld, though both it and his
wife die forthwith ; yet, if (he were in poffeffion, he
{hall keep the land during his life, and is called tenant
per legem Anglia-, “ or tenant by the couftefy of Eng¬
land j” becaufe this privilege is not allowed in any
country except Scotland, where it is called Curialitas
'■ Scotia.
COURTESAN, a woman who proftitutes herfelf
for hire, efpecially to people of fuperior rank. Lais
the famous Theban courtefan, ftands on record for re¬
quiring no lefs than 10,000 crowms for a fi'Agle night.
Ol ail places in the world, Venice is that where courte-
ians abound the moft. It is now 300 years ftnee the
fenate, which had expelled them, was obliged to recal
them j in order to provide far the fecurity of women of
honour, and to keep the nobles employed, left they
Ihould turn their heads to make innovations in the
ftate.
CO UR FRAY, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
fituated on the river Lys, about 23 miles fouth-weft of
Ghent, and 14 eaft of Ypres. E. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat.
53- 48.
COUSIN, a term of relation between the children
[ ,07 1
c o w
W'ere, in fame fort, brothers and lifters with regard to
each «ther.
Cousin, John, a celebrated French painter, who L
excelled in painting on glafs. His pi£ture of the Laft
Judgment, in the veftry of the Minims of the Wood of
Vincennes, is much admired. He was alfo a good
fculptor. He wrote feveral works on geometry and
perfpeftive and died after the year 16S9.
COUSU, in Heraldry, fignifies a piece of another
colour or metal placed in the ordinary, as if it were
few'ed on, as the word imports. This is generally of -
colour upon colour, or metal upon metal, contrary to
the general rule of heraldry.
COUTANCES, a port town of Normandy, and
capital of Coutantin, in W. Long. 1.32. N. Lat. .49. io.
This town, ancientiy called Confantia or Cofedia, is
pleafantly fituated among meadow's and rivulets about
five miles diftant from the fea. By the remains of a
Roman aqueduft, and other ancient ruins, it appears to
be a place of great antiquity. It is the fee of a biftrop,
fuffragan of Rome j and has a magnificent cathedral,
efteemed one of the fineft pieces of Gothic architeclure
in Europe. The trade of this town is very inconfider-
able, and the fortifications are quite demolifhed. They
have feveral religious houfes, and two parochial
churches.
COUTHUTLAUGH, from the Saxon couth,
“ knowing,” and utlaugl^ “ oudaw j” he that wit¬
tingly receives a man outlawed, and cherifties or
conceals him : for which offence he was in ancient
times fubjeft to the fame puniftiment with the outlaw
himfelf.
_ COVERT, in Heraldnj, denotes fomething like a
piece of hanging, or a pavilion falling over the top of
a chief or other ordinary, fo as not to hide, but only to
be a covering to it.
COW. See Bos, Mammalia Index.
Coir-Burner. See Bufrestis, Entomology In¬
dex.
Sea-Coir. See Trichecus, Mammalia Index.
Coir-Itch, or Couhage. See Couhage and Doli-
chos, Botany Index.
Coir's-Lip. See Primula, Botany Index.
COWARD, in Heraldry, z term given to a lion
borne in an efcutcheon, with his tail doubled, or turned
in between his legs.
COWEL, Dr John, a learned and eminent civi¬
lian, born about the year 1554. In 1607 he compiled
a Law Diftionary, which gave great offence to Sir
Edward Coke and the common lawyers : fo that they
firit accufed him to James I. as afferting that the king’s
prerogative was in fame cafes limited } and when they
of brothers and filters; who in the firft generation are failed in that attempt, they complained of him to the
called coufns-german, in the fecond generation, fecond
cdvjins, Sec. If fprung from the relations of the fa-
[ ther’s fide, they are denominated paternal coufiris j if
on the mother’s, maternal.
The werd is ordinarily derived from confanguineus;
though Menage brings it from congenius, or congeneus,
q. d. ex eedem genere.
In the primitive times, it was allowed coufins-ger-
man to many, to prevent their making alliances in
heathen families: bat Theodofius the Great prohi¬
bited it under pain of death ; on pretence that, they
houfe of commons, as a betrayer of the rights of the
people, by afferting that the king was not bound by ,
the laws j for which he was committed to cuftody,
and his, book publicly burnt. He alfo publiffied In-
Jlitutiones Juris Anghcani, in the manner of Juftinian’s
Inftkutes; and died in the Operation far the ftone, in
1611.
COWES, a town and harbour on the north-eaft
coaft of the Me of Wight in Hampfhire. It has no
market, but is the heft place for trade in the whole
iltand.; but as it lies low, the air is accounted unhealthy.
4 E 2 It
CC-TOS
I!
Coa\ ley.
C O W [ 7o8
It is eight miles fouth-eaft of Poufmouth. W. Lon^.
I. 25. N. Lat. 50. 45.
j COWL, or Coul, a fort of monkifli habit worn by
the Bernardines and Benedidines. The word is formed
from cuculluSy by confounding the two fir ft fyllables in¬
to one, as being the fame twice repeated. There are
two kinds of cowls; the one white, very large, worn
in ceremony, and when they afiift at the office 5 the
other black, worn on ordinary occaftons, in the ftreets,
&c.
F. Mabillon maintains the coul to be the fame thing
in its origin with the fcapular. The author of the
apology of the emperor Henry IV. diftinguiffies two
forms of couls : the one is a gown reaching to the
feet, having fleeves, and a capuchin, ufed in cere¬
monies 5 the other a kind of hood to work in, cal¬
led alfo a fcapular) becaufe it only covers the head and
fhoulders.
COWLEY, Abraham, an eminent poet, was born
at London in 1618. His father, who was a grocer,
dying before he was born, his mother procured him
to be admitted a king’s fcholar at Weftrninfter.
His firft inclination to poetry arofe on his lighting
on Spenfer’s Fairy Queen, when he wjas but juft able
to read 5 and this inclination fo far improved in him,
that at 13 he began to write feveral poems j a col-
ka ion of which was publithed in 1613, when he
was but 15. He has been reprefented as polTefted
of fo bad a memory that his teachers could never
1
c o w
bring him to retain the ordinary rules of grammar
But the fact was, as Dr Johnfon notices, not that he
could not learn or retain, the rules; but that being
■able to perform his exercifes without them, he fpared
himfelf the labour. In 1636 he was eledled a fcholar
of Tiinity college, Cambridge, and removed to that
umverfity. Here he went through all his exercifes
with a remarkable degree of reputation \ and at the
lame time muft have purfued his poetical turn with
great eagernefs, as it appears that the greateft part of
his poems were written before he left that univerfity.
He had taken his degree of matter of arts before
1643, 't'hen, in confequence of the turbulence of the
times, he, among others, was ejefted from the col¬
lege ; whereupon, retiring to Oxford, he entered him¬
felf of St John’s College j and that very year, under the
denomination of a fcholar of Oxford, publiffied a fatire
called the Puritan and the Papift. It is apparent,
ho wevcr, that he did not remain very long at Oxford j
for his zeal to the royal caufe engaging him in the
fervice of the king, who rvas very fenlible of his abili¬
ties, and by whom he was frequently employed, he
attended his majefty in many of his journeys and expe¬
ditions, and gained not only that prince’s efteem, but
that of many other great perfonages, and in particular
of Lord Falkland, one of the principal fccreiaries of
Fate.
During the heat of the civil war, he was fettled in
the earl of St Alban’s family 5 and wdren the queen-
mother was obliged to retire into France, he accom¬
panied her thither, laboured ftrenuoufly in the affairs
of the royal family, undertook feveral very dangerous
journeys on their account, and was the principal in-
ftrument in maintaining an epiftolary correfpondence
befwcen the king and queen, whofe letters he cipher¬
ed and deciphered with his awn hand. His poems.
entitled The Miftreis, were publiihed at London in
1647 j and his comedy called The Guardian, after¬
wards altered and publuhed under the title of Cutter
of Coleman-ftreet, in 1630. In 1656 it was thought
proper by thofe on whom Mr Cowley depended that
he ftiould come over into England, and, under pretence
of privacy and retirement, Ihouid give notice of the
pofture of affairs in this nation. Upon his return he
publiihed a new edition of all his poems, confifting of
four parts ; viz. I. Mifcellanies. II. The Miftrefs,- or
Several copies of Love-verfes. III. Pindaric Odes,
written in imitation of the ttyle and manner of Pindar.
IV. Davideis, a facred poem of the troubles of David,
in four books.
Soon after his arrival, however, he was feized, in
the fearch after another gentleman of confiderable note
in the king’s party ; but although it was through mif.
take that he was taken, yet when the republicans
found all their attempts of every kind to bring him
over to their party proved ineffe&ual, he was commit¬
ted to a fevere confinement, and it was even with con¬
fiderable difficulty that he obtained his liberty $ when,
venturing back to France, he remained there, in his
former fituation, till near the time of the king’s re-
turn. During his flay in England he wrote his Two
Books of Plants, publifhed firft in 1662; to which he
afterwards added four books more \ and all fix, toge¬
ther with his other Latin poems, were printed at Lon¬
don in 1678. It appears by Mr Wood’s Tafi Gxoni-
enfes, that our poet was created doftor of phyfic at
Oxford, December 2. 1657.
Soon after the Reftoiation he became poffeffed of a
very competent eftate, through the favour of his prin¬
cipal friends the duke of Buckingham and the eail of
St Alban’s j and being now upwards of 40 years of
age, he lock up a refolution to pafs the remainder of
a life which had been a feene of tempeft and tumult,
in that fituation which had ever been the objedt of his
wiflics, a ftudious retirement. His eagernefs to get
out of the buftle of a court and city made him lefs
careful than he might have been in the choice of a
healthful habitation in the country; by which means
he found his folitude from the very beginning fuit
lefs with the conftitution of his body than with his
mind. His firft rural refidence was at Barn Elms, a
place which, lying low, and being near a large river,
wras fubjedr to a variety of breezes from land and wa¬
ter, and liable in the wfinter-time to great inconveni¬
ence from the dampnefs of the foil. ’1 he confequence
of this Mr Cowley too foon experienced, by being
feized with a dangerous and lingering fever. On his
recovery from this he removed to Cherffey, a fituation
not much more healthy, where he had not been long-
before he was feized with another con fuming difeafe.
Having languiffied under this for fome months, he at
length got the better of it, and feerned pretty well re¬
covered from the bad fymbtoms, when one day in the
beat of fummer 1667, flaying too long in the fields to
give fome direflions to his labourers, he caught a moft
violent cold, which was attended with a defluxion
and floppage in his breaft; and for want of time¬
ly care, by treating it as a common cold, and re-
fufing advice till it rvas paft remedy, he departed this
life on the 28th of July in that year, being the 49th
of his age j and on the 3d of Auguft following, he
was
CWlc
€ O W
r5rley. was interred in Weftmmfler-abbey, near the a flies of
-V"-^ Chaucer, and his beloved Spenfer. He was a man of
a very amiable chara&er, as well as an admirable
genius. King Charles II. on the news of his death,
declared “ that Mr Cowley had not left a better man
behind him in England.” A monument was erected to
his memory by George Villiers duke of Buckingham in
*675.
Befides the works already mentioned, Mr Cowley
wrote, among other things, A Propofition for the
Advancement of Experimental Finlofophy j A Dif-
courfe by way of Vifion concerning the Government of
Oliver Cromwell $ and Several Difcourfes by way of
ElTays in Profe and Verfe. Mr Cowley had defigned
alfo a Hifcourfe concerning Style, and a Review of the
Principles of the Primitive Chriilian Church, but was
prevented by death. A fpurious piece, entitled The
Iron Age, was published under Mr Cowley’s name
during his abfence •, and, in Mr Dryden’s Mifcellany
Poems, we find A Poem on the Civil War, faid to be
written by our author, but not extant in any edition of
his works. An edition of his works rvas publifhed by
Dr Spratt, afterwards bifliop of Rochefter, who alfo
prefixed to it an account of the author’s life. The
reverend editor mentions, as very excellent of their kind,
Mr Cowley’s letters to his Friends j none of which,
however, were publiflied.
The moral chara&er of Mr Cowley appears, from
every account of it, to have been very excellent > “ He
is reprefented by Dr Spratt (fays Dr Johnfon), as the
moft amiable of mankind; and this pofthumous praife
may be fafely credited, as it has never been contradi&ed
by envy or by faftion.”
As a poet, his merits have been varioufly eftimated.
Lord Clarendon has faid he made a flight above all
men j Addifon, in his account of the Englifh poets,
that he improved upon the Theban bard; the duke of
Buckingham upon his tomb-ftone, that he was the
Englilh Pindar, the Horace, the Virgil, the delight,
the glory of his time. And with refpe<R to the harfh-
nefs of his numbers, the eloquent Spratt tells us, that
if his verfes in fome places feem not as foft and flowing
as one would have them, it was his choice and not his
fault.
“ Such (fays Mr Knox) is the applaufe lavifhed on
a writer who is now feldom read. That he could ever
be efteemed as a pindaric poet, is a curious literary
phenomenon. He totally miftook his own genius when
he thought of imitating Pmdar. He totally miflook
the genius of Pindar, when he thought his own inco¬
herent fentiments and numbers bore the leafl refem-
blance to the wild yet regular fublimity of the The¬
ban. He negle&ed even thofe forms, the ftrophe, an-
tiftrophe, and epode, which even imitative dulnefs can
copy. Sublime imagery, vehement pathos, poetic
fire, which conftltute the effence of the Pindaric ode,
are incompatible with witty conceits, accurate anti-
thefes and vulgar expreflion. All thefe imply the
coolnefs of deliberate cornpofition, or the meannefs of
a little mind; both of them moft repugnant to the
truly Pindaric ode, in which all is rapturous and noble.
Wit of any kind would be improperly difplayed in fuch
compofition: but to increafe the abfurdity, the wit of
Cowley is often falfe. That he had a tafte for Latin
poetry, and wrote in it with elegance, the well known
COW
epitaph on himfelf, upon his retirement, and an ad- Cowley,
mirable imitation of Horace, are tull proofs. But
furely his rhetorical biographer makes ufe of the
figure hyperbole, when he affirms that Cowley has ex¬
celled the Romans themfelves. He was inferior to
many a writer of lefs name in the Mufce Anglicance.
But ftill he had great merit; and I muft confefs I
have read his Latin verfes with more pleafure than
any of his Englilh can afford.” Ejfays, vol. ii. p.
To Cowley’s compofitions in profe Mr Knox has
paid a very honourable teftimony. He fays, that in
this department he is an elegant, a pleating, a judicious
writer ; and that it is much to be lamented that he
did not devote a greater part of his time to a kind of
writing which appeared natural to him, and in which
he excelled.
Dr Jofeph Warton obferves, that it is no caricature
of Cowley to reprefent him as being p^fleffed of a
{trained affectation of ftriving to be witty upon all oc-
cafions. “ It is painful (adds this excellent critic),
to cenfure a writer of fo amiable a mind, fuch inte¬
grity of manners, and fuch fweetnefs of temper. His
fancy was brilliant, ftrong, and fprightly ; but his tafte
falfe and unclaffical, even though he had much learn-
ing.”
Dr Beattie has charaCterifed Cowley in the follow¬
ing terms. “ I know not whether any nation ever
produced a more fingular genius than Cowley. He
abounds in tender thoughts, beautiful lines, and em-
phatical expreflions. His wit is inexhauftible, and his
learning extenfive ; but his tafte is generally barbarous,
and feems to have been formed upon fuch models as
Donne, Martial, and the worft parts of Ovid : nor
is it pollible to read his longer poems with pleafure,
while we retain any relifh for the fimplicity of ancient
compofition. If this author’s ideas had been fewer,
his conceits would have been lefs frequent; fo that in
one refpeft learning may be faid to have hurt his genius.
Yet it does not appear that Greek and Latin did him
any harm^ for his imitations of Anacreon are almoft the
only parts of him that are now remembered or read.
His Davideis, and his tranflations of Pindar, are defti-
tute of harmony, fimplicity, and every other claflical
grace.”
But the works of this celebrated poet have been no¬
where fo amply criticifed as in his Life by Dr Johnfon.
After a particular examination of the different pieces,
the Doctor, in taking a general review of Cowley’s
poetry, obferves, that “ he wrote with abundant fertility,
but negligent or unfkilful feleCtion ; with much thought,
but with little imagery ; that he is never pathetic, and
rarely fublime, but always either ingenious or learned,
either acute or profound.” Of his profe he fpeaks with
great approbation. “ No author (fays he) ever kept
his verfe and his profe at a greater diftance from each
other. His thoughts are natural, and his ftyle has a
fmooth and placid equality, which has never yet obtained
its due commendation. Nothing is far fought or hard
laboured; but all is eafy without feeblenefs, and familiar
without groilnefs.” Upon the whole, he concludes as
follows : “ It may be affirmed, without any enconaiaftic
fervour, that he brought to his poetic labours a mind
replete with learning, and that his paffages are embel-
liftied with all the ornaments which books could fup-
ptys
I 7°9 J
COW [ 71
(owley, ply • that he was the firft who imparted to EnglUh
, ^pvvpgi', ^ nujnbers the enthuiiafm of the greater ode and the
r n gaiety of the lefs j and he was qualified for fpright-
ly failles and for lofty flights j that he was among
thofe who freed tranilation from fervility, and, in-
itead of following his author at a diftance, walked by
his fide; and that though he had left verfification yet
improveable, he left likewife from time to time fuch fpe-
cimens of excellence as enabled fucceeding poets to im¬
prove it.”
So many of Cowley’s productions being now eftcem-
ed fcarcely worthy of a perufal, while others of them
are diftinguiflied by their beauty, Dr Hurd (the pre-
fent bithop of Worcefler,) thought proper to make a
felection of them, which he publilhed in 1772, under
the title of Seleft Works of Mr Abraham Cowley,
in two volumes; with a preface and notes by the
Editor.
COWPER, William, a diftinguilhed modern poet,
was born at Berkhamftead in Hertfordlhire, in the y$ar
1732. His father who was re&or of the parith, was
nephew to Lord Chancellor Cowper. Mr Cowper
was educated at Weftminfter fchool; and in that cele¬
brated feminary he acquired his claflical knowledge.
But it would appear from his poem, entitled “ Tiroci¬
nium” that the impreffions which he then received were
not favourable to this fyftem of education, and gave him
a permanent diflike to public fchoob. Through family
intereft, the honourable and lucrative place of clerk to
the houfe of lords had been provided for him ; he was
therefore entered at the Temple for the ftudy of the law,
in order to qualify him for it. In this fituation his
manners were amiable and decent; and though it is
probable that he did not refufe to indulge in thofe plea-
iures which are ulual among young men fimilarly fitu-
ated, yet there feems no realon to fuppofe that he had
any peculiar caufes for felf-accufation. His natural
difpofition was timid and diffident; his fpirits were con-
flitutionaily weak, even to the borders of abfolute unfit-
nefs for worldly concerns ; fo that when.the time came
for afiuming that poll ,to which he had been deftined, he
lluunk with fuch terror from the idea of making his
appearance before the moft auguft affembly in the nation,
that, after a violent ftruggle with himfelf, he afiually
refigned the employment, and with it all his profpetts in
life. It appears to have been under the agitation of
mind which this circumftance occafioned, and which
threw him into a ferious illnefs, that he was led to a
deep confideration of his ftate in a religious view ; and
from the fyftem. be had adopted, this courfe of reflexion
excited in him the moft alarming and diftrefsful appre-
henfions. In vain did his theological friends fet before
■him thofe encouraging views which the theory of
Chriftian juftification is calculated to prefent, and which
to many is the fource of a confidence perhaps as excef-
five as their former fears ; the natural difpofition of his
mind fitted it to receive all the horrors, without the
confolations of his faith. We are told, that.“ the
terror of eternal judgment overpowered and wholly dif-
ordered his faculties; and he remained feven months in
a continual expeftation of being inftantly plunged into
.final miiery.” In this ibccking condition he became
thp fubjedf of medical care, and he was placed in the
.receptacle for lunatics kept by Dr Cotton at St Alban’s,
0 ] c o w
an amiable and worthy phyfician, and the author of
feme well-known poems. At length he recovered a
degree of ferenity; but his mind had acquired that
indelible tinge of melancholy by which it was ever after
charaQerifed, and which rendered his whole life little
more than a fucceflion of intervals of comfort between
long paroxyfms of fettled defpondency. It is unneceffary
to follow him through all his feenes of retirement, Part
of his time was fpent at the houfe of his relation, Earl
Cowper, at Cole-green ; and part at Huntingdon, with
his intimate friend the reverend Mr Unwin. After
the death of the latter, he removed with his widow to
Olney in Buckinghamlhire, which was thenceforth the
principal place of his refidence. The affe&ionate in¬
timacy he enjoyed with this lady is ftrongly expref-
fed in the following lines, which have probably been
underftood by moft readers as expreflive of a conjugal
union;
—Witnefs, dear companion of my walks,
Whofe arm this twentieth winter I perceive
Faft lock’d in mine, with pleafure fuch as love
Confirm’d by long experience of thy worth
And well-tried virtues could alone infpire—
Witnefs a joy that thqu haft doubled long.
Tajk, Book I.
At Olney he contra&ed a clofe friendfliip with the
reverend Mr Newton, then minifter there, and fince
re&or of St Mary Woolnotb, London, whofe religious
opinions were in unifon with his own. When Mr
Newton publifhed his volume of Hymns, called “ The
Olney’s Colletftion,” it was enriched with fome ccm-
pofitions from the pen of Cowper, diftinguilhed by the
letter C. They bear internal evidence of a cultivated
underftanding, and an original genius. His time was
now wholly dedicated to that literary ieifure, in Which
the mind, left to its own operations, follows up that
line of purfiiit which is the moft congenial to its tafte,
and the moft adapted to its powers. In his garden, in
his library, and in bis daily walks, he feems to have
difeiplined his mule to the pidlurefque and vivid habits
of defeription, which will always dlftinguilh Cowper
among our national poets. No writer, with the ex¬
ception of Thomfon, feems to have ftudied nature with
more diligence, and to have copied her with more fide¬
lity. An advantage which he has gained over other men,
by his difdaining to ftudy her “ through the fpe&acles
of books,” as Dryden calls it; and by his purfuing her
through her haunts, and watching her in all her atti¬
tudes, with the eye of a philofopher as well as of a
poet. As Mr Cowrper had no relilh for public con¬
cerns, it was not Angular that he ffiould have neglefted
the ftudy of the law, on which he had entered. That
knowledge of aftive life, which is fo requifite for the
legal proftffion, would hardly be acquired on thfe banks
of the Oufet and in filent contemplations on the Beau¬
ties of nature. In this retreat, he exchanged for the
fociety and con'verfe of the mufes; the ambition and
tumult of a forenfic occupation ; dedicating his mind
to the cultivation of poetry, and floring it with thofe
images which he derived from the inexhauflihle trea-
fury of a rich and varied feenery, in a moft beautiful
and romantic country.—1 he firft volume of his ppems,
which was publifhed by Mr Newton in 1787, Confifts
wper.
G O W [ ft
of various pieces, on various fubjscis. It feems, that
, ' he had been affiduous in cultivating a turn for grave
and argumentative verfification, on moral and ethical
topics. Of this kind is The Table Talk, and feveral
other pieces in the collection. He who objefts to
thefc poems as containing too great a negleCl of
harmony in the arrangement of his words, and ufe
of expreffions too profaic, will condemn him on prin¬
ciples of criticifm which are by no means juft, if the
objeft and ftyle of the fubjeCt be confide red. Horace
apologized for the ftyle of his own fatires, which are,
ItriCtly fpeaking, only ethical and moral difcourfes, by
obferving, that thofe topics required the pedejirian and
familiar diCtion, and a form of expreffion not carried
to the heights of poetry. But if the reader will forego
the delight of fmooth verfification, and recoiled that
poetry does not altogether confift in even and poliftied
metre, he will remark, in thefe productions, no ordinary
depth of thinking and of judgment, upon the molt im¬
portant objeCts of human intercourfe ; and he will be
occafionally ftruck with lines, not unworthy of Dryden
for their ftrength and dignity. His lighter poems are
well known. Of thefe, the verfes fuppofed to be
written by Alex. Selkirk, on the bland o^Jnan Fernan¬
dez, are in the moft popular eftimation. Ihere is great
originality in the following ftanza.
I am out of humanity’s reach ;
I mult finish my journey alone •,
Never hear the fweet mufic of fpeech •,
I Start at the found of my own.”
It would be abfurd to give one general charafter of
the pieces that were published in this volume : yet,
this is true concerning Mr Cowper’s productions j that
in all the varieties of his Style, there may Still be dif-
cerned the likenefs and impreihon of the fame mind •,
the fame unaffeCted modefty, which always rejeCts un-
feafonable ambitions and ornaments of language ; the
fame eafy vigour •, the fame ferene and cheerful nope,
derived from a Steady and unShaken faith in the dogmas
of Chriftianity. Mr Cowper, perhaps, does not derive
praife from the choice and elegance of Ids words ; but
he has the higher praife of having choi'en them with¬
out affectation. He appears to have ufed them as he
found them } neither introducing faftidious rennements
nor adhering to obfolete barbarifms. He underftood
the whole Science of numbers, and he has practifed
their different kinds with considerable happmefs ; and,
if his verfes do not Slow fo foftly as the delicacy m a
modern car requires, that roughnefs, which is objeCtea
to his poetrv, is his choice, not His deieCt. ^ Lat this
fort of critics, who admire-only what is exquifitely po-
HShed, like Guyp’s pieftures, thefe lovers of “ gentle-
V%««’Jnefs without finews,” ought to take into their elh-
of mate> that vaft effufion of thought which is 10 abun-
Qwley- dantly poured over the writings of Cowper, without
which human difccurfe is only an idle combination or
founds and fyllables. The favourable reception, which
this volume experienced, produced another ot mpeaor
merit. His principal performance w7as undoubted y
“ The Talk,” a poem. The occafion that gave birth
to it was trivial. A lady had requefted him to write
a piece in blank verfe, and gave him for its fubjeCt a
thing next to her, viz the [ofa. Tins he expanded in¬
to one of the fineft moral poems our language nas pro-
I ] COW
duccd. It is written in blank verfe as defired j and Cowper.
though in that refpeCl it reiembles Milton’s, it is ne-
verthelefs original and highly charafteriftic. It is not
too ftately for familiar defeription, or too deprefted
for fijblime and elevated imagery. If it has any fault,
it is that of being too much laden with idiomatic ex-
preflion; a fault which the author, in the vapidity with
which his ideas and his utterance feem to have flowed,
very naturally incurred. In this poem, his fancy ran
with the moft excurfive freedom. The poet enlarges
upon his topics, and confirms his argument by every-
variety of illuftration. He never however dwells upon
them too long, and leaves off in fuch a manner, that
it feems it was in his power to have faid^ more. The
The w’orks of
arguments of the poem are various, . .
nature, the affociations with which they exhibit them-
felves, the defigns of Providence, and the paftions of
men. Of one advantage, the writer has ampty availed
himfelf. The work not being rigidly confined to any
precife fubjett, he has indulged himfelf in all the
laxity and freedom of a mifcellaneous poem. Yet he
has ftill adhered fo faithfully to the general laws of
congruity, that whether he inspires the fofter affefhons
into his reader, or delights him with keen and pla)
raillery, or difcourfes on the ordinary manners hu¬
man nature, or holds up the bright pictures of religious
confolation to his mind, he adopts, at pleafure, a dic¬
tion juft and appropriate, equal in elevation to the
facred effufiens of pious rapture, and fufficiently ealy-
and familiar for deferiptions of domeftic Ine ; ikfttul
alike in foartng without effort, and defeending without
meannefs. He who defires to put into the hands or
youth a poem, which not deftitute of poetic embelhlh-
m“nt is free from all matter of a licentious-tendency,
wfll find in the Talk a book adapted to his purpoie.
It would be abfurd and extravagant aufterity to con¬
demn thofe poetical produ&ions in which love confti-
tutes the leading feature. That paflion has in every
S-JQ been the concernment of life, the theme of the
poet, the plot of the ftage. Yet there is a k’-nd ot
amorous fenfibility, bordering on morbid enthuhafm,
which the youthful mind too often imbibes ,rom the
glowing fend men is of the poets. Fbeir genius de-
feribes, in the moft fplendid colours, the operations ot
a paflbn which requires rebuke rather than incentive,
and lends to the moft grovelling fenfualky the en¬
chantments of a rich and creative imagination. But
m the Talk of Cowper, there is no licdfttoufnefs ot
defeription. Ail is grave, majeftic, and moral. A
vein of fober thinking pervades every page, and, _m
finifhed poetry, deferibes the inftiffideEcy and vanity
of human purfuits. Not tnat he is always fevere. He
frequently enlivens the mind of his reader by- fportive
defections, and by reprefenting in elevated meafures,
ludicrous objefts and circumftances, a fpecies 01 tue
mock heroic, fo admired In Phillip’s Splendid Shilling.
The hiftofical account he has given or chairs, in the
firft book of the Talk, is a ft diking fpecimen of his
powers of vevfification, and of Ins talent for humour
in this latter ftyle. The attention is however the moft
detained by thofe paffages, in which the charms of ru¬
ral lire and the endearments of domeftic retirement
are defeated. The Talk abounds with incidents, in¬
troduced. as epifodes, and interpofing an agreeable re¬
lief to the grave and ferious part of the poetiy. H s>
43 Cra^Y
COX' [71
Crazy Kate Is a defcription of the calamity of a difor-
dered reafon, admirably cxaft and affecling,
“ She begs an idle pin of all (he meets.”
What poet would have introduced fo minute a circum-
ftance into his reprefentation ! and yet that minutenefs
conflitutes its happy effedl.
Of his talent for painting there cannot be a better
fpecimen than his (ketch of the melancholy man, pro¬
bably (ketched from what too faithful remembrance
fuggefted of himfelf:
Look where he comes—In this embower’d alcove
Stand dole concealed, and fee a llatue move j
Lips bufy, and eyes fixt, foot failing flow,
Arms hanging idly down, hands claip’d below,
Interpret to the marking eye, diftrefs.
Such as its fymptoms only can exprefs.
That tongue is filent now';—that filent tongue
Could argue once, could jeft or join the fong.
Could give advice, could cenfure or commend,
Or charm the forrows of a drooping friend.
Renounc’d alike its office and its fport,
Its brilker and its graver (trains fall ffiort;
Both fall beneath a fever’s fecret fway,
And like a fummer brook are pad away.
Retirement.
His John Gilpin is univerfally known, and may be
confidered as a fportive piece of humour, which would
have done credit to many workers, but can hardly be
faid to have added to Mr Cow’per’s reputation. His
next work was a tranflation of the Iliad and Odyffey
into Miltonic blank verfe. It is an unjuft piece of cri-
ticifm to compare the veifion of Mr Pope to that of
Mr Cowper. The merits of each are diftindt and ap¬
propriate. Mr Pope has exhibited Homer as he would
have fung had he been born in England. Mr Cowper
has endeavoured to pourtray him as he wrote in
Greece, adhering frequently to the peculiarities of his
original’s idiom, and deliring to preferve his (Length
and energy, together with his harmony and fmooth-
nefs. Mr Cowper died of a fevere and lingering ill-
nefs, at Eaft Dereham, in Norfolk, April 25. 1800.
. COX, Richard, a learned prelate, and principal
pillar of the Reformation, w7as born at Whaddon in
Buckingham (hire, of low' parentage, in the year 1499.
From Eton fchcol he obtained a fcholarfhip in King’s
college in Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in
1519: he was thence invited to Oxford by Cardinal
Wolfey, and was there made one of the junior canons
~of Cardinal college. In 15 2J be wTas incorporated
bachelor 5 and the following year took the degree of
roafler of arts in the fame univerfity. In this fitua-
tion he became remarkable for his learning and poeti¬
cal abilities; but his attachment to the opinions of
Luther rendered him hateful to his fuperiors, who drip¬
ped him of his preferment, and threw him into prifon
on a fufpicion of herefy. Being, however, foon re-
leafed, he wms chofen mafler of Eton fchool, which
flouriffied remarkably under his care. In 1537 he
commenced dodfor of divinity at- Cambridge ; in 1 C40
was made archdeacon of Ely ; and the following year
prebendary of that cathedral, cn its be ng new tound-
ea by King Henry VIII. In 1546 he was made dean
o: Chrift-church, Oxford. By the recommendation
5
2 ] COX
of Archbifliop Cranmer and Biffiop Goodrich, to the Cor,
latter of whom he had been chaplain, he not only ob- CoxwoM.
tained the above preferments, but was chofen precep-
tor to Piince Edward, on whofe acceffion to the throne
he became a favourite at court, was fworn of the privy
council, and made king’s almoner. In 1547 be was
elected chancellor of Oxford ; in 1548 canon of Wind-
for; and the next year dean of Weftminfter. About
this time he was appointed one of the commiflioners
to vifit the univerfity of Oxford ; in wbich office his
zeal fer reformation was fo exceffive, that he deflroyed
a number of curious and valuable bocks, for no better
reafon than becauie they were written by Roman Ca¬
tholics. On the acceffion of Oueen Mary he was (trip¬
ped of all his preferments and committed to the Mar-
(halfea. He was, however, fcon releafed, and imme¬
diately left the kingdom.-' Having refided feme time
at Strafburg with his intimate friend Peter Martyr,
on the death of Queen Mary he returned to England,
and, with other divines, was appointed to revile the
hturgy. He often preached before the queen ; and id
1559 was preferred to the fee of Ely, which he con¬
tinued to enjoy upwards of 21 years. He was, how¬
ever, no favourite with the queen : the reafon affigned
(or which was, his zealous oppofition to her retaining
the crucifix and wax-candles on the altar of the royal
chapel ; alfo his ftrenuous defence of the marriage of
the clergy, v.diich her majefty alw'ays difapproved.
He died on the 22d, of July 1581, aged 81. He
was a man of confiderabie learning, a zealous and ri¬
gid bulwark of the church of England, and an im¬
placable enemy both to Papifls and Puritans. In a
letter to Archbifliop Parker, he advifes him to proceed
vigoroufly in reclaiming or punifhing the Puritans, and
not to be difeouraged at the frown of thofe court-fa¬
vourites who protected them ; afiuring him that he
might expe£t the bleffing of God cn his pious labours
to free the church from their dangerous attempts, and
to eflablifn uniformity. This zealous reformer we find
had not totally loft fight of the Popifti text, compel them
to come in; but a (Longer’proof of his implacability
and felf-importance appears in his letter to the lord
treafurer Burleigh, in which he warmly expoftulates
with the council for interpofing in behalf of the Pu¬
ritans, or meddling in affairs of the church, admcnifli-
ing them to keep their own fphere. Such language
from a bifliop would make a modern privy council (fare.
His works are, 1. Two Latin Orations on the Difpute
between Dr Treffiam and Peter Martyr, Lond. 1549,
4to. 2. Liturgy of the Church of England ; in com¬
piling, and afterwards corredling which, he tvas prin¬
cipally concerned. 3. The Lord’s Prayer in verfe,
commonly printed at the end of David’s Pfalms by
Sternhold and Hopkins. 4. Tranflation of the four
Gofpels, the A£ls of the Apoflles, and the Epiftle
to the Romans, in the new tianflaticn of the Bible
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 5. Refolutions of
fome Queftions concerning the Sacrament in the Col-
leflion of Records at the end of Burnet’s Hiftory of
the Reformation. 6. Several Letters to the Queen
and others publifiied in Strype’s Annals of the Re¬
formation. Pie is alfo faid to have been concerned in
the declaration concerning the divine inftitution of bi-
fhops, and to have affifted Lyle in his Grammar.
COXWOLD, a town in the north riding of York-
(hire,
oxwold
I!
Crab*
C R A [71
{hire, 14 miles north of York. W. Long. 1. 10. N.
Lat. 54. 16.
COYPEL, Anthont, an excellent French painter,
born at Paris in i66r, Noyel Coypel, his father,, be¬
ing chofen by M. Colbert to be chre&or of the academy
at Rome, he took his fon with him into Italy, where
Anthony Coypel formed hitnfelf on the works of the
greateft matters, and on his return to France was made
firtl painter to the duke of Orleans. That prince em¬
ployed him in painting the grand gallery ot the royal
palace, and allowed him a pention. In 1714, he was
dire&or of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. In
1715, he was made the firft painter to the French king,
and was ennobled on account of his merit. He died in
1722. M. Coypel, his fon, alfo excelled in the lame
art.
COZENING j tricking, or defrauding.—In law, it
denotes an offence where any thing is done deceitfully,
whether belonging to contracts or not, which cannot be
properly termed by any fpecial name.
COZUMEL, an ifland near the weftern coal! of Ju-
catan, where Cortez landed and refrelhed his troops be¬
fore entering upon the conqueft of Mexico. W. Long.
89. o. and N. Lat. 13. o.
CRAB. See Cancer, Entomology Index.
Crab's C/awr, in the Matei ia Medico, are the tips of
the clawrs of the common crab broken off at the verge
of the black part, fo much of the extremity of the claw's
only being allowed to be uled in medicine as is tinged
with this colour. The blacknefs, however, is only fu-
perficial j they are of a grayilh white within, and when
levigated furnilh a white powder.
Crab’s claws are of the number of the alkaline ab-
forbents j but they are fuperior to the generality of
them, in fome degree, as they are found on a chemical
analyfis to contain a volatile urinous fait.
Crab’s Eyes, in P/iarmncy, are a ftrong concretion
in the head of the cr^y-filh. They are rounded on one
fide, and depreffed and finuated on the other, confider-
ably heavy, moderately hard, and without fmell. We
have them from Holland, Mufcovy, Poland, Denmark,
Sweden, and many other places. What are ufually met
with in the fhops are prepared by art.
Crab’s eyes are much ufed both in the {hop medicines
and extemporaneous prefcription, being accounted ab-
forbent.
Crab-LIcc, a troublefome kind of vermin, which flick
fo faff with their claws to the {kin as to render it diffi¬
cult to difiodge them. They are called pla&ulce, morpi*
ones, petolcc, and pejfoiatce : they ufually infeft the aim-
pits and pudenda. Cleanlinefs is the beft preventive.
But thefe vermin may be eafily removed with the appli¬
cation of a little mercurial ointment.
Crab, a fort of wooden pillar, whofe lower end,
being let down through a {hip’s decks, reft upon a
focket like the capftern ; and having in its upper end
three or four holes, at different heights, through the
middle of it, one above another, into which long bars
are thruft, whofe length is nearly equal to the breadth
of the neck. It is employed to wind in the cable, or
to purchafe any other weighty body which requires a
great mechanical power. This differs from a cap¬
ftern, as not being furnifhed with a drum head, and
by having the bars to go entirely through it, reaching
from onp fide of the deck to the other } whereas thofe
VoL. VI. Part II.
3 J c R A
of the capftwn, which are fuperior in number, reach
only about eight inches or a foot into the drum-head,
according to its fize. See CaRSTERN.
Crab-Yows, a name in Jamaica for a kind of ulcer
on the loles of the feet, with hard callous lips, fo hard
that it is difficult to cut them. Ihe ungt. cceful. fort.
is their cure.
CRACATOA, the moft foutherly of a clufter of
i{lands lying in the entrance of the ftraits of Sunda in
the Eaft Indies. Its whole circumference does not
exceed nine miles j and off its north-eaftsrn extremity
is a fmall ifland forming a road, in which Captain
Cook anchored when vifiting this ifland on his laft voy¬
age. On the fouthern part of the fmall ifland is a
reef of rocks, within which is a tolerable {belter a-
gainft all northerly winds, there^aeing 27 fathoms wa¬
ter in the mid channel, and 18 near the reef. Be¬
tween the two iflands there is a narrow paffage^ for
boats. The Ihore that conftitutes the weft fide of the
road runs in a north-wefterly dire$ion, having a bank
of coral running into the fea for a little way, fo that
it is difficult for boats to land except at the time of
high water •, but the anchoring ground is very good
and free from rocks. In the inland parts the ground
is elevated, rifing on all fidss gradually from the fea,
and is entirely covered with wood, excepting a few
fpotc, which are cleared by the inhabitants for fowing
rice. The climate is reckoned very healthy in com-
parifon with the neighbouring countries, but it is very
thinly inhabited. There are abundance of turtle on
the coral reefs j but other refrefhments are fcarce, and
fold at an exorbitant price. Water is not plentiful:
Captain Cook was obliged to fupply himfelf from a
fmall fpring oppofite to the fouthern extremity of the
fmall ifland above mentioned, lo the fouthward is a
hot fpring, whofe waters are ufed as a bath by the in¬
habitants. The road where the Refolution anchored
lies in S. Lat. 8. 6. j and by obfervaticn, in 105, 36.
E. Long, by the time-keeper in 104. 48. The varia¬
tion of the compafs one degree W. On the full and
change days it is high wrater at feven o’clock in the
morning, and the tide rifes three feet four inches per¬
pendicular.
CRACKOW, or Cracow, a city of Poland, fitua-
ted in a palatinate of the fame name, E. Long. 20. 16.
N. Lat. 50. 8. It was formerly the capital of Poland,
where the kings were elefted and crowned, and was
once almoft the centre of the Polfth dominions, but is
now a frontier town ; a proof how much the power of
this republic has been contracted.
Crackow ftands in an extenfive plain, watered by
the Viftula, which is broad but {hallow: the city and
its fuburbs occupy a vaft traCt of ground, but are fo
badly peopled, that they fcarcely contain 16,000 in¬
habitants. The great fquare in the middle of the
town is very fpacious, and has feveral well-built houfes,
once richly furniflied and well inhabited, but raoft of
them now either untenanted or in a ftate of melan¬
choly decay. Many of the ftreets are broad and har.d-
fome ; but almoft every building bears the rooft ftrik-
ing marks of ruined grandeur: the churches alone
feem to have preferved their original fplendour. The
devaftation of this unfortunate town was begun by the
Swedes at the commencement of the prefent century,
when it v/as befieged and taken by Charles XJI. but
4 X the
iJrackow.
C R A
the mifchiefs it fuffered from that ravager of the north
were far lefs deftruftive than thofe it experienced du¬
ring the late dreadful commotions, when it underwent
repeated lieges, and was alternately in poffeflion of
the Ruffians and Confederates. The effefts of can¬
non, grape, and mulket (hot, are (fill difcernible on the
walls and hordes. In a word, Crackew exhibits the re¬
mains of ancient magnificence, and looks like a great ca¬
pital in ruins : from the number of fallen and falling
houfes one would imagine it had lately been facked, and
that the enemy had left it only yefterday. The town is
j’urrounded with high walls of brick, (frengthened by
round and fquare towers of whimfical (hapes, in the an¬
cient ftyle of fortification : thefe walls were built by
Vencellaus king of Bohemia during the Ihort period in
which he reigned over Poland.
The univerfity of Crackow was formerly, and not
unjuiily, called the mother of Polifir literature, as it
principally fupplied the other feminan'es with profef-
ibrs and men of learning ; but its luftre has been great¬
ly obfcured by the removal of the royal refidence to
Warfaw, and {fill more by the late inteftine convul-
lions. In this city the art of printing was firlt intro¬
duced into Poland by Haller ; and one of the earlieft
books was the Conftitutions and Statutes compiled by
Cafimir the Great, and afterwards augmented by his
fucceffors. The charaflers are Gothic, the fame wdrich
were univerfaliy ufed at the invention of printing : the
great initial letters are wanting, which fhows that they
■were probably painted and afterwards worn away. The
year in which this compilation was printed is not pofi-
tively known ; but its publication was certainly ante¬
rior to 1496, as it does not contain the ftatutes palled
by John Albeit in that year. The mod flourilhing
period of the univerfity was under Sigifmond Auguf-
tus in the 16th century, when feveral of the German
reformers fled from the perfecutions of the emperor
Charles V. and found an afylum in this city. They
gave to the world feveral verfions of the facred writings,
and other theological publications, which diffufed the
reformed religion over great part of Poland. The pro-
teftion which Sigifmond Auguflus afforded to men of
learning of all denominations, and the univerfal tolera¬
tion which he extended to every fe£t of Chriftians, cre¬
ated a fufpicion that he was fecretly inclined to the new
church j and it was even reported that he intended to
renounce the Catholic faith, and publicly profefs the re¬
formed religion.
Towards the fouthern part of the town, near the
Viflula, rifes a fraall eminence or rock, upon the top of
which is built the palace, furrounded with brick walls
and old towers, which form a kind of citadel to the
town. This palace owes its origin to Ladiflaus Jaghel-
lon ; but little of the ancient flrufture now appears,
as the greateft part was demolifhed by Charles XII. in
1701, when he entered this town in triumph after the
battle of Cliffow. It has been fince repaired. The re¬
mains of the old palace confift of a few apartments,
ivhich are left in their ancient ftate as they exifted in
the lafl century. This palace was formerly the refi¬
dence of the kings of Poland, who, from the time of
Ladiflaus Locketec, have been crowned at Crackow.
The Polifli and German hiftorians differ concerning the
lime when the title of king was firft claimed by the fo-
C R A
•vereigns of this country ; but the moft probable account €rackow,
is, according to Mr Coxe, that in 1295 Premiflaus af- Cradle-
fumed the regal title, and was inaugurated at Gnefna by ^""Y—
thc.archbifhop of that diocefe. He was fucceeded by
Ladiflaus Locketec, who offending the Poles by his ca¬
pricious and tyrannical conduft, was depofed before he
was crowned ; and Venceflaus king of Bohemia, who
had married Richfa daughter of Premiflaus, being eleft-
ed in his ftead, was in 1300 confecrated at Gnefna.
Ladiflaus, after flying from his country and undergoing
a feries of calamitous adventures, was at length brought
to a fenfe of his mifconduct. Having regained the
affeftion of his fubjedts, he was reflored, in the life¬
time of Venceflaus, to part of his dominions; and he
recovered them all upon the demife of that monarch in
the year 1305 : he governed, however, for fome years
without the title of king; but at length in 1320 was
crowned at Crackow, to which place he transferred the
ceremony of the coronation ; and afterwards enadted,
that for the future his fucceffors (hould be inaugurated
in the cathedral of this city.
Since that period all the fovereigns have been confe¬
crated at Crackovr, excepting the laft king. Previous
to his eledtion a decree w7as iffued by the diet of
convocation, that the coronation fhould be folemnized
for this turn at Warfaw, without prejudice in future to
the ancient right of Crackow ; a provifo calculated to
fatisfy the populace, but which will not probably pre¬
vent any future fovereign from being crowned at War¬
faw, now become the capital of Poland and the refi¬
dence of its kings. The diadem and other regalia ufed
at the coronation are ftill kept in the palace of Crac¬
kow, under fo many keys, and with fuch care, that it
is impoffible to obtain a fight of them.
Adjoining to the palace (lands the cathedral, alfo
within the walls of the citadel. Here all the fove¬
reigns, from the time of Ladiflaus Loeketec, have been
interred, a few only excepted, v*z. Louis and Ladif¬
laus II. who were kings of Hungary as well as of
Poland, and whofe bodies were depofited in Hungary ;
Alexander, who died and was buried at Vilna; Henry
of Valois, interred in France •, and the late monarch
Auguflus III. The fe pul oh res of the kings of
Poland are not diilinguiffied by any peculiar mag¬
nificence $ their figures are carved in marble of no
extraordinary workmanfliip, and fome are without in-
fcriptions.
The bifhop of Crackow is the firft in the kingdom,
duke of Saveria, and very often a cardinal. His re¬
venues are larger than thofe of his metropolitan the
archbiftiop of Gnefna, and are computed to amount to
40,000 dollars per annum.
CRADLE, a well known machine in which infants
are rocked to fleep.
It denotes alfo that part of the (lock of a crofs bow-
where the bullet is put.
Cradle, in Surgery, a cafe in which a broken legis
laid after being fet.
Cradle, in engraving, is the name of an ihftrument
ufed in fcraping mezzotintos, and preparing the plate.
It is forrred of fteel, refembling a chiffel with one
Hoping fide, upon which are cut hollow lines very
near each other, and at equal diftances. The acting
part of this tool is made circular, and the corners are
rounded i
l 7H ]
6
II ■
C R A [713] c 11 A
■pails ' fcunded. After being properly tempered, it muft be
|| (harpened on the whetftone. There are various fizes
■ mganor. Qf thjs inftrument.
Cradle, among fliipwrights, a frame placed under
the bottom of a fhip, in order to conduct her fmoothly
and fteadily into the water when (he is going to be
launched ; at which time it fupports her weight while
(he Aides down the defcent or Hoping paffage called the
ways, which are for this purpofe daubed with foap and
tallow.
CRAFT, a general name for all forts of veffels
employed to load or difcharge merchant fhips, or
to carry alongfide or return the ftores of men of war.
-Such are lighters, hoys, barges, prames, &c. See thofe
articles.
CRAKE, or Corn-crake. See Rallus, Orni¬
thology Index.
CRAIL, or Careil, a borough towm of Scotland,
fituated on the fea-coaft of the county of Fife, about
feven miles fouth-eaft of St Andrews. W. Long. 2.
20. N. Lat. 56. 17.
CRAMBE, Sea-cabbage, Sea-beach Kale, or
Sea-cole WORT, a genus of plants belonging to the
-tetradynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 39th order, Siliqmfce. See Botany In¬
dex.
CRAMERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria clafs. See Botany Index.
CRAMOND, Over and Nether, two villages
about four miles w'eft of Edinburgh 5 of which only
the laft deferves notice, as having been once a famous
naval ftation of the Romans. It is fituated at the in¬
flux of the river Almond into the Forth. Three Ro¬
man roads meet at this place, which was called by them
Alaterva, and whither they brought their grain for the
fupport of their troops. The village contains about
300 inhabitants. Here are the remains of a bath and
fudatory $ and many altars, medals, &c. hare been
dug up.
CRAMP, a fpafmodic affe&ion of the mufcles of
different parts of the body, as of thofe of the neck,
arms, legs, &c. accompanied with a violent but tran-
fitory pain. See Medicine Index.
CRAMr-FiJh, or Torpedo. See Raja, ICHTHYOLO¬
GY Index.
CuAMr-Iron, or Cramps^ a piece of iron bent at
each end, which ferves to fallen together pieces of
wood, flones, or other things.
CRAMPONEE, in Heraldry, an epithet given to
a crofs which has at each end a cramp or fquare piece
coming from it *, that from the arm in chief towards
the finifter angle, that from the arm en that fide down¬
wards, that from the arm in bafe towards the dexter
fide, and that from the dexter arm upwards.
CR AN AGE, the liberty of ufing a crane at a wharf,
and alfo the money paid for drawing up wares out of a
Ihip, &c. wdth a crane.
CRANE. See Ardea, Ornithology Index.
Crane, in Mechanics, a machine ufed in building
for railing large Hones and other weights. See Me¬
chanics.
Crank's Bill. See Geranium, Botany Index.
CxANs-F/y, a fpecies of Tipula. See Entomolo- .
GY Index.
CRANGANOR, a Dutch fa&ory on the Malabar
coaff jn the Eaft Indies, feated in E.-Long. 73. 3, N. Cranganer
Lat. 10. o. See Cochin, H
CRANIOLAEIA, a genus of plants belonging, ra™pcr’,
to the didynamia clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 40th order, Ferfonatce.
CRANIUM, in Anatomy, an affemblage of feveral
bones which cover and enclofe the brain and cerebel¬
lum, popularly called theJkull. See Anatomy Index.
—-The word comes from the Greek xgxvtov, of
galea, “ helmet j” becaufe it ferves to defend the
brain like a head-piece. Pezron,.again, derives
from the Celtic cren, becaufe of its roundnefs.
CRANK, a contrivance in machines, in manner of
an elbow, only of a fquare form, projecting out from
an axis or fpindle; and ferving, by its rotation, to
laife and fall the piftons of engines for raifing wate-r
or the like.
Crank, in fea-language. A Ihip is faid to \>e. crank-
fided, when for want of a fufticient quantity of ballaft
or cargo, Are cannot bear her fails, or can bear but
ffnall fail for fear of overfetting. She is faid to be
crank by the ground, viYie.x\\\ex Root is fo narrow that
Ate cannot be brought on ground without danger.
Crank is alfo an iron brace which lupports the lan-
thorns on the poop-quarters, &c.
CRANMER, Thomas, a celebrated archbilhop,
reformer, and martyr, was the fon of Thomas Cran-
mer, Efq. of AAaflon in Nottinghamlhire, where our
author was born in 1489. At the age of 14, he was
admitted a Audent of Jefus College, Cambridge, of
which he afterwards became fellow j but marrying the
relation of an innkeeper’s wife, he loft his fellowAiip
and quitted the college. On the death of his wdfe
he was re-admitted fellow of Jefus College. In 1523
he tooknhe degree of do&or of divinity, and was made
theological lefturer and examiner. The plague being
at Cambridge, he retired to the houfe of a relation at
Waltham Abbey, where, meeting with Fox the king’s
almoner, and Gardiner the fecretary, he gave his opi¬
nion concerning King Henry’s marriage with Catha¬
rine much to the fatisfaflion of his majefty. This
opinion was, that inftead of difputing about the vali¬
dity of the king’s marriage with Catharine, they Aiould
reduce the matter to this Ample queftion, “ Whether
a man may marry his* brother’s wife or not ?” When
the king was told of it, he faid, “ This fellow has got
the right fow by the ear.” He then fent for him to
court, made him one of his chaplains, and ordered him
to write in vindication of the divorce in agitation.
This book having quieted the tender confcience of the
king, he was defirous that all Europe Aiould be con¬
vinced of the illegality of his marriage with Queen Ca¬
tharine } and for that purpofe fent Cranmer to France,
Italy, and Germany, to difpute the matter with the
divines of thofe countries. At Nuremberg Cranmer
married a fecond wife. Being returned to England,
in March 1533 he w*as confecrated archbiAiop of Can¬
terbury •, in May following he pronounced the fen-
tence of divorce between the king and queen ; and
fo®n after married the amorous monarch to Ann Bo-
ley n. Being now at the head of the church, he exert¬
ed himfelf in the buAnefs of the Reformation. The
Bible was tranAated into EngliAi, and monafteries dif-
folved, principally by his means.
In 1536 the royal confcience again required the af-
4X2 fiftancc
C R A [7
(Jranmer. ^fiance of our archbiHiop : in this year he divorced the
king from Ann Boleyn. In 1537 he vifited his dio-
cefe, and endeavoured to aboldli the fuperftitious ob-
fervance of holidays. In 1539 he and fome of the
bifhops fell under the king’s ddpleafure, becaufe they
could not be brought to give their confent in parlia¬
ment that the monafteries flrould be fuppreffed for the
king’s foie ufe. He alfo ftrenuoufly oppofed the a£l
for the fix articles in the houfe of lords, fpeaking three
days againft it; and upon the palling of that ftatute
fent away his wife into Germany. In 1540 he was
one of the commifiioners for infpefting into matters of
religion and explaining fome of its chief doftrines.
The refult of their comrniflion was the book entitled A
neceflfary Erudition of any Chriftian man. After Lord
Cromwell’s death (in whofe behalf he had written to
the king), he retired and lived in great privacy, med¬
dling not at all with flate affairs. In 1541 he gave
orders, purfuant to the king’s direftions, for taking
away fuperftitious Ihrines; and exchanging Biihopi-
bourn for Beckefbourn, united the latter to his diocefe,
In 1542 he procured the “ A& for the advancement
of true religion and the abolilhment of the contrary,”
which moderated the rigour of the fix articles. But
the year following, fome enemies preferring accufations
againft him, he had like to have been ruined, had not
the king interpofed in his behalf. His majefty conti¬
nued afterwards to protedl him from his enemies j and
at his death appointed him one of the executors of his
will, and one of the regents of the kingdom. In 1556
he crowned young Edward, during whofe Ihort reign
he promoted the reformation to the uttnoft of his
power; and was particularly inftrumental in compofing,
correcling, and eftablifhing the liturgy by aft of par¬
liament. He had alfo a ihare in compiling the thirty-
nine articles of religion.
In 1553 he oppofed the new fettlement of the crown
upon Lady Jane Gray, and would no avay be concern¬
ed in that affair (though at laft, through many impor¬
tunities, he was prevailed upon to let his hand to it) ;
neither would he join in any of Dudley’s ambitious
projects. Upon Queen Mary’s acceftion to the throne,
he was committed to the Tower ; partly for fetting
his hand to the inftrument of Lady Jane’s fucceflion,
and partly for the public offer he had made a little be¬
fore of juftifying openly the religious proceedings of
the late king. Some of his friends, forefeeing the ftorm
that was likely to fall upon him, advifed him to fly,
but he abfolutely refufed. In the enfuing parliament,
on November the 3d, he was attainted, and at Guild¬
hall found guilty of high treafon ; whereupon the fruits
of his archbilhopric were fequellered. In April 1554,
he and Ridley and Latimer were removed to Oxford,
in order for a public difputation with the Papifts j
which was accordingly held there towards the middle
of the month, with great noife, triumph, and impudent
confidence on the Papifts fide, and with as much gra-
yity, learning, modefty, and convincing fufficiency on
the fide of the Proteftant bifhops. The 2oth of April,
twm days after the end of thefe deputations, Cranmer
and the two others were brought before the comrnif-
Goners, and a Iked, Whether they would fubfcribe (to
Popery) ? which they unanimoufiy refufing, were con¬
demned as heretics. From this fentence the archbiftiop
appealed to the juft judgment of the Almighty j and
6 ] C K A
wrote to the council, giving them an account of the Cranmer.
dilputation, and defiring the queen’s pardon for his
treafon, which it (eems was not yet remitted. By the
convocation, which met this year, his Defence of the
true and Catholic Doftrine of the Sacrament of the
Body and Blood of our Saviour Chrift was ordered to
be burnt. Some of his friends petitioned the queen in
his behalf 5 putting her in mind how he had once pre-
ferved her in her father’s time by his earneft intcrcef-
fions with him for her, fo that fhe had realbn to be¬
lieve he loved her, and would fpeak the truth to her
more than all the reft of the clergy. All endeavours
in his behalf, however, were ineffectual ; and the arch-
bfthop being degraded and moft ignominioully treated,
was at laft flattered and terrified into an infincere re-
captation and renunciation of the Proteftant faith. But
this triumph was not fufficient to gratify the pious ven¬
geance of the Romifti Mary. On the 24th of Feb. 1556,
a writ was figned for the burning of Cranmer4 and
on the 24th March, which was the fatal day, he was
brought to St Mary’s church, Oxford, and placed
on a kind of ftage over againft the pulpit, where Dr
Cole, provoft ol Eton, was appointed to preach a fer-
mon on the occahon. While Cole was haranguing,
the unfortunate Cranmer expreffed great inward con-
fufion ; often lifting up his hands and eyes to heaven,
and frequently pouring out floods of tears. At the
end of the fermon, when Cole defired him to make an
open profeflion of his faith, as he had promifed him he
would, he firft prayed, in the moft fervent manner j
then made an exhortation to the people prefent, not to
fet their minds upon the world, to obey the king and
queen, to love each other, and to be charitable. Af¬
ter this he made a confeffion of his faith, beginning
with the creed, and concluding with thefe words :
“ And I believe every word and fentence taught by
our Saviour .Tefus Chrift, his apoftles, and prophets, in
the Old and New Teftament.—And now (added he)
I come to the great thing that fo much troubleth my
confcience, more than any thing I ever did or faid in
my whole life *, and that is the fetting abroad a writ¬
ing contrary to the truth, which I here now renounce
as things written with my hand contrary to the truth
which I thought in my heart j and written for fear of
death, and to fave my life if it might be : that is, all
fuch bills and papers which I have written or figned
with my hand fince my degradation, wherein I have
written many things untrue. And forafmuch as my
hand offended, writing contrary to my heart, my hand
ftiall firft be puniftied j for, may I come to the fire, it
ftiall be firft burned. As for the pope, I refufe him as
Chrift’s enemy and antichrift, with all his falfe doftrine.
And as for the facrament, I believe as I have taught
in my book againft; the bilhop of Winchefter.” Thun-
derftruck as it were with this unexpefted declaration,
the enraged Popifti crow’d admonilhed him not to dif-
femble. “ Ah ! (replied he with tears) fince I lived
hitherto, I have been a hater of falfehood and a lover
of fimplicity, and never before this time have I diffem-
bled.” Whereupon they pulled him off the ftage with
the utmoft fury, and hurried him to the place of his
martyrdom over againft Baliol college ; where he put
off his clothes in hafte, and Handing in his flrirt, and
without fhoes, was faftened with a chain to the flake.
Some prefling him to agree to his former recantation,
he
C R A [71
he anfwered, fliowing his hand, “ This is the hand
that wrote it, and therefore it fhall firfl; fuffer punilh-
ment.” Fire being applied to him, he ftretched out
his right hand into the flame, and held it there unmo¬
ved (except that once with it he wiped his face) till it
was confumed } crying with a loud voice, “ This hand
hath offended and often repeating, “ This unworthy
right hand.” At laft the fire getting up, he toon ex¬
pired, never ftirring or crying out all the while ; only
keeping his eyes fixed to lieaven, and repeating more,
than once, “ Lord Jefus receive my fpirit.” Such was
the end of the renowned Thomas Cranmer, in the 67th
year of his age.
It was noticed above, that after the paffing of the aft
for the fix articles, Archbifhop Cranmer fent his wife
into Germany. But the afterwards returned again to
England ; and Mr Strype informs us that “ in the
time of King Edward, when the marriage of the clergy
was allowed, he brought her forth, and lived openly
with her.” Mr Gilpin fays, “ he left behind him a
widow and children ; but as he always kept his family
in obfeurity for prudential reafons, we know little
about them. They had been kindly provided for by
Henry Vill.; who, without any folicitation from the
primate himfelf, gave him a confiderable grant from the
abbey of Walbeck in Nottinghamlhire, which his fa¬
mily enjoyed after h'.s deceafe. King Edward made
fome addition to his private fortune ; and his heirs were
reftored in blood by an aft of parliament in the reign
of Elizabeth.
Archbiftiop Cranmer wrote a great number of books :
many of them he publiflied himfelf; and many of them
flill remain in MSS. viz. two folio volumes in the
king’s library, feveral letters in the Cotton colleftion,
&c.
Mr Gilpin remarks, That “ the charafter of the
archbifhop hath been equally the fubjeft of exaggera¬
ted praife and of undeferved cenfure. The mofl inde-
fenfible parts of the archbifliop’s charafter are the rea-
dinefs with which he fometimes concurred in the un-
juftifiable proceedings of Henry VIII. and the inftances
'wherein he fhowed himfelf to be aftuated by intolerant
principles.
“ He firft recommended himfelf to Henry by the zeal
which he difplayed in promoting the king’s divorce
from Queen Catharine. As to this, it may be allow¬
ed, that Dr Cranmer might think the marriage wrong :
but though it poflibly might be a point of confcience
with the king, it could, however, be none with him j
and there was manifeftly a difference between advifing
not to do a thing, and advifing to undo it when al¬
ready done, at lead in a matter of fo difputable a na¬
ture. On the other hand, to repudiate a woman with
whom the king had cohabited near 20 years as his
wife, and to illegitimate a daughter, bred up in the
higheft expeftations, and now marriageable, were afts
of fuch cruelty, that it feems to indicate a want of
feeling to be in any degree acceffary to them. Lo
this may be added, that the notoriety of the king’s
paflion for Ann Boleyn, which all men believed to be,
if not the firft mover, at leaft the principal fpring of
his pretended fcruples, threw a very indelicate impu¬
tation on all who had any concern in the affair. No
&rious churchman, one would imagine, could be fond
of the idea of adminiftering to the king’s paflions. It
7 ] C R A
is with concern, therefore, that we fee a' man of Dr Cran
Cranmer’s integrity and fimplicity of manners afting u“"~v
fo much out of charafter as to compound an affair of
this kind, if not with his confcience, at leaft with all
delicacy of fentiment j and to parade through Europe,
in the quality-of an ambaffador, defending everywhere
the king’s pious intentions. But the caule (continues
Mr Gilpin) animated him. With the illegality of the
king’s marriage, he endeavoured virtually to eftablifh
the infufficiency of the pope’s difpenfation j and the lat¬
ter was an argument fo near his heart, that it feems to
have added merit to the former. We cannot indeed
account for his embarking fo zealoufly in this bufinefs,
without fuppofing his principal motive was to free his
country from the tyranny of Rome, to which this fteja
very evidently led. So defirable an end would in fome
degree, he might imagine, fanftify the means.”
Of two of the inftances of perfecution in which
Archbifhop Cranmer was concerned, Mr Gilpin gives
the following account. “ Joan Bocher and George
Paris were accufed, though at different times j one tor
denying the humanity of Chrift, the other for denying
his divinity. They were both tried and condemned to
the flake j and the archbiftiop not only confented to
thefe afts of blood, but even perfuaded the averfion of
the young king into a compliance. “ Your majefty
muft diftingu’flh (faid he, informing his royal pupil’s
confcience) between common opinions and fuch as are
the effential articles of faith, Thefe latter we muft on
no account fuffer to be oppofed.” Mr Gilpin juftly ob-
ferves, that “ nothing even plaufible can be fuggefted
in defence of the archbiihop on this occafion, except
only that the fpirit of Popery was not yet wholly re-
preffed,” Thefe inftances of injuflice and barbarity
were indeed totally indefenfible, and a great difgrace to
Cranmer, and to all who were concerned in them. It
does not appear that he endeavoured to promote the
death of Lambert 5 but, as Mr Gilpin obferves, it were
to be wifhed he had rid his hand of the difputation
likewife. The public difputation, in which Cranmer
bore fome part, proved the means of bringing Lambert
to the flake.
One of the moft honourable tranfaftions of Arch¬
biftiop Cranmer’s life, was the firm ftand that he made
againft the aft of the fix articles. This aft was fo
ftrongly fupported by the king, that even the Proteft-
ants in parliament made little oppefition to it. But
Cranmer oppofed it with great zeal and fteadinefs,
“ The good archbifhop (fays Mr Gilpin) never ap¬
peared in a more truly Chriftian light than on this oc¬
cafion. In the midft of fo general a defeftion (for
there were numbers in the houfe who had hitherto
ftiov/n great fonvardnefs in reformation) he alone made-
a ftand. Three days he maintained his ground, and
baffled the arguments of ail oppofers. But argument
was not their weapon, and the archbifhop faw him¬
felf obliged to fink under fuperior power. Henry or-
' dered him to leave the houfe. The primate refufed :
“ It was God’s bufinefs (he faid), and not man’s.
And when he could do no more, he boldly entered his
proteft. Such an inftance of fortitude is fufficient to
wipe oft’ many of thole courtly ftains which have faften-
ed on his memory.”
His behaviour in the caufe of the duke of Norfolk
was alfo entitled to great commendation. “ The laft
aft
c ft a r 11
f lARnier, nft'of this feign (fays Mr Gilpin) wan. an a(51 of blood,
an(j gave ttie archbithop a noble opportunity of knowing
jiow well he had learned that great Chriftian leffon of
forgiving an enemy. Almoft witliout the thadow of
iuftice, PJenry had given direclions to have the duke of
Norfolk attainted by ah acl of parliament. The king’s
mandate flood in lieu of guilt, and the bill paffed the
houfe with great eafe. No man, except the billiop of
Win die Iter, had been fo great an enemy to the archbi-
Ihop as the duke of Norfolk. He had always thwart¬
ed the primate’s meafures, and oftener than once had
praflifed againft his life. How many would have feen
with fecret pleafure the working of Providence againtt
fo rancorous an enemy •, fatisiied in having themfelves
no hand in his unjuil fate ! But the archbifhop law
the affai* in another light : he favv it with horror j and
although the king had in a particular manner intereft-
ed himfeif in this bufinefs, the primate oppoled the bill
with all his might ; and when his oppofition was vain,
he left the houfe with indignation, and retired'to Croy¬
don.”
He was indeed remarkable for the placability of his
temper, and for {flowing kindnefs to thofe by whom he
had been greatly injured. Hence it is mentioned in
Shakcfpeare’s Henry VIII. as a common faying con¬
cerning him :
 —“ Do my lord of Canterbury
But one flirewd turn, and he’s your friend for ever.”
. Archbilhop Cranmer was a great friend and patron
of learned foreigners, who had been perfecuted for their
attachment to the principles of the reformation. Mr
Gilpin fays, “ the fuffering profefibrs of Proteftantifm,
who were fcattered in great numbers about the various
countries of Europe, were always fure of an afylum
with him. His palace at Lambeth might be called a
feminary of learned men ; the greater part of whom
perfecution had driven from home. Here, among other
celebrated reformers, Martyr, Bucer, Alefs, Phage,
found fanftuary. Martyr, Bucer, and Phage, were
liberally penfioned by the archbiihop till he could
otherwife provide for them. It was his wifh to fix
them in the two univerfities, where he hoped their great
knowledge and fpirit of inquiry would forward his de-
figns of refioring learning ; and he at length obtained
profefforfhips for them all. Bucer and Phage were
fettled at Cambridge ; where they only {bowed what
might have been expected from them, both dying with¬
in a few months after their arrival. But at Oxford
Martyr afted a very confpicuous part, and contributed
to introduce among the ftudents there a very liberal
mode of thinking.
Of the learning of Archbifhop Cranmer, Mr Gilpin
remarks, that “ it was chiefly confined to his profef-
fion. He had applied himfeif in Cambridge to the ftu-
dy of the Greek and Hebrew languages j which though
efleemed at that time as the mark of herefy, appeared to
him the only fources of attaining a critical knowledge
of the Scriptures. He had fo accurately ftudied canon
law, that he was efteemed the beft canonift in Eng¬
land j and his reading in theology was fo extenfive,
and his colledHons from the Fathers fo very volumi¬
nous, that there were few points jn which he was not
accurately informed, and in which he could not give
the opinions of the feveral ages of the church from
3 ] C R A
the times of the apefiles. He was a fenfible writer, fransf,,
rather nervous than elegant. His writings were en-
tirely confined to the great controverfy which then fub-
fiiled, and contain the whole fum of the theological
learning of thofe times. His library was filled with a
very noble colledion of books, and was open to all men
of letters.
Mr Gilpin, after remarking that Archbifhop Cran-
nier preached often wherever he vifited, fays, “ In his
fermons to the people, fie was very plain and infiruc-
tive; infilling chiefly on the effentials of Chriitianitv,
The fubjects of his fermons, for the moil part, veie
from whence falvation is to be fetched, and on whom
the confidence of men ought to lean. They infilled
much on doftrines of faith and works j and taught
what the fruits of faith were, and what place was to be
given to w'oiksj they in (trusted men in the duties
they owed their neighbour, and that every one was our
neighbour, to whom w;e might any.way do good ; they
declared what men ought to think of themfelves after
they had done all ; and, laftly, what promifes Chritl
hath made, and who they are to whom he will make
them good. Thus he brought in the true preaching of
the golpel, altogether different from the ordinary way
of preaching in thofe days j which was to treat con¬
cerning faints, to tell legendary tales of them, and to
report miracles wrought for the confirmation of tran-
fubilantiation and other popifh corruptions. And luck
a heat of conviftion accompanied his fermons, that
the people departed from them wuth minds poffeffed of
a great hatred of vice, and burning with a defire of
virtue.”
He w'as a great economift of his time. Mr Gilpin
fays, “ he role commonly at five o’clock and conti¬
nued in his lludy till nine. Thefe early hours, he
would fay, were the only hours he could call his own.
After breakfaft he generally fpent the remainder of the
morning either in public or private bufinefs. His
chapel-hour was eleven, and his dinner-hour twelve.
After dinner he fpent an hour either in converfation
with his friends, in playing at chefs, or in what he
liked better, overlooking a chefs-board. He then re¬
tired again to his fludy till his chapel-bell rang at five.
After prayers, he generally walked till fix, which was
in thofe times the hour of fupper. His evening meal
was fparing. Often he ate nothing } and when that
was the cafe, it was his ufual cuftom, as he fat down
to table, to draw on a pair of gloves: which was as
much as to fay, that his hands had nothing to do.
After fupper, he fpent an hour in walking and another
in his lludy, retiring to his bedchamber about nine.
This was his ufual mode of living when he was moll
vacant, but very often his afternoons as well as his
mornings were engaged in bufinefs. He generally,
however, contrived, if poflible, even in the bufiell day,
to devote fome portion of his time to his books be-
fides the morning. And Mr Fox tells us, he always
accuftomed himfeif to read and write in a Handing pof-
ture 5 etleeming conllant fitting very pernicious to a flu-
dious man.”
Mr Gilpin alfo obferves, “ that he was a very ami¬
able mailer in his family, and admirably preferved the
difficult medium between indulgence and reftraint. He
had, according to the cuftom of the times, a very nu¬
merous retinue, among whom the moil exa£t order
was
anmcr
rantor.
C R A [71
was obferved. Every week the fteward of his houfe-
hold held a kind of court in the great hall of his pa-
, lace } in which all family affairs were fettled, fervants
wages were paid, complaints were heard, and faults
examined. Delinquents were publicly rebuked, and
after the third admonition difcharged. His hofpi-
tality and charities were great and noble; equal to
his ftation, greater often than his abilities. A plenti¬
ful table was among the virtues of thofe days. His
was always bountifully covered. In an upper room was
fpread his own, where he feldom wanted company of
the firft diftinftion. Here a great many learned fo¬
reigners were daily entertained, and partook of his
bounty. In his great hall a long table was plentifully
covered every day for guells and ftrangers of a lower
rank : at the upper end of which were three fmaller
tables, defigned for his own officers and inferior gen¬
tlemen. Among other inflances of the archbifhop’s
charity, we have one recorded which was truly noble.
After the deftruftion of monafteries, and before hospi¬
tals were eredfed, the nation faw no fpecies of greater
mifery than that of wounded and difbanded foldiers.
For the ufe of fuch miferable obje&s as were landed on
the fouthern coaffs of the ifland, the archbifhop fitted
up his manor-houfe of Beckefbourn in Kent. He form¬
ed it indeed into a complete hofpital j appointing a phy-
fician, a furgeon, nurfes, and every thing proper, as
well for food as phyfic. Nor did his charity flop here.
Each man, on his recovery, was furnilhed with money
to carry him home, in proportion to the diftance of his
abode.”
To conclude with the charadter given by Mr Hume ;
“ Archbithop Cranmer was undoubtedly a man ot
merit ; poiTeffed of learning and capacity ; and adorn¬
ed with candour, fincerity, and beneficence, and all ■
thofe virtues which were fitted to render him ufeful
and amiable in fociety. His moral qualities procured
him univerfal refpedf •, and the courage of his martyr¬
dom, though he fell flrort of the rigid inflexibility ob¬
ferved in many, made him the hero of the Proteflant
party.”
CRANNY, in glafs-making, an iron inftrument
wherewith the necks of glaffes are formed.
CRANTARA, among the ancient Britons, was a
fort of military fignal ufed for colledting the diflant
and fcattered warriors to the ftandard of their chier-.
A prince having immediate occafion for the afliifance ■
of his followers to repel fome hidden invafion or en¬
gage in fome expedition, befides ftriking the fliield
and founding the horn to give warning to thofe who
were within hearing, he lent the crantara, or a flick
burnt at the end and dipped in the blood of a goat,
by a fwift meffenger, to’ the neareft hamlet, where he
delivered it without faying one word but the name of
the place of rendezvous. This crantara, which was
well underftood to denounce deflruefion by fire and
fword to all who did not obey this fummons, was car¬
ried with great rapidity from village to -village j and
the prince in a little time found himfelf furrounded by
all his warriors ready to obey his commands.
GRANTOR, a Greek philofopher and poet, was
born at Solos in Ciiicia. He left his native country
where he was admired} went to Athens, and there
fludied with Polemon under Xenocrates. He was
ccnfidcred as one of the chief fupporters of the Pla-
9 ] c R A
tonic feft 5 and was the firft who wrote commentaries
upon Plato’s works. He flourifhed 270 years before
Chrift. _
CRAPE, a light tranfparent fluff, in manner of
gauze : made of raw filk gummed and twifted on the
mill 5 woven without croffing, and much ufed in mourn-
ing.
Crapes are either craped, i. e. crifped, or fmooth j the
firft double, exprefling a clofer mourning ; the latter
fingle, ufed for that lei's deep. Note, White is re¬
fer ved for young people, or thofe devoted to virginity.
The filk deftined for the firft is more twifted than that
for the fecond ; it being the greater or lefs degree of
twilling, efpecially of the warp, which produces the
crifping given it when taken out of the loom, fteeped
in clear water, and rubbed with a piece of wax for the
purpofe.
Crapes are all dyed raw. The invention of this
fluff came originally from Bologna : but the chief ma¬
nufacture of it is faid to be at Lyons.
Hiftory tells us, that St Bathilda, queen of France,
made fine crape (crepa) of gold and filver, to lay over
the body of St Eloy. The Bollandifts own they can¬
not find what this crcpa was. Binet fays, it was a frame
to cover the body of the faint: but others, with reafon,
take it to be a tranfparent Huff, through which the body
might be feen ; and that this was the crepa whence our
word crape was formed.
CRAPUL.A, among phyficians, a term for Sur¬
feit.
CRASHAW, Richard, who was in his lifetime
honoured with the friendlhip of Cowley, and fince his
death by the praife of Mr Pope, who condefcended
both to read his poems, and to borrow from them, was
the fon of William Crafliaw, an eminent divine, and
educated at the Charter-houfe near London. He was
then fent to Pembroke-hall in Cambridge, and was af¬
terwards of Peter-houfe, where he was fellow 5 in
both which colleges he was diftinguifhed for his Latin
and Englifh poetry.. Afterwards he was ejected from
his fellowlhip, together with many others, for denying
the covenant in the time of the rebellion ; and he
changed his religion, being by catholic artifices per¬
verted to the church of Rome; not converted, but ra¬
ther, as Pope fays, outwitted. He went to Paris, in
hopes of recommending himfelf to fome preferment
there j but being a mere fcholar, was incapable of ex¬
ecuting the new plan he had formed. There he fell
into great diftrefs, which Cowley the poet hearing of
in 1646, very kindly fought him out, gave him all the
aflitiance he could, and at latl got him recommended to
Henrietta Maria queen of England, then refiding at Pa¬
ris. Obtaining from her letters of recommendation, he
travelled into Italy; and by virtue of thofe letters be¬
came fecretary to a cardinal at Rome, and at laft one of
the canons or chaplains of the rich church of our lady
at Loretto, fome miles diftance from thence, where he
died and was buried about 1650. Before he left Eng¬
land, he wrote certain poems, entitled, “ Steps to the
Temple becaufe (lays Wood) he led his life in
the temple of God, in St Mary’s church, near to his
college. There, as we learn from the preface to
under Tertullim’s roof of
his neft more gladly than
houfe of God; where, like
n
Crantor
II
Crathaw.
tbefe poems, he lodged
angeds. There he made
David’s fvvallow near the
C R A
Craihaw a
Cralfus.
primitive faint, he offered more prayers in the night
than others ufually offer in the day. There he penned
, the faid poems called “ Steps to the Temple for Happy
Souls to Climb to Heaven by.” To the faid Steps are
joined other poems called, “ The Delight of the Mufes,”
wherein are feveral Latin poems, which though of a
mere human mixture, yet they are fweet as they are in¬
nocent. He hath alfo written Carmen Dea Nqftro, be¬
ing hymns and other facred poems, addrefled to the
countefs of Denbigh. He was excellent in five lan¬
guages befides his mother tongue, namely, Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, Italian, and Spanilh.
CRASIS (from K^oiywy.ty “ to mix,”) the temper of
the blood peculiar to every conftitution.
Crasis, in Grammar, is a figure whereby two dif¬
ferent letters are either contrafted into one long letter
or a diphthong. Such, e. g. is oQu; for ; uMt-i for
xMfcc&y Sec. ruftiss for &c. where < and « are con¬
tracted into i j and i and « into jj and s and o into a.
CRASSAMENTUM, in Phyjicy the thick red or
fibrous part of the blood, otherwile called cruor, in con*
tradiftinCtion to the ferum or aqueous part.
CRASSULA, Lesser Orpine, or Live-ever; a
genus of plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs ^ and
in the natural method ranking under the 13 th order,
Succulent#. See Botany Index.
CRASSUS, M. Licinius, a celebrated Roman,
furnamed Rich on account of his opulenc*. At firft
he was very circumfcribed in his circumftances, but
by educating flaves and felling them at a high price he
loon enriched himfelf. The cruelties of Cinna obliged
him to leave Rome, and he retired to Spain, where he
remained concealed for eight months. After Cinna’s
death he pafled into Africa, and thence to Italy, where
he ferved Sylla and ingratiated himfelf in his favour.
When the gladiators with Spartacus at their head had
fpread an univerfal alarm in Italy and defeated fome
of the Roman generals, Craflus was fent againft them.
A battle was fought, in which CralTus flaughtered
12,000 of the Haves, and by this decifive blow foon
put an end to the war, and was honoured with an
cvatio at his return. He rvas foon after made conful
with Pompey in the year of Rome 682, and in this
high office he difplayed his opulence by entertaining
the populace at 10,000 tables. He was afterwards
cenfor, and formed the firft triumvirate with Pompey
and Caefar. As his love of riches was more predo-
minent than that of glory, Craflus never imitated the
ambitious conduCt of his colleagues, but was fatisfied
with the province of Syria, which feemed to promile
an inexhauftible fource of wealth. With hopes of en-
larging his pofleffions he fet oft’ from Rome, though
the omens proved unfavourable, and every thing feem¬
ed to threaten his ruin. He crofled the Euphrates,
and forgetful of the rich cities of Babylon and Seleu-
cia, he haftened to make himfelf mailer of Parthia.
He wras betrayed in his march by the delay of Arta-
vafdes king of Armenia, and thw perfidy of Ariamnes.
He was met in a large plain by Surena the general of
the forces of Orodes king of Parthia, and a battle was
fought in which 20,000 Romans were killed and
10,000 taken prifoners. The darknefs of the night
favoured the efcape of the reft; and Craflus, forced by
the mutiny and turbulence of his foldiers, and the
treachery of his guides, trufted himfelf to the general
[ 720 1
C R A
of the enemy on pretence of propofing terms of accom¬
modation, and he was killed. His head was cut off and
fent to Orodes, who poured melted gold down his
throat, and infulted his misfortunes. Though he has
been called avaricious, yet he Ihowed himlelf always
ready of lending money to his friends without intertft..
He was fond of philofophy, and his knowledge of hii-
tory rvas great and extenftve.
CRATAEGUS, Wild-service tree, Hawthorn,
&.C. a genus of plants, belonging to the icoiandna
clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the
36th order, Pomace#. See Botany Index.
ihe oxycanthus, hawthorn, or white thorn, grows
naturally all over Europe. It is fometimes cultivated
as an ornamental tree, but it is chiefly propagated for
the purpoie of planting as a fence. In order to pro¬
pagate a quantity of quicks, one method is generally
pra&ifed; namely, firft burying the haws, and.taking
them up to low the Oftober following ; though, fays
Hanbury, there is another way more preferable ;
namely, to prepare the beds, and fow the haws foon
after they are gathered. Whoever purfues the former
method, having gathered what quantity of haws will
anfwer his purpofe, ffiould in lome bye-corner of the
kitchen-garden or nurfery dig a hole or pit capacious
enough to receive them; fome of the earth which came
out of the hole, after the haws are put in it, fhould be
laid upon them; and being thus carefully covered down,
they may remain there till October. Then, having
ground well dug, and cleared of the roots of all
troublefome weeds, and the mould being fit for work¬
ing, the beds ftiould be made for the haws. Four
feet is a very good width of thefe beds, as they may
be eafily reached over to be weeded ; and if the alleys
between be each one foot and a half wide, they will
be of a good fize. The beds being marked out with a
line, Iqfficient mould mult be raked out to cover the
haws an inch and a half deep. This being done, and the
bottom of the beds being made level and even, the
haws fliould be (own, and afterwards gently tapped
down with the back of the fpade ; and then the fine
mould, which had been raked out of the beds, muii
be thiown over them, covering them an inch and a
half deep. In the fpring the plants will come up, and
in the lummer following ffiould be kept clear of weeds j
though it does fometimes happen, that few of them
will appear till the fecond fpring after fowing. Some¬
times the young plants are planted out from the feed-
beds at one, two, or three years old ; but the beft plants
are obtained by tranfplanting them into freffi mould
the firft or fecond year, letting them remain in the
nurfery two or three years longer. The pradtice of
the London nurferymen is this: The ftrongeft of the
feed-bed plants having been drawn at two or three years
old lor fale, they clean the beds entirely by drawing
the remaining weak underling plants, and tranfplanting
them into frefh beds in this manner, which they call
bedding them: The ground having been trenched, and
the tips of the plants as well as the lower fibres of their
roots having been taken off with a (harp knife, they
ftrain a line along one fide of the bed; and by chop¬
ping with a fpade by the fide of the line, leave a clift
or drill of a depth proportioned to the length of the
plants to be laid in; and drawing the looie mould
fomewhat towards them, leave the fide of the drill next
to
CrasTu5,
Cratsega=,
C R A [72
to the line with a fmooth polifhed face. Againlt this
face the plants are fet up, leaning tow-ards the line,
about three inches afunder, leaving their heads about
an inch above the mould, and placing their roots at
fuch a depth as to bury their ilems from two to three
inches deeper than they itood in the feed-bed. The
loofe mould being returned and prefled gently to the
roots with the foot, the line is removed, and another
row planted in the fame manner about a foot from
the firlt.
CRATCHES, in the manege, a fwelling on the
pattern, under the fetlock, and fometimes under the
hoofj for which reafon it is diftinguilhed into the
finew cratches, which affedt the finew, and thofe upon
the coronet, called qmttor-boncs.
CRATER, Cup, in AJlronomy, a conilellation of
the fouthern hemifphere j whofe liars, in Ptolemy’s
catalogue, are feven ; in Tycho’s, eight; in Hevelius’s,
ten ; in the Britannic catalogue, thirty-one.
Crater is alfo ufed to lignify the mouth or opening
of a volcano or burning mountain, from whence the fire
is difcharged. See Volcano.
CRATES, of Thebes, a famous philofopher, w'as
the difciple of Diogenes the Cynic. It is faid that he
threw all his money into the fea, that he might the
more freely apply himfelf to the Rudy of philolophy.
Others afl'ert that he placed it into another perfon’s
hands, with orders to give it to his children if they
fliould happen to be fools: For {faid Crates), if they
ifhould be philofophers, they will have no need of it :
in which cafe it was to be given to the people. He
flourillied about 328 years before Chrifl.
He ought not be confounded with Crates, a famous
Academic philofopher, the difciple and friend of Poie-
mon. This laft Crates had Arcelilaus and other cele¬
brated philofophers for his difciples 5 and flounihed about
300 years betore Chrilt.
CRATEVA, the Garlic Pear; a genus of plants
belonging to the dodecandria clais; and in the natural
method ranking under the 25th order, Putamine#.
See Botany Index.
CRATINUS, an ancient comic poet, of whom we
fhould fcarcely have known any thing, had not Qum-
tilian, Horace, and Peifius, mentioned him, Eupolis,
and Arillophanes, as the great mailers of what we
call the ancient comedy. It is gathered that he died
in the 87th Olympiad. Suidas tells us that he wrote
21 plays, and that he was fplendid and bright in his
characters.
CRAT1PPUS, a celebrated Peripatetic philofopher,
was a native of Mitylene, where he taught pbilofophy :.
but at length went to Athens where Brutus and the fon
of Cicero were his difciples. Pompey went to iee him
after the battle of Pharfalia, and propofed to him his
difficulties in relation to the beliet of a Providence :
when Cratippus comforted him, and by forcible argu¬
ments anfwered his obje61ions. He wrote iome pieces
about divination : and is fuppofed to be the fame with
him whom Tertullian, in his book De Anima, has rank¬
ed among the writers upon dreams.
CRATO, a {mall town of Portugal, in the province
of Alentejo, with a rich priory. It is the chief com-
mandery which the knights of Malta have in Portugal.
W. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 38. 50.
Vol. VI. Part II.
i j C R. A
CRAVEN, a town of France, in Burgundy, re¬
markable for its good wine, and lor a battle lought
there between the Englilh and French. It is ieated ^<>i
near the confluence of the rivers Cure and V onne.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 47. 42.
Craven, or Cravent, a word of reproach, ufed in
trials by battel. See Battel.
CRAX, the Curassou, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of gallinse. See Ornithology Index.
CRAY fish, or CRArr-FiJh. See Cancer, Ento¬
mology Index.
GRAYER, Caspar DE, a celebrated painter, was
horn at Antwerp in 1585, and was a difciple of Ra-
phael Coxis, the fon of that Coxis who had ftudied
under Raphael; but he loon Ihowed fuch proof of
genius, and of an elevated capacity, that he far fur-
paffed his mailer. Afterwards he made judicious ob-
fervations on the particular excellencies of the moll re¬
nowned mailers to which he had any accefs; and taking
nature for his conllant diredlor and guide, he formed
for himfelf a manner that was exceedingly pleaiing.
The firit work which eftablilhed him in the favour or
the court at Brufiels, was a portrait of Cardinal Fer¬
dinand, brother to the king of Spain, which he painted
at full length, and as large as life. In that piflure
he fucceeded fo happily, that it was fent to Madrid,
and received there with fuch concurrent approbation
of the king and the whole court, that it laid the foun¬
dation of the fame and fortune of Grayer. For the
king, as an acknowledgment of the painter’s merit,
lent him a gold chain with a medal; and added, as a
farther inllance of his favour, an appointment for a
conliderable penfion. But nothing places the talents
of Grayer in a flronger light, than the tellimony of fo
excellent an artift as Rubens. That great man went
to Antwerp particularly to vifit Grayer, and to fee
his works; and after examining attentively a pi&ure of
his painting, in the refectory of the abbey of Affl*g-
hem, he publicly declared that no painter could fur-
pafs Grayer. Nor was this mailer lefs diftinguilhed by
Vandyck, who always expreffed a real eileem and
friendfhip for him, and painted his portrait. He had
fomewhat iefs fire in his compofition than Rubens,
but his defign is frequently more correft. His com-
politions generally confilled oi a fmall number of fi¬
gures; and with difereet j udgment, he avoided the en¬
cumbering his defign with fuperfluous particulars, or
loading his fubjedt with any thing that feemed not to
contribute to its elegance or probability. He grouped
his figures with lingular fldll, and his exprelfions have
all the truth of nature. There is a remarkable variety
in his draperies, and an equal degree of fimplicity in
their folds; and as to his colouring, it is admirable.
Of all his contemporary painters, he was accounted to
approach nearell to Vandyck, not only in hilfory but
in portrait. He principally painted religious fubjefts,
and was continually at work ; and although he lived to
a great age, yet his temperance and conftant regularity
preferved to him the full ufe of all his faculties ; and
to the laft month of his life his pencil retained the fame
force and freedom which it pofteffed in his moft vigo¬
rous time. The fubjecl of that picture which was lb
honoured by the approbation of Rubens is th« Centurion
alighting from his horfe to nroftrate himfelf at the feet
4 Y of
I
Crayon-
painting
G R A [ 7
f rayer Dt our Saviour. It is a capital defign of Grayer; and
although it confiits of a great number of figures, the
harmony and union are well preferved.
^ CRAYON, a general name for all coloured ftones,
earths, or other minerals and fubftances, ufed in de-
figning or painting in paftel ; whether they have been
beaten and reduced to a pafle, or- are ufed in their pri¬
mitive confidence, after (awing or cutting them into
long narrow flips. In this laft manner are red crayons
made, ot blood-itone or red chalk ; black ones, of char¬
coal and black-lead. Crayons of all other colours are
compofitions of earths reduced to pafte.
'CnjroN Painting. Whether the painter works with
oil-colours, water-colours, or crayons, the grand objefl
of his purfuit is ftill the fame : a juft imitation of na¬
ture. -But each fpecies has its peculiar rules and me¬
thods. Painting with crayons requires in many refpefts
a treatment different from painting in oil-colours; be-
caule all colours ufed dry are in their nature of a much
warmer complexion than when wet with oils, &c. For
this reafon, in order to produce a rich picture, a much
greater poition ot what painters term cooling teints mull
be applied in crayon painting than would be judicious
to uie in' oils. Without any danger of a miftake, it is
to be fuppofed, the not being acquainted with this ob-
fervation is one great caule why fo many oil painteis
have no better fuccefs when they attempt crayon paint-
ing. On the contrary, crayon painters being fo much
ufed to'their ternt's which are of a cold nature when
ufed wet, are apt to introduce them too much when
they paint oils, which is feldom productive of a good
e tie Civ
Yve {hall now endeavour to give the ftudents fome
directions towards the attainment of excellence in this
art.
Of the Application of the Crayons, with fome previous
Difpofitions. The undent muit provide himfelf with
fame ftrong blue paper, the thicker the better, if the
grain is not too coarle or knotty, though it is almott
impoflible to get any entirely free from knots. The
knots ffiould be levelled with a penknife or razor,
otherwife they will prove exceedingly troublefome.
After this is done, the paper muff be pafted very fmooth
on a linen cloth, previoufly {framed on a deal frame,
the lize according to the artift’s pleafure : on this the
picture is to be executed ; but it is moft eligible not to
paffe the paper on till the whole fubjetf is firft dead co¬
loured. The method of doing this is very eafy, by
laying the paper with the dead colour on its face, upon
a fmooth board or table, when, by means of a brufft,
the backfide of the paper muff be covered with pafte ;
the frame with the {trained cloth, muff then be laid on
the parted fide of the paper; after which turn the paint¬
ed fideup perm oft, and lay a piece of clean paper upon
it, to prevent fmearing it : this being done, it may be
jfroked gently over with the hand; by which means all
the air between the cloth and the paper will be forced
out. . v
When the pafte is perfectly dry, the ftudent may
proceed with the painting. The advantages arifing
from pafting the paper on the frame according to this
method, after the picture is begun, are very great, as
the crayons will adhere much better than any other
way ; which will enable the ftudent to finifti the picture
with a firmer body of colour and greater luftre.
5
22 3 C It A
When the painters want to make a very correct copy
of a pifture, they generally make ufe of tiffany or
black gauze, {trained tight on a frame, which they lav '
fiat on the fubjeft to be imitated, and with a piece of
fketching chalk trace all the outlines on the tiffany.
They then lay the canvas to be painted on fiat upon
the door, placing the tiffany with the chalked lines up¬
on it, and with an handkerchief bruihT the whole over;
this prelents the exadt outlines of the picture on the
canvas. The crayon-painter may alfo make ufe of
this method when the fubjebt of his imitation is in
oils ; but in copying a crayon-pidlure, he mult have
recourfe to the following method, on account of the
glafs.
The picture being placed upon the eafel, let the out¬
lines be drawn on the glafs with a fmall camel’s hair
pencil dipped in lake, ground thin with oils, which
muff be done with great exaftnefs. After this is ac¬
compli {hed, take a iheet of paper of the fame fize, and
place it on the glafs, flicking over all the lines with
the hand, by which means the colour will adhere to
the paper, which muff be pierced with pin-holes prettv
dole to each other. The paper intended to be ufed
for the printing muft next be laid upon a table, and
the pierced paper placed upon it; then with fome
fine pounded charcoal, tied up in a piece of lawn, rub
over the pierced lines, which .W'ill give an exact out¬
line ; but great care muft; be taken not to brufh this
off till the whole is drawn over with fketching chalk,
which is a compofition made of whiting and tobacco-
pipe clay, rolled like the crayons, and pointed at each
end.
When a ftudent paints immediately from the Ire, it
will be moft prudent to make a corre6t drawing of the
outlines on another paper, the fize of the pidture he is
going to paint, which he may trace by the preceding
method, becaufe erroneous ftrokes of the Iketching
chalk (which are not to be avoided without great ex-
pertneis) will prevent the crayons from adhering to
the paper, owing to a certain greafy quality in the com¬
pofition.
The Undent will find the fitting pofture, with the
box of crayons in his lap, the moft convenient method
for him to paint. The part of the pidfure he is im¬
mediately painting fhould be rather below his face;
for, if it be placed too high', the arm will be fatigued.
Let the windows of the room where lie paints be daik-
ened, at leaft to the height of fix feet from the
ground ; and the fuhjedf to be painted ftiould be fitua-
ted in fuch a manner, that the light may fall with
every advantage on the face, avoiding too much fhadow,
which feldom has a good effedf in portrait painting,
efpecially if the face he paints from has any degree of
delicacy.
Before he begins to paint, let him be attentive to
his fubjeft, and appropriate the adfion or attitude pro¬
per to the age of the fubjeft : if a child, let it be
childiftt ; if a young lady, exprefs more vivacity than
in the majeftic beauty of a middle-aged rvoman, who
alfo ftiould not be expreffed with the {ame gravity as a
perfon far advanced in years. Let the embellifli-
ments of the picture, and introduftion of birds, ani¬
mals, &c. be regulated by the rules of propriety and
confiftency.
The features of the face being corre&ly drawn with
chalks,
Crayon.
paimir.r.
R
C R A
[ 723 ]
C R A
ayon
,1 nting
chalks, 1st the fiudent take a crayon of pure carmine,
and carefully draw the noltril and edge of the nofe
next the (hadow ; then, with the faintett carmine teint,
lay in the highelt light upon the nofe and forehead,
which muft be executed broad. He is then to proceed
gradually with the fecond teint, and the fucceeding
ones, till he arrives at the lhadows, which muft be co¬
vered brilliant, enriched with,much lake, carmine, and
deep green. This method will at firft offenfively llrike
the eye, from its crude appearance } but in the finith-
ing, it will be a good foundation to produce a pleafing
effect, colours being much more eafily fullied when too
bright than when the firff colouring is dull, to raife the
picture into a brilliant ftate. The fevcral pearly teints
difcernible in fine complexions muft be imitated with
blue verditer and white, which anfwers to the ultra¬
marine teints ufed in oils. Hut it the parts of the face
where thefe teints appear are in fhadovv, the crayons
compofed of black and white muft be fubftituted in their
place.
Though all the face when firft coloured ihould be
laid in as brilliant as peffible, yet each part fliould be
kept in its proper tone ; by which means the rotundity
of the face will be preferved.
Let the ftudent be careful, when he begms the eyes,
to draw them with a crayon inclined to the carmine
teint, of whatever colour the irifes are of $ he muft
lay them in brilliant, and at firft not loaded with co¬
lour, but executed lightly : no notice is to be taken of
the pupil yet. The ftudtnt muft let the light of the
eye incline very much to the blue caft, cautioully
avoiding a flaring white appearance (which, when
once introduced, is feldom overcome), preferving a
broad fliadow thrown on its upper part by the eye-
lafh. A black and heavy teint is alfo to be avoided in
the eyebrows ) it is therefore belt to execute them
like a broad glowing fhadow at firft, on which, in the
finifliing, the hairs of the brow are to be painted } by
which method of proceeding, the former teints will
fhow themfeives through, and produce the moft pleafing
effefl.
The ftudent fliould begin the lips wdth pure carmine
and lake, and in the fhadow ufe fame carmine and
black •, the ftrong vermilion teints flaould be laid on af¬
terwards. He muft beware of executing them with
ftiff, harfh lines, gently intermixing each writh the
neighbouring colours, making the fliadow beneath
broad, and enriched with brilliant crayons. He muft
form the corner of the mouth with carmine, brown
ochre, and greens, varioufly intermixed. If the hair
is dark, he fliould preferve much of the lake and deep
carmine teints therein ■, this may eafily be overpowered
by the warmer hair-teints, which, as obferved in paint¬
ing the eyebrows, will produce a richer effect wdien
the picture is finiflied } on the contrary, if this method
is unknown or negledted, a poverty of colouring will
be difcernible.
After the ftudent has covered over, or, as artifts
term if, has dead-coloured/the head, he is to fweeten
the whole together, by rubbing it ever with his fin¬
ger, beginning at the ftrongeft light upon the fore¬
head, paffing his finger very lightly, and uniting :t
with the next teint, which he muft continue till the
whole is fweetened together, often wiping his finger
on a towel to prevent the colours being jellied. He
muft be cautious not to fmooth or fweeten his picture
too often, becaufe it will give rife to a thin and fcanty
effedl, and have more the appearance of a drawing
than a folid painting j as nothing but a body of rich
colours can conftitute a rich effeft. To avoid Liis (as
the ftudent finds it neceffary to fweeten with the fin¬
ger), he muft commonly replenifh the picture with more
crayon. ,
When the head is brought to fome degree of for-
vvardnefs, let the back ground be laid in, which muft
be treated in a different manner, covering it as thin as
poflible, and rubbing it into the paper with a leather
flump. Near the face the paper ftiould be almoft free
from colour, for this will do great fervice to the nead,
and by its thinnefs give both a foft and folid appear¬
ance. In the back ground alfo, no crayon that has
whiting in its compofition ihould be ufed, but chiefly
fuch as are the moft brilliant and the leaft adulterated.
The ground being painted thin next the hair, will give
the ftudent an opportunity of painting the edges of the
hair over in a light and free manner when he gives the
finifliing touches.
The ftudent having proceeded thus far, the face,
hair, and back ground being entirely covered, he muft
carefully view the whole at fome diftance, remarking
in what refpefl it is out of keeping, that is, what parts
are too light, and what too dark, being particularly at¬
tentive to the white or chalky appearances, which muft
be fubdued with lake and carmine. The above method
being properly put into execution, will produce the ap¬
pearance of a painting principally compofed of.three
colours, viz. carmine, black, and white, which is the
beft preparation a painter can make for the producing
a fine crayon picture.
The next ftep is, to complete the back-ground
and the hair, as the duft, in painting theie, will fall
on the face, and would much injure it it that was
completed firft. From thence proceed to the fore¬
head, finiftnng downward till the whole p:£ture is com¬
pleted.
In painting over the forehead the laft time, begin
the higheft light with the moft faint vermilion teint,
in the fame place w’here the faint carmine w;as firft
laid, keeping it abroad in the fame manner. In the
next {hade fucceeding the lighteft, the ftudent muft
work in fome light blue teints, compofed or verditer
and white, intermixing with them fome of the deeper
vermilion teints, fweetening them together with great
caution, infenfibly melting them into one another, in-
creafing the proportion of each colour as bis judgment
fhail dire61. Some brilliant yellows may alfo be ufed,
but fparingly j and towards the roots of the hair,
ftrong verditer teints intermixed with greens, will be
of Angular fervice. Cooling crayons, compofed of
black and white, fhould fucceed thefe, and melt into the
hair. Beneath the eyes, the fweet pearly teints are to
be preferved, compofed of verditer and white, and
under the nofe, and on the temples, the fame may
be ufed ; beneath the lips, teints of this kind alfo are
proper, mixing them with the flight greens and feme
vermilion.
In finifliing the cheeks, let the pure lake clear them
From any duft contra£ted from the other crayons ; then
with the lake may be intermixed the bright vermilion ;
and laft of all (if the fubjea thould require it) a few
q Y 2 touches
Crayon-
painting.
c H A [ 724 ] C R A
touches of the orange-coloured crayon, but with extreme
caution ; after, fweeten that part with the finger as lit¬
tle as poffible, for fear of producing a heavy difagree-
able effe£i: on the cheeks ; as the beauty of a crayon-
pidlure confifts in one colour (bowing itfelf through, or
rather between, another : this the ifudent cannot too
often remark, it being the only method of imitating
beautiful complexions.
The eye is the feature mod difficult to execute in
crayons, as every part muft be exprefl’ed with the ut-
moft nicety, to appear finifhed ; at the fame time that
the painter nmft preferve its breadth and folidity while
he is particularizing the parts. To accomplifh this,
?.t will be a good general rule for the (ludent to ufe his
crayon in (vveetenlng as much, and his finger as little,
as poffible. When he wants a point to touch a fmall
part with, he may break off a little of his crayon
againft the box, which will produce a corner fit to work
with in the minuted parts. If the eye-lafnes are dark,
he mud ufe fome of the carmine and brown ochre, and
the crayon of carmine and black ; and with thefe he
may alio touch the iris of the eye (if brown or hazel),
making a broad fhadow, caufed by the eye-lafh. Red
teints of vermilion, carmine, and lake, will execute
the corners of the eye properly ; but if the eyelids are
too red, they will have a difagreeable fore appearance.
The pupil of the eye mud be made of pure lamp¬
black : between this and the lower part of the iris,
the light will catch very drong, but it mud not be
made too bidden, but be gently diffufed round the pu¬
pil till it is lod in diade. When the eye-balls are fuf-
iiciently prepared, the d-iining fpeck mud be made with
a pure white crayon, which fnould be fird broken to
a point, and then laid on firm *, but as it is pofhble
they may be defeflive in neatnefs, they fliould be cor-
redled with a pin, taking off the redundant parts, by
which means they may be formed as neat as can be re¬
quired.
The difficulty with refpeft to the nofe, is to pre¬
ferve the lines properly determined, and at the fame
time fo artfully blended into the cheek, as to exprefs its
projefHon, and yet no real line to be perceptible upon
a clofe examination •, in fome circumdances it fhould be
quite blended with the cheek, which appears behind it,
and determined entirely with a flight touch of red chalk.
The fliadow caufed by the noie is generally the darked
in the whole face, partaking of no reflexion from its
flirrounding parts. Carmine and browm ochre, car¬
mine and blacks, and fuch brilliant crayons will com-
pofe it bed.
The dudent having before prepared the lips with the
dronged lake and carmine, &c. mud with thefe co¬
lours make them completely correct; and when finifh-
ing, introduce the drong vermilions, but with great
caution, as they are extremely predominant. This, if
properly touched, will give the lips an appearance
equal, if not fuperior, to thofe executed in oils, not-
withdanding the feeming fuperiority the latter has by
means of glazing (a), of which the former is entirely
deditute.
When the fludent paints the neck, he fliould avoid Crave-,
expreffmg the mufcles too ftrong in the Hem, nor Fainting
ftiouid the bones appear too evident on the chefl, as
- both have an unpleafing effedf, denoting a violent agi¬
tation of the body j a circumdance feldom neceffary to
exprefs in portrait-painting. The mod neceffary part
to be expreffed, and which ftiouid ever be obierved,
(even in the mod delicate fubjedte), is a itrong mark¬
ing jud above the place where the collar bones unite :
and if the head is much thrown over the (boulders,
fome notice diould be taken of the large rnufcle that
rifes from behind the ear, and is inferted into the pit
between the collar bones. All inferior mufcles fliould
be, in general, quite avoided. The ftudent will find
this caution neceffary, as mod fubje&s, efpecially thin
perfons, have the muicles of the neck much more evi¬
dent than would he judicious to imitate. As few necks
are too long, it may be neceflary to give fome addition
to the flem, a fault on the other fide being quite unpar¬
donable, nothing being more ungi aceful than a (hort
neck. In colouring the neck, let the ftudent preferve
the ftem of a pearly hue, and the light not fo flrong as
on the cbeft. If any part of the bread appears, its
tranfparency muft alfo be exprefled by pearly teints 5
but the upper part of the cbeft fliould be coloured
with beautiful vermilions delicately blended with the
other.
Of the Drapery. Dark blue, purple, black, pink,
and all kinds of red draperies alfo, fhould be firlt tin¬
ged with carmine, which will render the colours much
more brilliant than any other method j over this fliould
be laid on the paper the middle teint (a medium be¬
tween the light and dark teints), of which the drapery
is to be painted, except the dark maffes of fliadow,
which fliould be laid on at firft as deep as poffible ;
the(e, fweetened with the finger, being deftitute of the
flnallcr folds, will exhibit a mafteily breadth, which
the leffer folds when added ought by no means to
deftroy. With the light and dark teints, the (mailer
parts are next to be made with freedom, executing as
much with the crayon, and as little with the finger, as
poffible ; >n each (old touching the lafl ftroke with the
crayon, which ftroke the finger muft never touch. In
the cafe of reflections, the Ample touch of the crayon
will be too hard), therefore fingering will be neceffary
afterwards, as refleClcd lights are always more gentle
than thofe which are dirtCl. With refpeCI to reflec¬
tions in general, they muft always partake of the fame
colour as the objeft reflecting, but in the cafe of (ingle
figures, it may be uieful to make fome particular obter-
vations.
In a blue drapery, let the reflections be of a greenifh
call j in green draperies make them of a yellow teint j
in yellow, of an orange ; in orange, refleCt a reddifh
caft j all reds, fomething of their own nature, but in¬
clined to the yellow : black (hould have a reddifh re¬
flection j the reflection of a reddilh teint will alfo pre-
fent purples to the heft advantage.
Of whatever colour the drapery is, the reflection
on the face muft partake thereof, otherwife the pic¬
ture).
(a) The method with which painters in oils exprefs tranfparency in the lips is, by painting them firft with light
/ermilion teints, and, when dry, touching them over with pure lake.
c
Crayon- ture, like paintings
jainting. effect.
Linen, lace, fur,
It A
on glafs, will
 7 i 7 &c. flrould be touched fpiritedly
with the crayon, fingering very little, except the latter 5
and the laft touches, even of this, like all other parts,
fhould be executed with the crayon, without fweetening
with the finger.
The methods above recommended have been prac-
tifed by the moft celebrated crayon-painters, wdiofe
works have been held in public eftimation ; but the
knowledge of, and ability to execute, each feparate part
with brilliancy and truth, w-iil be found very inluffi-
cient to conftitute a complete painter, without his
judgment enables him to unite them with each other,
by correftnefs of drawing, propriety of light and (ha-
dovv, and harmony of colouring. In order to accom-
pli(h this, the ftudent Ihould carefully avoid finiihing
one part in particular, till he has properly confidered
the connexion it is to have with the reft. The ne-
gle£t of this is the principal reafon -why the perfor¬
mances of indifferent painters are fo deftitute ot what is
termed breadth, fo confpicuouily beautiful in the works
of great mafters. It muft be granted, that thisobferva-
tion relates more particularly to large compofitions, where
a diverfity of figures requires fuch a judicious difpoution,
that each may aflift in the combination of a kind of
univerfp.l harmony j yet, even in portrait-painting, the
ftudent ftiould be particularly attentive to obferve this
idea of breadth, if he is defirous of acquiring that impor¬
tance and dignity which conftitutes excellence in paint¬
ing.
Of the Materials. The perfeftion of. the crayons con-
fifts, in a great meafure, in their foftneis; for it is im-
poftible to execute a brilliant pidure with them if they
are othetwife *, on which account great care fhould
be obferved in the preparing them, to prevent their
being hard. In all compofitions, flake-white and
white-lead fhould be wholly rejeded, hecaufe the flight-
eft touch with either of ihefe wrould unavoidably turn
black.
The ufual objedion to crayon-paintings is, that they
are fubjed to change } but whenever this happens, it is
entirelv owing to an injudicious ufe of the above-men¬
tioned whites, which will Hand only in oils. To obvi¬
ate the bad effeds arifing from the ufe of fuch crayons,
let the ftudent make ufe of common whiting prepared in
the following manner.
Take a large veffel of water, put the whiting into;
it, and mix them w'ell together ; let this ftand about
half a minute, then pour oft the top into another vef¬
fel, and throw the gritty fediment away } let what is
prepared reft about a minute, and then pour it oft as be¬
fore, which will purify the whiting and render it free
from all dirt and grittinefs. When this is done, let
the whiting fettle, and then pour the water from it 5
after wdiich, lay it on the chalk to dry, and keep it tor
efe, either for wiiite crayons, or the parpofe of preparing
tsints with other colours, for with this all other teints
may be fafely prepared. If the ftudent chooiesto make
crayons of the whiting immediately after it is wafhed, it
is not neceffary to dry it on the chalk, for it may be
mixed inftantly with any other colour, which will lave
confiderable trouble. All colours of a heavy or gritty
nature, efpecially blue verditer. muft be purified by waffl¬
ing after.this method.
[ 725 ] C R A
have but a gaudy The ftudent muff be provided with a large, flexible Crayon-
pallct-knife, a large ftone and muller to levigate the,
colours, tw7o or three- large pieces of chalk to abforb
the moifture from the colours after they are levigated,
a piece of flat glafs to prevent the moiftuie from being
abforbed too much, till the colours are rolled into form,
and veffels for water, fpirits, &c. as neceflity and con¬
venience {hall dire£L
I. Reds. It is rather difficult to procure either good
carmine or good lake. Good carmine is inclined to the
vermilion teint, and good lake to the carmine teint.
The carmine crayons are prepared in the following man-
ner.
1. Carmine. As their texture is inclinable to hard-
nefs, inflead of grinding and rolling them, take a
fufficient quantity of carmine, lay it upon the grind-
ing-ftone, mix it with a levigating knife with fpirit
of wine till it become fmooth jand even. The chalk-
ftone being ready, lay the colour upon it to abforb the
fpirit ; but be careful that it is laid on in a proper ftate
for painting. If it is levigated too thin, the crayons
will be too flat; and if too thick, it will occafion a
wafte of colour, by their adhering to the pallet-knife j
but praftice will render the proper degree of confiftency
familiar. The fimple colour being prepared, the. nexf
ftep is to compofe the different teints by a mixture
with whiting; the proportion to be obferved confifting
of 20 gradations to one, which may be clearly under-
ftood by the following direffions. Take forae of the
fimple colour, and levigate it with fpirit of wine, ad¬
ding about one part of wafhed whiting, to three parts
of carmine, of which, when properly incorporated, make
two parcels. The next gradation fhould be composed
of equal quantities of carmine and whiting, of which
four crayons may be made. I he third ccmpofiticn
ftiould have one fourth carmine and three fourths
whiting; of this make fix crayons, which will be a
good proportion for the reft. I he laft teint fhoulct
be made of w'hiting, very faintly tinged with carmine,
of which make about eight crayons, which will com¬
plete the above-mentioned proportion. As thefe com¬
pound teints are levigated, they are to be laid imme¬
diately upon the chalk, that the moiftuve may be ab¬
forbed to the proper degree of drynefs for forming
into crayons, which may be known by its lofing the
greater part of its adhefive quality when taken into the
hand ; if the confiftency is found to be right, it may be
then laid upon the glafs, which having no pores, will
prevent the moifture from being carried oft' before it is
convenient to form it into crayons, otherwife the cray¬
ons would be full of cracks and very brittle, which ■
will be a great inconvenience when they are ufed in
painting. .
2. Lake. This is a colour very apt to be hard ; to
prevent which the ftudent muft obferve the following
particulars. Take about half the quantity of lake in¬
tended for the crayons, and grind it very fine with fpi¬
rit of wine ; let it dry, and then pulverize it, which
is eafily done if the lake is good; then take the other
half, and grind it with fpirits, after which m>x it with
the pulverized lake, and lay it out dire&ly in crayons
on the chalk. This colour will not bear rolling. The
firople colour being thus prepared, proceed with the
compound crayons as directed before, and in tbe fame
degrees of gradation as the carmine teints.
3. Vermilion-,
c R A * [ 726 1 C R A
Crayon-, 3. Vermilion. The beft is inclined to the carmine
p.-iinang. ^ |.ejnti Nothing is required to prepare this colour more
than to mix it 013 the done with foft water or fpirits,
after which it may be rolled into crayons. The diffe¬
rent teints are produced by a mixture of the fimple
colour with whiting, according to the proportion already
given.
II. Blues, i, Pruffian blue is a colour very apt
to bind, and is rendered foft with more difficulty than
carmine and lake. J. he fame method of preparation is
to be followed with this as is directed with refpeiSl to
lake, only it is neceffary to grind a larger quantity of
the pure colour, as it is chiefly ufed for painting dra¬
peries. The different teints may be made according
to neceffity, or the fancy of the painter. 2. Blue ver-
diter is a colour naturally gritty, and therefore 'it is
neceffary to waffi it well. Its particles are fo coarfe
as to require fome binding matter to unite them, other-
wife the crayons will never adhere together. To ac-
compliffi this, take a quantity fufficient to form two or
three crayons, to which add a piece of flaked plafter of
Paris about the fize of a pea; mix thefe well toge¬
ther, and form the crayons upon the chalk. This blue
is extremely brilliant, and will be of great ufe in height¬
ening draperies, &c. The teints mult be formed with
whiting as directed in the former inftances, and are high¬
ly ferviceable for painting fleffi, to produce thofe pearly
teints fo beautiful in crayon pidlures. It is not neceffary
to mix the compounds with {pints, as clear water will
be fufficient.
III. Greens. Brilliant greens are produced with
great difficulty. In Switzerland, they have a method
of making them far fuperior to ours. We ufually
take yellow ochre, and after grinding it with fpirits,
mix it with the powder of Pruffian blue, then tem¬
per it with a knife, and lay the crayons on the
chalk, without rolling them. Inftead of tffis, fome
ufe king’s yellow mixed with Pruffian blue, and others
brown ochre and Pruflian blue. The crayons made of
the two lafl may be rolled. Various teints may be pro¬
duced by thefe colours, according to fancy or neceffity ;
lome to partake more of the blue, and others of the
yellow.
I vh Yellows, i. King’s yellow is the moft ufeful
and the moft brilliant, levigated with fpirits of rvine, to
compofe the different teints as before direfted. 2. Yel¬
low ochre, and Naples yellow ground with fpirits, will
make uleful crayons. 3. Orange is produced with king’s
yellow and vermilion ground together with fpirits, and
tne teints formed as in other cafes, but no great quantity
of them is required. ,
V. Browns. i. Cullen’s earth is a fine dark
brown. After fix or eight of the fimple c > ryons are
prepared, feveral rich compound teints may be pro¬
duced from it, by a mixture with carmine, in various
degrees. Black, carmine, and this colour, mixed to¬
gether, make ufeful leints for painting hair ; feveral
gradations may be produced from each of thefe by a
mixture with whiting. Roman or brown ochre is an
excellent colour, either fimple or compounded with
carmine. V/hiting tinged in feveral degrees with
either of these, will prove very ferviceable in paint¬
ing. 2. Umber may be treated in juft the fame man-
tier ; only it is neceffary to levigate it with fpixit cf
wine.
VI. Purples. Pruffian blue ground with fpirits and Crav-an.
mixed with pulverized lake, will produce a good purple. Panting,
Carmine, thus mixed with Pruffian blue, will produce a '‘“““"V'*-
purple fomething different from the former. Various
teints may be made from either of thefe compounds by
a mixture with whiting.
VII. Black. 1. Lamp-black is the only black that
can be ufed with fafety, as all others are fubjedl to
mildew j but as good lamp-black is very fcaree, the
ftudent will, perhaps, find it moft expedient to make
it himfelfj the procefs of which is as follows: Pro¬
vide a tin cone, fix it over a lamp at fuch a height
that the (lame may juft reach the cone for the foot
to gather within it. When a fufficient quantity is
collected, take it out, and burn all the greafe from
it in a crucible. It mull then be ground with fpirits,
and laid on the chalk to abforb the moifture. Various
gray teints may be formed from this by a mixture
with whiting, as mentioned in former infiances.—
2. Vermilion mixed with carmine : this is a compofi-
tion of great ufe, and teinls made from this with whi¬
ting will be found to be very ferviceable. 3, Carmine
and black is another good compound, of which five or
fix gradations fhould be made, fome partaking mere of
the black, and others having the carmine moft predo¬
minant, befides feveral teints by a mixture with whi¬
ting. 4. Vermilion and black is alfo a very ufeful com¬
pound, from which feveral different teints ffiould be
made. 5. Pruffian blue and black is another good com¬
pound, and will be found of Angular fervice in painting
draperies.
It is impoffible to lay down rules for the forming
every tcint neceffary in compofing a fet of crayons,
there being many accidental compofitions, entirely de¬
pendent on fancy and opinion. The ftudent fnould
make it a rule to fave the leavings of his colours 3 for
of thefe he may form various teints, which will occafi-
onally be ufeful.
Of Rolling the Crayons, and dfpof.ng them for paint¬
ing. The different compofitions ot colours muft be cut
into a proper magnitude, after they are prepared, in
order to be tolled into paftils, for the convenience of
ufing them. Each crayon fhould be formed in the left
hand with the ball of the right, firft formed cylindri-
cally, and then tapering at each end. If the compo-
fition is too dry, dip the finger in water j if too wet,
the compofition muft be laid upon the chalk again to
abforb more of the moifture. The crayons fhtuld be
rolled as quick as poffible ; and when finifhed, muft
be laid upon the chalk again, to abforb all remain¬
ing moifture. After the gradation of teints from
one colour is formed, the ft&ne fhould be well feraped
and cleanfed with water before it is ufed for another
colour.
When the fet of crayons is completed according to
the rules preferibed, they fhould be arranged in claffes
for the convenience of painting with them. Some thin
drawers, divided into a number of partitions, is the
moft convenient method of difpofing them properly.
The crayons fhould be depofited according to the fe¬
veral gradations of light. The bottom of the partitions
muft be covered with bran, as a bed for the colours;
becaufe it not only preferves them clean, but prevents
their breaking.
The box made ufe of when the ftudent paints fhould
be
CUE [ 727 ] CUE
Crayon- be about a Jbot fquare, with nine partition?. In the
painting upper corner on the left hand (fuppohng the box to
If be in the lap when he paints), let him place the black
^.cation. ^ gray crayons, thole being the moll feidom ufed ;
in the fecond partition, the blues; in. the third, the
greens and browns ; in the firlt partition on the left
hand of the fecond row, the carmines, lakes, vermi¬
lions, and all deep reds; the yellows and orange in
the middle, and the pearly teints next ; and as thefe
laft are of a very delicate nature, they mud; be kept
very clean, that the gradations of colour may be
eafily diitinguiihed ; in the lower row', kt the firft
partition ^contain a piece of fine linen rag to wipe
the crayons with while they are uling ; the fecond,
all the pure lake and vermilion teints •, and the other
partition mav contain thefe teints which, from their
complex nature, cannot be claffed with any of the
former.
CRAZE mill, or Crazing Mill, a mill in all re-
fpefts like a grid-mill to grind corn, and lb called by
tlie tin miners, who ufe it to grind their tin, which is
yet too great after trambling.
CREAM, a general name applicable to all fubflan-
ces that feparate from a liquor, and are collefted upon
its furface ; but more particularly applied to the fol¬
lowing
Cream of Lime, is that part of the lime which had
been diffolved in the water in its caudic date, but ha-
ving again attrafted feme fixed air from the atmo-
fphere, becomes incapable of folution, and therefore
feparales from the water in the mild date of chalk or
limeftone.
Cream of Milk, generally called fimple cream, is the
mod oily part of the milk j which being naturally only
mixed, and not diffolved in the reft, foon feparates from
them, as being fpecifically lighter ; after which it col-
ledls on the furface ; from which it is generally fkim-
med, to complete the difengagement of the oily parts,
for the purpofe of making butter, from the cafeous and
ferous parts. See Agriculture Index. Cream of
milk is not only an agreeable aliment when recent, but
alfo ufeful in medicine as a lenient, when applied to
tetters and eryfipelas attended with pain and proceeding
from an acrid humour.
Cream of Tartar, the trivial name of the fuper-
tartrate or the acidulous tartrate of potafh. It is alfo
denominated cryfals of tartar. In this fait there is
an excefs of the tartaric acid. See Chemistry
Index.
GREAT, in the manege, an ufher to a riding ma-
fier 5 or a gentleman bred in the academy, with intent
io make himfelf capable of teaching the art of riding
the great horfe.
CREATION, in its primary import, feems to fig-
rify the bringing into being fomething which did not
before exift. The term is therefore mod; generally ap¬
plied to the original production of the materials where¬
of the vifible world is compofed. It is alfo, however,
ufed in a fecondary or fubardinate fenfe, to denote
thofe fubfequent operations of the Deity upon the matter
io produced, by which the whole fydem of nature and
all the primitive genera of things received their form,
qualities, and laws.
There is no fubjeCl concerning which there have
been more difputes than this of creation. It is cer¬
tain that none of the ancient philofophers had the Creation,
fmalleft idea of its being poflible to produce a fub-^ ’
dance out of nothing, or that even the power of the
Deity himfelf could work without any materials to
work upon. Hence fome of them, among whom was
Aridotk, aflferted that the world was eternal both as
to its matter and form. Others, though they believed
that the gods had given the world its form, yet imagi¬
ned the materials whereof it is compofed to have been
eternal. Indeed the opinions of the ancients, who had
not the benefit of revelation, were on this head fo
confided and contradictory, that nothing of any con-
fequence can be deduced fiom them. The freethinkers
of our own apd of former ages have denied the pofti-
bility of creation, as being a contradiction to realon :
and of confequence have taken the opportunity from
thence to diferedit revelation. On the other hand
many defenders of the facred writings have afterted,
that creation out of nothing, fo far from being a .con¬
tradiction to reafon, is not only probable, but de~
monftrably certain. Nay, fome have gone fo far as to
lay, that liom the very infpedtion of the vifible fyftem
of nature, we are able to infer that it was once in a
ftate ot non-exiftence. It would be impoftible for us,
however, to enter into the multiplicity of arguments
ufed on both fi-Ies ; nor can we pretend to -fettle it,
as the fubjedt is confdTedly above human ccmprehen-
fion. j
As to the works of creation which the Deity is What
known to us to have performed ■, all other beings, be-wor^s cr
fide himfelf, are his creatures. Men and other ani- <3^'
mals that inhabit the earth and the Teas; all the im- known to
men'e varieties of herbs and plants of which the ve- have per-
getable kingdom confifts •, the globe of the earth, and^onIie^'
the expanie of the ocean ; thefe we know to have been
produced by his poiver. Befides the terreftrial world
which vve inhabit, we fee many other material bodies
difpofed around it in the wide extent of fpace. The
moon, which is in a particular manner connected with
our earth, and even dependent upon it ; the fun, and
the other planets with their fatellites, which, like the
earth, circulate round the fun, and appear to derive
from him life and heat; thofe bodies which we call
fixed ftars, and confider as illuminating and cherifhing
with heat each its peculiar fyftem of planets; and
the comets which at certain periods furprife us with
their appearance, and the nature of whole connection
with the general fyftem of nature, or with any parti¬
cular fyftem of planets, we cannot pretend to have
fully difeovered;—thele are fo many, more of the
Deity’s works, from the contemplation of which we
cannot but conceive the moft awful ideas of his creative
power. '
Matter, however, whatever the varieties of form
under which it is made to appear, the relative difpo-
fition of its parts, or the motions communicated to
it, is but an inferior part of the works of creation.
We believe ourfelvesto be animated with a much higher
principle than brute matter j in viewing the manners
and economy of the lower animals, we can fcarcely
avoid acknowledging even them to confift of fomething
more than yarious modifications of matter and motion.
The other planetary bodies .which feem to be in cir-
cumftances nearly analogous to thofe of the earth, are
finely, as well as it, deftined for the habitations of
rational,
Creation,
a
The pe¬
riods of
time at
which God
executed
his works
■of crea-
tion.
- ^ Brydon's
Tour
through
tiicily and
JMalta.
C R E [ 728 ] C R E
rational, intelligent beings. The exillence of intelli¬
gences of a higher order than man, though infinitely
below the Deity, appears extremely probable.—Of
thofe fpiritual beings called Angels we have exprefs in¬
timation in Scripture ; (fee the article Angels). Such
are our notions concerning the exiftence of beings
effentially diftinft from matter, and in their nature far
fuperior to it; thefe, too, muff be the creatures of the
Deity, and of his works of creation the nobleft part.
But the limits of creation we muff not pretend to de¬
fine. How far the regions of fpace extend, or how
they are filled, we know not. How the planetary
worlds, the fun and the fixed ffars, are occupied, we
do not pretend to have afeertained. We are even igno¬
rant how wide a diverfity of forms, what an infinity of
living animated beings may inhabit our own globe.
So confined is our knowledge of creation) yet fo
grand, fo awful, that part which our narrow under-
ftandings can comprehend !
Concerning the periods of time at which the Deity
executed his feveral works of creation, it cannot be
pretended that mankind have had opportunities of re¬
ceiving very particular information. From viewing
the phenomena of nature, and confidering the general
laws by which they are regulated, we cannot draw
any conclufive or even plauiible imerence with refpeef
to the precife period at which the univerfe muff have
begun to exifl. We know not, nor can we hope to
afeertain, whether the different fyftems of planets circu¬
lating round our fun and the other fixed ftars, were
all created at one period, or each at a different period.
We cannot even determine, from any thing that ap¬
pears on the face of nature, whether our earth was not
created at a later period than any of her fellow planets
which revolve round the fame fun. Aftronomers are,
from time to time, making new difeoveries in the hea¬
vens ; and it is impoflible to fay whether fome of thefe
fucceffive difcoverlcs may not be owing to fucceflive
creations.
Philofophers have, indeed, formed fome curious con-
jeftures concerning the antiquity ot the earth, from
the appearances of its furface, and from the nature
and difpofidon of its interior ftrata. The beds ot lava
in the neighbourhood of volcanoes have afforded
ground for fome calculations, which, though they do
not fix the period of the earth’s origin, are yet thought
to prove that period to have been much more remote
than the earlieft age of facred or profane hiftory. * In
the neighbourhood of Mount /Etna, or on the fides of
that extenfive mountain, there are beds of lava covered
with a confiderable thicknefs of earth j and at leaft
another, again, which though known from ancient mo¬
numents and hiftorical records to have iffued from the
volcano at leaf! 2000 years ago, is flill almoft entirely
deftitute of foil and vegetation : in one place a pit has
been cut through ieven different ftrata of lava •, and
thefe have been found feparated from each other by
almoft as many thick beds of rich earth. Now, from
the fact that a ftralum of lava 2000 years old is yet
fcantily covered with earth, it has been inferred by
the ingenious canon Recupero, who has laboured
■years on the natural luftory of IVfount Aotna, that the
10 weft of thefe ft at a which have been found divided
bv fo many beds of earth, muft have been emitted
from the volcanic crater at leaft 14,000 years ago j
and confequently that the age of the earth, whatever Creation,
it may exceed this term of years, cannot poflibly be
lefs. Other fafts of a fimilar nature likewife concur to
juftify this conjecture.
But all thefe faCts are as nothing in comparifon with
the long feries which would be requifite to eftabihh
fuch a conjeCture as an incontrovertible truth. And
befides, any evidence which they can be fuppofed
to afford, may be very eafily explained away. The
bed of lava which in the courfe of 2000 years has
fcarce acquired a covering of earth, is confeifed to
ftand in a fituation in which it is expofed to the fpray
of the fea, and to all the violence of winds and rains.
In fuch a fituation, it cannot be thought that a thick,
bed of earth could, in any length of time, be formed
on it: we might as well expeCl depth of foil, and vi¬
gorous vegetation, on the craggy cliffs of hills. In
crevices here and there over it, in which the earth has
been retained, there is a depth of foil which fupports
large trees. This fad, therefore, admits of no fuch
inference as that which Recupero has pretended to de¬
duce from it. The local chrcumftances, again, pf the
feven ftrata that have been pierced through, are very
different. They are fituated at laci Reale, in a fitua¬
tion where {bowers of athes from the volcano muft fre¬
quently fall } and where whatever falls muft be natu¬
rally retained and -accumulated:—fo that feven beds
of earth might be formed on thefe feven ftrata of lava
much fooner than one thin layer could be formed on
the ftratum above mentioned. In other places, feme
of which are within the influence of the lame awful
volcano, and fome adjacent to that of Vefuvius, foil
is known to have accumulated on lava with the help
of fhowers of afhes from the volcanoes, with fufficieut
rapidity to juftify this fuppbfiticn concerning the co¬
verings of the ftrata at Jaci Reale. From the obler-
vation of thefe phenomena of volcanoes, therefore, no
faffs have been gained that can help us to determine
with any certainty the earth’s age. And fo rvide is
the variety of circumftances to be here taken into ac¬
count, that it cannot be hoped that this dejideratum
will be ever fupplied from that quarter. See farther
the article Earth.
But by examining the compofition and arrange¬
ment of the interior ftrata of the globe, and by view¬
ing the general appearance of its furface, the ingenuity
of philofophers has, with better hopes, fought to guefs
at the length of time during which it muft have ex-
ifted. Obferving the exuviae of fea and land animals
depofited at profound depths under 'ground, and ac¬
companied with vegetable bodies in a good ftate of
prefervation, as w’ell as with oleaginous and bitumi¬
nous fubttances which have in all probability been
formed from vegetable bodies •, and remarking at the
fame time with what confufion the other materials,
compofing the cruft of this terreftrial ball, are, in vari¬
ous inftances not arranged, but caft together ; they
have concluded that the earth muft have exifted for
many an age before the earlieft events recorded in fa¬
cred or profane hiftory, and muft have undergone many
a revolution, before it fettled in its prefent ftate. Such
at leaft are the ideas which Buffon and M. de Luc,
and aifo Dr Hutton f, feem defirous to iraprefs us with f
concerning its changes and antiquity. It will be only Tranf.
doing juftice to thefe philofophers to acknowledgej thatvo1-1*
they
3
* ounts
j :he an-
iiity ot
\ earth
| a pro-
> hifto-
C R E [ 729
cation, tliey have collefted, with amazing induftry, almoit
every fact in the natural hiftory of the earth that can
ferve to give plaufibiiity to their conjectures. But
Hill their faCts, betides the inconfiftency of many of
them, are by far too fcanty to warrant the conclulions
which they have deduced from them. See the article
Ear.th.
The voice of profane hiftory is far from being de-
cifive concerning the age of the world 5 nor is it to be
expeCted that it Ihould. When the earth firlt arofe
into exifteoce, w'e can be at no lofs to conceive that
mankind were not fpeClators of the event ; and we
may naturally imagine that the firft human beings who
occupied it, would be too much bufied in furnilhing
themfelves with the immediate neceflaries and the con¬
veniences of life, to think of curious refearches into
its origin, or even their own. Profane hiftory is not,
however, without accounts of the age of the earth
and the origin of human fociety j but thofe accounts are
various and contradictory.—Plato in his dialogue enti¬
tled Critias, mentions his celebrated Atalantis to have
been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before
the age in wdrich he wrote. He aflerts it to have
been well known to the Egyptian prieits and to the
contemporary inhabitants of Attica. The learned world,
indeed, generally agree in regarding his accounts of
that ifland as a fiCtion, which the author himfelf did
not defign to be underftood in any other light : feme,
however, are more Credulous, and others go fo far as to
acknowdedge doubts : and, if the exiftence of Inch an
ifland, at a period fo diftant, be admitted as a fact
worthy of any credit, the age of the world may be
reckoned as at leaf! confiderably more than 12,000
years. The pretenfions of the Chinefe reprefent the
wTorld as feme hundreds of thoufands of years older :
Tniverfal and we are alfo told * that, the aftronomical records
l vol. i. of the ancient Chaldeans carried back the origin of
fociety to a very remote period ; no lefs than 473,000
years. The Egyptian priefts reckoned between Me-
nes and Sethon 341 generations f. But thefe accounts
are fo difeordant, and fo flenderly fupported by evidence,
I42, that wTe cannot hefitate to rejeCt them all as falle ; the
fables of hillorians fcarce merit fo much attention as the
hypothefes of philofophers.
When from profane we turn to facred hiftory, we
may reafonably expeCt more accurate and more cr-e-
dible information concerning the antiquity of the
globe. As the authenticity of the Holy Scriptures
is fo incontrovertibly eftablilhed, wherever they af¬
ford evidence concerning any fadt, that evidence muft
be regarded as decifive. A fadl fo important as the
prefent may be thought highly worthy of a place in
them. Unfortunately, however, even the facred wri¬
tings do not fix the era of the creation with fufficient
accuracy 5 they leave us, in fome meafure, at a lofs
whether to extend what they fay concerning that era
to the whole contents of created fpace, or to confine
it to our earth and its inhabitants: different copies
give different dates *, and even in the fame copy, differ¬
ent parts relating the fame events, either difagree or
do not fpeak decifively with regard to the length of the
time in which they paffed.—In the beginning of the
fixth chapter of the firft book of Kings, the time
which elapfed between the departure of the children
of Ifrael from Egypt, and the period at which Solo-
Vgl. VI. Part II.
! face.
Wod.
4 f
e era ot
crea-
1 as Ha¬
iti fa¬
il hifto-
] CUE
mon laid the foundation of his temple, is faid to have
been 480 years: And in the book of Judges again,
the age of all the patriarchs amounts to 592 years j. J Univerfal
The Hebrew copy of the Bible, which we Chriftians
for good reafons confider as the moft authentic, dates 1'
the creation of the world 3944 years before the Chn-
ftian era. The Samaritan Bible, again, fixes the era
of the creation 4305 years before the birth of Chrift.
And the Greek tranflation, known by the name ot
the Septuagint verfion of the Bible, gives 5270 as the
number of the years which intervened between thofe
two periods. As many other different calculations of
the years contained in the fame intermediate fpace of
time, might be formed upon other dates in the fe-
cred volume, differing in the different copies. By
comparing the various dates in the facred writings,
examining how thefe have come to difagree and to
be diveriified in different copies, endeavouring to re¬
concile the moft authentic profane with facied chro¬
nology, and eking out deficiency of dates and evi¬
dence with conjecture; fome ingenious men have form¬
ed fchemes of chronology, plaufible indeed, but not
fupported by fufficient authorities, which they would
gladly peri'uade us to receive in preference to any of
thofe above mentioned. Uffier makes out from the
Hebrew Bible 4004 years, as the term between the
creation and the birth of Chrift : Jofephus, according
to Dr Wills and Mr Whifton, makes it 4658 years j
and M. Pezron, with the help of the Septuagint, ex¬
tends it to 5872 years. Ulher’s fyftem is the moft:
generally received.
But though thefe different fyftems of chronology
are fo inconfiftent and fo flenderly fupported, yet
the differences among them are io inconfiderable in
comparifon with thofe which arife'before us v.’hen we
contemplate the chronology of the Chinefe, the Chal¬
deans, and the Egyptians, and they agree fo well with
the general information of authentic hiftory and with
the appearances of nature and of fociety, that they may
be confidered as nearly fixing the true period of the cre¬
ation of the earth.
Profane hiftory cannot be expefted to contain anj40jrJor
account of the firft events which paffed after the ere-on
ation of the fubftances of which the univerfe confifts. this head
The conje&ures of ancient philofophers on this fub-to be ob¬
ject cannot merit attention j for vague tradition, and^11®^^11
the appearances of nature, the only data on which ^rce^ut
they could proceed in forming their conjeftures, could facred hi-
admit of no fair injunftions concerning thofe events jftory.
and befides, inftead of liftening to tradition, or exa¬
mining the appearances of nature, they generally con-
fulted imagination, and imagination alone, on fuch ec-
cafions. Here, therefore, we have nothing to hope
but from the facred writings. From them we may
expe<5t hiftorical information, not to be obtained from
any other fource. What they communicate is com¬
municated on divine authority j and it is only on fucH
authority we can receive any accounts concerning the -
creation.
A few hints in the book of Job afford the earlieft in-
formation to be found in the feriptures concerning cen^rig tjlc
the creation -of the world. “ Where waft thou wThen creation in
I laid the foundations of the earth, when the morning d16 book of
ftars fang together, and all the fons of God fhouted
for joy* ?” “ Behold, he put no truft in his fervants, xxxv;|jP*
4 ^ a^d ver. 4. & 7.
c R E [ 730 ] CUE
t Creation. ^ and his angels he charged with folly tl And unto
77^ ^ man (or to Adam), he faid, Behold, the fear of the
ver. 18. -Lord is wifdom, and to depart from evil is under-
fCh. xsviii. Handing f.” Thefe paffages rather hint at than relate
ver, 2S. tafts. But it has been inferred from them, that there
were liars in the firmament, and angels in heaven, be¬
fore the formation of our globe that angels as well
as man have fallen ; and that other injunctions, befides
that of abftaining from the forbidden fruit, were laid
? Milne's on Adam when he was firft placed in Paradife J. If
tcaT^’ *ke interpretation be admitted as juft, the firft of thefe
fads may be confidered as forming, as it were, a point
with which our knowledge of the works of the Deity
commences: the period of time at which the fecond
event took place is not fpecified : and the precept to
Adam muft no doubt have been uttered after he was
formed and infpired with intelligence. Yet wuth re¬
gard to the firft of the above quotations from the book
of Job, the only one that is of importance to us at
prefent, it muft be acknowledged, that it has been dif¬
ferently underftood. The morning ftars might fing
together, and the fons of God fhout for joy, on account
both of their own creation and of the creation of the
earth at one time $ and yet Job, having been himfelf
made a confeious being at a much later period, not be
able to tell where he was at that era of exulting gratitude
^ and congratulation.
Mofaic ac- Mofes relates, that jj “ in the beginning God created
count of the heavens and the earth. And the earth (continues
tne crea- lle) was wjthout form and void; and darknefs was
i‘'Gen ; r upon the face of the deep : and the fpirit of God mo¬
ved upon the face of the waters. And God faid, Let
there be light; and there v7as light. And God faw
the light, that it was good: and God divided the
light from the darknefs. And God called the light day,
and the darknefs he called night: and the evening and
the morning wrere the firft day.” During five fucceed-
ing days the work of creation was carried on. On
the fecond day, a firmament was made to feparate the
waters, and that firmament called heaven: on the third
day the waters were collected into feas, and the land
from w’hich the waters retired caufed to produce grafs
and trees and other plants ; on the fourth day, lights
were made to appear in the firmament; to enlighten
the earth, to divide the day from the night, and to
diftinguifh time into feafens and years: on the fifth day
the feas were peopled with whales and other fifties,
and the air with fowls: on the fixth day, the earth
was furniftied with reptiles and quadrupeds of all kinds •,
and on the fame day, the firft human pair, the progeni¬
tors of all the human race, were created in God’s own
8 image.
Difficulties Some difficulties occur in comparing this account of
occurring the creation with the laws which appear at prefent to
in the above regUja^e Qf nature. We find it hard to cor-
' ceive how the earth, while yet a ftranger to the influ¬
ence of the fun, could experience the viciffitude of day
and night; and are aftonlfhed at the rapidity with which
t) trees and herbage firft overfpread its iurface. The con-
Attempts dition of matter when the earth was without form and
to folve yojj ancl operation of the fpirit of God on the face
cultics Dr 01 116 wsters are equally myltenous.
Burnet’s Some ingenious men have eagerly laboured to re¬
theory. move thefe difficulties. Among thefe is Dr Burnet,
whofe theory of the earth has now been long confider- Creation,
ed as fanciful and ill-founded. He fuppofes all the
celeftial bodies, even the fun and all the other planets
of the folar fyftem, to have exifted long before the
earth. The chaos on which the fpirit of God moved,
confifted, according to him, of the firft; principles from
which all terreftrial bodies have been formed. When
thofe laws by which the material world is regulated
firll began to operate on the mafs, he fuppofes that
its groffer and heavier parts would fink towards the
centre, and there form a folid ball. Around this folid
ball trvo fpecies of particles would ftill float together in
confufion. Of thefe he thinks one, being more vola¬
tile, would by degrees make its efcape from the other,
would leave it ftill recumbent on the folid centre, and
fpread around it in an atmofphere. The middle ftra-
tum he compofes of aqueous and oleaginous fluids ^
and he makes no doubt, that after the air had made
its efcape, the levity of the oleaginous fluids would
enable them to rife above the aqueous, and difpofe
themfelves next the furface of the liquid mafs. On
them he fuppofes the impure atmofphere to have then
depofited a quantity of terrene particles, fufficient to
form, by intermixture with the oils, a thick cruft of
rich earth for the produflion of plants and herbage,
and to afford an habitation to animals. This delicate
fhell he was careful not to furrow with feas or load
with mountains : either of thefe would have reduced all
to confufion. Such is his earth 5 and after moulding it
with fo much ingenuity, and into fo happy a form, he
contents himfelf, without venturing to ufe the fame
freedoms with the remaining part of Mofes’s account of
the creation. 10
But Mofes affords nothing that can be with any okje<ft10!1
propriety ufed in the foundation of fuch a theory :
tells not whether the chaos confifted of thofe terrene, rv.
and aqueous, and oleaginous, and aerial particles which
Dr Burnet finds in it j he confines not the feas within
a cruft of earth 5 nor does he inform us that the feene-
ry of nature was not diverfified by bills and vales. Be¬
fides the author of this theory has, without any evi¬
dence, fuppofed matter to have been originally under the
influence of laws very different from thofe by which it
is at prefent regulated. Oil, indeed, while fluid, floats
above water : but in a concrete ftate, it finks in water
like other folid bodies. If reduced into that ftate by
combination with terrene matters*, fufficient to render
the mixture proper for the nouriffiment and produflion
of vegetables, its fpecific gravity will be ftill greater,
and it will confequeritly fink fo much the fooner. How
a concrete fubftance, confifting of earth and oil, could
float on water, appears an inexplicable enigma. But we
need not here take farther pains in combating and tri¬
umphing over this theory, which has long fince fallen
and funk to its grave.
Mr Whifton treats both the feriptures and the lawsMr Whii
of nature with greater reverence. Yet he certainlyton,s ^
involves himfelf in no trifling difficulties in attempt-ry'
ing to folve thofe which Mofes prefents. He fuppo¬
fes the fun, moon, and ftars, to be all more ancient
than the earth. The chaos from which the earth was
formed he reprefents as having been originally the
atmofphere of a comet. The fix days of the creation
he would perfuade us to believe equal to fix of our
years;
CUE [ 73
eation, years', for he is of opinion, that the earth did not re-
i "v——' volve daily round its axis, but only annually round its
orbit, till after the fall of man.
On the firft day or year, therefore, the more pon¬
derous parts of the chaos were, according to this the¬
ory, conglomerated into an orb of earth, the chinks
and intertlices over that orb filled up with water, and
the exterior part or atmofphere rarefied, fo as to admit
fome faint glimmering of the rays of the fun.
On the lecond day, the atmofphere was diffufed to
its due extent around the earth, and reduced to a de¬
gree of rarity and purity which rendered it ftill more
fuitable for the tranfmiffion of light; the earth was
ftill more confolidated 5 and the waters being almoft
entirely excluded from the interftices which they be¬
fore occupied, were partly fpread over the furface of the
earth, and partly raifed in vapour into the atmofphere
or firmament.
On the third day, the earth’s furface became fo irre¬
gular, in one place rifing into hills, in another finking
into vales, as to caufe the waters, which were before
equally diffufed, to collect into Teas and lakes, leaving
large trafts of ground unoccupied. And no fooner was
a part of the earth’s furface left bare by the waters, than
the general influence of the fun produced on it a rich
covering of herbage, and all the different fpecies of ve¬
getables.
On the fourth day, the earth was rendered fubjeft
to the regular influence of the fun, moon, and ftars.
On the fifth day or year, things were fo far advan¬
ced, that fifhes and fowls were now produced from the
waters.
On the fixth day was the earth furnifhed with ani¬
mals j and the lord of all the other animals, man, wag
IS now created.
Ii'iedtions Such is Mr Whifton’s account of the phenomena of
\lrWhif- the Mofaic creation. But he likewife affumes much
li’stheo- more than can be reafonably granted. The atmo¬
fphere of a comet could not well be the primitive chaos:
it is not an obfcure, but a pellucid fluid ; and its exte¬
rior ftrata, if of the fame nature with the matter of our
earth, muft be fcorified by its near approaches to the
fun. Had the earth not begun to move round its axis
till after the work of creation was completed, the im¬
moderate degrees of heat and cold which its different
parts would have alternately felt, would in all proba¬
bility have proved fatal to both plants and animals.
Even the moft artful interpretation of Mofes’s words
cannot reprefent him as meaning to inform us that the
fun and moon were created at different periods. But
philofophy will fcarce permit us to imagine that the
moon was formed before the earth. And therefore
we cannot upon good grounds agree with Mr Whifton,
that the creation of the earth was later than that of the
other bodies of the folar fyftem.
I, de Luc’s Among others who have endeavoured to explain
“ory and the original formation of the earth, and the changes
which it has undergone, is M. de Luc. This cofmo-
logift, like Mr Whifton, thinks that the days of the
creation were much longer periods of time than our
prefent days. He feems to think that the earth had
exifted long before the Mofaic creation j but began at
that era to experience new changes, and to be regu¬
lated by new laws: that all the different events de-
fcribed by Mofes in his hiftory of the creation, adtual-
€r-?ation.
jeclions.
t ] C Xi E
ly took place in the order in which he relates them j _
but that Mofes’s days are indefinite fpaces of. time, ,
which muft have been very long, but of which we
cannot hope to afcertain the precife length. i hefe
are ingenious coniectures 5 but they do not appear ne-
ccffary, nor are they jollified by fa£ls. For a fuller
and more clofe inveftigation of this part of the fubject,
we mull refer to the article Earth : and (hall now
clofe the prefsnt article with a fhort explanation of what
appears to us the moft natural way of underftanding
Mofes’s account of the creation.
It has been conje&ured *, with great probability,
that the creation of which Mofes is the hiftorian, was^g,
neither confined to the earth alone, nor extended to1
the whole univerfe. The relation which all the pla¬
nets of the folar fyftem bear to the fame illuminating
body countenances the conjefture, that they, together
with the luminary by which they are enlightened
were all created at one period : but it w’ould perhaps
be to conceive too meanly of the benevolence, wii-
dom, and adlive power of the Deity, to fuppofe that
before that period thefe had never been exerted in any
work of creation. Yet even here we have not demon-
ftrative evidence.
On the fuppofition that the whole folar fyftem was
created at once, which has at leaft the merit of doing
no violence to the narrative of Mofes, the creation of
the fun and the other planets may be underftood to
have been carried on at the fame time with ’the crea¬
tion of the earth. In that cafe, even in the courfe
of the firft day, though not longer than our prefent
days, thofe bodies might be reduced to fuch order,
and their relative motions fo far eftabliihed, as to begin
the diftinction between light and darknefs, day and
night.
On the fecond day, we may naturally underftand
from Mofes’s narrative, that the atmofphere was purified,
and the fpecific gravities of aqueous vapour and atmo-
fpheric air fo adjufted, as to render the latter capable of
fupporting the former.
On the third day the waters were firft colle&ed into
lakes and feas : but in what manner, we cannot -well
determine. Some call in the operation of earthquakes ;
others tell us, that when the earth was firft formed,
the exterior ftrata, w’ere, at different parts over its fur¬
face, of different fpecific gravities; and that the more
ponderous parts now funk nearer the common centre,
while the lighter parts ftill remaining equally remote
from it as before, formed iftands, continents, hills,
and mountains. But thefe are mere fancies ; and rve
have no fa£!s to offer in their Head. On the latter
part of this day vegetables were caufed to fpring up
over the earth. Their growth muft have been much
more rapid than we ever behold it now ; but by what
particular a£l of fupernatural power that might be ef-
fefted, we fhould in vain inquire.
On the fourth day the fun, moon, and ftars, were
made to appear. But according to the conje&ure
which we have mentioned, as plaufible, though with¬
out aferibing to it the evidence of certain truth, thofe
heavenly bodies are to be confidered as having been
created before this day. But they might now begin
to exert their full influence on the earth in the fame
manner as they have fince continued to do.
The creation of the inanimate world was now fi-
4 Z a ni(h«d#
Creation
C R E [7
niihed, and the earth prepared for the reception of
Credibility On the fifth day, therefore, were the living
■ ^ J ■ inhabitants of the air and the waters created.
On the fixth day the inferior animals inhabiting the
earth were firft created; and after that, the whole work
was crowned by the creation of a male and female
of the human fpecies. To the account of the crea¬
tion of the animals, nothing certain can be added in
explanation of Mofes’s narrative. No more but one
pair of the human fpecies were at firft created : the
fame economy might poflibly be obferved in the crea¬
tion of the inferior animals.
CREBILLON, Prosper Joltot DE, a French wri¬
ter of tragedy, and ufually ranked after Corneille and
Racine, was born at Dijon in 1674. He was ori¬
ginally dellined to the profeflion of the law, and placed
at Paris with that view j but the impetuofity of his
paflions rendering him unfit for bufinefs, he was ur¬
ged by fome friends, who dilcerned very well his na¬
tural turn, to attempt dramatic compofitions. Pie
complied, but not till after many refuials 5 and gave
at length a tragedy, which met with gr^at luccefs.
He then marched on in the career he had begun, but
was checked by a fit of love for an apothecary’s
daughter ; which fit of love ended in marriage. His
father, doubly enraged at his fon for thus furrender¬
ing himfelf to the two demons of Love and Poetry,
difinherited him 5 but falling fick fome years after, in
1707, he re-eftablifhed him in all his rights, and died.
Crebillon was, however, little better for his acquifi-
tions, the greatefl part being probably wafted before
they came ; and thus, though high in fame, and at the
prime of life, he ftiil continued poor. Pie loft his wife
in and fortune long frowned upon him, till at
iaft he obtained a place in the French academy, and
the employment of cenfor of the police. He was af¬
terwards in more profperous circumftances, which con¬
tinued to the end of a long life. He died in 1762, at
the age of 88* much regretted on account of his nu¬
merous virtues. He was of a temperament extremely
robuft, without which he could not have held out fo
long ; for he ate prodigioufly, and continued to the
laft fo to do. Pie flept little, and lay as hard as if
upon the floor; not from any pious principle of morti¬
fying, but becaufe he liked it. He was always fur-
rounded with about 30 dogs and cats; and ufed to
fmoke a good deal of tobacco, to keep his room fweet
againft their exhalations. Whenever he was ill, he ufed
to manage himfelf according to his own fancy and feel¬
ings 3 for he made a jeft of phyfic and phyficians. Pie
was a dealer in ban *mots. Being afked one day in full
company, which of his works he thought the beft ?
“ I don’t know (fays he) which is my beft produc¬
tion 3 but this (pointing to his fon) is certainly my
worft.”
CRECY. Crescy, or Cressy. See Cressy.
CREDENTIALS, letters of recommendation and
power, efpecially fuch as are given to ambaffadors or
public minifters, by the prince or ftate that fends them
to foreign courts.
CREDIBILITY, a fpecies of evidence, lefs indeed
than abfolute certainty or demonftration, but greater
than’mere poflibility; it is nearly allied to probability,
and feems to be a mean between poflibility and demon-
fixation.
J2 ] , CUE
CREDIT, in Commerce, a mutual truft or loan of
merchandife or money, on the reputation of the pro¬
bity and folvability of a dealer.
Credit is either public or private. Every trader
ought to have fome eftate, ftock, or portion of his
own, fufficient to carry on the traffic be is engaged in :
they Ihould alfo keep their dealings within the extent
of their capital, fo that no difappointment in their re¬
turns may incapacitate them from fupporting their cre¬
dit. Yet traders of worth and judgment may forne-
times lie under the neceffity of borrowing money for
carrying on their bufinefs to the beft advantage 3 but
then the borrower ought to be fo juft to his own re¬
putation, and to his creditors, as to be well allured that
he has fufficient effedts within his power to pay off his
obligations in due time. But if a trader Ihouid bor¬
row money to the extent of his credit, and launch out
into trade fo as to employ it with the fame freedom as
if it was his own proper ftock, fuch a way of- manage¬
ment is very precarious, and may be attended with
dangerous confequcnces. Merchants ought never to
purchafe their goods for exportation upon long credit,
with intent to difeharge the debt by the return of the
fame goods 3 for this has an injurious influence on trade
feveral ways 3 and if any merchant has occalion to
make ufe of his credit, it ihould always be for the
borrowing of money, but never for the buying of
goods 3 nor is the large credit given to wholeiale tra¬
ders a prudential or juliifiable pradlice in trade.
The public credit of a nation is faid to run high
when the commodities of that nation find a ready vent,
are fold at a good price, and when dealers may be fafe-
ly trufted with them : alfo when lands and houfes find
ready purchafers 3 when money is to be borrowed at
a low intereft 3 when people think it fafe and advan¬
tageous to venture large flocks in trade 3 and when notes,
mortgages, &c. will pafs for money.
Letters of Credit, are thole given to perfons in
whom a merchant, &c. can truft, to take money of
his correfpondent abroad, in cafe he happens to need
it. *
Credit is alfo ufed for the currency which papers
or bills have in the public or among dealers. In this
fenfe credit is faid to rife, when in negociating the
(hares of the company, they are received and fold at
prices above par, or the ftandard of their firft creation.
Difcredit is oppofed to credit, and is ufed where money,
bills, &c. fall below par.
Credit w-as alfo anciently a right which lords had
over their vaffals; confifting in this, that during a cer¬
tain time they might oblige them to lend them mo¬
ney. In this fenfe, the duke of Brittany had credit
during fifteen days on his own fubjedls, and thofe of
the bilhop of Nantes 3 and the biffiop had the fame
credit or right among his fubje£ts and thofe of that
prince.
CREDITON, a market town in Devonfhire, con-
fiderable for a good woollen manufaftory 3 it is fitua-
ted about 9 miles north-weft of Exeter, in W. Long*
3. 50. and N. Lat. 50. 50.
CREDITOR, a perfon to whom any fum of mo¬
ney is due, either by obligation, promife, or other-
wife. See Debt.
CREDULITY denotes a weaknefs of mind, by
reafon of which a perfon yields his affent to propofi-
tions
cue
before he has conisdered
[
their
■eduiity, tions or fa&s,
'rcoch. dence.
CREECH, Thomas, eminent for his tranflations
of ancient authors both in profe and verfe, was fon of
Thomas Creech, and born near Sherborne in Dorfet-
fhire in 1659. vvas educated in grammar learning
under Mr Curganven of Sherborne, to whom he after¬
wards dedicated a tranflation of one of Theocritus’s
Idylliums: and entered a commoner of Wadham col¬
lege in Oxford in 1675. Wood tells us that his father
was a gentleman j but Giles Jacob fays, in his Lives
and Char adders of Englilh poets, that his parents cir-
cumftances not being lufficient to afford him a liberal
education, his difpofition and capacity for learning
raifed him up a patron in Colonel Strangeways, whole
generofity fupplied that defedt. Be that as it will,
Creech diftinguilhed himfelf much, and was accounted
a good philofopher and poet, and a diligent ftadent.
June 13. 1683, he took the degree of mailer of arts,
and not long alter was eledled probationer fellow of All¬
fouls college ; to which, Jacob obferves, the great repu¬
tation acquired by his tranflation of Lucretius recom¬
mended him. Wood tells us, that upon this occafion
he gave Angular proofs of his claffical learning and
philofophy before his examiners. He alfo took the
degree of B. D. on the 18th of March 1696. He
now began to be well known by the works he publilh-
ed ; but Father Niceron obferves, that they were of
no great advantage to his fortune, fince his circumftan-
ces were always indifferent. In 16991 having taken
holy orders, he was prefented by his college to the li¬
ving of Welwynn in Hertfordlhire •, but this he had
not long enjoyed before he put an end^to his own life.
The motives of this fatal cataftrophe have been vari-
oully reprefented. The author of the Nouvtlles de la
Refmblique des Lettres informs us, that in the year 1700
Mr Creech fell in love with a woman who treated him
with great neglefl, though Ihe wras complaifant enough
to feveral others. This affront he could not bear, and
refolved not to furvive it. Whereupon he ihut himfelf
up in his ftudy, where he hanged himfelf about the
end of June 1700, and was found in that fituation
three days after. The Poetical Regifter fays nothing
of the particular manner of his death, but only that
he unfortunately made away w’ith himfelf in the year
1701 ; and aferibes this fatal cataftrophe of Mr Creech’s
life to the morofenefs of his temper, which made him
lefs efteemed than his great merit deferved, and enga¬
ged him in frequent animofities and difputes upon that
account. But from an original letter of Arthur Char-
lett, preferved in the Bodleian library, it has lately
difeovered, that this unhappy event wras owing
very different caufe. There was a fellow colle-
of whom Creech frequently borrowed money:
but repeating his applications too often, he met one
day with fuch a cold reception, that he retired in a
fit of gloomy difguft, and in three days was found
hanging in his ftudy. Creech’s principal performances
are, 1. A tranflation of Lucretius. 2. A tranflation
of Horace j in which, however, he has omitted fome
few odes. 3. The Idylliums of Theocritus, with Ra-
pin’s Difcourfe of Paftorals. 4. A tranflation of Ma-
nilius’s Aftronomicon. Befides tranflations of feveral
parts of Virgil, Ovid, and Plutarch 3 printed in differ-
lent collections.
been
to a
gian
? 2 ] CUE
CREED, a brief fummary of the articles
Chriftian’s belief.
The moft ancient form of creeds is that which goes
under the name of the apoftolic creed : befides this, there
are feveral other ancient forms and fcattered remains of
creeds to be met with in the primitive records of the
church. The firft is the form of apoftolical doftrine,
collected by Origen ; the fecond is a fragment of a creed
preferved by Tertullian 3 the third remains of a creed is
in the works of Cyprian 3 the fourth, a creed compofed
by Gregory Thaumaturgus, for the ufe of his own
church 3 the fifth, the creed of Lucian the martyr 3 the
fixth, the creed of the apoftolical conftitutions. Befides
thefe fcattered remains,of the ancient creeds, there are
extant fome perfect forms, as thofe of Jerufalem, Ctefarea,
Antioch, &c.
The moft univerfal creeds are, the Apostolical,
the AthanaSIAN, and the NlCENE creeds. See thefe
articles.
Thefe three creeds are ufed in the public offices of
the church of England 3 and fubfeription to them is
required of all the eftablifhed clergy. Subfcription
to thefe was alfo required of the diffenting teachers,
by the toleration aft 3 but from which they are now
relieved by 19 Geo. III.
CREEK, a part of a haven, where any thing is
landed from the, fea. So many landing places as there
are in a harbour or port, fo many creeks there are. It
is alfo laid to be a ftiore or bank whereon the -water beats,
running in a fmall channel from any part of the fea 5
from the Latin crepido. This word is ufed in the flat.
4 Hen. IV. c. 20. and 5 Eliz. c. 5.
CREENGLES. See Cringle.
CREEPER. See Certhia, Ornithology Index.
Creeper, in naval affairs, an inftrument of iron
refernbling a grappling, having a jhank, and four hooks
or claws. It is ufed to throw into the bottom of any
river or harbour, with a rope faftened to it, to hook
and draw up any thing from the bottom which may
have been loft. See Plate CL.
CRELLIUS, John, a famous Socinian, born in
1590, in a village near Noremberg. In 1612, he went
into Poland, where the Unitarians had a fchool, in
which he became profeffor of divinity, and minifter
at Crackow, where he died in 1632, aged 42. He
was the author, 1. Of a famous Treatife againft the
Myftery of the Trinity 3 2. Commentaries on a part of
the New Teftament 3 and other works. All of them
are fcarce.
CREMA^a city and bilhop’s fee of Italy, capital cf a
diftrift of the Milanefe, called from it Cretnafco ; ’it
ftands almoft in the middle between Milan and Mantuar
in E. Long. 10. 15 and N. Lat. 45. 20.
CREM ASTER, in Anatomy, the name of a mufcle of
the tefticle, of which there is one on each fide. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
CREMATION is fometimes ufed for burning, par¬
ticularly when applied to the ancient cuftom of burn¬
ing the dead. This cuftom is well known to have
prevailed among moft eaftern nations, and continued
with their defcenrlants after they had peopled the
different parts of Europe. Hence we find it prevail¬
ing in Greece, Italy, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark, till Chriftianity aboliftied
iL
CREMONA,.
of a Creed
II ,
Cremation.
CHE [ -7
Cremona CREMONA, in Ansient Geography, a Roman co-
Ctvln iony, with niunic:pai rights, fettled beyond the Po, be>
low the confluence of the Addua, on the report of Han¬
nibal’s march into Italy (Polybius) : a town at this day
ftill maintaining its name and flourifhing Hate. It was
an opulent and mercantile city ; but fuffered greatly in
the civil wars of Auguttus (Virgil). In the war with
ViteJlius, it was deffroyed by the partizans ofVefpafianj
but was loon after rebuilt by the munificence of the
citizens and exhortations of Velpafian, (Tacitus.) Now
capital of the Cremonefe, in the duchy of Milan. E.
Long. 10. 30. N. Lat. 45.
CRENATED, a term ufed in botany. See Botany
Index.
CRENELLE , or I'M rattled, in Heraldry, is ufed
when any honourable ordinary is drawn, like the battle¬
ments on a wall to defend men from the enemies fhot.
Fhis attribute belongs to the arms of fuch as have de¬
fended caftles for their prince or country, or of fuch as
are fkilled in architefture.
CRENOPHYLAX, in antiquity, a magiflrate of
Athens, who had the infpeftion of fountains.
CREODIBA, in the cuftoms of the middle age, a
robbery and murder committed in a wood, where the
body of the perfon killed was burnt in order to prevent
any difcovery of the crime. The word, fays Wendelinus,
is compounded of crny and diven, that is, “ wood-
robbers.”
CREOLES, a name originally given to the families
defcended from the Spaniards who firft fettled at Mexico
in America. Thefe are much more numerous than the
Spaniards properly fo called, and the Mulattoes, which
two other fpecies of inhabitants they diftinguilh 5 and
are excluded from all confiderable employments. It is
now ufed in a more extenfive fenfc, and applied to all
natives of the Weft Indies.
CREON, king of Corinth, wras fon of Sifyphus. He
promifed his daughter Glauce to Jafon, who had repu¬
diated Medea. To revenge the fuccefs of her rival,
Medea fent her for a prefent a gown covered with poi-
fon. Glauce put it on, and was leized with hidden pains.
Her body took fire, and fhe expired in the greateft:
torments. The houfe alfo was confumed by the fire, and
Creon and his family (hared Glance’s fate.
Creon, fon of Mencetius, was father to Jocafta,
the wife and mother of Oedipus. At the death of
Laius, who had married Jocafta, Creon afcended the
vacant throne of Thebes. As the ravages of the
Sphynx were intolerable, Creon offered his crown and
daughter in marriage to him who could explain the
enigmas which the monfter propofed. Oedipus was
happy in his explanations, and he afcended the throne
of Thebes, and married Jocafta without knowing that
fhe was his mother, and by her he had two fons, Poly-
nices and Eteocles. Thefe two fons mutually agreed
after their father’s death to reign m the kingdom each
a year alternately. Eteocles firft afcended the throne
by right of feniority; but when he was once in power
he refufed to refign at the appointed time, and his
brother led againft him an army of Argives to fupport
his right. The war was decided by a fingle combat be¬
tween the two brothers. They both killed one ano¬
ther, and Creon afcended the throne till Leodamus
the fon of Eteocles fhould be of fufficient age to af-
34 ] cue
fume the reins of government. In his regal capacity CVon
he commanded that the Argives, and more particulai ly li
Polynices, who was. the came of all the bloodlhed CrelceRt'
fhould remain unburied. If this was in any manner
difobeyed, the offenders were to be buried alive. An¬
tigone the lifter of Polynices tranfgreffed, and was ac¬
cordingly punilhed. Hsemon the fon of Creon, who
was pafllonately fond of Antigone, killed himfelf ou
her grave, when his father refufed to grant her par¬
don. Creon was afterwards killed by Thefeus, who
had made war with him becaufe he refufed burial to
the Argives.
CREPANCE, in the manege, a chop or cratch in
a horfe’s leg, given by the fpunges of the (hoes of one
of the hinder feet croffing and ftriking againft the
other hinder foot. This cratch degenerates into an
ulcer.
CREPIDiE, among the Romans, a kind of flippers
or fhoes, which were always worn with the pallium, as
the calcei were with the toga.
CREPIS, Hawk -weed, a genus of plants belonging
to the fyngenefia clafs; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Compofttce. See Botany
Index.
CREPITATION, that noife which fome falls
make over the fire in calcination, called alfo detona~
tion.
Crepitation is alfo ufed in furgery, for the noife
made by the ends or pieces of bones, when the furgeon
moves a limb to affure himfelf by his ear of the exiftence
of a frafture.
CREPUNDIA, in antiquity, a term ufed to exprefs
fuch things as were expofed along with children, as rings,
jewels, &c. ferving as tokens whereby they afterwards
might be known,
CREPUSCULUM in AJlronomy, twilight; the
time from the firft dawn or appearance of the morning
to the rifing of the fun 5 and again, between the fetting
of the fun and the laft remains of day.
Papias derives the word from creperus; which, he
fays, anciently fignified uncertain, doubtful, q. d. a du¬
bious llg/i^ The crepufculum is ufually computed to
begin and end when the fun is about 18 degrees below
the horizon j for then the ftars of the fixth magnitude
difappear in the morning and appear in the evening.
It is of longer duration in the folftices than in the
equinoxes, and longer in an oblique than in a right
fphere.
The crepufcula are occafioned by the fun’s rays re-
frafled in our atmofphere, and reflefted from the par¬
ticles thereof to the eye. See Twilight.
CRESCENT, the new moon, which as it begins to
recede from the fun, (hows a little rim of light, termina¬
ting in points or horns, which are ftill increafing till it
become full and round in the oppofition. The word is
formed from crefco, “ I grow.”
The term is alfo ufed for the fame figure of the
moon in its wane or decreafe, but improperly; be¬
caufe the points or horns are then turned towards
the weft, whereas they look to the eaft in the juft cre-
fcent.
Crescent, in Heraldry, is a bearing in form of a
half moon. The Ottomans bear finople, a crefcent
montant, argent.
6
The
CUE [ 735 ]
flrefcent The ciefcent is frequently ufed as a difference in coat with i
l| armour, to diftinguifh it for that of a fecond brother or
,refcimbe-junjor family.
_ i The figure of the crefcent is the Turkifh fymbol ; or
rather is that of the city Byzantium, which bore this
device from all antiquity j as appears from medals ftruck
in honour of Auguilus, Trajan, &c.
The crefcent is fometimes montant, i. e. its points
look towards the top of the chief, which is its moft or¬
dinary reprefentation ; whence fome contend, that the
crefcent, abfolutely fo called, implies that fituation j
though other authors blazon it montant, when the horns
are towards the dexter fide of the efcutcheon, in which
pofition others call it incroijfant.
Crefcents are faid to be adojfed, when their backs
or thicket! parts are turned towards each other; their
points looking to the fides of the fhield. Crefcent in¬
verted, is that whofe points look towards the bottom *,
turned crefcents are placed like thofe adoffed •, the dif¬
ference is, that all their points look to the dexter fide
of the fhield : conturned crefcents, on the contrary, look
to the finifter fide : affronted or appointed crefcents, are
contrary to the adoffed, the points looking towards each
other.
Crescent is alfo the name of a military order, infti-
tuted by Renatus of Anjou, king of Sicily, &c. in
1448 } fo called from the badge or fymbol thereof, a
crefcent of gold enamelled. What gave occafion to
this eftablifhment was, that Renatus took for his device
a crefcent, with the word loos, “ praife,” which, in the
flyle of rebus, makes lots in crcfcent, q. d. by advancing
in virtue, one merits praife.
CRESCENTIA, the Calabash Tree ; a genus of
plants belonging to the didynamia clafs ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 25th order, Futaminece.
See Botany Index.
The (hells of calabafhes are made ufe for various
purpofes. At Barbadoes, befides drinking-cups and
punch bowls, there are made of them fpoons, diflies,
and other utenfils for the (laves. Some of thefe (hells
are fo large, as to be capable of holding 15 pints of
water. The pulp is feidom eaten, except by cattle in
the time of drought. The wood, which is hard and
fmooth, is made into (fools, chairs, and other furni¬
ture.
CRESCIMBENI, John Maria, an Italian poet,
was born at Macerata in Anconia, 1663. His talents for
poetry and eloquence developed themfelves early. His
verfes at fir(! had too much pomp and point; but re¬
dding in Rome, and reading the bed Italian poets,
brought him back to nature. Pie not only reformed
himfelf, but undertook to reform bad tafte in general.
From this motive he projefted the eftablifhment of a
new academy, under the name of Arcadia; the mem¬
bers of which at firft did not exceed 14, but after¬
wards increafed much. They called themfelves the
fhepherds of Arcadia, and each took the name of fome
fhepherd and fome place in that ancient kingdom.
The founder of this fociety was appointed the director
of it in 1690, and held this honourable poft 38 years;
namely, to the year of his death, which happened in
17 28. Among a great number of works, in verie and
profe, the principal is, A Hiftory of the Italian Poetry,
very much efteemed, and reprinted, in 1731, at Ve¬
nice, in fix volumes 4to. This hiftory is accompanied
ORE
containing anecdotes of Italian Crefcimbe-
commentary
poets. He publiflied alfo A Hiitory of the Academy
of Arcadia, together with the lives of the moft illuftri-
ous Arcadians : and many other works. v
CRESCY, or Cressy. See Cressy.
CRESS, Water Cress, or Cresses. See Sisym¬
brium, Botany Index.
Indian Cress. See Tropteolum, Botany Index.
CRESSY, a port town of Picardy in France, about
44 miles fouth of Calais, and 27 north-weft of Abbe¬
ville, remarkable on account of the viftory obtained
there over the French by Edward III. of England, in
the year 1346. E. Long. 2. o. N. Lat. 50. 20.
Edwrard having encountered and overcome many
difficulties in his expedition, was at laft fo clofely fol¬
lowed and haraffed by the French army, commanded
by the king of France in perfon, that he determined
to make a (land at this place, and to give his purfuerS
a check. For this purpofe he chofe his ground with
great judgment, on the gentle declivity of a hill, with
a thick wood in his rear. He ordered deep entrench¬
ments to be made on each flank, and waited with
firmnefs the approach of his enemies. The king of
France, dreading nothing fo much as the efcape of the
Englifti, began the march of his great army from Ab¬
beville early in the morning, Auguft 26. and continued
it feveral hours with great eagernefs, till he received
intelligence that the Englifti had halted at Creffy, and
were prepared to give him battle. He was advifed at
the fame time not to engage that day, when his troops
were much fatigued with their march, and in great
diforder; and he was difpofed to have taken this ad¬
vice. But the difcipline of thefe times was fo imperfedh,
that the orders given for halting were not obeyed; and
one corps of this mighty hod impelling another^ they
continued advancing till they came into the prefence of
their enemies in much confufion.
Edward had employed the forenoon of this import¬
ant day in drawing up his army in the moft excellent
order, in three lines. The firft line, which confifted
of 800 men at arms, 4000 Englifh archers, and 600
Welfti foot, was commanded by his young, amiable,
and heroic fon, the prince of Wales, affifted by the
earls of Warwick and Oxford, and feveral other no¬
blemen. The fecond line, compofed of 800 men at
arms, 4000 halbardiers, and 2400 archers, was led by
the earls of Arundel and Northampton ; the laft line
body of referve, in which were 700 men at arm
Crcfiy.
5300 billmen, and 6000 archers, was ranged along the
fummit of the hill, and conduced by the king in per¬
fon, attended by the lords Moubray, Mortimer, and
others. When the army was completely formed, Ed¬
ward rode along the lines, and by his words and looks
infpired his troops with the moft ardent courage and
ftrongeft hopes of viftory. He then commanded the
cavalry to difmount, and the whole army to fit down
upon the graft, in their ranks, and refrefh themfelves
with meat, drink, and reft. As foon as the French
army came in view, they fprung from the ground,
full of ftrength and fpirit, and flood ready to receive
them.
The king of France, affifted by the kings of Bohe¬
mia and Pvlajorca, the dukes of Lorraine and Sivoy,
and feveral other fovereign princes, with the flower of
the French nobility, laboured to reftore fome-degr-e
of
c R E [ 73S ] C R E
Crefly, of order to his prodigious army, and drew it up alfo in
Crcih three lines, but very indiftirxftly formed. The firft line
’””v was commanded in chief by the king of Bohemia j
the fecond by the earl of Alen^on, the king of France’s
brother j and the third by Philip in perfon j and each
of thefe lines contained a greater number of troops than
the whole Englifh army.
The battle of Crefl'y was begun about three o’clock
in the afternoon, Auguft 26. by a great body of Ge-
noefe crofs-bowmen, in the French fervice, who let fly
their quarrels at too great a dittance to do any execu¬
tion, and wrere prefently routed by a fhowrer of arrow's
from the Englifli archers. The earl of Alen^on, after
trampling to death many of the flying Genoele, advan¬
ced to the charge, and made a furious attack on that
corps commanded by the prince of Wales. The earls
of Arundel and Northampton advanced with the fe¬
cond line to fuftain the prince, and Alentjon was fup-
ported by as many troops as could crowd to his aflht-
ance. Here the battle raged for feme time with un¬
common fury ; and the earl of Warwick anxious for
the fate of the day and the fafety of the prince, fent a
meffenger to the king, entreating him to advance w'ith
the third line. Edward, who had taken his fiand on
a wind-mill on the top of the hill, from whence he had
a full view1 of both armies, afked the meffehger, if his
Ion w'as unhdrfed, or wounded, or killed ? and being
anfwered, that the prince was unhurt, and performed
prodigies of valour. “ Go then,” faid he, “ and tell
my fon and his brave companions, that I will not de¬
prive them of any part of the glory of their viftory.”
This flattering mefl'age being made known, infpired
the prince and his troops with redoubled ardour; and
the king of Bohemia, the earl of Alen^on, and many
other great men, being flain, the whole firfl: and fecond
7,ines of the French army were put to flight. Philip,
undifmayed at the flaughter of his troops, and the fall
of fo many princes, advanced to the charge with the
line under his immediate command. But this body
foon fnared the fame fate wdth the other two ; and
Philip, after having been unhorfed, and wounded in
the neck and thigh, w'as carried off the field by John
de Hainault, and fled with no more than five knights
and about 60 foldiers in his company, of all his mighty
army, which at the beginning of the battle confifted of
more than 120,000 men. Such w'as the famous vic¬
tory of Creffy, the greateft ever gained by any king
of England. After the battle, the king flew into the
arms of the prince of Wales, and grafping him to his
bofom, cried in an eeftafy of joy, “ My dear fon, you
have this day ffiowed yourfelf worthy of the knight¬
hood which you lately received, and of the crown for
which you have fo bravely fought j perfevere in your
honourable courfe.” The prince, as modeft as he
was brave, funk down on his knees, his face covered
with blufhes, and begged his father’s bleffing. Ed¬
ward continued with his army at Creffy three days,
employed in numbering and burying the dead. The
French had left on this bloody feene the king of Bo¬
hemia, 11 other princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights,
1500 gentlemen, 4000 men at arms, and 30,000 other
foldiers,
CREST, in armoury, denotes the uppermoft part
of an armoury 5 or that part riling over the calk or
helmet. Next to the mantle, lays Guillim, the creff
or cognizance claims the higheft place ; being feated
on the moll eminent part of the helmet; yet fo as to
admit an interpolation of fame efcrol, wreath, chapeau,
crown, &.c.
The ancient warriors wore crefts to ftrike terror in
their enemies, as the fight of the fpoils of animals they
had killed ; or to give them the more formidable mien,
by making them appear taller, &c.
In the ancient tournaments, the cavaliers had plumes
of feathers, efpecially thofe of oftriches and herons,
for their crefts: thele tufts they called plumarts; and
were placed in tubes, on the tops of high caps or
bonnets. Some had their crefts of leather ; others of
parchment, pafteboard, &c. painted or vainilhed, to
keep out the weather ; others of fteel, wood, &c. on
which were fometimes reprefented a member or ordi¬
nary of the coat 5 as an eagle, fleur-de-lys, &c. but
never any of tbofe called honourable ordinaries^ as pale,
fefle, See. The crefts were changeable at pleafure 5
being reputed no other than as an arbitrary device or
ornament.
Herodotus attributes the rife of crefts to the Carians,
who firft bore feathers on their calks, and painted figures
on the bucklers j whence the Perfians called them
cocks.
The creft is efteemed a greater mark of nobility
than the armoury, as being borne at tournaments; to
which none were admitted till they had given proof
of their nobility. Sometimes it ferves to diftinguifh
the feveral branches of a family. It has alfo ferved,
on occafion, as the diftinguifhing badge of factions.
Sometimes the creft is taken from the device j but
more ufually it is formed of fome piece of the arms :
thus, the emperor’s creft is an eagle \ that of Caflile,
a caftle, &c. Families that exchange arms, as the
houfes of Brunfwick and Cologne have done, do not
change their crefts: the firft ftill retain the horfe, and
the latter the mermaid.
Crest, in Heraldry, the figure placed above the
helmet in an atchievement. See Heraldry.
Cx.tsT-fa/len, a fault of a horfe, when the upper
part of his neck, called the ere/}, hangs to one fide :
this they cure by placing it upright, clipping away the
fpare Ikin, and applying plafters to keep it in a proper
polition.
GRETA, or Chalk, in Natural Hifiory. See
Chalk, Mineralogy Index.
CRETE, one of the largeft illands in the Mediter¬
ranean, lying between 22 and 27 degrees of eaft lon¬
gitude, and between 35 and 36 degrees of north lati¬
tude. According to Strabo, this ifland is 287 rihles
in length ; and according to Pliny, 270 j and accord¬
ing to Scylax, 312. As to its breadth, it is not, as
Pliny obferves, above 55 miles where wideft •, whence
it was ftyled, as Stephanus obferves, the Long IJIand.
It has the Archipelago to the north, the African iea
to the louth, the Carpathian fea to the eaft, and the
Ionian to the weft. Anciently it was known by the
names of Aeria, Chthonia, Idea, Curete, Mac or is, &c.
but its moft common name was that oi-Crete.
The Cretan mythologifls, quoted by Diodorus Si¬
culus, relate that the firft: inhabitants of the illand
were the Daftyli Idsei, who dwelt around Mount Ida ;
they were regarded as magicians, becaufe they poffef-
fed a variety of knowledge, and were particularly Ikil-
E . . [ 737 1 . C R E
Orpheus, who diftinguifhed yet I have detailed thefe at fome length, becatijs they
C R
led in religious myfteries.
himfelf To highly in poetry and mufic, was their difciple.
They difcovered the ufe of fire, iron, and brafs, and
invented the art of working thefe metals in Berecyn-
thius, a mountain near Aptera. Thofe invaluable
difcoveries procured them divine honours. One of
them, named Hercules, rendered himfelf famous by his
courage and great exploits. He inftituted the Olympic
games ; though potterity, by a miftake arifing from his
bearing the fame name have afcribed that inftitution
to the fon of Alcmena *, wdso, indeed, trode in the
fteps of his predeceifor, and raifed himfelf alfo to immor¬
tality.
The Da&yli Idsei were the anceftors of the Curetes.
Thefe laft at firft inhabited the foreits and caves of the
mountains. Afterwards they entered into domeftic life,
and contributed, by their inftitutions, to the civilization
of mankind. They taught men to colled flocks of
flieep, to tame the ferocity of wild animals for domeftic
purpofes, and to invite bees into hives, that they might
rifle them of the fruit of their labours. They fir ft
prompted men to the chafe, and taught the ufe or the
bow. They were the inventors of fivords and of
military dances. The noile which they made, by
dancing in armour, hindered Saturn from hearing the
cries of Jupiter, whofe education Rhea had entrufttd
to them. With the afliftance of the nymphs, they
brought up that a god in a cave in Mount Ida, feeding
him with the milk of the goat Amalthea, and with
honey.
To this period mythology affigns the origin of the
Titans; their abode near Gnoffus, wher.e flood the
palace of Rhea; their travels over the whole earth ;
their war againft Ammon, and his defence by Bacchus j
the nuptials of Jupiter and Juno, celebrated nigh the
river Therenus in Crete-, the gods, goddtifes, and heroes,
who defcended from them.
The moft; illuftrious of thofe heroes were Minos and
Rhadamanthus. They are laid to have been the Tons
of Jupiter and Europa, who was conveyed into the
ifland on a bull. Minos becoming king, built feveral
cities-, the moft confiderable of which are—Gnodus,
on that fide of the ifland which faces Ana, Phoeftus
on the fouthern flrore, and Cydpn on the weftern,
facing Peloponnefus. He gave to his fubjefls a code
of admirable laws, which he pretended to have re¬
ceived from his father Jupiter in the grotto of Mount
Ida.
Rhadamanthus diftinguiftied himfelf by the impartiality
of his judgments, and by the inflexible feverity. with
which he inflifled punifhment on the impious and wicked.
His empire extended over the chief ifles of the Archi¬
pelago, and the inhabitants of the adjacent coafts of Ana
fubmitted to him on account of his high reputation for
probity and juftice. Mythologifls have conftituted him
•judge in the regions below, to determine the future ftate
of the righteous and the wicked. I hey have conferred
on him tne lame honours which were beftowed on Minos,
the jufteft: of kings.
Thus far have been followed the Cretan traditions
as they are related by Diodorus 5 but hiflorians differ
about the truth of them. There are a variety of opi¬
nions concerning the firft inhabitants of Crete. Strabo,
who has difcufftd them with great erudition, fays, after
feveral pages on the fubje6t: 44 I am not fond 01 fabiesj
Vol. VI. Part,II.
are connected with theology. Every diicourfe concern¬
ing the gods ffrould examine the religious opinions of
antiquity, and diftinguith them from fable. The ancients
were pleafed to conceal their knowledge of nature under
a veil. It is now impoflible to unfold the meaning of
their enigmas. But by expofing to light the numerous
allegories which they have left us, and by examining
attentively their mutual relations and differences, genius
may perhaps be able to unfold the truths which arc
couched under them.” .
But leaving mythology for the more certain records
and monuments of hiffory, we find that Crete received
its name from Cres, the firft of its monarehs. He was
author of feveral ufeful inventions, which contributed
to the happinefs of his fubjedls. Prompted by gratitude,
they endeavoured to perpetuate the memory of his
favours, and to immortalize his name, by naming the
ifland after him.
In order to diftinguifti the true Cretans from ffrangers,
they were named Eteocretes. A number of colonies,
from different parts of Greece, fettled in the ifland.
The agreeablenefs of the climate, and the fertility of
the foil, invited them to fix their habitation there.
The Lacedaemonians, Argives, and Athenians, were
the principal people who fent colonies into Crete.
This is what makes Homer fay, 44 Crete is an extenfive
ifland in the midft of the tlonny main. The foil is
rich and fertile. It contains an immenfe number of
inhabitants. It is adorned with a hundred cities. Its
inhabitants fpeak in various languages. We find there
Achseans, valiant Eteocretes, Cydonians, Dorians, and
godlike Pelafgians.” The Eteocretes inhabited the
fouthern diviffon of the ifland} they built there the
city of Proefus, and ere&ed a temple to Di&aean
Jove.
Cres was not the only monarch who reigned in the
ifland of Crete. He had a feries of fucceffors. But
hiftory affords little information concerning them : only
the names of a few of them are preferved, and a fmall
number of events which happened under the reign ot
fome others, but blended and disfigured with an inter¬
mixture of fable. Among thofe monarchs we find two
Jupiters, and two of the name of Minos. However,
moft writers confound them, and aferibe to one thofe
tranfatlions and exploits which fliould be flrared between
the two.
This remark chiefly regards Minos, who was efteemed
the wifeft legiflator of antiquity. The office affigned
him in the regions below is a clear and certain proof of
his having gained an exalted reputation by his juftice.
Greece, fays Plato, has with great propriety adopted
the laws of Crete $ for they are founded on the folid
bafis of teafon and equity, and have a natural tendency
to render the people, who live in fubjection to them,
opulent and happy. One of thofe laws forbade “ the
Cretans ever to carry their feftivity fo far as to intoxi¬
cate thernfelves with wine.” The following was very
luitable to reprefs the prefumptuous ardour of youth :
4‘ Let young people not canvals the laws with an indif-
creet curiofity ; let them not examine whether the law¬
giver has done right or wrong in promulgating them ;
but let them join unanimoufly in declaring them good,
fince they proceed from the gods. If any of the old
men perceive fumething in them meriting amendment,
5 A let
C R E
Crete, let him mention it to the mngifirate, or difcufs it with
his equals, but never in the prefence of the young
people.■’ That excellent code was engraven on tables
of brafs : and Talos, chief minifter to Minos, vilited all
the towuis and cities in the ifland, three times a-year, to
obferve in what manner the laws were executed and
obeyed. The king of Crete, well knowing that the
marvellous is neceffary to command the belief and en¬
force the obedience of the people, pretended that he had
received thofe laws from his father Jupiter, in the grotto
of Mount Ida. In the fame manner, Lycurgus, before
promulgating his laws, repaired to Delphos, and gave
out they had received the fanflion of Apollo. A
like reafon induced Numa to pretend to an intimacy
with the nymph Egeria, and Mahomet to afciibe his
doEtrines and inftitutions to the revelation of the angel
Gabriel.
In contradiction to this account, others of the ancients
defcribe Minos as a prince impotently abandoned to
the fury of his pallions, and a barbarous conqueror.
Falling pafiionately. in love with the nymph Didfynna,
who refufed to gratify his willies, he purfued her to the
brink of the lliore, and forced her to plunge into the
fea, where fhe was faved by fome fifhermen, who received
her in their nets. He was the firfl of the Greeks w'ho
appeared in the Mediterranean at the head of a naval
armament. He conquered the Cyclades, expelled the
Carians, eftablilhed Cretan colonies in thofe illands, and
committed the government of them to his fon.
Being informed, while he was at Paros, that his fon
Androgens was {lain at Athens, he declared war againft
Egeus, and impofed on him a difgraceful tribute; from
the payment of which Thefeus delivered his country.
He took arms againft Nifus, king of Megara, made him
prifoner by the treachery of his daughter Scylla, and
put him to death, together with Megarus, the fon of
Hippomanes, wdio had brought fome forces to his
affiftance. Daedalus, who had by fome means incurred
his difpleafure, defpairing of pardon from fo fevere
and inflexible a prince, employed the refources of his
inventive genius, in order to efcape from his power.
He fled to Sicily, gained the proteftion of King Cocalus,
and obtained an afylum in his court. Valerius Flaccus
has deferibed his flight in a very lively and piflurefque
manner. u Thus Dcedalus, with the wings of a bird,
afeended from Mount Ida. Befide him flew the
comrade of his flight, with Ihorter wings. They
appeared like a cloud riling in the air. Minos, feeing
his vengeance thus eluded, glowed with impotent rage.
In vain he fallowed with his eyes the fecure flight
of his enemies through the wide expanfe of heaven.
His guards returned to Gortynia with their quivers
idled with arrows.” The Cretan monarch did not,
however, give up his prey. He equipped a fleet, pur¬
fued the fugitive to Sicily, and fell before the walls of
Camicum.
It is plain, that thofe actions cannot agree to the
character of that juft monarch, whofe merits raifed
him to the office of determining, in the regions be¬
low, the unalterable fate of the righteous and the
wicked. We may, therefore, reafonably conclude,
that Minos the legillator is a different perfon from
the conqueror; that it wras the former who gained a
laftirg reputation by his wifdom and juftice 3 and the
e r e
latter who fubdued moft of th£ illands of the Archi- Crett,
pelago, but being enllaved by his paffions, tarnifhed r-
his glory by his cruelty and mercilels thirl! for ven¬
geance.
'The lalt king of Crete was Idomeneus. This prince,
accompanied by Merion, conduced 24 fhips to the
affiftance ol Agamemnon. Homer informs us of the
illuftrious exploits by which he lignalized himfelf be¬
fore the walls of Troy. At his departure, he committed
the government of his kingdom to Leucus his adopted
fon, promifing him the hand of his daughter Clifithera
if he governed wifely in his abfence. That ambitious
young man foon forgot the favours which had been fp
lavilhly beftow'ed on him. Gaining a number of par-
tifans, he in a ihort time afpired to the immediate
pcfftffion of the ciown. His impatience would not
wait till he Ihould obtain it lawfully by marriage.
Flattering himfelf, from the long abfence of the king,
that he was perhaps fallen before Troy, he determined
to mount the throne. Mida, wife to Idomeneus, and
the princefs Clifilhera, were an obftacle to his willies.
But ambition know-s no reftraint, and tramples under
foot the rcoft facred obligations. The bale wretch
having leduced the people from their allegiance, and.
captivated the affiedlions of the nobles, facrificed thofe
unfortunate vidlims in the temple. When Idomeneus,
crowned with laurels, landed on the coaft of Crete.
Leucus, who had now firmly eftablilhed his power,
attacked him with an armed force, and obliged him to
reimbark. A different account is alfo given of the
banilhment of Idomeneus. Servius fays that he had
vowed, in a ftorm, to facrifice to the gods the firft
perfon that his eyes ftiould behold on the Cretan Ihore 3
that his fan having met him firft after his arrival, he
fulfilled his vow, by facrificing him ; and that the
ifland, being foon after depopulated by peftilence, the
inhabitants looked upon that affiiflion as the effed of
divine vengeance, and expelled the parricide 3 who,
retiring to Italy, founded Salentum, on the Meffapian
coaft. But that opinion appears entirely groundiefs.
Hiftcry mentions no fon of Idomeneus. If he had a
fon of his own blood, why did he adopt Leucus ? Why
did he truft to him the government of the ifland, when
he promifed him his daughter in marriage ? The more
probable opinion is, that the plague was introduced
into the ifland by his Ihips, when he returned from
the liege of Troy, as Herodotus aflerls 3 and that
Leucus artfully made ufe of that pretext to expel his
lawful fovereign from the illand. But it appears that
the ufurper did not long enjoy the fruit of his crimes.
Soon after the departure of Idomeneus, monarchy was
abolilhed, and the government of Crete became repub¬
lican.
The republic of Crete has been celebrated by the
panegyric of Plato, ferved Lycurgus as a model for
that which he eftablithed in J.acedemon, and was be¬
held by all Greece with refpeft and admiration. Stra¬
bo has thought it not unw-orthy of his pencil, and has
confecrated the leading features of its conftitution to
lafting fame in his immortal work. It wTas indeed a
fyftem of legiflature, whofe direfl tendency was to call
forth the buds of virtue in the heart of infancy 3 to
open and expand them in youth 3 to infpire man, as
he reached maturity, with the love of his country, af
glory>
[ 7.s8 ]
C R E [ 7:
Crete, glory, and of liberty and to comfort and fupport the
•’ infirmities of age with the refpeft and efleem due to
the experience and wifdom of that period of life. It
laboured to form affectionate friends, patriotic citizens,
and worthy magiltrates. It made no ufe, however, of
a multitude of acts and ftatutes to produce thofe inefti-
mable advantages. They flowed all from one fource ;
the public education of youth, judicioufiy direCted.
The virtuous examples fet before youth in the courfe
of that education, the illuftrious deeds which were re¬
cited to them with high applaufe, the honours confer¬
red on valour and on noble aCtions, the opprobrium in¬
variably call on vice j thefe were the only means which
the Cretan lawgiver made ufe of to form a warlike, hu-
iftane, and virtuous nation.
The Cretan government, foon after the expuliion
of Idomeneus, became ariftocratical. The power was
divided between the nobles and the people. Yet as
the chief employments were occupied by the nobles,
they direfted the adminiftration of affairs. Ten magi-
ftrates were annually eledted, by a majority of voices,
in the national affembly. Thefe were named Cofmoi;
and their public office and charafter were the fame
with thofe of the Ephori at Sparta. They were the
generals of the republic in time of war, and dire&ed
all affairs of any importance. They had the right of
choofing certain old men for counfellors. Thofe old
men, to the number of twenty-eight, compofed the
Cretan fenate. They were chofen from among fuch
as had difcharged the office of Cofmoi, or had diffin-
guiffied themfelves by extraordinary merit and blame-
lefs probity. Thofe fenators continued in office du¬
ring life, poffeffed a weighty influence, and were con-
fulted in every affair of any importance. This body
was a barrier oppofed by the wifdom of the legiflator
againft the ambition of the ten chief rulers. He had
impofed another reftraint on their powder, by limiting
the period of their adminiftration to one year. His
forefig’nt wTent ftill farther. The fuffrages of the peo¬
ple might be obtained by bribery or perfonal influence,
and of confequence their choice might fometimes fall
on a man unworthy of fo honourable an office. When
that happened, he who had been undefervedly advanced
to the dignity of Cofmos was degraded, either in a
national affembly, or Amply by the voices of his col¬
leagues. This, doubtlefs, is what Plato alludes to,
when he fays, “ Neither the commonwealth, which
approaches too near to a monarchical conftitution, nor
that which affefts a licentious liberty, is founded on the
folid bafts of a juft medium between anarchy and defpo-
tifm. O Cretans! O Lacedaemonians ! by eftabliffiing
yours on firmer foundations, you have avoided thofe fa¬
tal extremes.”
Such were the diftribution of power and the ad¬
miniftration of public affairs in the Cretan govern¬
ment. Its fimplicity was admirable. A people who
were bleffed with the facred enjoyment of liberty, but
poffeffed not fuffiejent knowledge and difeemment to
dire£t themfelves, elefted magiftrates, to whom they
delegated their authority. Thofe magiftrates, thus
arrayed with fovereign power, chofe fenators to affift
and direfl their deliberations. Thefe counfellors
could neither enaft nor decide of themfelvesp but they
held their office for life} and that circumftance con¬
tributed to ftrengthsn their influence and tcffiicreafe
59 1 C R I
their experience. The magiftrates were animated by Crete,
the molt powerful motives to diftinguiih themfelves
when in office, by unwearied activity in the public.
fervice. On one fide, they were reftrained by the
fear of degradation; on the other, actuated by the
hope of becoming one day members of the national
council.
Yet let us inquire what means the Cretan lawgiver
ufed to form virtuous citizens. All the Cretans were
fubjehted to the power of the magiftrates ; and di¬
vided into two dalles, the adults and the youth. ‘ Men
arrived at maturity w'ere admitted into the firft. The
fecond confifted of all the young men who were not
below the age of feventeen. The fociety pf adulls
ate together in public halls. There rulers, magiftrates,
poor and rich, feated together, partook, without di-
ftindtion, of the fame fimple fare. A large bowl, fill¬
ed with wine and water, which went round the com-
pany from one to another, was the only drink that
they were allowed. None but the old men had a right
to call for more wine. Doubtlefs, that people, fo ce¬
lebrated for wifdom, were not ftrangers to^the power of
beauty; for a woman was appointed to prefide at each
table. She openly difiributed the moft exquifite meats'
to thofe who had diftinguiftred themfelves by their va¬
lour or wifdom. That judicious preference was fo far
from exciting envy or jealoufy, that it only prompted
every perfon to deferve it by brave and prudent con-
du£t. Near where the citizens fat, twro tables were laid,
which they named Hofpitab/e ; all ftrangers and travel¬
lers were entertained at thefe 5 and there was alfo a par¬
ticular houfe fet apart by the public, in which they
might fpend the fright.
To fupply the public expences, every citizen was
obliged to bring a tenth part of his annual income into
the treafury. The chief magiftrates were to take care
that every perfon contributed his proportion. In Crete,
fays Ariftotle, one part of the fruits of the earth, of the
produce of the flocks, of the revenues of the ftate, and
of the taxes and cuftoms, is facred to the gods: the other
is diftributed among the members of the community ; fo
that men, women, and children, all fubfift at the public
expence.
After dinner, the magiftrates and fenators ufually
fpent feme time in deliberating on the affairs of the
ftate 5 they next recounted the noble deeds which had
been done in war, celebrated the courage of their molt
diftinguiffied warriors, and animated the youth to he¬
roic valour. Thofe affemblies ivere the firft; 1’chool of
the youth. At the age of feven, the boy was per¬
mitted to handle the bow 5—from that time he was
admitted into the fociety of the adults, where he con¬
tinued till the age of feventeen. There, fitting cm
the ground, and clothed in a plain and eoarfe drel's,
he ferved the old men, and liftened, with refpe£tful
filence, to their advices. His young heart was in¬
flamed with the recital of noble deeds in arms, and
glowed with ardour to imitate them. He acquired
habits of fobriety and temperance. And being con-
ftantly witnefs of illuftrious examples of moderation,
wifdom, and patriotifm, the feeds of virtue were thus
fown and faltered in his heart before lie attained the ufe
of reafon.
He was early accuftomed to arms and fo fatigue,
that he might learn to endure exceffive heat or cold^
5 A 2 to
CUE [ 74
to chamber and leap among hills and precipices, and to
bear manfully the blows and wounds which he might
receive amid the gymnaftic exercifes or in battle. His
education was not confined to the gymnaftic exerciies j
he was alfo taught to fing the law's, which were writ¬
ten in verfe, with a certain fpecies of melody j in order
that the charms of mufic might difpofe him to learn
them with more pleafure, and might imprefs them more
deeply on his heart, and that, if he fhould ever tranf-
grefs them, he might not have the excufe of ignorance
to offer. He next learned hymns in honour of the
gods, and poems compofed in praife of heroes. When
he reached his feventeenth year, he retired from the fo-
ciety of the adults, and became a member of that of the
young men.
Here his education was ftill carried on. He exer-
cifed himfelf in hunting, wrellling, and fighting with
his companions. The lyre played tunes of martial
mufic; and he learned to follow exa£Uy the founds
and meafure of the mufician. Thofe fports and exer¬
cifes were fometimes attended with danger-, becaufe
arms of fteel w-ere fometimes ufed in them. One
dance, in w'hich the youth afpired moll ardently to
**xcel, was the Pyrrhic, originally invented in Crete.
The performers in that dance were arrayed in com¬
plete armour :—they wore a light fhovt coat, which
did not fall below the knee, and was bound with a
girdle going twdee round the waift : on their feet and
kgs were bulkins 5 above thefe they bore their arms,
and performed various military evolutions to the found
of mufical intlruinents. “ The Lacedaemonians and
Cretans (fays Libahius) cultivated dancing with ama¬
zing ardour; they confidered that their laws had di¬
rected them to praftife it for the moil important pur-
pofes ■, and it was fcarce lefs difhonourable for a Lace¬
daemonian or Cretan to negleft the military dances, than
to defert his poll in battle.'”
Thofe Cretans who were opulent and high-born, w'ere
permitted to form locieties of young men of their own
age. They often drove, with emulation, who fhould
form the moft numerous ones. The father of the young
man who formed one of thofe focieties ufually prefided
in it. He had" a right to educate thofe warlike youth,
to exercife them in running and in hunting, to confer
rewards and inflift punifhments.
Friendihip was in high eftimation among the Cre¬
tans •, but, fays Strabo, the manner in which they
condufted the intercouife of friendfhip was pretty ex¬
traordinary. Inftead of mild perfuafion, they made
ufe of violence to gain the objeCts of their affeCtions.
He who conceived an affeCtion for a young man of
bis own age, and vvifhed to attach him to himfelf by
indiffoluble bonds, formed a fcheme for carrying him off
by violence. Three days before putting it into ex¬
ecution, he communicated it to his comrades. They
could not then interfere to prevent it; becaufe if they
had, they would have appeared to think the young
man unworthy of fuch an exceffive attachment. At
the appointed day they affembled to proteC! their com¬
panion. If the ravifher appeared to them not unwor¬
thy of the objeCl of his affeClion, they made at firft a
faint refinance in obedience to the law—but, at laft,
joyfully favoured his enterprife ; if, on the other hand,
they thought him unworthy of the objeCl: of his choice,
they made fuch refiftance as to prevent him from exe-
J
o ] , C R E
cuting his defign. The feigned refiftance continued Crete,
till the ravilher had conducted his friend into the hall '—■v-
of that fociety to which he belonged. They did not
regard him who poffeffed fuperior beauty and grace-
fulnefs of perfon as the moft amiable 5 but him who
had moft diftinguifhed himfelf by his modefty and
valour.
The ravifher loaded his young friend with favours,
and conducted him wherever he defirtd j they were
accompanied by thofe who had favoured the rape : he
carried him from feaft to feaft, procured him the plea-
fures of the chafe and good cheer -P and after ufing
all poffible means to gain his heart for the courfe of
two months, brought him back to the city, and was
obliged to give him up to his parents. Eut firft he
prefen ted him with a f'uit of armour, an ox, and a
drinking cup 5 which were the ufual and legal pre-
ients on fuch occafions. Sometimes his generofity
went ftill farther j and be made more expenfive pre-
fents; to defray the expence of which his comrades
contributed. The young man facrificed the ox to Ju¬
piter, and gave an entertainment to thofe who had
a {lifted when he was carried orT. He then declared
his fentiments concerning a connection with his ravifh¬
er, and told whether or not it was agreeable to him.
If he had reafon to complain of the treatment which
he had received, the law allowed him to forfake a
friend fo unworthy of the name, and to demand his pu-
nifhment.
It would have been difgraceful, adds Strabo, to a
young man who was handfome and well born, to be
rejected by his friends on account of the depravity of
his manners. Thofe who had been carried off recei¬
ved public honours. Theirs were the firft places in the
halls and at the race. They were permitted to wear,
during the reft of life, thofe ornaments which they ow¬
ed to the tendernefs of friendfhip ; and that mark of
diftinCtion teftified to all who law them, that they had
been the objeCts of feme fond attachment.
W1 ren the youth had finifhed their exercifes, and at¬
tained the legal age, they became members of the clafs
of adults 5 being then confidered as men, they were
permitted to vote in the national affemblies, and were
entitled to ftand candidates for any public office. They
were then obliged to marry : but did not take home
their wives till fuch time as they were capable of ma¬
naging their domeftic concerns.
“ The legiflator (fays Strabo) had confidered li¬
berty as the greateft bleffing that cities can enjoy. Li¬
berty alone can fecure the property of the citizens of
any ftate. Slavery either robs them of it, or renders
it precarious. The firft care of nations fhould there¬
fore be to preferve their liberty. Concord ftrength-
ens and fupports her empire; fhe flourifhes wherever
the feeds of diffenfion are extinguifhed. Almoft all
thofe hoftilities which prevail among nations or indi¬
viduals fpring either from an inordinate defire of
wealth or the love of luxury. Introduce, inflead of
thofe baneful principles, frugality, moderation, and
equality of conditions ; you will thus baniffi envy, ha¬
tred, injuftice, and haughty difdain.” This was what
the Cretan lawgiver happily efftdfed. And the com¬
munity, which was regulated by his wife inftitution%
role to glory, opulence, and power 5 and was ho¬
noured ith the panegyrics of the moft celebrated phi-
lofophers
CUE [ ^4.
Crete- lofophers of Greece : but the bigheft honour if ever ob-
1 ^ tained, was that of ferving Lycurgus as a model for the
admirable form of government which he eftablifned at
Sparta.
The republic of Crete continued to flourifli till the
age of Julius Casfar. No other Ifate has enjoyed fo
long a period of ftrength and grandeur. The legifla-
ture, regarding liberty as the only fare bafis of a na¬
tion’s happinefs, had inftituted a "fyilem of laws, the
natural tendency of which was, to infpire men with an
ardent paflion for liberty, and with fuch virtue and va¬
lour as are neceffary to fupport and defend it. All the
citizens were foldiers: all of them were {killed in the
art of war. The valiant youth of other nations reforted
to Crete, to learn the exercifes, manoeuvres, and evolu¬
tions, of the military art. “ Philopoemen (fays Plu¬
tarch ) being impatient of indolence, and eager to ac¬
quire (kill in arms, embarked for Crete. After fpend-
ing a confiderable time in the nobleft exercifes among
that brave people, who were {killed in the art of war,
and accuilomed to an auftere and temperate life, he
returned to the Achmans. The knowledge which he
had acquired made him fo eminent among them, that
he was immediately appointed general of their caval¬
ry.”
On the other hand, the legillator, being perfuaded
that conquefts are generally unjuft and criminal, that
they often exhauft the ftrength of the victorious na¬
tion, and almoft always corrupt its manners, endea¬
voured to preferve the Cretans from the ambition of
conqueft. The fertility of the ifland abundantly fup-
plied their wants. They needed not that commerce
ftiould introduce among them the riches of foreign
countries, along with which luxury and her train of
attendant vices would alfo be introduced; and he knew
how to infpire them with an indifference for fuch ac-
quifitions without exprefsly forbidding them. The
gymnaftic exercifes, which occupied the leil'ure of the
gallant youth 5 the pleafures of the chafe j the ardour
of friendihp j the public {hows, at which all the dif¬
ferent orders of the community, both men and women,
ufed to affemble ; the love of equality, order, and their
country, wuth which he inflamed every breaft: 5 the
wife inftitutions, which united a whole nation fo clofely
that they compofed but one family ;—all thefe ties at¬
tached the Cretans to their native ifland : and finding
at home that happinefs which was the object of their
willies, they never thought of wandering abroad in
fearch of an imaginary glory, or of extending their
empire over other nations. Therefore, from the pe¬
riod at which that ftate affumed a republican form till
the time when they were attacked by the arms of
Rome, the nation was not once known to fend a
hoftile force into the territories of any of their neigh¬
bours. This inftance of moderation is unparalleled in
hiftory ; no other nation can divide the glory of it with
the Cretans. Individuals indeed might leave their
country to engage in foreign armies. Thofe princes
and ftates who knew their valour and {kill in archery
eagerly fought to take them into their pay; all the
neighbouring monarchs were defirous of having ia.
their armies a body of Cretan archers. Over the whole
world none wTere more celebrated than they for bend¬
ing the bow. “ The arrows of Gortynia. (fays Clau-
1 ORE
dian), aimed from a trufty bow, are fure to wound, and
never mils the deftined mark.” *“
Though the multitude of independent cities which
flourilhed in Crete did not unite their arms to fubju-
gate the neighbouring iflands, and drench them with
tiie blood ol their inhabitants; yet they were not fo
vn\e as to live in peace among themfelves. Difcord
often {talked among them with her flaming torch.
The molt powerful wilhed to enflave the reft. Some¬
times Gnoffu.s and Gortynia marched with focial ban¬
ners againit their neighbours, levelled their fortrefles.
and fubjedted them to their power, at other times
they attacked each other with hoftile violence,, and faw
their braveft youth perifti amid the honors of civil
war. Lydtos and Cydon oppofed an invincible barrier
to their ambition, and preferved their own liberty.
The laft of thefe cities had acquired fuch ftrength and
influence, that flie held the balance between the rival
powers ol the ilknd. Thofe wars deftroyed a number
of the cities, and drenched the native country of Jupi¬
ter with blood.
To what fource muft we attribute thofe inteftine dif-
fenlions ? One part of the ifland was occupied by the
Eteocretes, the original inhabitants; the reft was peo¬
pled with colonies from Athens, Sparta, Argos, and
Samos. Perhaps the ancient grudges which had fub-
fifted among thofe ftrangers, being ftill unextinguiflied
in their breafts, were eafily rekindled by accident or
circumftances, and inflamed with new fury. We may
alfo fuppofe, that the moft powerful among them, ex¬
ulting in their fuperiority, would endeavour to take
advantage of the weakneis of the reft, and difregard
all laws but thofe of force: befides, the glowing ardour
of the youth, trained to military exercifes, was ever
ready to fly to arms. Such, probably,, were the caufes
which fomented difeord and hoftiiity among a people
living under the fame religion, cuftoms, and laws 
Whatever thefe might be, the Cretans being perfua¬
ded that the firm union of their foldiers was effential to
viSory, arrayed the braveft youths of the army in
fplendid robes, and caufed them to faqrifics to friend-
Ihip before engaging tin battle. In fome countries it
would be very proper to oblige the generals on fuch oc-
cafions, to facrifice to concord. If fuch a facrifice were
performed with fincerity, it might preferve their glory
unftained, and prevent fuch deluges of blood from be¬
ing wafted without producing any advantages to the
ftate.
Their paflion for war did not extinguilh in the breafts
of the Cretans that exquifite fenfibility which is the
mother and riurfe of the fine arts. “ The Cretans*
(fays Sozomen) gave an illuftrious proof of their mu¬
nificence to genius, by making Homer a prefent of a
thoufand pieces of filver ; and to perpetuate the me¬
mory of this aft of generofity, they recorded it by an
infeription on a public column.” In Crete, adds Pto¬
lemy, men are ftill more defirous of cultivating their
underftandings than of exercifing their bodily powers.
Often when diffenfions arofe, the voice of wifdom and
the charms of poefy recalled them to reafon and har¬
mony. Thales of Gortynia, the preceptor of Lycur¬
gus, was one of their moft celebrated philofophers..
Being both a poet and legiflator, he made a happy
ufe of his abilities and knowledge to extinguifti among
his
C n E [ 742 j CEE
Prete. his countrymen the SdnfUing fparks of difcord, u His
poems were moral difcourfes in verfe, which recalled
the people to concord and fubmiflion to the laws. U-
fing a regular meafure, he recommended the aufterity
of his fubjedt by the infinuating and powerful charm
of fentiment. So powerful were the effects of his ver-
fes, which addreffed at once the ears, the heart, and
the underftanding of Iris hearers, that their rage was
gradually foftened. Next, opening their hearts to the
love of peace, the advantages of which he deferibed in
glowing colours, they forgot their inteftine diffenfions,
and ranged themfelves around the ftandard of con¬
cord.” That fage is faid to have invented tunes for
the military dances and for the Cretan Pyrrhic. Men
who felt fo ftrongly the influence of poetry and mufic
could fcarcely be enemies to pleafure. Accordingly
they had a cuffom of diftinguithing their fortunate days
with white fhnt ftones, their unfortunate days with
black. At the end of the year they counted the num¬
ber of their white floneS, and reckoned that they had
lived only fo many days as were dihinguiihed for having
been fortunate. They did not think mere exiftence,
without the enjoyment of pleafure, worthy of the name
of life. For this reafon, they caufed to be infevibed on
their tombs: “He lived fo many days j he continued
in exiftence fo long.”
A paflion for glory is eafily awaked in a feeling and
generous breaft. The Cretans eagerly repaired to the
famous folemnities of Greece, and were often crowned
at the Olympic, Nemaean, and Pythian games ; others
of them were favourites of the mules, and verfified the
predictions of prophets, or celebrated the glorious deeds
of their heroes. Several of them diftinguifhed them¬
felves by hiftorical compofition. At the moft ancient
games, a prize is faid to have been beftowed on the
poet who fung the nobleft hymn in honour of Apollo :
Chryfothemis of Crete fung and gained the prize.
The ravages of time have deprived us of almoft all
their works ^ and if Pindar had not preferved the me¬
mory of fome of their crowns, we ftiould not know
even the names of the conquerors who wore them.
The temple of Diana at Ephefus, built by the Cretan
Ctefiphon and his fon Metagenes, was not proof againft
the frantic hand of the incendiary. Thofe ingenious
architefts had built it on the principles of the Ionic
order: to the coftlinefs of the materials, the elegance
of the architecture, the fymmetry of the parts, and
the majefty and perfection of the whole, they had ad¬
ded folidity and ftrength, without which the reft mult
have been of fmall value Their names have defeended
to pofterity, but the pillars of that monument which
has perpetuated their memory have been difperted
or deftroyed. Scarce a veftige remains of that build¬
ing which was efteemed one of the feven wonders of the
world.
Nations are effaced from the earth like the monu¬
ments of their power, and after the revolution of feveral
ages we can fcarcely trace in their pofterity any remains
of their ancient charaCler. Some of them exift longer,
others ftiorter \ but we may ahnoft always calculate the
period of their duration by the excellence of their laws,
and the fidelity with which they fupport and obey
them. The republic of Crete, being eftablilhed on a
folid bafis, knew no foreign mafter for a period of ten
centuries. She bravely repelled the attacks of thofe
princes who attempted to enflave her. At length the Crets,
time arrived when the warlike and victorious Ro-
mans alpired to the empire of the world, and would
fuffer none but their fubjecls or flaves to inhabit with¬
in the reach of their arm*. Fionas does not fcruple to
acknowledge, that the Romans had no other motives
for invading Crete but the ambitious defire of fubdu-
ing the renowned native country of Jupiter. “ If any
perfon wifh to know the reafon which induced us to
attack Crete (fays he), the true reafon was our defire
to fubdue fo celebrated an illand. The Cretans had
appeared to favour Mithridates, and the Romans
thought proper to declare war againft them on that
pretext. Mark Antony, father of the triumvir, at¬
tacked them with ftrong hopes of fuccefs ; but was
feverely punilhed for his prefumption and imprudence.
The Cretans took a great part of his fleet, hung up
his foldiers and Tailors on the malls amid the tails
and cordage, and returned in triumph into their har¬
bours.”
The Romans never forgot nor forgave a defeat. As
foon as the Macedonian war was brought to a happy
conclufion, they again took arms againft the Cretans
to revenge their ignominy and lofs. Quintus Meteilus
was fent to Crete with a powerful armament. He mdt
with an obftinate and vigorous refiftance. Panarus and
Lafthenes, two experienced leaders, collecting a bodv
o! 20,000 young warriors, all eager for battle, and of
determined courage, employed their arms and arrows
fuccefsfully againft the Romans, and protraCled the
fate of Crete for three years. Thofe conquerors could
not make themlelves mailers of the ifland before de-
ftroying its braveft warriors. They loft a great num¬
ber of troops, and bought a bloody viCtory at the
price of many a danger and much fatigue. However,
their ufual good fortune at length prevailed. The firft
care of the conqueror was to abolifh the laws of Mi ¬
nos, and to eftablilh in their room thofe of Numa,
Strabo, that enlightened philofopher, complains of this
aft of feverity ; and informs us, that in his days the
original laws of Crete were no longer in force, becaufe
the Romans compelled the conquered provinces to
adopt their civil code.' To fecure themfelves ftill more
fully in the pcffcffion of the ifland, they lent a powerful
colony to Guoffus,
From that era to the prefent time, that is, for a pe¬
riod of ipco years, the Cretans have no longer formed
a feparate nation, or made any figure among the ftates
and kingdoms of the world: their noble and ingenious
manners, their arts and fciences, their valour and their
virtues, are no more. They have loft thefe with the lofs
of liberty. So true it is that man is not born for him-
felf j and that, whfen deprived of that aid which Nature
has defigned to ftrengthen and fupport his weaknefs,
the flame ol genius and the ardent glow of valour are
exlinguilhed in his breaft \ he becomes incapable of vi¬
gorous refolution, and finks below the natural virtue and
dignity of the fpecies.
The ifland of Crete, joined with the fmall kingdom
of Cyrene, on the Libyan coaft, formed a Roman pro¬
vince. It was at firft governed by a proconful 5 a
queftor and an affiftant were afterwards fent there •, at
laft, as Suetonius informs us, it was put under the go¬
vernment of a conful. This ifiand was one of the firft
places in the world that were favoured with the light
ot
CT HE 743 ] C R E
of the gofjpel. St Paul introduced the Chriftian faith
into Crete ; and his difciple Titus, whom he left there
to cheriili and cultivate that precious plant, became the
firft blftiop of the ifland. In the reign of the emperor
Leo, it had twelve bithops, who were all fubjefl to the
patriarch of Contlantinople. Conflantine feparated
Crete from Cyrene in the new divifion which he made
of the provinces of the empire. Leaving three Tons,
Conftantius, Conllantine, and Conftans, he afligned
Thrace and the eaftern provinces to the firft j to the fe-
cond, the empire of the weft j the ifland of Crete, Africa,
and Illyria, to the third.
When Michael Baibus fat on the throne of Conftan-
tlnople, the rebellion of Thomas, which lafted three
years, caufed him to neglebl the other parts of the
empire. The Agarenians (a people of Arabia), who
had conquered the fineft provinces of Spain, leized that
opportunity. They fitted out a confiderable fleet,
plundered the Cyclades, attacked the ifland of Crete,
and made themfelves mailers of it without oppofition.
In order to iecure their conqueft, they built a fortrefs
which they named Khandak, “ intrenchment.” From
that citadel the barbarians made inroads into the inte¬
rior parts of the ifland, carrying havock and devafta-
tion wherever they appeared. By repeated attacks,
they fubdued all the cities in Crete except Cydon.,
Michael made fome ineffeclual efforts to expel them
from Crete. The emperor Bafiiius, the Macedonian,
was not more fuccefsful. 'Ihey defeated him in a
bloody battle •, but being vanqu'ftrsd by one of his ge¬
nerals, they were fubiedled to the payment of an an¬
nual tribute. At the end of ten years, the Arabians
refufed the tribute. It was referved for Nicephorus
Phocas, who rvas afterwards emperor, to deliver this
fine ifland from the yoke of the infidels. He landed:
on the ifland .with a numerous army, boldly attacked-
them, and routed them in various engagements. The
Saracens, no longer daring to meet fo formidable a*
general in the field, fled for protedlion to their for*
treffes. Phocas being plentifully-fupplied with all the
warlike machines neceffary for a fiege, levelled their
walls, and alarmed their hearts with terror. He took,
their cities and fortreffes, and drove them into Khan-
dak, their metropolis and laft refource. In the courfe
of nine months he fubdued the whole ifland, took their
king Curup and his .lieutenant Aremas prifoners, and
reunited to the empire a province which had been I 2,7-
years in the hands of the infidels. It remained under
the dominion of the Romans till the time when Bald-;
win, count of Flanders, being raifed to the throne, li¬
berally rewarded the fervices of Boniface, marquis of
Montferrat, by making him king of Theffalonica, and
adding the ifland of Crete to his kingdom. That lord,
being more covetous of gold than glory, fold it to the.
Venetians in the year 1194 ; under whom it affumed
the name of Candia. See the fequel of its hiflory un-^
der that article.
CRETIO, in antiquity, a certain number of days,
allowed the heir to confider whether he would
ac! as heir to the deceafed or not } after which
time, if he did not adf, he was excluded from tire
ftate.
CREUX, a term in fculpture, much ufed by the
French 5 though not yet, that we know of, natu¬
ralized among us: but the want of a word of equal
import in Englilh, as it has frequently put us under a
neceffity of ufing this in the courfe of the prefent
work; fo it pleads ftrongly for its admiflion into our
language.
Creux originally fignifies a hollow, cavity, or pit, out
of which fomething has been fcooped or dug : hence it
is ufed to denote that kind of fculpture and graving
where the lines and figures are cut and formed within
the face or plane of the plate or matter engraven on.
In which fenfe it Itands oppofed to relievo 5 where the
lines and figures are emboffed, and appear prominent
above the face of the matter.
CREW, the company of failors belonging to a fhip,
boat, or other veffel.
The iailors that are to work and manage a fiup are ■
regulated by the number of lafts it may carry j each
laft making two tons. The crew of a Dutch ihip, from
40 to 50 lafts, is feven failors and a fwabber 5 from 50
to 60 lafts, the crew confiits of eight men and a fwab¬
ber ; and thus increales at the rate of one man for
every ten lafts j fo that a ihip of 100 lafts has 12 men,
&c. Engliih and French crews are ufually ftronger
than Dutch •, but always in about the fame proportion.
In a fliip of war there are feveral particular crews, or
gangs, as the boatfwain’s crew, the carpenter’s crew?
the gunner’s crew, &c.
CREVIER, John Baptist Lewis, a Parifian, was
trained under the celebrated Rollin, and afterwards be¬
came profeffqr of rhetoric. Upon the death of his
mailer, in 1741,, he took upon him to finiih his Ro¬
man Hiftory. . He publiihed other works, and was
greatly ferviceable to the caufe < f virtue and religion
as well as letters. His death happened in 1765, at a
very advanced age. BBides the continuation juft men¬
tioned, he publiihed, 1. An edition of Livius, cum
Notis, in 6 vols 410, 1748 } and afterwards another edi¬
tion, better adapted to the ufe of his pupils, in 6 vols
fmall 8v’o. 2. La Hiftoire des Empereurs des Rotnains
jufyu'a Conjlantin, 1749, 12 tom. 12mo. HJloire
de PUniverJite de Paris, 7 tom. 1 2:no. 4. Rhetorique
Francoife, a juft and ufeful work. 5. Obfervations JUr
PEfpnt des Loix. Here he ventured out of his depth :y
he ihould have kept witliin the p re drifts of the belles
lettres.
CREUSA, in fabulous hiftory, daughter of Creon
king of Corinth. As fhe was going : to marry Jafon,
who had divorced Medea, fire put on a poifoned gar->
ment, which immediately fet her body on fire, and fhe
expired in the moft excruciating torments. She had-
received this gown as a gift from Medea, who wiihed
to take that revenge upon the infidelity of Jafon.
Some call her Glauce. (Ovid, de Art. Am. i. 335.).
A daughter of Priam, king of Troy, by Hecuba. She.
married iEneas,. by whom fhe had, among other chil¬
dren, Afcanius. When Troy was taken, fire fled in
the night with her hufband ; but they were feparated
in the midft of the confufion and tumult, and iEneas
could not recover her, nor hear where fhe was. Same
fay that . Cybele faved her, and carried her to her tem¬
ple, of which fhe became prieftefs. Eauf. x. 25. Virg*
Mn. iii. 592.
CREX, a fpecies of Rati.,us. See Ornithology
Index.
CRIB.
C R > I [ 744 ] C R I
CRIB, the rack or manger of a (lable, er the ftall
or cabin of an ox. It is alfo ufed for any fmall ha¬
bitation, as a cottage, &c.
Crib, in the Englifh falt-wcrks, a name given to a
fort of cafe ufed in fome places inftead of the drab, to
put the fait into as it is taken out of the boiling
pan.
CRIBBAGE, a game at cards, to be learnt only by
praftice.
CRIBRATION, in Pharmacy, the palling any fub-
fiance through a fieve or fearce, in order to feparate the
liner particles from the grcfier.
CRIBROSUM os, in Anatomy, called alfo os eth-
taoides. See Anatomy Index.
CRICELASIA, the driving a ring or hoop. Dri¬
ving a hoop was one of the ancient gytnnaftics : this
hoop was as high as the breaft of the perfon rvho ufed
it. It was commended for rendering the limbs pliable,
and for ftrengtheningthe nerves.
CRICETUS. See Mus, Mammalia Index.
CRICHTON, James, a Scots gentleman, who lived
in the i6lh century, and who, on account of his extra¬
ordinary endowments both of body and mind, obtained
the appellation of the “ admirable Crichton by which
title he has been diftinguilhed to the prefent day. The
time of this celebrated perfon’s birth is fa:d, by the
generality of writers, to have been in 1551 : but ac¬
cording to fome he was born in Auguft 1560. There
is a difference likewife between the biographers of
this extraordinary man, with regard to his family,
and the rank and fituation of his father. By fome
it is afierted, that James Crichton’s father was Ro¬
bert Crichton of Clur.ie, in the county of Perth •, and
that this Robert Crichton commanded Queen Mary’s
army at the battle of Langfide in the year 1568. But
it is faid by others, that this gentleman was of Elliock
in the fame county, and that he was lord advocate of
Scotland in Queen Mary’s reign from 1561 to 1573 ;
part of which time be held that office in conjundlion
with Spens of Condie. The mother of James Crich¬
ton was Elizabeth Stuart, the only daughter of Sir
James Stuart of Beath, who was a defcendant of Robert
duke of Albany the third fon of King Robert the fe¬
cund, by Elizabeth Muir or More, as ffie is commonly
called •, fo that when the admirable Crichton boafted
(as he did abroad), that he was fprung from Scottiffi
kings, he faid nothing but what was agreeable to
truth.
James Crichton is faid to have received his gratfi-
matical education at Perth, and to have ftudied philo-
fophy in the univevfity of St Andrew’s. His tutor in
that univerfity wTas Mr John Rutherford, a profeffor at
that time famous for his learning, and who diftinguiffi-
ed himfelf by writing four books on Ariftotle’s logic
and a commentary on his poetics. According to Al¬
dus Manutius, who calls Crichton firft coufin to the
king, he was alfo inftru£ted, along with his majefty,
by Buchanan, Hepburn, and Robertfon, as well as by
Rutherford ; and he had fcarcely arrived at the 20th
year of his age, when he had run through the whole
circle of the fciences, and could fpeak and write to per¬
fection in ten different languages. Nor was this all ;
for he had like* ife improved himfelf to the higheft de¬
gree in riding, dancing, and Cnging, and in playing
;uoon all forts of inftrumcnts.
Crichton, being thus accomplithed, went abroad Crichton,
upon his travels, and is faid to have gone to Paris j of '■““v**-
his tranfaftions at which place the following account
is given. He caufed placards to be fixed on all the
gates of the fchoois, halls, and colleges belonging to
the univerfity, and on all the pillars and polls before
the houfes of the molt renowned men for literature in
the city, inviting all thofe who were well verfed in any
art or fcience, to difpute with him in the college of
Navarre, that day fix weeks, by nine of the clock in
the morning, where he would attend them, and be
ready to anivver to whatever fhould be propofed to him
in any art or fcience, and in any of thefe 12 languages,
Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, Spanilh,
French, Italian, Englifh, Dutch, Flemiih, and Scla-
vonian •, and this either in verfe or profe at the dif-
cretion of the difputant. During this whole time, in¬
ftead of clofely applying to his ftudies, he regarded no¬
thing but hunting, hawking, tilting, vaulting, riding
of a weH managed horfe, toffing the pike, handling the
mulket, and other military feats; or elfe he employed
hirrfelf in domeftic games, fuch as balls, concerts of
mufic vocal and inftrumental, cards, dice, tennis, and
fuch like diverfions of youth. This conduit fo provo¬
ked the Undents of the univerfity, that, beneath the
placard which was fixed on the Navarre gate, they cau¬
fed the following words to be written : “ If you would
meet with this monfter of perfection, to make fearch
for him either in the tavern or bawdy-houfe is the
readied: way to find him.” Neverthelefs, when the
day appointed arrived, Crichton appeared in the col¬
lege of Navarre, and acquitted himfelf beyond expref-
fion in the deputation, which lafted from nine o’clock
in the morning till fix at night. At length, the pre-
fident, after extolling him highly for the many rare
and excellent endowments which God and nature had
beftowed upon him, ro-z from his chair, and accom¬
panied by four of the moft eminent profefibrs of the
univerfity, gave him a diamond ring and a purfe full of
gold, as a teftimony of their love and favour. The
whole ended with the repeated acclamations and huzzas
of the fpectators •, and henceforward our young difpu¬
tant was called “ the admirable Crichton.” It is added,
that he fo was little fatigued with the difpute, that he
went on the very next day to the Louvre, where he had
a match of tilting (an exercife then in much requeft),
and in the prefence of fome of the princes of the court
of France, and a great many ladies, carried away the
ring 15 times fucceffively.
About two years after this we find him at Rome,
where he affixed a placard upon all the eminent places
of the city, in the following terms: Nos Jacobus Crich-
tonus Scotus-, cmcumque rei propojita ex improvifo refpon-
debimus. In a city which abounded in wit, this bold
challenge, to anfwer to any queftion that could be
propofed to him without his being previoufiy adver-
tifed of it, could not efcape the ridicule of a paf-
quinade. It is faid, however, that being nowife
difcouraged, he appeared at the time and place ap¬
pointed ; and that, in the prefence of the pope,
many cardinals, bifhops, doftors of divinity, and pro-
feffors in all the fciences, he difplayed fuch wonderful
proofs of his univerfal knowledge, that he excited no
lefs furprife than he had done at Paris. Boccalini,
who was then at Rome, gives fomething of a different
relation
c R I [: 7
rlchton. relation of the matter. According to this author,
the pafquinade againft Crichton, which was to the
following effeft, “ And he that will fee it, let him go to
the fgn of the Falcon and \lfhall be Jhownf made i'uch
an impredlon upon him, that he left a place where he
had been fo grofsly affronted as to be put upon a level
with jugglers and mountebanks.
From Rome-he went to Venice ; wdrere he contrafled
an intimate friendfhip with Aldus Manutius, Lauren-
tius Maffa, Speron Speronius, Johannes Donatus, and
'carious other learned perfons, to whom he pfel'ented
feveral poems in commendation of the city and uni-
verfity. At length Re was introduced to the doge
and fenate, in whofe prefence he made a fpeech,
which was accompanied with fuch beauty of eloquence,
and fuch grace of perfon and manner, that he received
the thanks of that illuflrious body, and nothing was
talked of through the whole city but this rara in lends
avis, this prodigy of nature. He held, likewife, dis¬
putations on the fubjefts of theology, philofophy, and
mathematics, before the molt eminent profeffors, and
large multitudes of people. His reputation was fo
- great, that the defire of feeing and hearing him brought
together a vaft concourfe of perfons from different
quarters to Venice. It may be coilefted from Ma-
nutius, that the time in which Crichton exhibited
thefe demonflrations of his abilities was in the year
1580. _
During his refidence at Venice, he fell into a bad
Rate of health, which continued for the fpace of four
months. However, before he was perfectly recover¬
ed, he went, by the advice of his friends, to Padua,
the univerfity of which city was at that time in great
reputation. The next day after his arrival, there was
a meeting of all the learned men of the place, £t the
houfe of Jacobus Aloyfius Cornelius j when Crichton
Opened the affembly with an extemporary poem in
praife of the city, the univerfity, and the company
who had honoured him with their prefence. After
this, he difputed for fix hours with the moft celebra¬
ted profeffors on various fubjecls of learning 5 and he
expofed, in particular, the errors of Ariftotle and his
commentators, with fo much folidity and acutenefs,
and at the fame time with fo much modefiy, that he
excited univerfal admiration. In conclufion, he de¬
livered extempore an oration in praife of ignorance,
which was conduced with fuch ingenuity and elegance,
that his hearers were aftonifhed. This exhibition of
Crichton’s talents was on the 14th of March 1581.
Soon, after he appointed a day for another deputa¬
tion to be held at the palace of the bifhop of Padua j
not tor the purpofe of affording higher proofs of his
abilities, for that could not poflibly be done, but in
compliance with the earneft felicitations of fome per¬
fons who were not prefent at the former alfembly.
However, feveral circumflances occurred which pre¬
vented this meeting from taking place. Such is the
account of Manutius: but Imperialis relates, that he
was informed bv his father, who was prefent upon the
occafion, that Crichton was oppofed by Archangelus
Mercenarius, a famous philofopher; and that he ac¬
quitted himfelf fo well as to obtain the approbation of
a very honourable company, and even of his antagonift
himfelf.
Amidfi the difeourfes which were occafioned by our
Vol. VI. Part II,
45 j e r 1
young Scotfman’s exploits, and the high applaufes that CviAt,'*.*.,
were bellowed upon* his genius and attainments, there l""1
were not wanting fome who endeavoured to detra£l from
his merit. For ever, therefore, to confound thefe in¬
vidious impugners of his talents, he cauied a paper to
be fixed on the gates of St John and St Paul’s church,
wherein he offered to prove before the univerfity, that
the errors of Arillotle, and ot all his followers, were
almoft innumerable 5 and that the latter had failed
both in explaining their mafiei’s meaning, and in
treating on theological fubjetls. He promifed like¬
wife to refute the dreams of certain mathematical pro-
fdTors j to difpute in all the fciences, and to anfwer
to whatever fhould be propofed to him or objefled a-
gainft him. All this he engaged to do, either in the
common logical way, or by numbers and mathemati¬
cal figures, or in 100 forts of verles, at the pleafure
of his opponents. According to Manutius, Crichton
fufiained this conteft, without fatigue, for thres days j
during which time he fupported his credit, and main¬
tained his propofitions, with fuch fpirit and energy,
that from an unufual concouffe of people, he obtain¬
ed acclamations and praifes, than which none more mag¬
nificent were ever heard by men.
From Padua, Crichton fet out for Mantua 5 where
there happened to be at the time a gladiator, who
had foiled in his travels the moft famous fencers in
Europe, and had lately killed three who had entered
the lifts with him in this city. The duke of Mantua
was much grieved at having granted this man his pro-
teftion, as he found it to be attended with fuch fatal
confequences. Crichton being informed of his high-
nefs’s concern, offered his fervice, not only to drive
the murderer from Mantua, but from Italy ; and to
fight him for 1500 piftoles. Though the duke was
unwilling to expofe fuch an accompiifhed gentleman to
fo great a hazard j yet relying upon the report he had
heard of his warlike atchievements, he agreed to the
propofal 5 and the time and place being appointed, the
whole court attended to behold the performance. At
the beginning of the combat Crichton flood only
upon his defence; while the Italian made his,attack *
with fuch eagernefs and fury, that, having ’ over-
a£ted himfelf, he began to grow weary. Crichton
now feized the opportunity of attacking his antagonift
in return ; which he did with fo much dexterity and
vigour, that he ran him through the body in three
different places, of which wounds he immediately died.
The acclamations of the fpeftators were loud and ex- *
traordinary upon this occafion; and it was acknow¬
ledged by all of them, that they had never feen Ait
grace Nature, or Nature fecond the precepts of Art,
in fo lively a manner as they had beheld thefe two
things accomplifhed on that day. To crowm the glory
of the adtion, Crichton beftowed the prize of his vic¬
tory upon the ufidows of the three perfons who had loft
their lives in fighting with the gladiator.
It isafferted, that in confequence of this and his other
wmnderful performances, the duke of Mantua made
choice of him for preceptor to his fon Vincentio di Gon-
zaga, who is reprefented as being of a riotous temper and
a diffolute life. The appointment was highly pleafing to
the court. Crichton, to teflify his gratitude to his friends
and benefadlors, and to contribute to their diverfion,
framed, we are told, a comedy wherein he expofed
S ^ an«l
\
C 11 -1 [ 746
Crichton, and ridiculed all the weaknefles and failures of the fe-
veraj employments in which men are engaged. This
compofition was regarded as one of the moft ingenious
fatires that ever was made upon mankind. But the
rooft aflonilhing part of the itory is that Crichton
fuftained 15 characters in the repreientation of his own
play. Among the rett, he aCted the divine, the
philofopher, the lawyer, the mathematician, the phy-
fician, and the ibldier, with fuch inimitable grace, that
every time he appeared on the theatre he feemed to be
a different perfon.
From being the principal adtor in a comedy, Crich
ton foon became the fubjeCl of a dreadlul tragedy.
One night, during the time of carnival, as he was
walking along the lireets of Mantua, and playing
upon his guitar, he wras attacked by half a dozen
people in mafks. The affailants found that they had
no ordinary perfon to deal with, for they were not
able to maintain their ground againft him. In the
iflue, the leader of the company being difarmed, pull¬
ed off his malk, and begged his life, telling him that
he was the prince his pupil. Crichton immediately
fell upon his knees and expreffed his concern for his
mitlake j alleging, that what he had done was only in
his own defence, and that if Gonzaga had any defign
upon his life, he might always be mailer of it. Then
taken his own fword by the point, he prefented it to the
prince, who immediately received it, and was fo irritat¬
ed by the affront which he thought he had fuftained in
being foiled with all his attendants, that he inilantly
ran Crichton through the heart.
Various have been the conjectures concerning the
motives which could induce Vincentio di Gonzaga to
be guilty of fo ungenerous and brutal an action. Some
have afcribed it to jealoufy, afferting that he fufpefted
Crichton to be more in favour than himfelf with a lady
whom he paflionately loved •, and Sir Thomas Ur-
quhart has told a ffory upon this head which is extra¬
vagant and ridiculous in the higheft degree. Others,
with great probability, reprefent the whole tranfac-
tion as the refult of a drunken frolic : and it is uncer¬
tain, according to Imperialis, whether the meeting of
the prince and Crichton was by accident or defign.
However, it is agreed on all hands that Crichton loit
his life in this rencounter. The time of his deceafe
is faid, by the generality of his biographers, to have
been in. the beginning of July 1583; but others fix
it to the fame month in the preceding year. There is
a difference, likewife, with regard to the period of
life at which Crichton died. The common accounts
declare that he was killed in the 3 2d year of his age :
but Imperialis afferts that he was only in his 22d year
when that calamitous event took place j and this fact
is confirmed by offier writers.
Crichton’s tragicaf end excited a very great and ge¬
neral lamentation. If Sir Thomas Urqubart is to be
credited, the whole court of Mantua went three quar¬
ters of a year into mourning for him ; the epitaphs
and elegies that were ccmpofed upon his death and
ffuck upon his hearfe, would exceed, if colledled, the
bulk of Homer’s works ^ and, for a long time after¬
wards, his picture was to be feen in moff of the bed¬
chambers and galleries of the Italian nobility, repre-
ienting him on horfeback, with a lance in the one
hznd and a book in the other. The fame author
] c R 1
tells us, that Crichton gained the efteem of kings and Crichton
princes, by his magnanimity and knowledge ; of no-
blemen and gentlemen, by his courtlinefs and breed¬
ing ; of knights, by his honourable deportment and
pregnancy of wit ; of the rich, by his affability and
good fellowihip j of the poor, by his munificence
and liberality j of the old, by his conftancy and vvif-
dom ; of the young by his mirth and gallantry ; of
the learned, by his univerfal knowledge •, of the f'ol-
diers, by his undaunted valour and courage; of the
merchants and artificers by his upright dealing and
honefty j and of the fair fex, by his beauty and hand-
fomeneis, in which refpedf he was a mafterpiece of
nature.
Joannes Imperialis, in his life of Crichton, fays,
that he was the wonder of the laft age j the prodi¬
gious production of nature j the glory and ornament
of Parnaffus, in a flupendous and unufual manner j
and that, in the judgment of the learned world, he
was the phoenix of literature, and rather a fhining par¬
ticle of the Divine Mind and Majefty than a model of
wrhat could be attained by human induftry. The
fame author, after highly celebrating the beauty of his
perlon, afferts, that his extraordinary eloquence and
his admirable knowledge of things teftified that he
pofftffed a ftrength of genius wholly divine. “ What
(adds this writer) can more exceed our comprehen-
fion, than that Crichton, in the 21ft year of his age,
fhould be mailer of ten different languages, and per¬
fectly well verfed in philofophy, mathematics, theolo¬
gy, polite literature, and all other fciences ? Befides
was it ever heard in the whole compafs of the globe,
that to thefe extraordinary endowments of the mind,
fiiould be added a lingular fkill in fencing, dancing,
finging, riding, and in every exercife of the gymnaftic
art ?” Nay, Imperialis, in his account of Crichton’s
death, declares, that the report of fo fad a cataftrophe
was fpread to the remoteft parts of the earth ; that it
dilturbed univerfal nature and that in her grief for
the lofs of the wonder lire had produced, Ihe threaten¬
ed never more to confer fuch honour upon mankind.
Compared with thele extravagancies, the affertion of
Bayle that Crichton was one of the greateft prodigies of
wit that ever lived, and the teftimony of Felix Aftolfus
concerning his wonderful memory, may be confidered as
modett encomiums.
Such are the accounts which, by a fuccefficn of
writers, and particularly fince the time of Mackenzie,
have been given of the admirable Crichton. Thefe
accounts are indeed fo wonderful, that many perfons
have been difpofed to confider them as in a great
meafure, if not entirely, fabulous. We lhall therefore
fubjoin from the Biographia Britannica the following
obfervations of Dr Kippis, with a view to afeertain what
portion of faith is due to the different parts of the pre¬
ceding narrative, or at leall to affift the reader in form¬
ing a proper judgment concerning them.
The doftor begins with obierving, “ That no cre¬
dit can be granted to any fadts that depend upon the
foie authority of Sir Thomas Urquhart. Mr Pennant
indeed fpeaks of him with approbation \ and Dr Samuel
Johnfon laid a ftrefs on his veracity, in the account
of Crichton which he dedicated to Dr Hawkefworth,
and is infer ted in the 81ft number of the Adventurer 5
of which account it may be obferved, that it is only
.5 . » < A1V
C K I
'richton, an elegant fummary of the life written by Mackenzie.
But with all deference to thefe refpe&able names, I
mud declare my full perfuafion that Sir Thomas Ur-
quhart is an author whofe teftimony to fa£ls is totally
unworthy of regard j and it is furprifing that a perufal
of his works does not ftrike every mind with this con-
vitlion. His produ&ions are fo inexpreffibly abfurd and
extravagant, that the only rational judgment which can
be pronounced concerning him is, that he was little, if
at all, better than a madman. To the chara&er of his
having been a madman muft be added that of his being
a liar. Severe as this term may be thought, I appre¬
hend that a diligent examination of the treatife which
contains the memorials concerning Crichton would
(how that it is ftri&ly true. But of his total difregard
to truth there is inconteftable evidence in another work
ot his, entitled, The true Pedigree and Lineal Defcent
of the moft ancient and honourable Family of the
Urquharts in the Houfe of Cromarty, from the Crea¬
tion of the World until the year of God 1652. In
this work it is almoft incredible what a number of
fallities be has invented both with refpeft to names
and facts. Perhaps a more flagrant inltance of im-
pofture and fidtion was never exhibited ; and the ab-
furdity of the whole pedigree is beyond the power of
words to exprefs. It can only be felt by thofe who
have perufed the trad! itfelf. Such a man therefore
can jultly be entitled to no degree of credit, efpecially
when he has a purpofe to ferve, as was the cafe with
Sir Thomas Urquhart. His defign was to exalt his
own family and his own nation at any rate. With
refpedt to his own nation, there wras no occafion
for having recourfe to fidlion, in order to difplay the
luftre of Scotland, in the eminent men whom it has
produced in arms and literature. The pencil of
truth alone would have been amply fufficient for that
purpofe (a).
“ So far therefore as Sir Thomas Urquhart’s au¬
thority is concerned, the wonderful exhibitions of
Crichton at Paris, his triumph at Rome, his combat
with the gladiator, his writing an Italian comedy, his
futlaining fifteen charadters in the reprefentation of
that comedy, the extraordinary ftory of the amour
which is defcribed as the caufe of his death, the nine
months mourning for him at Mantua, and the poems
hung round his hcarfe to the quantity of Homer’s
works, muft be regarded as in the higheft degree
doubtful, or rather abfolutely falfe. I cannot forbear
mentioning tw'o circumftances, which fhow’ how much
Sir Thomas Uiquhart was deftitute of prudence, as
well as of fcrupulofity, in his violations of truth. He
fays that the duke of Mantua was pleafed to confer
C R I
upon the young lady that was Crichton’s miftrefs and Crichton,
future wife, a penfion of five hundred ducats a year \
and that the prince alfo beftowed as much upon her
during all the days of his life, ‘ which was (adds Sir
'Thomas) but fliort j for he did not long enjoy him-
felf after the crofs fate of fo miferable an accident.’
Now' it is well known that Vincenzo di Gonzaga fuc-
ceeded his father in the dukedom of Mantua in 1587,
and that he did not die till the year 16125 which was
almoft, if not entirely, thirty years after Crichton’s
deceafe. The other inftance of the imprudence of
Sir Thomas Urquhart in the contrivance of his fiftions,
occurs at the conclufion of his narrative, where he afferts
that the verity of the flory which he hath related con¬
cerning the incomparable Crichton, ‘ may be certified
by two thoufand men yet living who have knowm him.’
Two thoufand men yet living] that is, in 1652, fixty-nine
or leventy years after Crichton’s death, for fuch was the
time of Sir Thomas’s publication. Our author would
hav- been fadly puzzled to collefl together thefe two
thoufand living witneffes who could certify the verity of
his ftory.
“ With regard, how'ever, to the account which is
given of the prodigious exertions of Crichton, both
corporeal and mental, at Paris, Mackenzie imagines
that he has found a full confirmation of them in a
pafiage produced by him from the Difquifitiones of
Stephen Pafquier, and which he confxdtrs as the tefti-
mony of an eye-witnefs. But the whole of what has
been built upon it by Mackenzie, and fucceeding bio¬
graphers, is founded on a miftake. In the quotation
from the Difquijitiones, the name of Crichton is not
mentioned, and the author doth not appear to have
been perfonally prefent at the exhibitions of the ex¬
traordinary youth there defcribed. The expreffions,
which are fuppofed to carry that meaning may well be
referred not to the writer himfelf, but to hiis country¬
men the French, before whom the young man' is laid
to have difplayed his furprifing talents. But the dif-
cuffion of this point is totally needlefs, becaufe the
paffage in queftion is not an original authority. The
book entitled Stef>hani Pafchieri Difquifitiones is only
an abridgement in Latin of Pafquier’s Des Recherches
de la France. Now, in this lall work there is indeed
an account of a wonderful youth, fuch as is related in
Mackenzie’s quotation, and from which that paflage
W'as formed. But this wonderful youth, whoever he
might be, was not the admirable Crichton : for Paf¬
quier, who does not tell his name', exprefsly fays that
he appeared in the year 1445 (b). Ihe evidence
therefore, produced by Mackenz-e Jails entirely to the
ground. Indeed, if the ftory of Crichton’s exploits at
5 B 2 Paris
f 747 1
(a) This was probably meant as a fatire, and not as a ferious piodu&ion.
(b) This matter has been fet in a clear light by the writer of the following letter.
“ Sir,
“ We are informed by Sir John Hawkins, that Dr Johnfon di&ated from memory that account-of the perfon
vulgarly named the Admirable Crichton^ which is to be found in one of the papers of the Adventurer.
“ That account is plainly an abridgment of the life of Crichton by Dr George Mackenzie. Dr Mackenzie
fuppofes that Pafquier, the French lawyer and antiquary, was an eye-witnefs of the feats performed in arts as well
as in arms by Crichton. This is one of the groffeft errors in biography which has occurred to me in the courfe of
my reading • and it is an error which I perceive is gaining ground daily, and bids fair in a fhort time to be re¬
ceived as an indifputable truth.
“ The
C R I t 748 ] C R I
Grichtcm. Paris had been true, no man was more likely to be ac-
quainted with them than Stephen Pafquier, who lived
at the time, and who would be fond enough of record¬
ing tranfa&ions fo extraordinary. It may farther be
obferved, that Thuanus, who was likewife a contem¬
porary, and who in his own life is very particular in
what relates to learned men, makes no mention of
Crichton. The only authority for his having ever re-
fided in France at all (Sir Thomas Urquhart except¬
ed) is that of Dr John Johnfton, who fays Gallia pec¬
tus excolit. But this amounts to no proof of the truth
of the tranfaftions related by Urquhart. The whole
which can be deduced from it is, that Crichton, in the
courfe of his travels, might make fome ftay in France
for the purpofe of improvement. Even this, however,
doth not agree with the narration of Imperialis, who
informs us, that when troubles arofe in Scotland on
account of religion, and Queen Mary fell into fo
many calamities, Crichton was fent by his father
dire£tly from that country to Venice as a place of fecu-
rity.
“ It is acknowledged by Sir John Hawkins, that
Sir Thomas Urquhart has produced no authorities in
fupport of his furprifing narrations. But this defedt,
Sir John thinks, is fupplied in the Life of Crichton
which is given in Mr Pennant’s Tour. I am under the
neceffity of faying, that this is by no means the cafe.
The article in Pennant was not drawn up by that in¬
genious and learned gentleman, but is the tranfcript of
a pamphlet, that was printed fome years ago at Aber¬
deen j and which pamphlet is nothing more than a re¬
publication, with a few verbal alterations, of the Life
of Crichton written by Mackenzie. It doth not,
therefore, furnilh a fingle additional teftimony in con¬
firmation of Sir Thomas Urquhart’s ftories, excepting
in the miftaken inftance from Pafquier. In other re-
fpedts it only borrows fads from Sir Thomas Urquhart,
without eftablifhing them upon frefir proofs. It is ob- Crichton
fervable, that the earlier biographers of Crichton had
no knowledge of moft of the tranfadions enlarged
upon by this extravagant writer j for if they had
known them, they would have been eagerly difpofed
to relate them, and to do it with every circumltance
of exaggeration. How much this was the charader
of Thomas Dempfter, with regard to his own coun¬
trymen, is fufficiently underftood, and hath frequently
been remarked •, and yet his account of Crichton is un¬
commonly modeft, compared with thofe of fucceeding
authors. The extravagance of Imperialis in refped to
Crichton has already appeared. There feems indeed to
have been an univerfal tendency in the writers of this
young Scotfman’s life to produce wonder and aftonilh-
ment. Mackenzie remarks, that Imperialis could net
but know the truth of all, or at lead: of moft of, the
things he has related concerning Crichton, fince he
lived upon the places in which they were tranfaded,
and had them from an eye and ear witnefs, even his
own father. It is, however, to be remembered, that
Imperialis’s Mufeum Mijloricum was not published till
1640, nearly fixty years after the events recorded by
him happened ; to which may be added, that'the in¬
formation he derived from his father was probably very
imperfed. Imperialis the elder was not born till 1568,
and confequently was only thirteen years old when
Crichton difplayed his talents at Padua. What real
dependence, therefore, could there be on the accuracy
of the account given by a youth of that age ? He could
only relate, and perhaps from inadequate intelligence,
the things which were talked of when he was a boy.
Befides, his authority is appealed to for no more than
a fingle fad, and that a doubtful one, fince it does not
accord with Manutius’s narrative •, and who ever
heard of the famous philofopher Archangelus Merce-
narius ?
“ The
“ The error feems to have arifen from the following circumftance : Dr Mackenzie had never read thp ori¬
ginal work of Pafquier, entitled Recherches de la France; what he quotes concerning the wonderful young man
is taken from a Latin abridgement of that work 5 he refers to Difquif. lib. v. cap. 23. and he
gives his quotation in Latin ; indeed it does not appear that Dr Mackenzie had ever heard of the original
work. Now Pafquier, inftead of faying that he was an eye-witnefs of the wonders exhibited by Crichton, fays
in the moft unequivocal terms, that what he relates was taken ‘ from a manufeript which was occafionally
nfed by him,’ (d'un hvre ecrit a la main, dont je ni* aide felon les occurrences^. And he adds, ‘ I will reprefent
the ftory in its own fimple garb, without any artificiaT colouring, fo that my readers may be the more inclined
to give credit to it,’ (vous reprefentant cette hiftoire en fa fmp licit e, fans y apporter aucun ford pour ce que vous y
adjoufieresplus de foyf He then tranferibes the narrative from the MS. which places the appearance of this
phenomenon in the year 1443, a full century before the birth of our Crichton. See Recherches de la France, lib.
vi. c. 38. 39- . ...
“ Dr Mackenzie, although he had not read the original of Pafquier, appears to have read an author who
quotes the fame ftory : ‘ The learned M. du Launoy (fays he), in his Hiftory of the College of Navarre,
finding the hiftory of this difpute recorded in a MS. Hiftory of the College of Navarre, and the like account
of a Spaniard in Trithemius, confounds the two together, and robs our author of the glory of this aflion, and
places it in the year 1445 j whereas it ftiould be in the year 1571.’ This charge of robbery is fingular
enough.
“ Let me only add, that Pafquier tranferibes fome verfes written by George Chaftelain, a French poet in the
reign of Charles VII. king of France, which allude to the fame ftory j and that Pafquier himfelf was born at Paris
in 1528, palied his life in that city, and was an eminent lawyer and pleader in 1571 ; fo that it is impoflible the
feats of Crichton, had they been really performed at Paris, could have been unknown to him, and moft improbable
that, knowing them, he would have omitted to mention them ; for, in the fame lib. vi. c. 39. he is at pains to pro-
* Eilin duce examples of great proficiency, difplayed by men in a much humbler rank of life than that of philofophers and
Mag. 17S7.public difputants0 J am, &c,
C R I
'«• “ The truth of the matter is, that fome flight cir-
cumftances ,excepted, neither Dempfter nor Imperialis
have produced any evidences of Crichton’s extraor¬
dinary abilities befides thofe which are recorded by
the younger Aldus Manutius. He therefore is to be
regarded as the only living authority upon the fubjeift.
Manutius was contemporary with Crichton ; he was
clofely connected with him in friendlhip; and he re¬
lates feveral things on his own perfonal knowledge.
He is a pofitive and undoubted witnefs with refpett to
our young Scotfman’s intelle&ual and literary exer¬
tions at Venice and at Padua ; and from him it is that
our account of them is given above. Neverthelefs,
even Aldus Manutius is to be read with fbme decree
of caution. Dedications are apt to affume the Ityle
of exaggeration, and this is the cafe with Manutius’s
dedication of the Paradoxa Ciceronts to Crichton. In
addition to the general language of fuch addrefles,
lie might be carried too far by his affeftion for his
friend, which appears to have been very great: nor
was the younger Aldus eminent for fteadinefs and
confiftency of chara&er. It is even faid that by his
imprudencies he fell into contempt and mifery. But
independently of any confiderations of this kind, it
may be cblerved, that Manutius’s narrative, previous
to Crichton’s arrival at Venice, could not be derived
from perfonal knowledge. For that part of it (which
is fufficiently erroneous) he was probably indebted to
Crichton himfelf. Neither does he appear to have
been an eye-witnefs of the whole of the difputations
which were held at Padua } for fpeaking of his young
friend’s praife of ignorance, he relates, that thofe w>ho
were prefent told him afterwards how much they wrere
ftruck with that oration. However, at the other dif-
putation, which lafted three days, Manutius feems cer¬
tainly to have attended ■, for he concludes his accounts
of it wulh faying, that he was not only the advifer but
the fpeftator of Crichton’s wonderful contefls. It is
evident, however, from the dedication, that his extraor¬
dinary abilities were not univcrfally acknowdedged and
admired. Some there w7ere who detra&ed from them,,
and were difpleafed with Manutius for fo warmly flip-
porting his reputation.
“ As to the real caufe and manner of our young,
Scotfman’s death, both of them ftill remain in fome de¬
gree of obfcurity. That he was killed in a rencounter
at the carnival at Mantua, is teftified by too many authors
to be reafonably doubted. But whether there was that
particular malignity on the part of Vincenzo di Gon-
zaga, which is commonly afcribed to him, may be con-
fldered as uncertain.
“ One important method yet remains by w hich we
may be enabled to form a judgment of Crichton’s ge¬
nius, and that is from a perufal of the four poems of
his which are ftill preferved. It isy however, to be
feared, that thefe will not exhibit him in a very high
point of view7. Some fancy, perhaps, may be thought
to be difplayed in the longeft of his poems, which was
written on occafion of his approach to tlie city of Ve¬
nice. He there reprefents a Naiad as riling up before
him ; and, by the order of the Mules and of Minerva,
dire&ing him how to proceed. But this is a fentiment
which fo eafily prefents itfelf to a claffical reader, that
it can fcarcely be confidered as deferving the name of
a pteycal invention. The three other pcems of
[ 749 ]
C R I
Crichton have ftill iefs to recommend them. Indeed
his verfes will not ftand the teft of a rigid examination
even wdth regard to quantity. c
“ What then is the opinion which on the whole we
are to form of the admirable Crichton ? It is evident
that he was a youth of fuch lively parts as excited
great prefent admiration, and high expe&ation with
regard to his future attainments. He appears to have
had a fine perfon, to have been adroit in his bodily ex-
ercifes, to have poffefled a peculiar facility in learning
languages, to have enjoyed a remarkably quick and re¬
tentive memory, and to have excelled in a power of
declamation, a fluency of fpeech, and a readinefs of
reply. His knowledge, likewife, was probably very
uncommon for his years; and this, in conjunftion with
his other qualities, enabled him to Ihine in public depu¬
tation. But w'hether his knowdedge and learning were
accurate or profound, may juftly be queftioned ; and
it may equally be doubted whether he would have
arifen to any extraordinary degree of eminence in the
literary world. It will always be reflefled qpon wTilh
regret, that his early and untimely death prevented,
this matter from being brought to the teft of experi¬
ment.”
From the portraits which remain of Crichton, it ap¬
pears that in his face and form he was beautiful and ele¬
gant, and that his body and limbs, though not mufeu-
lar or athletic, were wTell proportioned and fitted for
feats of agility. The following catalogue of Crichton’s
wrorks is given by Dempfter: I. Odce adLaurentium
Mcjfam plures. 2. Laudes Patavince, Carmen extempore
effufum, cum in Jacobi Moyjii Come Hi domo experiment
turn ingemi coram tot a Academia frequent! a, non fine
multorum fiupore, faceret. 3. Ignorationis Laudatio,
extemporale Thema ibidem redditum, pofi fix horarum
difputationes, ut prafentes fornnia potius fovere quam rem
fe veram videre afiirmarint, ait Manutius. 4. De Ap-
puifu fuo Venctias. 5. Oda ad Aldum Manutium.
6. Epi/lola ad Diverfos. 7. Prafationes folemnes in
omnes Scientias facras et prof anas. 8. Judicium de
Philofophis. 9. Errores Arifiotelis. 10. Anna an
Litera Prafiant, Controverfia oratorio. 11. Refuta-
tio Mathematic or urn. 12. A Comedy in the Italian
language.
CRICK, among farriers, is when a hdrfe cannot turn
his neck any manner of way, but holds it fore right, in-
fomuch that he cannot take his meat from the ground
without great pain.
CRICKET. See Gryllus, Entomology Index.
Cricket is alfo the name of an exercife or game,
with bats and a ball.
MoH-Cricket. See Gryllotalfa, Entomology
Index.
CRICKLADE, a borough-town of Wiltlhire, fi-
tuated on the river Ifis, about 26 miles fouth-weft of
Oxford. It fends two members to parliament. W. Long. .
I. 55. N. Lat. 51. 35.
CRICOARYTENOIDABUS, in Anatomy, a name
given to.two mufcles of the larynx. See Anatomy, ,
Pable of the Mufcles.
CRICOIDES, in Anatomy, a cartilage of the larynx,,
called alfo the annular cartilage* It.occupies the loweft
part by w7ay of bale to the reft of the cartilages, and
to the lower part of it the afpera arteria adheres. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
6 . CRICOTHYROID^US^ t
OKI [750 C R I
Crie&tny- CRICOTHYROIDiEUS, in Anatomy, one of the
roidseus fiVe pr0per mufcies of the larynx. See ANATOMY,
Crime and °f l^e Mufclss.
Punifh- CRIM-tartars, a people of Afia, fo called be-
ment. caufe they originally came from Crimea. They rove
u~,-v from place to place in fearch of paitures, their houfes
being drawn on carts. There are a great number
of them about Aftrachan, to which place they flock
in the winter-time ; but they are not permitted to en¬
ter the city: for this reafon, they ere ft huts up and
down in the open fields : which are made either of
bulrufhes or reeds, being about 12 feet in diameter,
of a round form, and with a hole at the top to let out
the fmoke. Their fuel is turf or cow-dung j and when
the weather is very cold, they cover the hut with a
coarfe cloth, and fbmetimes pafs feveral days without
ftirring out. They are generally of fmall flature,
with large faces, little eyes, and of an olive com¬
plexion. The men are generally fo wrinkled in their
faces, that they look like old women. Their com¬
mon food is fifh dried in the fun, which ferves them
inftead of bread} and they eat the flefli of horfes as
well as camels. Their drink is water and milk, efpe-
cially mares milk, which they carry about in nafty
leathern bags. Their garments are of coarfe gray
cloth, with a loofe mantle made of a black fheep’s
fkm, and a cap of the fame. The women are clothed
in white linen, with which likewife they drefs their
heads, hanging a great many Mofcovian pence about
them j and there is likewife a hole left to flick fea¬
thers in. As for their religion, they are a fort of Ma¬
hometans -7 but do not coop up their women like the
Turks.
CniM-Tartary, or Crimea. See Crimea.
CRIME atid Punishment. The difeuflion and
admeafurement of crimes and punHhments forms in
every country the code of criminal law j or, as it is
more uiually denominated in England, the dodlrine of
the pleas of the -crown ; fo called, becaufe the king, in
whom centres the majetly of the whole community, is
iuppofed by the law to be the perfon injured by every
infraction of the public rights belonging to that com¬
munity ; and is therefore in all cafes the proper profe-
cutor for every public offence.
The knowledge of this branch of jurifprudence,
which teaches the nature, extent, and degrees of
. every crime, and adjufts to it its adequate and neceffary
penalty, is of the utmoft importance to every indivi¬
dual in the Rate. For no rank or elevation in life,
no uprightnefs of heart, no prudence or circumfpeCtion
of conduCt, fhould tempt a man to conclude, that he
may not at fome lime or other be deeply interefted in
thefe refearcbes. The infirmities of the belt among
us, the vices and ungovernable pallions of others, the
inllability of all human affairs, and the numberlefs un-
forefeen events which the compafs of a day may bring
forth, will teach us (upon a moment’s reflection), that
to know with precifion what the laws of our country
^ have forbidden, and the deplorable confequences to
which a wilful difobedience may expofe us, is a matter
of univerfal concern.
In proportion to the importance of the criminal
law, ought alfo to be the care and attention of the le-
giflature in properly forming and enforcing it. It
fhould be founded upon principles that are permanent.
uniform, and univerfal; and always comformable to Crime 5114
the dictates of truth and juitice, the feelings of huma-
nity, and the indelible rights of mankind: though it, nicnt-
fometimes (provided there be no tranfgreffion of thei'e /'W
eternal boundaries) may be modified, narrowed, cr
enlarged, according to the local or occaiional neceffi-
tics of the Rate which it is meant to govern. And
yet, either from a want of attention to tbofe prin¬
ciples in the firR concoCtioa of the laws, and adopting
in their Read the impetuous dictates of avarice, ambi¬
tion, and revenge ; from retaining the difeordant po¬
litical regulations, which fucceflive conquerors or fac¬
tions have eRablhhed, in the various revolutions of go¬
vernment ; from giving a lading eflicacy to (anCtions
that were intended to be temporary, and made (as
Lord Bacon expreffes it) merely upon the fpur of the
occafion ; or laRly, from too haRily employing fucli
means as are greatly difproportionate to their ends, in
order to check the progrefs of fome very prevalent
offence;—from fome, or from all, of thefe caufes, it
hath happened, that the criminal law is in every coun¬
try of Europe mote rude and imperfeCI than the civil.
We fhall not here enter into any minute inquiries
concerning the local conRitutions of other nations ; the
inhumanity and miRaken policy of which have been
fufficienlly pointed out by ingenious writers of their
own*. But even with us in Britain, where our*^s g.iron
crown-law is with juflice fuppofed to be more nearly Montcf-
advanced to perfection ; where crimes are more accu-quhu,
rately defined, and penalties lefs uncertain and arbi- ^lar<iuJs 0£
trary ; where all our accufations are public, and our’
trials in the face of the world ; where torture is un¬
known, and every delinquent is judged by fuch of his
equals, againR whom he can form no exception, or
even a perfonal difiike :—even here we Riall occafion-
aily find room to remark fome particulars that feem
to want revifion and amendment. Thefe have chief¬
ly arifen from too fcrupulous an adherence to fome
rules of the ancient common law, when the reafons
have ceafed upon which thofe rules were founded ; from
not repealing fuch of the old penal laws as are either
obfolete or abfurd ; and from too little care and atten¬
tion in framing and pafling new ones. The enaCting
of penalties to which a whole nation Riall be fubjeCt,
ought not to be left, as a matter of indifference to the
paRions or interefls of a few, who upon temporary
motives may prefer or fupport fuch a bill ; but be
calmly and maturely confidered by perfons who know
what provifions the laws have already made to reme¬
dy the mifehief complained of, who can from expert
ence forefee the probable confequences of thofe which
are now propofed, and who will judge without paflion
or prejudice how adequate they are to the evil. It is
never ufual in the houfe of peers even to read a private
bill which may affeCt the property of an individual,
without firR referring it to fome of the learned judges,
and hearing their report thereon. And furely equal
precaution is neceffary, when laws are to be eRablifhed
which may affecl the property, the liberty, and per¬
haps even the lives of thoufands. Had fuch a reference
taken place, it is impoflible that in the 16U1 century 'll Comment.
could ever have been made a capital crime, to break
down (however malicioully) the mound of a fifiipond,
whereby any fifh Riall efcape; or to rut down a cher¬
ry-tree in an orchard. Were even a committee ap¬
pointed
G U 1 [ 75
ami pointed but once in 100 years to revife the criminal
V law, it could not have continued to this hour a felony
• without benefit ©f clergy, to be feen for one month in
the company of perfons who call themfelves, or are
called, Egyptians.
It is true, that thefe outrageous penalties, being
feldom or never inflifted, are hardly known to be the
law by the public } but that rather aggravates the
milchief, by laying a fnare for the unwary. Yet they
cannot but occur to the obfervation of any one, who
hath undertaken the tafe of examining the great out¬
lines of our law', and tracing them up to their prin¬
ciples : and it is the duty of fuch a one to hint them
with decency to thofe whofe abilities and ftations
enable them to apply the remedy. We now proceed
to confxder (in the firft place) the general nature of
crimes.
I. A crime, or mifdemeanour, is an a£I committed,
or omitted, in violation of a public law, either forbid¬
ding or commanding it. This general definition com¬
prehends both crimes and mifdemeanours ; which, pro¬
perly fpeaking, are mere fynonymous terms j though,
in common ulage, the wrord “ crimes” is made to de¬
note fuch offences as are of a deeper and more atro¬
cious dye ; while fmaller faults, and omiffions of lefs
confequence, are compriled under the gentler name of
“ mifdemeanours” only.
The diffinftion of public wrongs from private, of
crimes and mifdemeanours from civil injuries, feems
principally to confiit in this : that private wrongs, or
civil injuries, are an infringement or privation ot the
civil rights which belong to individuals, confidered
merely as individuals j public wrongs, or crimes and
miidemeanours, are a breach and violation of the pub¬
lic rights and duties, due to the whole community,
confidered as a community, in its focial aggregate ca¬
pacity. As if I detain a field from another man, to
which the law has given him a right, this is a civil^ in¬
jury, ard not a crime \ for here only the right or an
individual is concerned, and it is immaterial to the
public which of us is in pofleffion of the land j but
treafon, murder, and robbery, are properly ranked a-
mong crimes ; fince, befides the injury done to indi¬
viduals, they ftrike at the very being of fociety ; which
cannot poffibly fubfiff, where a&ions of this fort are
fuffered to efcape with impunity.
In all cafes the crime includes an injury ; every pub¬
lic offence is alfo a private wrong, and fomewbat more ;
it affebls the individual, and it likewife affefts the com¬
munity. Thus treafon in imagining the king’s death,
involves in it confpiracy againft an individual, w'hich
is alfo a civil injury ; but as this fpecies of Jreafon in
its confequences principally tends to toe ddtolution of
government, and the deftruftion thereby of the order
and peace of fociety, this denominates it a crime ot
the bigheft magnitude. Murder is an injury to tue
life of an individual \ but the law' of fociety conndeis
principally the lofs which the ftate luftains. by be¬
ing deprived of a member, and the pernicious
ample thereby fet for others to do the like.. Rob¬
bery may be confidered in the fame view: it is an in¬
jury to private property j but, w’ere that ad, a ciy/^
fatisfaftion in damages might atone for it : the. public
mifchief is the thing, for the prevention of which our
laws have made it a capital offence. In them grofs
I ] C K I
and atrocious injuries tne private wrong is fw'aflowed v vin ^-
up in the public 5 we feldom hear any mention made ™ J1"
of fatisfabtion to the individual; the fatisfaftion to the
community being fo very great. And indeed, as the
public crime is not otherwife avenged than by forfei¬
ture of life and property, it is impofiible afterwarus
to make any reparation for the private wrong ; which
can only be had from the body or goods of the ag-
greffor. But there are crimes of an inferior nature,
in which the public punithment is not fo fevere, but it
affords room for a private compenfation alfoand
herein the diflinbBon of crimes from civil injuries is
very apparent. For inftance, in the cafe of battery,
or beating another, the aggreflor may be indibted for
this a£ the fuit of the king, for difturbing the public
peace, and be puniffied criminally by fine and impri-
fonment j and the party beaten may alfo have his pri¬
vate remedy by ablion of trefpafs for the injury, which
he in particular fuftains, and recover a civil fatisfac-
tion in damages. So alfo, in cafe of a public nuifance,
as digging a ditch acrois a highway, this is puniffiable
by indibfment, as a common offence to the whole
kingdom, and all his majefty’s fubjebfs: but if any in¬
dividual fuftains any fpecial damage thereby, as lam¬
ing his horfe, breaking his carriage, or the like,
the offender may be compelled to make ample fatis¬
fabtion, as w'ell for the private injury as for the public
wrong.
* II. The nature of crimes and mifdemeanours in ge¬
neral being thus afcertained and diftinguiftied, W’e
proceed in the next place to conhder the general na¬
ture of puniftiments: Which are evils or inconvenien- '
ces confequent upon crimes and miidemeanours j be¬
ing devifed, denounced, and inflibted by human laws,
in con-fequence of ddobedience or mifbchaviour in
thofe to regulate whofe condubt fuch laws were re-
fpeblively made. And herein we will briefly confi-
der the power, the end, and the meafure, of human pu-
nilhment.
1. As to the pow'er of human puniftiment, or the
right of the temporal legiflator to inflict difcretionary
penalties for crimes and mifdemeanours. It is clear,,
that the right of punishing crimes againft the law ot
nature, as murder and the like, is, in a itate of mere
nature, vefted in every individual. For it muft be
vetted in fomebody; otherwife the laws of nature
would be vain and fruitlefs, if none were empowered
to put them in execution v and it that power is vefted
in any one, it muft alfo be vefted in all mankind j.
fince all are by nature equal. Whereof the firft mur¬
derer Cain was fo fenfible, that we find him expref-
fing his apprehenfions, that whoever fhould find him
would flay him. In a ftate of fociety this right is
transferred from individuals to the fovereign power
whereby men are prevented from being judges in their
own caufes, which is one of the evils that civil go¬
vernment was intended to remedy. Whatever power
therefore individuals had of punifhing offences againft
the law of nature, that is now vefted in the magi-
ftrate alone ; who bears the fword of juftice by the
confent of the whole community. And to this pre¬
cedent natural power of individuals muft be referred
that right, which fome have argued to belong to every
ftate (though, in fabt, never exercifed by any^), of
punifhing not only their own fubjebls, but alfo foreign
ambaffadors.
C K I
[
Punilh-
ment.
Cric.t and ambafTadors, even with death itfelf; in cafe they have
offinded, not indeed againft the munieipai laws of the
j country, but againft the divine laws of nature, and
become liable thereby to forfeit their lives for their
guilt.
As to offences merely againft the laws of fociety,
which are only mala prohibit a, and not mala in fe;
the temporal magiftrate is alfo impowered to inflidl
coercive penalties for fuch tranfg-reffion : and this by
the conlent of individuals j who, in forming focieties,
did either tacitly or exprefsly inveft the foveieign
power with a tight of making laws, and of enforcing
obedience to them when made, by exercifing, upon
their non-obfervance, feverities adequate to the evil.
The lawfulnefs, therefore, of punilhing fuch criminals
is founded upon this principle, that the law by which
they fufter was made by their own confent; it is a part
of the original contract into which they entered, when
firft they engaged in fociety •, it was calculated for, and
has long contributed to, their own fecurity.
This right therefore, being thus conferred by uni-
verfal conlent, gives to the ftate exadtly the fame
power, and no more, over all its members, as each
individual member had naturally over himfelf or
others; which has occafioned fome to doubt, how far
a human legillature ought to inflict capital punifhments
for pofitive offences ; offences againit the municipal
law only, and not againft the law of nature; fince no
individual has naturally a power of inflifting death upon
himfelf or others for adtions in themfelves indifferent.
With regard to offences mala in fe, capital punilhments
are in fome inftances inflidted by the immediate com¬
mand of God himfelf to all mankind ; as, in the cafe
of murder, by the precept delivered to Noah, their
common anceftor and reprefentative, “ Whofo ftieddeth
man’s blood, by man fhall his blood be fhed.” In
other inftances they are inflidted after the example of
the Creator, in his pofitive code of laws for the regu¬
lation of the Jewifti republic j as in the cafe of the
crime againft nature. But they are fometimes inflidl-
ed without fuch exprefs warrant or example, at the
will and difcretion of the human legiflature ; as for
forgery, for theft, and fometimes for offences of a
lighter kind. The pradfice is thus juftified by that
great and good man Sir Matthew Hale : “ When of¬
fences grow enormous, frequent, and dangerous to a
kingdom, or ftate, deftrudtive or highly pernicious to
civil focieties, and to the great infecurity and danger
of the kingdom or its inhabitants, fevere punifliment
and even death itfelf is necdfary to be annexed to laws
in many cafes by the prudence of lawgivers.” It is
therefore the enormity, or dangerous tendency, of the
crime, that alone can warrant any earthly legiflature
in putting him to death that commits it. It is not its
frequency only, or the difficulty of otherwife prevent¬
ing it, that will excufe our attempting to prevent it by
a wanton effufion of human blood. For though the
end of punifliment is to deter men from offending, it
never can follow from thence, that it is lawful to de¬
ter them at any rate and by any means •, fince there
may be unlawful methods of enforcing obedience even
to the jufleft laws. Every humane legiflator will be
therefore extremely cautious of eflablifliing laws that
inflidt the penalty of death, efpecially for flight offen¬
ces, or fuch as are merely pofitive. He will expedl a
/ J
]
c i i
better reafon for his fo doing than that ioofe one which
generally is given ; that it is found by former experi¬
ence that no lighter penalty will be effedtual. For is
it found upon farther experience, that capital punifh-
ments are more effedtual ? Was the vaft territory of all
the Ruflias worfe regulated under the late emprefs
Elizabeth, than under her more fanguinary predecef*
fors ? Is it now, under Catherine II. lefs civilized, Ids
focial, lefs fecure ? And yet we are affured, that nei¬
ther of thefe illuftrious princefles have, throughout their
whole adminiftration, inflidted the penalty of death :
and the latter has, upon full perfuafion of its being ufe-
lefs, nay even pernicious, given orders for abolifhing
it entirely throughout her extenfive dominions. But
indeed, were capital punilhments proved by experience
to be a fure and efftdtual remedy, that would not prove
the neceffity (upon which the juftice and propriety de¬
pend) of inflidting them upon all occafions when other
expedients fail. It is feared this reafoning would ex¬
tend a great deal too far. For inftance, the damage
done to our public roads by loaded waggons is univer-
fally allowed, and many laws have been made to pre¬
vent it, none of which have hitherto proved effedfual.
But it does not therefore fallow, that it would be juft
for the legiflature to inflidt death upon every obftinate
carrier, who defeats or eludes the proviflons of for¬
mer ftatutes. Where the evil to be prevented is not
adequate to the violence of the preventive, a fovereign
that thinks ferioufly can never juftify fuch a law to the
didtates of conference and humanity. To fined the
blood of our fellow creature is a matter that requires
the greateft deliberation, and the fulleft convidfion of
our own authority ; for life is the immediate gift of
God to man \ which neither he can refign, nor can it
be taken from him, unlefs by the command or per-
miffion of Him who gave it, either exprefsly revealed,
or colledfed from the laws of nature or fociety by
clear and indifputable demonftration.
We would not be underftood to deny the right of
the legiflature in any country to enforce its own laws
by the death of the tranfgreffor, though perfons of
fome abilities have doubted it ; but only to fuggeft a
few hints for the confideration of fuch as are, or may
hereafter become, legiflators. When a queftion arifes,
whether death may be lawfully inffidfed for this or
that tranfgreffion, the -wifdom of the laws muft de¬
cide it: and to this public judgment or decifion all
private judgments muft fubmit j elfe there is an end
of the firft principle of all fociety and government.
The guilt of blood, if any, muft lie at their doors,
who mifinterpret the extent of their warrant j and
not at the doors of the fubjedf, who is bound to re¬
ceive the interpretations that aae given by the fovereign
power.
2. As to the end, or final caufe, of human punifh-
ments. This is not by way of atonement or expia¬
tion for the crime committed ; for that muft be left to
the juft determination of the Supreme Being j but as
a precaution againft future offences of the fame kind.
This is effedted three ways : either by the amend¬
ment of the offender himfelf: for which purpofe all
corporeal punilhments, fines, and temporary exile or
imprifonment, are infiidled j or, by deterring others
by the dread of his example frbm offending in the like
way, “ ut poena (as Tully exprefles it), ad paucos, me-
“ tus
Crime sri
Punifn-
rime and
Funi!h-
ment.
C .R 1 r 753 ] C
*' tus ad omner, pervem'atwhich gives rife to all igno- abfurdity and wickednefs
minious punifhments, and to fuch executions of juitice
as are open and public: or, iatlly, by depriving the
party injuring of the power to do future mifchief;
which is effefted by either putting him to death, or
condemning him to perpetual confinement, flavery, or
exile. The fame one end, of preventing future crimes,
is endeavoured to be anfwered by each of thefe three
fpecies of punilhment. The public gains equal lecurity,
whether the offender himfelf be amended by wholeforne
correction, or whether he be difabled from doing any
farther harm : and if the penalty fails of both thefe
effeCts, as it may do, ftill the terror of his example
remains as a warning to other citizens. The method,
however, of inflicting punishment ought alrvays to be
proportioned to the particular purpofe it is meant to
ferve, and by no means to exceed it; therefore the
pains of death, and perpetual difabdity by exile,
flavery, or imprifonment, ought never to be inflicted,
but when the offender appears incorrigible: which
may be collected either from a repetition of minuter
offences •, or from the perpetration of fome one crime
of deep malignity, which of itfelf demonftiates a
difpofition without hope or probability of amendment :
and in fuch cafes it would be cruelty to the public
to defer the punifhment of fuch a criminal till he
had an opportunity of repeating perhaps the worft of
villanies.
3. As to the meafure of human punifhments. From
what has been obferved in the former articles, we may
colled, that the quantity of punhliment can never be
abfolutely determined by any Handing invariable rule ;
but it muff be left to the arbitration of the legiflature
to inflid fuch penalties as are warranted by the laws
of nature and fociety, and fuch as appear to be the
beft calculated to anfwer the end of precaution againft
future offences.
Hence it will be evident, that what fome have fo
highly extolled for its equity, the lex tahoms, or “ law
of retaliation,” can never be in all cafes an adequate or
permanent rule of punifhment. In fome cafes indeed it
feems to be didated by natural reafon ; as in the cafe
of confpiracies to do an injury, or falfe accufations of
the innocent; to which we may add that law’ of the
Jews and Egyptians, mentioned by Jofephus and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, that whoever without lufficient caufe
was found with any mortal poifon in his cuftody, fhould
himfelf be obliged to take it. But, in general, the dif¬
ference of perfons, place, time, provocation, or other
circumftances, may enhance or mitigate the offence *,
and in fuch cafes retaliation can never be a proper
meafure of juftice. If a nobleman firikes a peafant,
all mankind will fee, that if a court of juftice awards
a return of the blow, it is more than a juft compen-
iation. On the other hand, retaliation may fometimes
be too eafy a fentence ; as, if a man malicioufly fhould
put out the remaining eye of him who had loff one
before, it is too flight a punifhment for the maimer
to lofe only one of his : and therefore the law of the
Locrians, which demanded an eye for an eye, was in
this inftance judicioufly altered ; by decreeing, in imi¬
tation of Solon’s laws, that he who ftruck out the eye
of a one-eyed man, fhould lofe both his own in re¬
turn. Befides, there are very many crimes, that will
in no fhape admit of thefe penalties, without manifeft
Vol. YI. Part II.
Pv I
Theft cannot be punifhed Crime^anJ
by theft, defamation by defamation, forgery by forgery,
adultery by adultery, and the like. And we may add, , ,i..<
that thofe inflances, wherein retaliation appears to be
ufed, even by the divine authority, do not really proceed
upon the rule of exaft retribution, by doing to the
criminal the fame hurt he has done to his neighbour,
and no more} but this correfpondence between the
crime and punifhment is barely a confequence from
fome other principle. . Death is ordered to be punifhed
with death •, not becaufe one is equivalent to the other,
for that would be expiation, and not punifhment.
Nor is death always an equivalent for death : the
execution of a needy decrepid alfaflin is a poor fatisfac-
tion for the death of a nobleman in the bloom of his
youth, and full enjoyment of his friends, his honours,
and his fortune. But the reafen upon which this fentence
is grounded feems to be, that this is the highefl penalty
that man can inflidt, and tends moft to the fecurity of
the world : by removing one murderer from the earth,
and fetting a dreadful example to deter others: fo that
even this grand inftance proceeds upon other principles
than thofe of retaliation. And truly, if any meafure
of punifhment is to be taken from the damage tuftained
by the fufferer, the punifhment ought rather to exceed
than equal the injury ; fince it feems contrary to reafon
and equity, that the guilty (if convidled) (hould fuffer
no more than the innocent has done before him j
efpecially as the fuffering of the innocent is paft and
irrevocable, that of the guilty is future, contingent,
and liable to be efcaped or evaded. With regard
indeed to crimes that are incomplete, which confift:
merely in the intention, and are not yet carried into
aft, as confpiracies and the like 5 the innocent has a
chance to fruftrate or avoid the villany, as the con-
fpirator has alfo a chance to efcape his punifhment :
and this may be one reafon why the lex taiioim is
more proper to be inflifted, if at all, for crimes that
confift in intention, than for fuch as are carried into
aft. It feems indeed conibnant to natural reafon, and
has therefore been adopted as a maxim by feveral theo¬
retical writers, that the puniihment due to the crime of
which one falfely accufes another, fhould be inflifted'
on the perjured informer. Accordingly, when it was
once attempted to introduce into England the law of
retaliation, it was intended as a puniihment for fuch
only as preferred malicious accufations againft others j
it being enafted by ftatute 37 Edw. III. c. 18.
that fuch as preferred any fuggeftions to the king’s
great council fhould put in fureties of taliation ; that
is, to incur the fame pain that the other fhould have
had, in cafe the fuggeftion were found untrue. But,
after one year’s experience, this punifhment of talia-
tion was rejefted, and imprilbnment adopted in its
ftead.
But though from what has been faid it appears, that
there cannot be any regular determinate method of
rating the quantity of punifhments for crimes, by any
one uniform rule; but they mutt be referred to the
will and diferetion of the legillative power : yet there
are fome general principles, drawn from the nature and
circumftances of the crime, that may be of fome afliftance
in allotting it an adequate punifhment:.
As, firft, with regard to the objeft of it : for the
greater and more exalted the objeft of an injury is,
5 C ' the
C R I
Crime and the more care fhould be taken to prevent that injury,
anC^ cour^e uncier this aggravation the puniihment
1 ' i ihould be more fevere. Therefore treafon in con-
fpiring the king’s death is (in Britain) punithed with
greater rigour than even aftually killing any private
iubjeft. And yet, generally, a defign to tranfgrefs
is not fo flagrant an enormity as the aftual completion
of that defign. For evil, the nearer we approach it,
is the more difagreeable and (hocking; fo that it
requires more ohftinacy in wickednefs to perpetrate
an unlawful affion, than barely to entertain the
thought of it ; and it is an encouragement to repentance
and remorie, evjm till the laft flage of any crime,
that it never is too late to retraff ; and that if a man
'tops even here, it is better for him than if he proceeds 5
"or which reafon an attempt to rob, to ravilh, or to
kill, is far lefs penal than the aftual robbery, rape, or
murder. But in the cafe of a treafongble confpiracy,
the objeft whereof is the king’s majefty, the bare
intention will deferve the highefl: degree of fever!ty 5
not becaufe the intention is equivalent to the aft itfelf;
but becaufe the greatefl rigour is no more than adequate
to a treafonable purpofe of the heart, and there is no
greater left to inflift upon the aftual execution itfelf.
Again, The violence of pafiion, or temptation, may
lometimes alleviate a crime ; as theft, in cafe of hunger,
is far more wrortl>y of companion, than when committed
through avarice, or to fupply one in luxurious exceffes.
To kill a man upon hidden and violent xefentment is
lefs penal than upon cool deliberate malice. The age,
education, and charafter, of the offender ; the repetition
(or otherwife) of the offence ; the time, the place, the
company wherein it wTas committed ; all thefe, and a
thoufand other incidents, may aggravate or extenuate
the crime (a).
Farther, As punilhtnents are chiefly intended for
the prevention of future crimes, it is but reafonable
that among crimes of different natures thofe fliould be
moft leverely punifhed, which are the moi> deftruftive
of the public fafety and happinefs; and, among crimes
of an equal malignity, thofe which a man has the mod
frequent and eafy opportunities of committing, which
cannot be fo eafily guarded agamft as others, and
which therefore the offender has the ffrongeft induce¬
ment to commit: according to what Cicero obferves,
Ea funt animadvertenda peccata maxime, qiue difficillime
preecaventur. Hence it is, that for a fervant to rob
his mafter is in more cafes capital than for a firanger.
If a fervant kills his mailer, it is a fpecies of treafon ;
in another it is only murder. To deal a handkerchief,
or other trifle of above the value of twelvepence, pri¬
vately from one’s perfon, is made capital; but to carry
off a load of corn from an open field, though of fifty
times greater value, is punifhed with tranfpertation
only. And in the ifland of Man this rule was formerly
carried fo far, that to take away a horfe or an ox was
there no felony ; but a trefpafs^ becaufe of the difficulty
C 11 I
in that little territory to conceal them or carry them oiF: ©rime and
but to deal a pig or a fowl, which is eafily dene, was a Purilh.
capital rnifdemeanour, and the offender was punifhed , iriCnt'
with death.
Laitly, As a conclufion to the whole, we may obferve,
that punifhments of unreafonable feverity, efpecially
when indiferiminately inflifted, have lefs effeft in pre¬
venting crimes, and amending the manners of a people,
than fuch as are more merciful in general, yet properly
intermixed with due didinftions of feverity. It is the
fentiment of an ingenious writer, who feems to have well
dudied the fprings of human aftion, that crimes are
more effeftually prevented by the certainty than by the
feverity of puniihment j for the exceflive feverity of the
laws (fays Montefquieu) hinders their execution. When
the punifhment furpaffes all meafure, the public will
frequently prefer impunity to it. Thus alfo the datute
1 Mar. d. x. c. 1. recites in its preamble, “ that the
date of every king confids more affuredly in the love of
the fubjefts towards their prince, than in the dread of
laws made with rigorous pains : and that laws made for
the prefervation of the commonwealth without great
penalties, arc more often obeyed and kept than laws
made with extreme punifliments.” Happy had it been
for the nation if the fubfequent praftice of that deluded
princefs in matters of religion, had been correfpondent
to thefe fentiments of herfelf and parliament in matters
of date and government 1 We may further obferve, that
fanguinary laws are a bad fymptom of the didemper of
any date, or at lead of its weak conditution. The laws
of the Roman kings, and the twelve tables of the
decemviri, were full of cruel punifliments : the Porcian
law,‘which exempted all citizens from fentenceof death,
filently abrogated them all. In this period the republic
flourifhed : under the emperors fevere punithments were
revived, and then the empire fell.
It is, moreover, abfurd and. impolitic to apply the
fame punifhment to crimes of different malignity. A
multitude of fanguinary laws, (befides the doubt that
may be entertained concerning the right of making
them) do likewife prove a manifed defeft either in the
wifdom of the legiflative, or the firength of the exe¬
cutive, power. It is a kind of quackery in govern¬
ment, and argues a want of folid {kill, to apply the
fame univerfal remedy, the ultimum fupplicium, to every
cafe of difficulty. It is, it mull be owned, much eafier
to extirpate than to amend mankind ; yet that magif-
trate mud be edeemed both a weak and a cruel fur-
geon, who cuts off every limb which through igno¬
rance or indolence he will not attempt to cure. It has
been therefore ingenioufly propofed, that in every date
a fcale of crimes fnould be formed, with a correfpond-
ing fcale of punlfhments, descending from the greated
to the lead. But if that be too romantic an idea, yet
at lead a wife legiflator will mark the principal divi-
fions, and not aflign penalties of the firft degree to of¬
fences of an inferior rank. Where man fee no didino-
tion.
r 754 i
(a) Thus Demodhenes (in his oration againd Midas) finely works up the aggravations of the infults he
had received. “ I was abufed (fays he) by my enemy, in cold blood, cut of malice, not by heat of wine, in
44 the morning, publicly, before ftrangers as well as citizens ; and that in the temple, whither the duty of my
<s office called me.”
e R I [75
ime and tion made in the nature and gradations of puniihment,
| Junith- the generality will be led to conclude there is no dif-
tindliort in the guilt. Thus in France the puniihment
'",'v of robbery, either with or without murder, is the fame :
hence it is, that though perhaps they are therefore
fubjeft to fewer robberies, yet they never rob but
they alfo murder. In China murderers are cut to pie¬
ces, and robbers not: hence in that country they never
murder on the highway, though they often rob. And
in Britain, befides the additional terrors of a fpeedy
execution, and a fubfequent expofure or difletfion,
robbers have a hope of tranfportation, which feldom is
extended to murderers. This has the fame effe& here
as in China, in preventing frequent alfaflination and
flaqghter.
Yet though in this inftance we may glory in the
wifdom of our law, we {hall find it more difficult to
juftify the frequency of capital punifhment to be found
therein ; infiifted (perhaps inattentively) by a multi¬
tude of fucceflive independent ftatutes, upon crimes
very different in their natures. It is a melancholy
truth, that among the variety of aftions which men
are daily liable to commit, no lefs than 160 have been
declared by a6l of parliament to be felonies without
benefit of clergy •, or, in other words, to be worthy
of inftant death. So dreadful a lift, inftead of diminifh-
: ' itig, increafes the number of offenders. The injured,
through compaflion, will often forbear to profecute \
juries, through compaffion, will fometimes forget their
oaths, and either acquit the guilty or mitigate the na¬
ture of the offence. •, and judges, through compaflion,
will refpite one half of the convi&s, and recommend
them to the royal mercy. Among fo many chances of
efcaping, the needy and hardened offender overlooks
the multitude that fuffer: he boldly engages in feme
defperate attempt to relieve his wants or fupply his
vices ; and if, unexpeffedly, the hand of juftice over¬
takes him, he deems himfelf peculiarly unfortunate in
falling at laft a facrifice to thofe laws which long impu¬
nity has taught him to contemn.
As to the trials and mode of punifhment, fee Ar¬
raignment ; Trial, and the references therefrom ;
Conviction •, Judgment, Attainder j Corruption
of Blood; Forfeiture-, Execution-, the feveral
Crimes under their refpe&ive names. See Law Index.
Perfcns capable or incapable of committing Crimes ; or
(which is all one) of fuffering the cenfures of the law
upon the commiflion of forbidden a£ls.
All the feveral pleas and excufes which proteft the
committer of a forbidden aft from the punifhment
which is otherwife annexed thereto, may be reduced
to this fingle confideration, the want or defeft of will.
An involuntary aft, as it has no claim to merit, fo
neither can it induce any guilt : the concurrence of
the will, when it has its choice either to do or to avoid
the faft in quefiion, being the only thing that renders
human aftions either praifeworthy or culpable. In¬
deed, to make a complete crime, cognizable by human
laws, there muft be both a will and an aft. for
though, in foro confaentice, a fixed defign or will to
do an unlawful aft is almoft as heinous as the commii-
fion of it 5 yet as no temporal tribunal can fearch the
heart, or fathom the intentions of the mind, otherwife
than as they are demonftrated by outward aftions, it
therefore cannot punifh for w’hat it cannot know. For
5 c K I
which reafon, in all temporal jurifdiftions, an overt aft, c5jme and
or iome open evidence of an intended crime, is necef-
fary in order to demonftrate the depravity of the will, Crimea,
before the man is liable to puniflament. And as a vi-1_—y—J
cious will without a vicious aft is no civil crime ; fo,
on the other hand, an unwarrantable aft without a vici¬
ous will is no crime at all. So that to conftitute a crime
againft human laws, there muft be, firft, a vicious will;
and, fecondly, an unlawful aft confequent upon fuch vi¬
cious will.
Now there aie three cafes in which the will does
not join with the aft: i. When there is a defeft ot
underftanding. For w-here there is no difeernment,
there is no choice; and, where there is no choice,
there can be no aft of the will, which is nothing elfe
but a determination of one’s choice to do or abftain
from a particular aftion j he, therefore, that has no
underftanding, can have no will to guide his conduft.
2. Where there, is underftanding and will fufficient
refiding in the party, but not called forth and exerted
at the time of the aftion done; which is the cafe of
all offences committed by chance or ignorance. Here
the will fits neuter, and neither concurs with the aft
nor difagrees to it. 3. Where the aftion is conftrained.
by fome outward force and violence. Flere the will
counterafts the deed j and is fo far from concurring
with, that it loaths and difagree.s to what the man is o-
bliged to perform. Infancy, idiocy, lunacy, and intoxi¬
cation, fall under the firft clafs \ misfortune and igno¬
rance may be referred to the fecond ; and compulfion or
neceffity may properly rank in the third. See Infan¬
cy, Idiocy, Drunkenness, Misfortune, Ignorance,
Necessity.
CRIMEA, or Crim Tartary, anciently the Cher-
fonefus Taurica, a peninfula fituated direftly to the
iouth of St Peterfburg, between the 51ft and 55th de¬
grees of latitude, and in 46 longitude. Its fouthern and
weftern coafts lie on the Euxine, its northern and eaft-
ern on the Rotten fea and the Palus Maeotis. It is
joined, however, to the continent on the north by a
fmall neck of land not more than fix miles broad. This
peninfula has been known more than 3000 years fince
the firft naval expedition of the Argonauts 5 a fiory,
though mixed with fable, yet well founded in its prin¬
cipal fafts. The mountainous parts were inhabited by
the Tauri, probably a colony of Scythians -, and its
coafts on the weft, the eaft, and the fouth, by Greeks. ,
The Scythians were driven out by Mithridates; the
Greeks by the Sarmatians 5 and thefe again by the A-
lani and Goths, a northern horde of Scythians. The
Hungarians, the CoiTacks and Tartars, fucceedcd in
their turn; while the Genoefe, in the 12th century,
held a temporary and precarious poiTeflion of the fea-
ports, which they were obliged to yield to the Turks in
1475. At the peace of 1774, the Tartars of the Cri¬
mea were declared independent ; and in 1783, this pe¬
ninfula was united to the Ruffian empire.
From the above-mentioned ifthmus, on which is
built the fortrefs of Or-kapi or Perekop^ tb the firft
rrfing of the hill at Karafubafar, the country is one
continued fiat: elevating ilfelf, by an eafy gradation,
to1 the fummit of the hill, which forms the fouth fide
of the peninfula and the firore of the Euxine fea.
The furface of the foil is almoft all of one kind, a red-
difti-gray loam ; on digging, you find it' more or lefs
5 C 2 mixed
c R 1 [ 7
Crimea, mixed with a black earth, and the hills abound with
''v'"- 1 marie. The whole flat from Perekop to the river
Salgir, which may be an extent of 8o miles, is full of
fait marfhes and lakes; from whence the neighbouring
Ruffian governments, as well as the Crim itfelf, Ana¬
tolia, and Beflarabia, are fupplied with fait. The
molt remarkable of thefe lakes are five in number j
Koflof and Keffa, fo called after the towns near wdiich
they lie, are very large j the Tufla, about 15 verfts
from Perekop, on the road from KeflFa 5 the Red lake,
r.or far from the laft mentioned ; and the Black lake.
Befidcs thefe, there are many other fwamps and lakes,
from whence the inhabitants get fait for their own con-
fumption.
The greateff part of the peninfula is fo level that a
man may travel over the half of it without meeting
with a river, or even the fmalleft brook. The inhabi¬
tants of the villages, therefore, make a pit in the yard
of every houfe for receiving the rain or the water that
runs from the hills. The wdiole trail is bare of every
kind of tree. Not a bufh or a bramble is to be feen,
and the herbage is extremely fcanty. This, however,
does not proceed fo much from the unfruitfulnefs of
the place, as from the vaft herds of cattle which rove
the wdiole year long from place to place 5 by which
means all the grafs in fpring, fummer, or autumn, no
fooner appears through the long drought which fuc-
ceeds the rainy feafon, but it is immediately devoured
or trodden down. The univerfal prevalence of this
cuffom of keeping cattle to wander up and down, joined
to the flothfulnefs of the Tartars, with their inaptitude
and averfion to agriculture, is the reafon of the total
negleil of that fcience here. Otherwife, w’ere the land
divided into portions and properly managed, there
would be a fufliciency for the cattle, and the reil
would be fruitful in corn and grain. By this means
alone the Crim would become a fertile country, and
no natural defedl would be found in oppofition to
the welfare of its inhabitants. The truth of this is
well known by their neighbours; where, of a hun¬
dred Tartars, one perhaps follows hufbandry, who finds
it to anfwer to fo much profit, that he has not only
enough for his own ufe, but wherewith to fell to the
ninety-nine.
This peninfula, which is indeed but a little diftridl,
yet, from the many advantages conferred upon it by
' nature, may be effeemed peculiarly rich, is divided
into the hill country and the flat. The latter, which
extends from Perekop to Koflof and the river Bulga-
nap, to Karafubafar, Keffa, and Yenicali, is ftrewn there
and there with little Tartar villages, maintained by
cattle and the produce of the fait lakes. The high¬
lands, or hilly country, form the fouthern part of the
Crim, along the ftraight coaft: of the Black fea, and
Rretching weftward in a right line from Keffa to the
vicinity of Belfcek. Thefe hills are compofed of layers
of chalk •, which, in the headlands and promonto¬
ries, is foft, but more inland quite hard. The ftrata
of the high hills are like thofe of the promontories,
and take a direflion from north to fouth. Thefe qua¬
lities of the firata prevail not throughout the whole
hills, but only in the large and lofty ones 5 fuch as the
two that rife near Karafubafar, and one very high by
Achmetfched, which bears the name of Aktau. The
other fmaller hills lie fcattered and difperfed, but take
Si
6 ] C R I
the names of the greater ones, to which they feem to Crimea,
belong ; as the great ridge of Caucafus does, which ex- '"’““■v—•
tends beyond the Donau, through Bulgaria, and are
named Pa/kans.
All accounts agree in this, that nature has favoured
thofe highland countries with great advantages, and
bleffed them with abundance of all things. A number t
of fprings that flow from the mountains form the two
confiderable rivers Salgir and Karafu, which run into
the Rotten fea. The former, which takes its rife
from a cavern in a high hill near Achmetfched, falls
firaight into the plain below, and waters a great part
of the Ciim ; the other commencing behind Kaiafu-
bafar, falls likewife into the plain, and mingles with
the Salgir. There are many other little rivers and
ftreams, which run eaftivard, and either join the two
fore-mentioned or fall immediately into the Rotten fea.
All the ffreams, for the whole length of the hills,
which begin at Keffa, and proceed in a chain of the
fame height, flow' to the north or the north-eaft, except¬
ing the one behind Achmetfched, where the great moun¬
tain Aktau is, which falls on the other fide } this river,
riling on the northern fide of this mountain, flows, as was
before obferved, towards the north-eaft, to the Salgir
and the Rotten fea } as likewife thofe which fpring on
the weftern fide take their courfe vveftward to the Bul-
ganak, and thence flraight to the Black lea ; wdiich alfo
receives all the other little rivers that arife from thefe
hills, as the Amma, the Katfcha, the Belbek, the Ka-
fulkioi, &c.
The mountains are well covered with wood fit for
the purpofe of Ihip-building, and contain plenty of
will beafts. The valleys confill of fine arable land 5 on
the Tides of the hills grow corn and vines in great abun¬
dance, and the earth is rich in mines. But thefe moun¬
taineers are as carelefs and negligent as the inhabitants
of the deferts; flighting all thefe advantages ; and, like
their brethren of the lowlands, are fufficiently happy if
they are in poffefiion of a fat flieep and as much bread
as ferves them to eat.
About 20 years ago this peninfula was uncommonly
full of inhabitants and wealth. They reckoned at that
time at leaft 1200 villages j but, from the late troubles
in the Crim, it has loft more than a third part of its
inhabitants, and nowr, wherever we turn, we meet with
the ruins of large villages and dwellings. The people
wTere compofed of various nations, wdio lived together
under the Tartars in the moft unbounded freedom ^
but in the late Turkifh war they either put themfelves
under the Rrsllian government, and were transferred
to that empire, or fled to Abcafia and the Tfchirkafiian
hills.
The houfes in the towns, as well as the villages,
are for the moft part of fquare timbers, having the in-
terftices filled with brick work, if the poffeffor can af¬
ford it, and thofe of the poorer fort with turf. The
chinks and crannies are made tight with clay, and then
plaftered within and without. The covering is com¬
monly either of bricks or of turfs. Only the iredfeheds,
minarets, and baths, are of ftone, and a few extreme¬
ly handfome of marble. They have chimneys in the
chambers, at which they likewife drefs their vifluals j
but ftoves in the Ruffia manner none. In extreme
frofts a great iron pan of'charcoal is brought into the
room, for making it comfortable. Their cuftom is,
to
C It I [ 757 ] c R I
Crimea, to fit upon low fofas, with Turkifii coverings and cu-
—"0/ fhions, or upon a clay feat, fomewhat raifed above the
earth and fpread with a carpet. In thefe rooms are
cupboards and chefts, often covered with cufhions, to
lerve as feats j in which they keep their gold, filver,
and valuables. Such are the inner apartments or ha-
rams, in which the wmmen generally live j the others
are not (b fine. Thefe contain only a fofa, or a bank
of clay covered with a carpet, as in the chimney
| rooms.
The rich Tartars, and their nobility or murzas (ex¬
cepting only fuch as are about the peribn of the khan),
commonly dwell ail the year round in the country,
coming only to town w7hen they have bufinefs there.
There are but few towns in the Crim, at leaft in com-
parifon of its former population. The Krimlkoi Tar¬
tars have no tribunal of juftice, controverfies and quar¬
rels being feldom heard of among them ; and if a dif-
pute Ihould arife, it is immediately fettled by an appeal
to the Koran. Little differences in the villages inevi¬
tably happening about property, or other matters not
taken notice of in that code, are amicably adjufted by
the elderman or abefes ; but in the towns all weighty
concerns, excepting the tingle cafe of murder or homi¬
cide, are brought before the kaimakan, or commandant,
who fettles them abfolutely without appeal.
The refidence of the khans of the Crimea was for¬
merly Bachtfchifarai, in which city they held their feat
for upwards of 200 years. They wrent thither from
Elki-Crim, or Old Crim, the capital city of the Ge-
noefe, upon Bengli Ghirei Khan’s plundering the fea-
ports, and driving all the Genoefe from their ftations.
Before Elki-Crim, and indeed upon the firft coming
of the Tartars into this peninfula, the fovereign refi¬
dence was at Koflof j but here they remained not long.
Under the late khan Shagin Ghirei it was held at Kef-
la, the ancient Theodofia ; which is ten miles diftant
from Elki-Crim, faid to be the Cimmcrium of the
ancients.
The principal cities or towns of the Crimea are :
I. Bachtfchifarai, an extenfive and wealthy city, ly¬
ing in a vale between two high mountains, and fur-
rounded by a number of gardens. From this circum-
flance it has its name j bachtfchi, fignifying in the Tar¬
tarian language “ a garden,” and farai, “ a palace.”
It formerly contained 3000 houfes, and many fumptu-
ous medfeheds. The palace of the khans, with its gar¬
dens and ponds, was much improved under the go¬
vernment of Khan Kerim Ghirei, under whofe govern¬
ment the laft Turkifh war took its rife. In this palace
is the burial-place of all the khans of Crimea, wherein
all the khans that have reigned here lie interred. The
fine Krimlkoi vines, with their large clufters of grapes,
grow *in great plenty all about this town, and a profu-
fion of other delicious fruits, from whence the neigh¬
bouring parts of Ruflia are fupplied. 2. Keffa, the
prefent refidence of the khans, ftands on the (bore of
a large harbour in the Black fea. Its file is on the
declivity of a long ridge of mountains ; and is mantled
by a ftone wall, fortified by feveral towers, and encom-
paffed by a deep ditch. On both Tides of the city for¬
merly ftood cattles, and in the middle of them a lofty
turret for the purpofe of giving fignals by fire. Before
the wail were wide extended fuburbs; containing a-
mong other confiderable buildings, medfeheds, churches
for the Greek and Armenian worlhip j of all which Crimea,
now only the vettiges remain. The cattles and towers v-—
lie alfo in ruins \ and not one-third part of the houfes
of the city itfelf are now remaining, and thofe chiefly
built of materials taken from the aforefaid ruins. They
formerly reckoned Keffa to contain 4000 houfes, in¬
cluding the fuburbs, with a number of medfeheds and
Chriflian churches j but this number has been much
diminilhed by the laft Turkifli war. The prefent inha¬
bitants confiit moftly of Tartars ; who carry on a trade
by no means inconfiderable, in commodities brought
from Turkey. The late khan, an intelligent and en¬
lightened perfonage, made this city the place of his re¬
fidence, and brought hither the mint from Bachtfchi¬
farai, built himfelf a palace, and erefted a divan, which
affembled three times a-w’eek, and the fourth time was
held in the palace of the khan, in which he always
perfonally afikted. Here is alfo a cuftomhoufe, the
management of which is farmed out. 3. Karafubafar,
likewife a very rich city in former times, ftands at the
beginning of the mountains, about half-way between
Keffa and Bachtfchifarai. It is a large trading town j
contains a confiderable number of dweliing-houfes and
medfeheds, but the greateft part of them in decay, and
many fine gardens. This place is the moft famous in
ail the Crim for its trade in horfes, and has a market
once a-week for that article of traffic; to which are
likewufe brought great numbers of buffaloes, oxen,
cows, camels, and Ihsep for falc. Near this city flows
one of the principal rivers of the Crim, called the
Karafu, that is, the Black Water. Of this river they
have an opinion in Ruflia, that one part of it flows
upwards for feveral verfts together. But this is in fome
fort true, not only of the Karafu, but of all the rivers
of the Crim that have a ftrong current. The Tartars,
who dwell either in the valleys or on the lides of the
mountains (frequently without confidering whether
the place is fupplied with water or not), dig canals
either from the iburce of the next river, or from that
part of it which lies neareft to their particular habita¬
tion, about an arlhine in breadth, for their gardens
and domeftic ufe. From thefe they cut fmaller ones
through the villages, to fupply them with water, and
■ not unfrequently to drive a mill. Thefe canals ap¬
pear, to the imagination of the common people, to
run in a contrary dire&ion to the current of the river j
and in fabl thefe canals do lie, in many places for a
verft in length, fome fathoms higher than the level of
the ftream from whence they are fupplied. 4. Acfmiet-
Jbed, a pretty large city not far from Bachtfchifarai ;
now made the capital of all the Crimea by the regu¬
lations of Prince Potemkin in the fummer of 1785.
5. Kojlof, formerly a very confiderable trading town,
lies on the weftern fide of the peninfula, in a bay of
the Black fea; which, as well as the found at Keffa,
might rather be called a road than a haven. This
was the firft town the Tartars poffeffed themfelves of
on their firft: entrance into the Crim, and eftabliftied a
cuftomhoufe therein, after the example of the Genoefe,
which is now farmed out.
The other remarkable places are, Sudak, which is
built on the hills upon the (bore of the Black fea, at
the fouth fide of the peninfula, and is famous for its
excellent wine, refembling Champagne both in colour
and ftrength $ Alufchti, on the fame fide, among the
c R I [ 758 ] C R I
( rimsa lulls on the Tea (bore; where there is a fine rope, which is faftened thereto for the purcofe of Cringle
Cringle. 'iar^0.11^ anc^ perhaps the only one on the Black fea, drawing up the fail to its yard, or of extending the if
—V——/ containing ample ^ room for a very good fleet; Inker- ficirts by the means of bridles^ to ftand upon a fide wind., €rit^um-
man may be noticed for its commodious though not The word feems to be daived from krinckelen (Belg.) ’ v ^
very large haven, called Achtiar; and Mangup, the old “ to run into twills.1’
Cherfonefus : which were all formerly very fiourithing CRINUM, Asphodel-lily j a genus of plants be-
tow’ns j but are now either in ruins, or dwindled into longing to the hexandria clafs ; aod^in the natural me-
f'malt villages. thod ranking under the 9th order, Spalhaccce. See Be-
All thefe places, fo long- as the Genoefe remained tany Index.
mailers of _th« Crim, were well fortified j but the Tar- CRISIS, in Medicine, is ufed in different fenfes, both
tars, in taking them, demolilhed all the works. While by the ancient and modern phyficians. With fome it
1 hey were under the 1 urks, they left the fortreffes of means frequently no more than the excretion of any
Kefla, Kertfch, and Koflof, and built the fort Arabat noxious fubftance from the body. Others take the
on the neck of land between the fca of Azof (or Palus word for a fecretion of the noxious humours made in a
Maeotis) and the Rotten fea, where Perekop alfo is. fever. Others ufe it-for the critical motion itfelf; and
^ In Arabat are but few houfes ; but here the warlike Galen defines a crifis in fevers, a fudden and infiantane-
fiores of the khans were kept.—Pereiop, called by the ous change, either for the better or the w’orfe, produc-
I urks Or-capi, is a fortrefs of moderate lirength ; tive of recovery or death.
(landing about the middle of the neck of land that CRISPIN and Crispianus, two legendary faints,
joms the peninfula with the continent. This ifthmus, whole feftival, as maiked in the kalendar, is on the
which is at lea ft fix miles broad, is cut through wdth a 25th of Odober. According to the legend, they
wide and deep ditch lined with ftone, add reaches from were brethren, born at Rome ; from whence they tra-
the Black to the Rotten fea. This was formerly kept veiled to Soiffons in France, about the year ,303, to
without water, but ncwr is filled from both feas. On propagate the Chriftian religion 5 and becaufe they
the Crimean fide a high wall of earth runs the whole would not be chargeable to others for their mainte-
length of it, ftraight from one fea to the other. The nance, they exeiciled the trade of ftioeniakers: but the
people pafs over the ditch by means of a drawbridge, governor of the town difeovering them to be Cbriftians,
and through the wall by a gateway The walls of the ordered them to be beheaded. From which time,
fortrefs are fome fathoms from the road fide , of which the Ihoemakers made choice of them for their tutelar
the ruins are only now difcernible, namely, large brick faints.
houfes, with a number of homb-ftielJs and cannon-balls CRISTAi, in Surgery, a term for certain excref-
about them, which were formerly kept in the fortrefs. cences about the anus and pudenda. See Medicine
At leaft two miles from this is a pretty populous but Index.
miserable place, which wTas ^probably the town to which CRISTA caili, in Anatomy, an eminence in the
■ ;.is fort belonged. Near the gate is a cuftomhoufe, middle of the os ethmoides, advancing within the cavi-
where all imports and exports pay duty. ty of the cranium ; and to which is faftened that part
I his peninfula wras formerly extremely populous ; the of the dura mater which divides the brain, called falx.
number of its inhabitants, in lartars, lurks, Greeks, It has its name from its figure, which refembles that
Armenians, Jews, and others, amounted to above of a cock’s comb. In adults, this procefs appears of a
2co,coo men. Since that, however, the greateft part piece with the feptum narium. See Anatomy Index.
of the Chriftians have betaken themfelves to the other CRITERION, or Criterium, a ftandard by which
parts of the Ruffian empire, particularly the govern- propofitions and opinions are compared, in order to dif-
ment of Azof j and many other inhabitants, particularly cover their truth or falfehood.
lartars, have gone to I aman and Abchafia ; fo that CRITHE, in Surgery, commonly called thefve, is
the prefent population of the Crim cannot now be rec- a fort of tubercle that grows on the eyelids. When
koned at more than 70,000 men at moft. Imall, it is feated on the edge of the eyelid} but when
i he Crim was heretofore divided into 24 kaduliks Erge, it fpreads further. When they do not fuppu-
or difirifts; namely, Yenikali, Kertfch, Arabat, Ef- rate they become wens. They are apt to difappear
ki-krmi, Keffa, Karafubafar, Sudak, Achmetfched, and return. If there is inflammation, endeavour to fup-
\ alof, Bachtfchifarai, Balaklava, Mangup, Inkerman, purate it with the white bread poultice : if it is hard,
Koflof, Or, Manfur, larkan, Sivafch, Tifchongar, deftroy it with a mixture of equal parts of hog’s lard
Sarubulat, Barun, Argun, Sidfchugut, and Schirin. 2nd quickfilver. If the lower eyelid is affefled, the iu-
Several of thefe diftrifls are named after the town inor is more frequently on its infide; and then it is beft
or village wherein the murza, their governor, dwells j to diffefl it, or to make wray for it outwrardly by apply-
and many of them are at pieient in a ftate of total de- ing a caufiic on the Ikin juft upon it.
cay. CRII HUM, Samphire ; a genus of plants belong-
CRIMEN falsi. See Fjlsi Crimen. ing to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural method
CRIMSON, one of the feven red colours of the ranking under the 45th order, Umbe/latce. See Bota-
oyers. See Dyeing. ny Index.—Its leaves are an excellent pickle u!ed for
CRINGLE, a fmall hole made in the bolt-rope of fauces, and are by many eaten raw in falads. It is of
a'fail, by i-ntertwifting one of the divifions of a rope, a laltilh relifh, palatable, and comfortable to the fto-
called a frond, alternately round itfelf and through mach. It is not very eafily preferved in gardens. It
\\\e frauds of the bolt-rope, till it becomes threefold, muft be fown on gravelly or rocky ground, half an inch
and affumes the ftiape of a wreath or ring. The ufe deep ; in w'hich ifituation the plants will come up, and
of the cringle is generally to contain the end of fome laft fome years.
CRITHOMANCY,
c R I [ 759 ] C R I
ithoman- CRITHOMANCY, a kind of divination, perform-
cy ed by conddering the dough or matter of the cakes
. ji. offered in facrifice, and the meal ftrewed over the vic-
nticifm. ^ ^ii]ec}. Hence, in regard they ordinarily
ufed barley-meal in thefe ceremonies, this kind of di¬
vination was called crithomancy, from barley, and
fM'niM, divination.
CMTIAS, one of the 30 tyrants fet over Athens
by the Spartans. He was eloquent and well bred, but
of dangerous principles. He cruelly perfecuted his
enemies, and put them to death. He was killed about
400 years before the Auguftan age, in a battle againft
thofe citizens whom his oppreflionjhad bamlhed. He
had been among the difciples of Socrates, and had
written elegies and other compolitions, of which feme
fragments remain.
CRITICAL days and symptoms, among phyfi-
cians, are certain days and fymptoms in the courfe of
acute difeaies, which indicate the patient’s date, and
determine him either to recover or grow worfe. See
Medicine Index.
CRITICISM, the art of judging with propriety
concerning any obje£t or combination of objefls. But,
in a more limited lenfe, the fcience of criticifm is con¬
fined to the fine arts. The principles of the fine arts
are beft unfolded by lludymg the fenfitive part of our
- nature, and by learning what obje&s are naturally
agreeable and what are naturally difagreeable. The
man who afpires to be a critic in thefe arts, mud
pierce dill deeper : he mud clearly perceive what ob¬
jects are lofty, what low, what are proper or impro¬
per, what are manly, and what are mean or trivial.
Hence a foundation for judging of tade, and for. rea-
foning upon it : where it is conformable to principles,
we can pronounce with certainty that it is correct j
otherwife, that it is incorrect, and perhaps whimfical.
Thus the fine arts, like morals, become a rational fci¬
ence j and, like morals, may be cultivated to a high
degree of refinement.
Manifold are the advantages of criticifm, when thus
dudied as a rational fcience. In the fird place, a tho¬
rough acquaintance with the principles of the fine arts
redoubles the entertainments tnofe arts afford. I. o
the man who refigns himfeif entirely to fentiment or
feeling, without interpodng any fort of judgment,
poetry, mufic, painting, are mere padime j in the prime
of life, indeed, they are delightful, being {supported by
the force of novelty and the heat of imagination : but
they lofe their reliflu gradually with their novelty ;
and are generally neglefled in the maturity of life,
which difpofss to more ferious and more important
occupations. To thofe who deal in criticifm as a re¬
gular fcience, governed by jud principles, and giving
(cope to judgment as well as to fancy, the fine arts
are a favourite entertainment $ and in old age main¬
tain that reliih which they produce in the morning of
life.
In the next place, a philofophical inquiry into the
principles of the fine arts, inures the reflefting mind
to the mod enticing fort cf logic : the pradlice .of
reafoning upon fubjedls fo agreeanle tends to a habit j
and a habit drengthening the reafoning faculties, pre¬
pares the mind for entering into fubjedfs more difficult
and abdraef. To have, in this refpeff, a jud con¬
ception of the importance of criticifm, we need but
reflect upon the common method of education j which, Critieifnn.
after fome years fpent in acquiring languages, hurries ' y—
us, without the lead preparatory dilcipline, into the
mod profound philofophy : a more effedtual method
to alienate the tender mind from abdradt fcience, is
beyond the reach of invention : and accordingly, with
refpedt to fuch fpeculations, the bulk of our youth
contradl a fort of hobgoblin terror, which is feldom,
if ever, fubdued. Thofe who apply to the arts are
trained in a very different manner : they are led, dep
by dep, from the eafier parts of the operation to
what are more difficult j and are not permitted to
make a new motion till they be perfedted in thofe
which regularly precede it. The fcience of criticifm
appears then to be a middle link, connedting the dif¬
ferent parts of education into a regular chain. This
fcience furnidieth an inviting opportunity to exercife
the judgment: we delight to reafon upon fubjedts that
are equally pleafant and familiar ^ we proceed gradu¬
ally from the iimpler to the more involved cafes : and '
in a due courie of difeipline, cudom, which improves
all our faculties, bedows acutenefs upon thofe of rea¬
fon, fufficient to unravel all the intricacies of philofo-
phy. . .
Nor ought it to be overlooked, that the reafonings
employed upon the fine arts are of the fame kind with
thofe which regulate our condudl. Mathematical and
metaphyfical reafons have no tendency to improve
focial intercourfe $ nor are they applicable to the com¬
mon affairs of life : but a jud tafle in the fine arts, de¬
rived from rational principles, furnifhes elegant fub-
jedls for converfation, and prepares us finely for adling
in the focial date with dignity and propiiety.
The fcience of rational criticifm tends to improve
the heart not lefs than the underbanding. It tends,
in the fird place, to moderate the felfidi affeflions : by
fweetening and harmonizing the temper, it is a drong
antidote to the turbulence of paffion and violence of
purfuit ; it procures to a man fo much mental enjoy¬
ment, that, in order to be occupied, he is not tempted
in youth to precipitate into hunting, gaming, drinking ;
nor in middle a^e, to deliver himfclf over to ambition ;
nor in old age, to avarice. Pride and envy, two dif-
gudful paffions, find in the conditution no enemy more
formidable than a delicate and difeerning tade : the
man upon whom nature and culture have bedowed
this blefling, feels great delight in the virtuous difpo-
btions and aflions of others ■, he loves to cherifh them,
and to publifh them to the world : faults and failings,
it is true, are to him not lefs obvious ; but thefe he
avoids, or removes out of fight, becaufe they give him
pain. On the other hand, a man void of tade, upon
whom the mod bribing beauties make but a faint im-
preffion, has no joy but in gratifying his pride or en¬
vy by the difeovery of errors and blemidies. In a
word, there may be other paffions, which, for a fea-
fon, didurb the peace of fociety more than thofe men¬
tioned : but no other paffion is fo unwearied an anta~
gonid to the Tweets of facial intercourfe : thefe paf¬
fions, tending affiduoufly to their gratification, put a
man perpetually in oppofition to others ; and difpofe
him more to relifh bad than good qualities, even in a
companion. How different that difpofition of mind,
where every virtue in a companion or neighbour, is,
by refinement of tade, fet in its brongeb light; and.
defe£lr.
OKI [ 760 ] € R O
Criticifm defecls or blemlilies, natural to all, are kippreffed, or
ij,.. _ kept out of view !
■ . . . In the next place, delicacy of tafte tends not lefs to
invigorate the focial afteftions than to moderate thole
that are felfifh. To be convinced of this tendency,
we need only refledl, that delicacy of tafte necefl'arily
heightens our fenfibility, of pain and pleafure, and of
courfe our fympathy which is the capital branch of
every focial paflion. Sympathy, in particular, invites
a communication of joys and forrows, hopes and
fears: fuch exercife, foothing and fatisfaftory in it-
felf, is neceffarily produ&ive of mutual good-will and
affe£tion.
One other advantage of rational criticifm is referved
to the laft place, being of all the moft important;
which is, that it is a great fupport to morality. No
occupation attaches a man more to his duty than that
of cultivating a tafte in the fine arts : ajuftreliftiof
what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in
writing or painting, in architecture or gardening, is
a fine preparation for the fame juft relifh of thofe qua¬
lities in character and behaviour. To the man who has
acquired a tafte fo acute and accomplifhed, every a£Hon
wrong or improper muft be highly difguftful: if, in any
inltance, the overbearing power of paflion fway him from
his duty, he returns to it upon the firft refle£tion with
redoubled refolution never to be fwayed a fecond time :
he has now an additional motive to virtue, a conviffion
derived from experience, that happinefs depends on re¬
gularity and order, and that a difregard to juftice or
propriety never fails to be puniftied with ftiame and re-
morfe.
For this rule of criticifm applicable to the fine arts,
and derived from human nature, fee Architecture,
Beauty, Congruity, Comparison, Grandeur,
&c.
CRITO, an Athenian philofopher, flouriflied 400
years before Chrift. He w’as one of the moft zeal¬
ous difciples of Socrates, and fupplied him with what¬
ever he wanted. He had feveral fcholars who proved
great men, and he compoled fome dialogues which are
loft.
CRITOLAUS, a citizen of Tegea in Arcadia.
He rvith two brothers fought againft the three fons of
Demonftratus of Pheneus, to put an end to a long war
between their refpe&ive nations. Thefe brothers of
Critolaus were both killed, and he alone remained to
withftand his three bold antagonifts. He conquered
them; and when at his return his filter deplored the
death of one of his antagonifts, to whom (he was be¬
trothed, he killed her in a fit of refentment. The of¬
fence deferved capital punifhment ; but he was pardon¬
ed on account of the fervices he had rendered his coun¬
try. He was afterwards general ot the Achseans ; and
it is faid that he poifoned himfelf becaufe he had been
conquered at Thermopylae by the Romans, about 146
years before the Auguftan age.
CRIZZELLING, in the glafs trade, a kind of
roughnefs arifing on the furface of fome kinds of glafs.
This was the fault of a peculiar fort of glals made in
Oxfordfhire and fome other places, of black flints, a
cryrtallized fand, and a large quantity of nitre, tartar,
and borax. The glafs thus made is very beautiful, but,
from the too great quantities of the falts in the mixture,
is fubjeft to crizzel; that is, the falts in the mixture, Irom
their too great proportion, are fubjeft, either from the Cnzzdlin*
adventitious nitre ot the air from without, or from warm 11
liquors put in them, to be either increafed in quantity 1(:rocodl,<‘'
or diflblved, and thereby induce a fcabrities or rough- rm^J
nefs irrecoverably clouding the tranfparence of the
glafs. This is what was called cri%%ethng $ but by
uling an Italian white pebble, and abating the pro¬
portions of the falts, the manufa&ure is now carried
on with advantage, and the glafs made with thefe falls
is whiter than the fineft Venetian, and is fubjedt to no
faults.
CROATIA, a part of the ancient Illyricum, is
bounded on the eaft by Sclavonia and Bofnia, on the
fouth and fouth-weft by Morlachia, and on the north by
the Drave, which feparates it from a part of Sclavonia.
It is about 80 miles in length and 70 in breadth, and
was once divided between the Hungarians and Turks;
but now the greateif part of it is lubjeft to the houfe of
Auftria. The Croats derive their origin from the
Sclavi ; and their language is a dialed! of the Sclavo-
nian, approaching very near to that of the Poles. The
country is divided into two parts, viz. that under, and
that beyond, the Save. In the late wars between the
emprefs queen and the king of Pruflia, no lefs than
50,coo men were railed out of this fmall territory.
Both horfe and foot are good foldiers, efpecially the
former. The foil, where cultivated, is fruitful in wine
and o:l, &c. but being a frontier country, and much ex-
pofed to inroads, it is not fo well cultivated as it other-
wife might be.
CROCODILE. See Lacerta, Erpetology
Index.
Foffil Crocodile^ one of the remarkable difeoveries
in the foflil world which later times have produced.
It is the Ikeleton of a large crocodile, almoft entire,
found at a great depth under ground, bedded in ftone.
This was in the pofl'eflion of Linkius, who wrote many
pieces of natural hiftory, and particularly an accurate
defeription of this curious foflil. It was found in the
fide oi a large mountain in the interior of Ger¬
many, and in a ftratum of black ftone, fomewhat
like flate, (marl probably), but of a coarfer texture, the
fame with that in which the foflil fifties in many parts
of the world are found. This Ikeleton had the back
and ribs very plain, and was of a much deeper black
than the reft of the ftone ; as is alfo the cafe in the
foflil fifties which are preferved in this manner. The
part of the ftone where the head lay was not found ;
this being broken off juft at the ftioulders, but that ir¬
regularly ; fo that in one place, a part of the back of
the head was vifible in its natural form. The two
ftioulder-bones were very fair, and three of the feet
were well prefeved : the legs were of their natural
ftiape and fize, and the feet preferved even to the ex¬
tremities of the five toes of each.
Crocodile (crocadilus'), in Rhetoric, a captious and
fophiftical kind of argumentation, contrived to feduce
the unwary, and draw them fpecioufly into a fnare. It
has its name crocodile from the following occafion, in¬
vented by the poets. A poor woman, begging a cro¬
codile that had caught her fon walking by the river-
fide to {'pare and reftore him, was anfwertd, that he
would reftore him, provided fhe ftiould give a true an-
fwer to a queftion he fhould propofe : the queftion wa«,
Will I reftore thy fon or not ? To this the poor wo¬
man
C R O [76
man* fuTpe^ing a deceit, forrowfuliy anfwered, Thou
wilt not: and demanded to have him reftored, becaufe
(he had anfwered truly. Thou lieft, fays the croco¬
dile ; for if I redore him thou haft not anfwered truly :
I cannot therefore reftore him without making thy an-
fwer falfe. Under this head may be reduced the pro-
pofitions calledor infolubiles; which deftroy
themfelves. Such is that of the Cretan poet: Omncs
ad unum Cretenfes femper mentiuntur: “ all the Cretans,
to a man, always he.” Either, then the poet lies
when he afferts that the Cretans all lie, or the Cretans
do not all lie.
CROCUS, Saffron ; a genus of plants belonging
to the triandria clafs •, and in the natuial method rank¬
ing under the 6lh order Enfatcc. See Botany In¬
dex.
Crocus, in Chemi/lry, denotes any metal calcined
to a red or deep yellow colour.
Crocus Meta/lorum, an emetic preparation of anti--
mony and nitre. See CHEMISTRY Index.
CROESUS, the bail king of Lydia, remarkable for
his riches, his conquefts, his temporary profperity, and
the fad reverfe of his fortune. He fubdued the Phry¬
gians, Myfians, Paphlagonians, Thracians, and Cari-
ans) amaffed togethe: immenfe riches \ and became
one of the moft powerful and magnificent princes in
the world. He drew the learned to his court, and
took a pleafure in eonverfing with them. Thales of
Miletus, Pittacus of Mitylene, Bias of Priene, Cleo-
bulus of Lindus, and raoft of the other “ wife men,”
as they are emphatically ftyled, who lived in that age,
as well as j^Efop the fabulift, and the elegant Greek
poets of the times, were bountifully received at the
court of Cioefus. There is ftill on record a memorable
converfation between that prince and Solon, wh ch
feemed to predict the fubfequent events of his reign,
and which had a late but important influence on the
character and fortune of the Lydian king. Cioefus
having entertained his Athenian gueft, according to
the ancient fafhion, for feveral days, before he alked
him any queftions, oftentatioufly {bowed him the mag¬
nificence of his palace, and particularly the riches of
his treafury. After all had been difplayed to the beft
advantage, the king complimented Solon upon his cu-
riofity and love of knowledge ^ and alked him, as a
man who had feen many countries, and refledled with
much judgment upon what he had feen, Whom of all
men he efteemcd moft happy ? By the particular oc-
cafion, as well .as the triumphant air with which the
queftion was propofed, the king made it evident that
he e.Ype&ed flattery rather than information. But So¬
lon’s charaHer had not been enervated by the debilita¬
ting air of a court; and he replied with a manly free¬
dom, “ Tellus, the Athenian.” Cioefus, who had
fcarcely learned to diftinguilh, even in imagination,
between wealth and happinefs, inquired with a tone of
Turprife, why this preference to Tellus ? “ Tellus,”
rejoined Solon, “ was not confpicuous for his riches
or his grandeur, being only a fimple citizen of Athens;
but he was deicended from parents who diferved the
-firft honours of the republic. He was equally fortu¬
nate in his children, who obtained uuiverfal elleem by
their probity, patriotifm, and every ufeful quality of
the mincT or body : and as to himfelf, he died fighting
gallantly in the fervice of his country, which his va-
Vol. VI. Part IL
I j C R o
lour rendered vi&onous in a doubtful combat 5 on ^
which account the Athenians buried him on the {pot
where he fell, and diftinguifticd him by every honour
which public gratitude can confer on illuftnous me¬
rit.”
Cioefus had little encouragement, after this anfwer,
to a{k Solon, in the fecond place, Whom, next to lei-
lus, he deemed moft happy ? Such, however, is the
iilufion of vanity, that he ftill ventured to make this
demand \ and ftill, as we are informed by the moft cir-
cumftantial of hiftorians, entertained hopes of being
favourably anfwered. But Solon replied with the fame
freedom as before, “ The brothers Cieobis and Biton,
two youths of Argos, whofe ftrength and addrefs were
crowned with repeated vidfory at the Olympic games j
who dsferved the affedlion of their parents, the grati¬
tude of their country, the admiration of Greece j and
who, having ended their lives with peculiar felicity,
were commemorated by the moft fignal monuments
of immortal fame.” “ And is the happinefs of a king,
then,” faid Crcefus, “ fo little regarded, O Grecian
{{.ranger, that you prefer to it the mean condition at
an Athenian or Argive citizen ?” The reply of Solon
fufficiently juftified his reputation for wifdom. “ 1 tie
life of man,” faid he, confifts of 70 years, which
make 25,550 days; an immenfe number: yet in the
longeft lire, the events of any one day will not be found
exadtly alike to thofe of another. The affairs of men
are liable to perpetual viciflitudes: the Divinity who
prefides over our fate is envious of too much profpe¬
rity and all l.-uman life, if not condemned to calami¬
ty, is at leaft liable to accident. Whoever has unin¬
terruptedly enjoyed a profperous tide of fuccefs may
iuftly be called fortunate : but he cannot before his
death be entitled to the epithet of happy."
The events which foon followed this converfation,
prove how little fatisfaeffion is derived from the poffel-
lion of a throne. Viiftorious in war, unrivalled in
Tvealth, fupreme in pow-er, Croeius felt and acknow¬
ledged his unhappinefs. The warmeft affections of his
foul centered in his fon Atys, a youth of the moft
promifing hopes, who had often fought and conquered
by his fide. The ftrength of his attachment was ac¬
companied with an excefs of paternal care, and the
anxiety of his waking hours difturbed the tranquillity
of his reft. He dreamed that his beloved fon was flam
by a dart; and the folicitude with which he watched
his fafety, preventing the youth from his ufual occu¬
pations and arnufements, and thereby rendering him
too eager to enjoy them, moft probably expofed him
to the much-dreaded misfortune. Reluctantly permit¬
ted to engage in a party of hunting, the juvenile ar¬
dour of Atys, increafed by the impatience of long re-
ftraint, made him negleH the precautions neceffary in
that manly atnufement-. Pie was (lain by a dart aim¬
ed at a wild boar of monftrous fize, which had long
fpread terror over the country of the Myfians. The
weapon came from the hand of Adraftus, a Phrygian
prince and fugitive, whom Croefus had purified from
the involuntary guilt of a brother’s blood, and long
diftinguiftied by peculiar remarks of bounty. To the
grateful proteffion of the Phrygian, Cioefus recom¬
mended, at parting, the fafety of his beloved fon. A
mournful proceffion of Lydians brought to Sardis the
dead body of Atys. The ill-fated murderer followed
5 D behind,
Croetu'
C R G
€j'ceil‘;- behind. When they approached the royal prefence,
Adraftus flepped forward and entreated Croefus to put
him to death j thinking life no longer to be endured
after killing, firft his own brother, and then the fon of
hss benefaftor. But the Lydian king, notwithftanding
the excels of his affliftion, acknowledged the inno¬
cence of Adraftus, and the power of fate. “ Stranger,
your adtion is blamelefs, being committed without de-
ftgn. I know that my fon was deftined to a prema-
» ture death.” x\draftus, though pardoned by Croefus,
could not pardon himlelf. Wiled the mourners were
removed, he privately returned, and perifhed by his own
hand on the tomb of Atys.'
Two years Croefus remained difconfolate for the lofs
ct his fon : and might have continued to indulge his
unavailing afflidtion during the remainder of life, had
not the growing greatneis of Periia, Which threatened
the fafety of his dominions, roufed hira from his dream
of mifery, (See Lydia.)—He marched againft Cyrus
with a great army, but was defeated ; and retreating
to his capital Sardis, was there befieged. The city
rvas taken by aflauit j and as a Pevfian loldier was go¬
ing to kill Croefus, that prince’s only furviving Ion,
who had hitherto been dumb, terrified at his danger,
cried, Slop foldier, and touch not Croefus. But though
delivered by this extraordinary accidient from the blind
rage of the foldier, he feemed to be referved for a
harder fate. Dragged into the prefence of his conque¬
ror, he was loaded with irons j and the ftern, unrelent-
ing Cyrus, of whofe humane temper of mind we have
fo beautiful, but fo flattering, a pi61u?e in the philofo-
phical romance of Xenophon, ordered him, with the
melancholy train of his Lydian attendants, to be com-
rhitted to the flames. An immenfe pile of wood and
other combuftibles was erefled' in the moft fpacious
part of the city. The miferable vi&ims, bound hand
and foot, were placed on the top of the pyre. Cyrus,
furrounded with his generals, witneffed the dreadful
fpeftacle. Either from an abominable principle of fu-
perftition he had bound himfelf by a vow to facri-
fice Crcefus as the firft fruits of his Lydian vidfory, or
from a motive of curiofity, equally cruel and impious,
to try whether Croefus, who had fo magnificently
adorned the temples and enriched the minifters of the
gods, would be helped in time of need by the miracu¬
lous interpofition of his much honoured proteftors.
Meanwhile the unfortunate Lydian, opprefied and
confounded by the intolerable weight of his prefent ca¬
lamity compared with the fecurity and fplendor of his
former ftate, recolle£!ed his memorable eonverfation
with the Athenian fage, and uttered with a deep
groan the name of Scion. Cyrus afked by an inter¬
preter, “ Whofe name he invoked?” “ Hisf replied
Croefus, emboldeUed by the profpeft of certain death,
“ whofe wofds ought ever to fpeak to the heart of
kings.” This reply not being fatisfadfory, he was
commanded to explain at full length the fubjeft of his
thoughts. Accordingly he related the important dif-
courfe which had paffed between himfelf and the A-
ihenian, of which it Was the great moral, That no man
could be called happy till his death.
The words of a dying man are fitted to make a
ftrong impreflion on the heart. Thofe of Croefus
deeply afFeded the mind of Cyrus. The Perfian con-
fidered the fpeech of Solon as a.ddrdTed to himfelf..
[ 762 ]
c it o
He repented of his intended cruelty towards tire unfor¬
tunate prince, who had formerly enjoyed all the pomp
of profperity : and dreading the concealed vengeance ,
that might lurk in the bofom of fate, gave orders that
the pyre fhould be extinguiihed. But the workmen
who had been employed to prepare it, had performed
their talk with fo much care, that the order could not
fpeedily be obeyed. At that moment, Croefus calling
on Apollo, whofe favourite (brine of Delphi had expe¬
rienced his generous munificence, and whofe perfidious
oracle had made him io ungrateful a return 5 the god,
it is laid, fent a plentiful Ihower to extinguilh the pyre.
This event, which faved the life, and which lufficiently
attefted the piety, of Croefus, firongly recommended
him to the credulity of his conqueror. It feemtd im-
pollible to pay too much refpe£t to a man who was evk
dentiy the favourite of heaven. Cyrus gave orders
that he Ihould be feated by his fide, and thenceforth
treated as a king ; a revolution of fortune equally hid¬
den and unexpected. But the mind of Croefus had un¬
dergone a ftili more important revolution : for, tutor¬
ed in the ufelul febooi of adverfity, he learned to think
with patience and to aft with prudence, to govern his
own paflions by the dictates of reafon, and to repay
by wholefome advice the generous behaviour of his
Perfian matter.
The firft advantage which he derived from the
change in Cyrus’s dilpofidon towards him, was the
permiftion of fending his fetters to the temple of the
Delphian Apollo, whofe flattering oracles had encou¬
raged him to wage war with the Perfians. “ Behold,”
were his mdTengcrs inftrufted to fay, “ the trophies of
our pronflfed fuccefs! behold the monuments of the un¬
erring veracity of the god 1” The Pythia heard their
reproach with a fmile of contemptuous indignation,
and anfwercd it with that folemn gravity which ftie
was fo carefully taught to afiume : “ The gods them-
felves cannot avoid their own deftiny, much lefs avert,
however they may retard, the determined fates of.
men. Crcefus has fuffered, and juftly fuffered, for the
crime of his anceftor Gyges •, who, entrufted as chief
of the guards, with the perfon of Candaules, the laft
king of the race of Hercules, was leduced by an im¬
pious woman to murder his mafter, defile his bed,
and to ufurp his royal dignity. For this complicated
guilt of Gyges the misfortunes of Crcefus have atoned 5
but know, that through the favour of Apollo, thefe
misfortunes have happened three years later than the
fates ordained.” The Pythia then proceeded to explain
her anfwers concerning the event of the war againft
Cyrus, and proved, to the conviftion of the Lydians,
that her words, if prbperly underftood, portended the
deftruftion, not of the Perfian, but of the Lydian em¬
pire. Ctoefus heard with refignation the report of his
meflengers, and acknowledged the juftice of the Del¬
phian oracle, which maintained and increafed tire luflre
of its ancient fame. This fallen monarch furvived
Cyrus. The manner of his death is not known.
CROFT, a little clofe adjoining to a dwelling-
houte, and inclofed for pafture or arable land, or any
other purpofe.—In feme ancient deeds, cruft a occurs
as the Latin word for a “ croftbut cum toftis et
crofiis is more frequent. Croft is tranftated in Abbo
Floriacenfis bv preedium, a “ farm.”
CROISADE, or Crusade, a name given to the.
expeditions
Crocfuj
12
Croifade.
C R 0 [ 7<5
i ;faae, exppdidons of the Chriftians againft the infidels tor the
it -v ' conqueft of Paleftjne.
Thefe expeditions commenced in the year 1096.
The foundation of them was a fupertlitibus veneration
for thole places where our Saviour performed his mi¬
racles, and accomplilhed the work of man’s redemp¬
tion. Jerufalem had been taken, and Paleftine con-
Jee Ara-qnered, by Omar the.fuccefl'or of Abu Beer*, who
j N° 76. fucceeded* Mahomet himfelf. This proved a conli-
derable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from
all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy fe-
pulchre. They had, however, ftill been allowed this
liberty, on paying a fmall tribute to the Saracen ca¬
liphs, who were not much inclined to moleil them.
But,’in 1065, this city changed its matters. The
Turks took it from the Saracens 5 and being much
more fierce and barbarous than the former, the pil¬
grims now found they could no longer perform their
devotions with the fame fafety they did before. An
opinion was about this time alio prevalent in Eu¬
rope, which made thefe pilgrimages much more Se¬
quent than formerly. It was fomehow or_ other ima¬
gined, that the thoufand years mentioned in the 20th
chapter of the Revelations, were fulfilled ; that Chrifl
was foon to make his appearance in Palellme, to judge
the world ; and confequently that journeys to that
country were in the hignefl degree meritorious, and
even -abfolutely neceffary. The multitudes of^ pilgrims
which now flocked to Paleftine meeting with a very
rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe wuth
complaints againft thofe infidels, who proianed the
holy city by their prefence, and derided the facred
myfteries of Chriftianitry even in the place where they
were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a _de-
fiyn of uniting all the princes of Chriftetidom againil
the Mahometans ; but his exorbitant encroachments
noon the civil poiver of princes had created him fo
many enemies, and gendered his fchemes io lufpicious,
that he was not able to make great progrefs in the
undertaking. 1 he work wras referved for a meaner m-
flmment.
Peter, commonly called the hermit, a native or A-
miens in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jeru¬
falem ; and being deeply affedled with the dangers to
which that adl of piety now expoied the pilgrims, as
well as with the oppreflion under ivhich trie e^uern
Chnftians now laboured, formed the bold, and, in ail
appearance, impradticable defign of leading into Afia,
from the fartheft extremities of the weft, armies {ef¬
ficient to fubdue thofe potent and warlike nations that
now held the Holy Land in flavery. He propofed
his fcheme to Martin II. who- then filled tne papal
chair •, but he, though fenfible enough of the advan¬
tages which muft acrue to himfeli from fuch an un¬
dertaking, refolved not to interpofe his authority till
he faw a greater probability of iuccefs. He fummon-
ed, at Placentia, a council confiding of 4000 ecclefia-
llics and 30,000 feculars. As no hall could be found
large enough to contain tuch ?. multitude, tne afiembly
was held in a plain. Here the Pope himfelf, as veil
as Peter, harangued the people, repr^ienting the dif-
mal fituation of their brethren in the eaft, and the in¬
dignity offered to the Chridian name in allowing^ tne
holy city to remain in the hands of the infidels. Thefe
fpeeches were fo agreeable to thofe tvho heard them,
3 ] C 11 O
that the whole multitude fuddenly and violently u^- ^1 •^ _
clared for the war, and folemnly devoted taemiehes
to perform this lervice, which they believed to be id
meritorious in the fight of God.
But though Italy feemed to have embraced the u..-
fign with ardour, Martin yet thought it neceflary, in
order to infure perfeft fuccefs, to engage the^ greater
and more warlike nations in the lame enterpriie.
ving therefore exhorted Peter to vifit the chiel cities
and lovereigns of Chridendom, he fummofted another
council at Clermont in Auvergne. The lame of this
great and pious defign being now univeifally diffuied,
procured the attendance of the greateft. prelates, nobles,
and princes ■, and when the Pope and the hermit re¬
newed their pathetic exhortations, the whole atlemoly,
as if impelled by an immediate infpiration, exclaimed
with one voice, It is the will of God! it is the will
of God !” Thefe words were deemed fo memorable,
and fo much the effedt of a divine impulfe, that they
were employed as the fignal of rendezvous and battle
in all future exploits of thefe adventurers. Men oi all
ranks now flew to arms with the utmoft ardour, and a.
crofs was affixed to their right ftiouider by all who in-
lilted in this holy enterpriie.
At this time Europe was fuuk in the moil profound
ignorance and fuperftition. I he eccleliaflics had
gained the greateft afeendant over the human mind }
and the people who committed the moil horrid
crimes and diforders, knew of no other expiation than
the obfervances impofed on them by their fpintu^l
pallors..
But amidft the abjed fuperftition which now pre¬
vailed, the military fpirit had alfo univerfally aiffufed
itfelf j and, though not fupported by art and difeipline,
was become the general paffion 01 the nations governed
by the feudal law. All the great lords poiTeffed
the right of, peace and war. They were engaged in
continual hoftilities with one another : tne open coun¬
try was become a feene of outrage and diforder: the
cities, ftill mean and poor, vrere neither guarded by
walls nor proteded by privileges. Every man was
obliged to depend for lafety on his own force, or his
private alliances; and valour was the only excellence
which was held in efteem, or gave one man the pre- ,
eminence above another. When all the particular fu-
perftitions, therefore, were here united in one great
objed, the ardour lor private hoftilities took the lame
diredion; “ and all Europe (as the princefs ^ Anna
Comnena expreffts berfelf) torn from its foundations,
feemed ready to precipitate itfelf in one united oociy
upon Afia.”
All orders of men, now deeming the croifades the
only road to heaven, were impatient to open the way
with their fwords to the holy city. Npbles, artilans,
peafants, even priefts, inrolled their names; and to
decline this fervice was branded with the reproach of
impiety or cowardice. The nobles who inlifted them-
felves were moved, by the romantic fpirit of the age,
to hope for opulent eftablifhments in the’ eaft, the
chief feat of arts and commerce at hat time. In pur-
fuit of thefe chimerical projeds, they fold at the low-
eft price their ancient caftles apd inheritances, which
had now loft all value in their eyes. The infirm and
aged contributed to the expedition by prefents and
money j and many of them, not fatisfied with this, at-
3 D 2 tended
C R Q [ 7
Cioifade, ^ tended it in perfon, being determined, if poffible, to
breathe their iaft in fight of that city where their Sa¬
viour had died for them. Women themlelves, con¬
cealing their fex under the difguife of armour, attend¬
ed the camp ; and commonly forgot their duty ftill
more, by proliituting themfelves to the army. The
greateft criminals were forward in a fervice which they
confidered as an expiation for all crimes j and the moil:
enormous diforders were, during the courfe of thefe
expeditions, committed by men inured to wickednefs,
encouraged by example, and impelled by neceffity.
The multitude of adventurers foon became fo great,
that their more fagacious leaders became apprehenfive
left^the greatnefs of the armament would be the caufe
of its own difappointment. For this reafon they per¬
mitted an unuifciplined multitude, computed at 300,000
men, to go before them under the command of Peter
the hermit, and Gautier or W^alter, furnamed the
moneijicfs, from his being a foldier of fortune. Thefe
look the road towards Conftantinople through PI an¬
gary and Bulgaria 5 and, trading that heaven, by fu-
pernatural affiftance, would fupply all their necefli-
ties, they made no provifion for fubfiftence in their
march. They foon found themfelves obliged to ob¬
tain by plunder what they vainly expedited from mi¬
racles ; and the enraged inhabitants of the countries
through which they palled, attacked the difordexly
mu ntude, and ilaughtertd them without reliftance.
The more difciplined armies followed after j and, paf-
img the ftraits of Conftantinople, they were muftered
i.i the plains of Alia, and amounted in the whole to
';co,ooo.
The rage for conquering the Holy Land did not
ceaie with this expedition. It continued for very
near two centuries, and eight different croifades were
fet on loot, one after another. The firft was in the
year 1069, as already obferved. The princes enga-
in it were, Hugo, count of Vermandois, brother
to Philip I. lung of France j Robert,’duke of Nor¬
mandy ; Robert, earl of Flanders; Rairnond, earl of
Touloufe and St Giles •, Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of
Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and Euftace ; Ste¬
phen, earl of Charters and Blois; Hugo, count of St
Paul; with a great number of other lords. The ge¬
neral rendezvous was at Conftantinople. In this ex¬
pedition, the famous Godfrey befieged and took the
city of Nice. The city of Jerufalem was taken by the
confederated army, and Godfrey chofen king. The
Chiiftians gained the famous battle of Afcalon againft
the foldan of Egypt j which put an end to the firft
croifade.
The fecond croifade, in the year 1144, was headed
by the emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. king of
France. The emperor’s army was either deftroyed by
the enemy, or perilhed through the treachery of Manuel
the Greek emperor j and the fecond army, through the
unfaithfulnefs of the Chriftians of Syria, was forced to
break up the fiege of Damafcus.
The third eroifade, in the year 1188, immediately
followed the taking of Jerufalem by Saladin the fol¬
dan of Egypt. The princes engaged in this expedi¬
tion were, the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa; Frederic
duke of Suabia, his fecond fon j Leopold duke of Au-
ftria; Berthold duke of Moravia j Herman marquis
sf Baden 5 the counts of NaiTau, Thuringia, Milter,
64 ] C R o
and Holland; and above 60 other princes of the em¬
pire } with the biihops of Befan^on, Cambray, Man-
Iter, Olnaburgh, Mihen, Paiiau, Vifburg, and feveral
others. In this expedition, the emperor Frederic de¬
feated the foldan of Iconium : his ion Frederic, joined
by Guy Lufignan king of Jerufalem, in vain endea¬
voured to take Acre or Ptolemais. During which
tran factions, Philip Auguftus king of France, and
Richaid I. king of England, joined the croifade ; bv
which means the Chriitian army confifted of 300,000
fighung men : but great dilutes happening between
the kings of fiance and England, the former quilted
tp- Holy Lane, and Richard, concluded a peace with
Saladin.
J ne com ;.n croifade was undertaken, in the year
2195, by the emperor Henry VI. after Saladin’s death.
In this expedition the Chrifiians gained feveral battles
againft tnc infidels, took a great many towns, and
were in the way of fuccefs, when the death of the em¬
peror obliged them to quit the Holy Land, and return
into Germany.
1 he firth croifade was publifhed, by order of Pope
Innocent III. in 1 198. Thole- engaged in it made
fruitlefs efforts for the recovery of the Holy Land j for,
though John de Neule, who commanded the fleet
equipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptolemais a little after
Simon of Montfort, Reynard of Dampierre, and others j
yet the plague deft toying many of them, and the reft
either returning, or engaging in the petty quarrels of
the Chriftian princes, there was nothing done j fo
that the foldan of Aleppo eafily defeated their troops in
1204.
- 1 he fixth croifade began in 12285 2° which the
Chriftians took the town of Damietta, but were forced
to furrender it again. 1 he next year the emperor
Frederic made peace with the foldan for 10 years.
Aocut 1240, Richard earl of Cornwall, and brother
to Henry III. king of England, arrived in PalefUne
at the head of the Engliih croifade : but finding it moft
advantageous to conclude a peace, he re-embarked,
and fleered towards Italy. In 1244, the Karafinians
being driven out of Perfia by the Tartars, broke into
Paleftine, and gave the Chriftians a general defeat near
Gaza.
The feventh croifade was headed by St Lewis, in the
year 1249, u’1110 to°^ 4C town of Damietta : but a
ficknefs happening in the Chriftian army, the king
endeavoured to retreat 5 in which being purfued by the
infidels, moft of his army were miferably butchered,
and himfelf and the nobility taken prifoners. Then a
truce was agreed upon for 10 years, and the king and
lords fet at liberty.
The eighth cioifade, in 1270, was headed by the fame
prince, who made himfelf mafter of the port and caftle
of Carthage in Africa 5 but dying in a ftiort time, he
left his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the
king of Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and join¬
ing Philip the Bold, fon and fucceffor of Lewis, the king
of Tunis, after feveral engagements with the Chrifti¬
ans, in which he was always worfted, defired peace,
which was granted upon .conditions advantageous to
the Chriftians 5 after which both princes embarked for
their own kingdoms. Prince Edward of England,
who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, failed
towards Ptolemais, where he landed with a fmall body
5 of
Croifade,
CKO [76
'roifadc. of 300 Englifa and French, and hindered Bendocdar
—v—~J from laying fiege to Ptolemais: but being obliged to
quit the Holy Land to take pofieffion of trie crown of
England, this croifade ended without contributing any
thing to the recovery of the Holy Land. In 1291, the
town of Acre, or Ptolemais, was taken and plundered
by the foldan of Egypt, and the Ghriitians quite driven
out of Syria. There has been no croifade fince that
time, though feveral popes have attempted to ftir up
the Chriftians to fuch an undertaking ; particularly
Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311.
Though thde croxfades were effects of. the mod ab-
furd fuperftition, they tended greatly to promote the
good of Europe. Multitudes indeed were deltroyed.
M. Voltaire computes the people who.perifhed in the
different expeditions at upwards of two millions.
Many there were, however, who returned •, and thefe
having converfed fo long with people who lived in a
much more magnificent way than themfelves, began
to entertain fome latte for a refined and polilhed way
of life. Thus the barbarifm in which Europe had been
fo long immerfed, began to wear off foon after this
time. The princes allb who remained at home, found
means to avail themfelves of the frenzy of the people.
By the abfence of fuch numbers of reitlefs and martial
adventurers, peace was eftabliflied in their dominions.
They alfo took the opportunity of annexing to their
crown many confiderable fiefs, either by purchafe, or
by the extm&ion of the heirs ; and thus the mifchiefs
which muff always attend feudal governments weie
confiderably leffened.
With regard to the bad fuccefs of the croifaders, it
was fcarce poffible that any other thing could happen
them. The emperors of Conifantinople, inftead of
affifting, did all in their power to difconcert their
fchemes. They were jealous, and not without reafon,
of fuch an inundation of barbarians. \ et, Mad they
considered their true interefl, they would rather have
afliifed them, or at leaft flood neuter, than entered
into alliances with the Turks. 1 hey followed the
latter method, however, and were often of very great
differvice to the weflern adventurers, which at laft
occafioned the lofs cl their city*. But the worlt
enemies the croifaders had, were their own internal
feuds and diffenfions. 3 hey neither could agree
while marching together in armies with a view to
conqueft, nor could they unite their conquefls under
one government after they had made tnem. They
fet up three fmall Hates, one at Jerufalem, another at
Antioch, and another at Edeffa. ihefe ftates, inflead
of affifting, made war upon each other, and on the
Greek emperors} and thus became an eafy prey to the
common enemy. The horrid cruelties they committed
alfo were fuch as muft have infpired the Turks with
the moft invincible hatred againft them, and made tnem
refift with the greateft obftinacy. 1 hey were fuch as
could have been committed only by barbarians inflamed
with religious enthufiafm. Wnen Jerufalem v.'as taken,
not only the numerous garrifon were put to the fword,
but the inhabitants were maffacred without mercy
and without diftindfion. No age cr fex was fpaixd,
even children at the breaft were barbaroufly murder¬
ed. According to Voltaire, feme Chriftians, who nad
been fuffered by the Turks to live in that city, led the
conquerors into the moft private caves where women
* Sec Cok-
Wantinople,
144.
5 1 C R O
had concealed themfelves with tneir children, and not -
one of them was fuffered to efcape. What eminently
fhows the enthufiafm with which thefe conquerors
were animated, is their behaviour after this terrible
{laughter. They marched over heaps^ of dead bodiea
towards the holy fepuichre 5 and while their hands
were yet polluted with the blood of fo many innocent
perfons, fung anthems to the common Saviour of man¬
kind. Nay, fo far did their religious enthufiafm
overcome their fury, that thefe ferocious conquerors
now burft into tears. If the abfurdity and wickednefs
of this condufl can be exceeded by any thing, it niui£
be by what follows. In the year 1204, the frenzy of
croiflding feized the children, who are ever ready to
imitate what they fee their parents engage themfelves
in. Their childiih folly was encouraged by the monks
and fchoolmafters; and thoufands of thofe innocents
were conduced from the houfes of their parents on the
faith of thefe words, “ Out of the mouth ef babes and
fucklings haft thou perfe&ed praife.” Their bafe con-
du&ors fold a part of them to the Turks, and the reft
perilhed miferably.
CROISERS, a religious order founded in honour
of the invention or difeovery of the crofs by the empreis
Helena. They, are difperfed in feveral parts of Europe,
particularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bohe¬
mia, thofe in Italy being at prefent fuppreffed. Them
religious follow the rule of St Auguftine. They had in
England the name 0$ crouched friars.
CROISES, or Croizes, in Englifu antiquity^ pil¬
grims bound for the Holy Land, or ruch as had been
there} fo called from a badge they wore in imilation
of a crofs. The knights of St John of Jerufalem,
created for the defence and protedion of pilgrims, were
particularly called croifes.
CROIX, Francis Petit de la, fecretary and in¬
terpreter to the king of France, in the lurkiffi and
Arabic languages, died November 4. i695> in his
'73d year j after having executed this employment for
the fpace of 44 years. And it appears, that, he exe¬
cuted it with as much integrity as abilities; for,
when the Algerines fought for peace of Louis X.IV.
conditions were offered, by which they were required
to reimburfe to this monarch 600,000 franks. J he
terms being thought exorbitant, they had recourfe to
ftratagem j and they offered a large fum to La Cioix,
who was the interpreter of all that palled, if he would
put into the treaty “ crowns of 1 ripoli,” inftead
<£ French crowns which would have made to the /Al¬
gerines a difference of more than 100,000 livres. But
the integrity of the interpreter triumphed over the
temptation j which however was the greater, as it
Was next to impoffible he ftiould be difeovered. Beffdes
the Turk!ill and the Arabic, the Perffan and the Tar¬
tarian, he alfo underftood the Ethiopian and Arme¬
nian languages. He is well known to the learned
world by many works. He tranflated the “ Hillorj
of France” into the Tmkiffi language. He digefted
the three volumes of “ Voyages into the Eaft Indies’'
of M. Thevenot. He made an accurate catalogue of
all the Turkith and Perfian books which are in the
king’s library. He comppfed two complete Diflion-
aries for the French and Turkifh languages 5 and,
when he was dying, he wras about to prefent the woild
with the hiftory of Jenghis Khan. He undertook this
hiftory
C R O t 7
Croix, hiflory by the order of M. Colbert : for this minider,
t lomarty.^ a.togetber intent upon aggrandizing his matter, vras ac-
^ “ cuftcmed every week to call together, either in the
king’s library or his own, certain of the learned,
whom, according as they excelled in their feveral de¬
partments in literature, he conftantly fet to work.
This hillcry, which colt La Croix more than ten years
labour, is uleful not only to the learned who are
curious to know pail events, or to geographers who
had hitherto been greatly ignorant of Grand Tartary,
.but likewife to all who trade to China, Perfia, or other
eattern parts of the world. There is a good map of
northern Afia drawn by M. de I’lile, accompanying
the work; which M. Petit de la Croix, the author’s
fon, not only revifrd, but, to render it more curious,
added to it an abridgement of the lives of all thofe
authors from whom it was extracted. It was tranf-
lated into Englsih, and publiihed at London, 1722,
8 vo.
CROMARTY, a town of Scotland, capital of the
county of the fame name. The town is fmall, and
ttluated upon a rock or point of land, which over-
hangs the lea in a romantic manner, and is much ex-
poled to the eatt wind ; it was formerly a royal borough,
but was disfranchifed by an aft of the privy council of
Scotland, in confequence of a petition for that purpofe
prelented by Sir John Urquhart, proprietor of the eftate
of Cromarty; it is now under the baronial jurifdiftion
o! the earl of Cromarty. The parilh extends about
feven miles in length, and from one to four in breadth,
bounded by the frith of Cromarty on the north. On
the banks of the frith the furface is level, and covered
with verdure. A bank about two miles from the coaft,
extends the whole length of the parilh, above which
the ground is covered with heath and mofs. The foil is
everywhere wet and moorifh, which makes the feafons
late, and the crop uncertain. The coaft towards the
eaft is bold and rocky, feme of the cliffs being nearly
250 feet perpendicular to the fea; the reft is Hat and
landy. After every ftorm a great quantity of fea weed
is thrown alhore, which is partly ufed as a manure, and
partly burnt into kelp, of which there is annually made
about 10 or 12 tons. The harbour of Cromarty, in¬
ferior, perhaps, to none in Britain for fafety, and a
commodious quay, was lately built at the joint expence
* of government and the proprietor of the eftate of Cro¬
marty, where veffels of 350 or 400 tons may lie in per-
fedl fecurity. A confiderable trade in the hempen or
fack-cloth line has been long eftablifhed in Cromarty
and the neighbourhood.
Cromarty, County of, in Scotland, forms a kind of
peninfula, waltied on three Tides by the friths of Cro¬
marty and Moray, and bounded on the fouth-weft and
fbuth by the county of Roft. Its extreme extent in
length is about 16 miles, and on an average about fix
and a half or feven in breadth. It was eredled into a
diftinft county about the end of the 17th century, at
the requeft of Sit James M^Kenzie^aii of Cromarty,
to whom it almoft entirely belonged. The face of the
country is pleafant •, a long ridge of hills extending
the whole length in the middle of the county, having
a fine declivity on either fide towards the Ihores of the
friths. The higher grounds are moftly covered with
heath, but towards the fhores the foils are light and
early. A great many plantations have been lately
6
66 ] C R O
made out, which will thortly be a great ornament and Cromarty-
{belter to the country. I he language is generally
Gaelic, but many {'peak that broad’ Scotch, which is '
commonly called the Buchan or Aberdeenfhire dialed!,
lieeftone, granite, and reddifh-coloured porphyry, ?re
almoft the only minerals, if we except topa%es, fimilar
to thofe of Cairngorum, found in the parbh of Kincar¬
dine. Filheries are very fuccefsfully carried on, and
pearls ol confiderable value are femetimes found in the
fnth of Cromarty, where the river Canal falls into that
bay.
Population of the County of Cromarty at two different
periods.
Parifhes.
Cromarty
Fodderty
Tarbat
Population
in ^SS-
2096
1483
*584
5*63
Population in
1750—1795,,
2184
mo
J37°
5284
5*63
121
Increafe
Cromarty, Frith .of is one of the fineft bays in
Great Britain ; hence called by Buchanan Portus Sain*
tis. It is divided from the Moray frith by the county
of Cromarty, and wafhes the fouthern {here of the
county of Rofs. It is about 16 miles in length, and
fometimes three in breadth. The entrance is between
two promontories or headlands, called the Sutors of
Cromarty, which are about a mile and a half diftant :
there is the fineft anchorage ground after patting the
Sutors, for feveral miles up the bay, with deep water
on both fide?, almoft clofe to the {hare, where in moft
places the coaft is fo fmooth, that ’fuppefing a veffel to
part her cables (a thing fcarcely probable), fhe might
run aground without fuftaining much damage. Such
is the extent of fea-room in the bay, and fuch is the
capacity, that almoft the whole Britifh navy might lie
here in fafety.
CROMLECH, in Britilli antiquities, are huge,
broad, flat ftones, raifed upon other ftones let up on end
for that purpofe. They are common in Anglesea ;
under which article a very large one is deferibed. See
Plate CLXIV.
Thefe monuments are fpoken of largely by Mr Row¬
land, by Ur Borlafe, and by Wormius, under the name
of Ara or altar. Mr Rowland, however, is divided in
his opinion ; for he partly inclines to the notion of their
having been altars, partly to their having been fepul-
chres : he fuppofes them to have been originally tombs,
but that in after times facrifices wTere performed upon
them to the heroes depofited within. Mr Keiller pre-
ferves an account of King Harold having been interred
beneath a tomb of this kind in Denmark, and Mr
Wright difeovered in Ireland a fkeleton depofited under
one of them. The great fimilarity of the monuments
throughout the north, Mr Pennant obferves, evinces
the fame religion to have been fpread in every part,
perhaps with feme flight deviations. Many of thefe
monuments are both Britiflr and Danifh 5 for we find
them where the Danes never penetrated.
The cromlech, or cromleh, chiefly differs from the
Kjsr-vaen, in not being clofed up at the end and fides,
that
/
G 11 O [ 767 ] C R G
omlecli, tliat is, in not fo much partaking of the cheft-like fi-
•omwell. gUie . it is alfo generally of larger dimsnfions, and
i'cmetimes conlifts of a greater number of Hones : the
terms cromleh and ki/l-vaen are however indifcriminately
ufed for the fame monument. The term cromlech is by
lome derived from the Annoric word crum, “ crooked
or bowing,” and leh “ Hone,” alluding to the reverence
which perfons paid to them by bowing. Rowland
derives it from the Hebrew words carem-luachy fignify-
ing a “ devoted or confecrated Hone.” They are called
by the vulgar coetne Arthor, or Arthur's quoitsy it be¬
ing a cutlom in Wales as well as Cornwall to afcribe
all great or wonderful objefts to Prince Arthur, the
hero of thofe countries.
CROMWELL, Thomas, earl of Effex, was the
fon of a blackfmith at Putney, and born in 1498.
Without a liberal education, but endowed with a flrong
natural genius, he conlidered travelling as the proper
means of improving his underltanding j and to this
early token of his found judgment he Hood indebted
for the high rank and diHinguithed honours he after¬
wards enjoyed. He became by degrees the confi¬
dential favourite and prime miniifer of Henry VIII. 5
and from the moment he acquired any authority in
the cabinet, he employed it in promoting the refor¬
mation, to his zeal for which he became a vi&im }
for, the more firmly to fecure the ProteHant caufe, he
contrived to marry the king to Ann of Cleves, whole
friends were all Lutherans. Unfortunately Henry
took a difguft at this lady, which brought on Crom¬
well’s ruin ; the king, with his ufual cruelty and ca¬
price, taking this opportunity to facrifice this minifler
to the Roman Catholic party, to whom he feemed de-
firous of reconciling himfelf as foon as he had Catha¬
rine Howard in view. Cromwell was a great poli¬
tician, and a good man •, but, like moll fiatefman, was
guilty of great errors. In his zeal for the new reli¬
gion, lie had introduced the unjufiifiable mode of at¬
tainder in cafes of treafon and herefy •, and his ene¬
mies, who were numerous (confiding of two clafle«,
the ancient nobility and gentry, who were enraged to
fee the higheH honours bellowed on a man of mean
extraction, and the Roman Catholic*, who deteHed
him), having preferred many complaints againH him,
availed themfelves of his own law. He was attaint¬
ed of treafon and herefy, convifted unheard, and be¬
headed in 1540. Pie was the chief inHrument of the
fupprcfiion of the abbeys and monalteriesj and of the
deflruciion of images and relics 5 to him alfo we are
indebted for the inditution of parilh-reguters of births,,
marriages, and burials.
Cromwell, Oliver^ Ailed Lord Protector of the
commonwealth of England, one of the molt extraor¬
dinary perfonages mentioned in hidory, was the fon
of Mr Robert Cromwell of Hinchinbrooke in the
county of Huntingdon. His anceflors were of very
honourable extraction ; but no ways related to Iho-
rnas Cromwell earl of Effex, the prime mini Her and
favourite of Plenry VIII. Pie was born in the parith
of St John Huntingdon, where his father modly li¬
ved, on the 25th or 26th of April 1599, and educated:
at the free fchool of that town. Little is known con¬
cerning! him in his younger years, or indeed concern¬
ing his behaviour in private life. It is, however, re-
latej by authors of unfufpeCted veracity, that when at.
fchool he gave many figns of a very turbulent and o
redlefs difpofition. He is alfo faid from his early ^
years to have been fubjeCt to the hypochondriac difor-
der, and to many deceptions of the imagination. He
had a very remarkable one while at fchool. It hap¬
pened in the day-time, when he was lying melancho¬
ly upon his back in bed. A fpeftre, as he thought,
approached him, and told him that he Ihould be the
greated man in the kingdom. His father, being in¬
formed of this, was very angry, and defired his mai¬
ler to correCt him feverely. This, however, produ¬
ced no effeCt. Oliver perfided in the truth of his do¬
ry, and would fometimes mention it, though his uncle
told him “ it ivas too traiterous to be repeated.”-—
From this fchool Oliver was removed to Sidney col¬
lege in Cambridge, where he was admitted in 1616.
His progrefs in his dudies is uncertain ; but he fpent
much time in playing at foot-ball, cricket, and other
robud exercifes, at which he was very expert. His
father dying after he had been about two years at col¬
lege, Cromwell returned home; but the irregularity
of his life gave fuch offence to his mother, that, by the
advice of lome friends, die fent him to London, and
placed him in Lincoln’s-inn. This expedient by no
means anfwered the purpofe} her fon gave himfelf
up to gaming, wine, and women, fo that he quickly
difiipated all that was left him by his father. This
diflipation, however, could be but of very fhort conti¬
nuance } for he was married, before he was 21 years
of age, to Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Bouchier
of Eflfex. Soon after his marriage he returned to the
country, where he led a very grave and f’ober life.
This Hidden reformation has been aferibed to his fal¬
ling in with the Puritans; but it is certain, that ?rir
Cromwell continued then, and for fome time after, a
zealous member of the church of England, and form¬
ed a clofe friendfiiip with feveral eminent divines.
Pie continued at Huntingdon, where he fettled after
his marriage, till an eftate of between 4C0!. and
500I. per annum devolved on him by the death of
his uncle Sir Thomas Stuart. This induced him to
remove to the ille of Ely where the edate lay, and
here he embraced the puritanical doclrines. He was
defied a member of the third parliaiiienc of Charles I.'
which met on the 10th of January 162S j and was a
member of the committee for religion, where he dif-
tinguithed himfelf by his zeal againd popery. After
the diffplution of that parliament, he returned again
into the country, where he continued to expiefs much
concern for religion, to keep company with filenced
miniders, and to invite them often to leflures and fer-
mons at his houfe. Thus lie brought his affairs again
into a very indifferent fituation : fo that, by way of re¬
pairing the breaches he made in his fortune, he took
a farm at St Ives, which he kept five years. But this
fcheme fucceecled fo ill, that he was obliged to give it.
up ; and at lad, chagrined with his difappointments,-
and made uneafy by the treatment his party at that
time received, he formed a defign of going ever to
New England. In this, however, he was difappointed ^
the king iffued out a proclamation againd all fuch emi¬
grations, and Cromwell was obliged to remain in Eng¬
land againd his will.
In 1638, Cromwell had fird an opportunity of get¬
ting- himfelf publicly taken notice of. The eavl of
Bedford
G R O
Cromwell. Bedford, and fome other persons of high
had eftates in the fen country, were very
haying it better drained t and though on<
[ 7
rank, who
defirous of
projeft .of
this fort had failed, they fet on foot another, got it
countenanced by royal authority, and fettled a part of
the profits upon the crown. This, though really in¬
tended for a public benefit, was oppofed as injurious
to private property : and at the head of the oppofers
was Mr Oliver Cromwell, who had confiderable in¬
fluence in thcfe parts. The vigour he fhowed on this
occafion recommended him to his friend and relation
Mr Hampden j who afterwards charafterized him in
parliament, as a perfon capable cf contriving and con¬
ducing great defigns. But for all this he was not ve¬
ry fuccefsful in his oppofition $ and as his private af¬
fairs were flill declining, he was in very neceffitons
circumftances at the approach of the long parliament.
In this critical fituation he got himfelf eleCed member
of parliament in the following manner. In the puri¬
tanical meetings which he conftantly frequented, Oli¬
ver had molt eminently diltinguiflied himfelf by his
gifts of praying, preaching, and expounding. At one
of thefe meetings he met with one Richard Tims, a
tradefman of Cambridge. This man was fo much ta¬
ken with Oliver, that he took it into his head to at¬
tempt getting him chofen burgefs for the approaching
parliament. Being himfclf one of the common coun¬
cil, Tims imagined this design might be brought about;
and with this view went to Mr Wildbore a relation of
Cromwell’s, to whom he communicated his intention.
Wildbore agreed as to the fitnefs of the perfon ; but
told him the -defign was impraCicable, becaufe Oliver
was not a freeman. Tims next addreffed one Evett
on the fame fubjeC, who alfo made the fame objec¬
tion. He recolleCed, however, that the mayor had
a freedom to bellow, and a fcheme was immediately
laid for fecuring this freedom to Cromwell. On ap¬
plication to the mayor, however, he told them that
the freedom was already difpoled of to another 5 but
this objeCion being obviated by promifing that perfon
a freedom from the town, the mayor being informed
that Cromwell was a man of great fortune, fignified
his intention of bellowing the freedom upon him.
Our hero being informed of the good offices of his
friends, made his appearance in the court dreffed in
fcarlet richly laced with gold, and having provided
plenty of claret and fweetmeats, they were fo freely
circulated among the corporation, that Mr Mayor’s
freeman was unanimoufly declared to be a very civil
worthy gentleman. When the eledlion came on, the
mayor difcovered his millake, but it was now too late 5
the party among the burgefles was firong enough to
choofe him, and accordingly did fo at the election next
year.
When Cromwell fir ft came into parliament, he af-
ftfled great plainnefs, and even careleffnefs in his
drefs. His attention to farming had entirely ruftica-
ted him, fo that he made a very uncouth appearance.
“ Who (fays Dr South) that had beheld fuch a bank¬
rupt, beggarly fellow, as Cromwell, fiift entering the
parliament houfe, with a thread-bare torn coat and
greafy hat, and perhaps neither of them paid for, could
have fufpefied, that, in the fpace of fo few years, he
ftiould, by the murder of one king, and the banrffi-
aacnt of another, afeend the throne, be invefted with
68 ] G R O
the royal robes, and want nothing of the dale of a Ciomwe!'
king but the changing his hat into a crown ?” Crom- l-—y—h
well was very a&ive in promoting the famous Remon-
f rancc * ; which in reality laid the foundation of the* See B,
civil war. He declared afterwards to Lord Falkland,^,
that if the remonftrance had not been carried, he de-
figned to have converted the fmall remains of his
etiate into ready money the next day, and to have left
the kingdom by the firft opportunity. His firmnef?
on this occafion fo effeffually recommended him to
Hampden, Pyra, and the other leaders of the popular
party, that they took him into all their councils ; and
here he acquired that clear infight into things, and
that knowledge of men, of which he afterwards made
fuch prodigious ufe. His exploits during the civil
war, his murder of the king, and ufurpation of the
kingdom, are related under the article Britain, Is0
127—188.
With regard to the characler of Cromwell, Mr
Hume expreiTes himfelf as follows : “ The writers
attached to this wonderful perfon make his charadter,
with regard to abilities, bear the air of the moil ex¬
travagant panegyric : his enemies form fuch a repre-
fentation of his moral qualities as refembles the moft
virulent invedlive. Both of them, it mull be confef-
fed, are fupported by fuch linking circumftances in
his fortune and condudl, as bellow on tbeir reprefen-
tation, a great air of probability. ‘ What can be
more extraordinary (it is faid), than that a perfon of
pri vate birth and education, no fortune, no eminent
qualities of body, which have fhmetimes, nor fliining
qualities of mind, which have often, raifed men to the
higheft dignities, ftiould have the courage to attempt,
and the abilities to execute, fo great a defign as the
fubverting one of the moft ancient as well as beft
eftablilhed monarchies in the world ? That he ftiould
have the power and boldnefs to put his prince and
mailer to an open and infamous death ? ffiould baniffi
that numerous and ftrongly allied family—cover all
thefe temerities under a feeming obedience to a par¬
liament, in wbofe fervice he pretended to be retain¬
ed—trample too upon that parliament in their turn,
and fcornfully expel them as faon as they gave him
ground of diffatisfadlion—eredl in their place the do¬
minion of the faints, and give reality to the moft vi-
fionary idea which the heated imagination of any fa¬
natic was ever able to entertain—fupprefs again that
monller in its infancy, and openly fet himfelf up above
all things that ever were called fovereign in England—
overcome firft all his enemies by arms, and all his
friends afterwards by artifice—ferve all parties pa¬
tiently for a while, and afterwards command them
viflorioufly at laft—overrun each corner of the three
nations, and fubdue with equal facility both the riches
of the fouth, and the poverty of the north—be feared
and courted by all princes, and adopted a brother to
the gods of the earth—call together parliaments
with a word of his pen, and fcatter them again by the
breath of his mouth—reduce to fubjeftion a warlike
and difeontented nation by means of a mutinous ar¬
my—command a mutinous army by means of fedb
tious and fadlious officers—be humbly and daily pe¬
titioned, that he would be pleafed, at the rate of mil¬
lions a-year, to be hired as mailer of thofe who bad
formerly hired him for their fervant—have the efUies
and
C R O [ 769 ] c R O
and lives of three nations as much at his difpofal as petuous fury or narrow prejudices, than of cool fore- ^Ctomwelh
was once the little inheritance of his father, and be as fight and deliberation. An eminent perfonage, how-
noble and liberal in the fpending of them ? And,laftly, ever, he was in many refpedts, and even a luperior
(for there is no end of enumerating every particular of genius; but unequal and irregular in his operations ■
his glory), with one word bequeath all this power and and, though not defedlive in any talent except that of
fplendour to his pofterity—die poffcffed of peace at elocution, the abilities which in him were mod admi-
home, and triumph abroad—be buried among kings, rable, and which contributed mod to his marvellous
and with more than regal folemnity, and leave a name iuccefs, were the magnanimous refoiution of his en-
behind him not to be extinguidred but with the whole terpriies, and his peculiar dexterity in difcovering the
world 5 which, as it was too little for his praife, fo it characters and pradtifing on the weakneffes of man-
might have been for his conqueds, if the fhort line of kind.
his mortal life could have dretched out to the extent of “ If we furvey the moral cnaradler of Cromwell,
his immortal dcfirrns ? with that indulgence which is due to the bundnefs and
“ My intention is not to disfigure this pidture infirmities of the human fpecies, we fhall not be in¬
drawn by fo maderly a hand j I diall only endeavour clined to load his memory with fuch violent reproaches
to remove from it fomewhat of the marvellous; a cir- as thofe which his enemies ufually throw upon it. A-
cumdance which, on all occafions, gives much ground hildd the padions and prejudices of that time, that he
for doubt and fufpicion. It feems to me that the fliould prefer the parliamentary to the royal caufe, will
circumdance of Cromwell’s life in which his abilities not appear extraordinary ; fince even at prefent many
are principally difcovered, is his riling, from a private men of fenfe and knowledge are dilpoied to think,
{ration, in oppofition to fo many rivals, fo much advan- tliat the queftion, with regard to the judice of the
ced before him, to a high command and authority quarrel, may be regarded as doubtful and ambiguous,
in the army. His great courage, his fignal military 1 he murder of the king, tne mod atrocious 01 ali.his^
talents, his eminent dexterity and addrels, were all adlions, was to him covered under a mighty cloud oi
requifite for this important acquifition. Yet will not republican and fanatical illulions; and it is not impof-
this promotion appear the effhdt of fupernatural abili- lible but he mignt believe it, as many o hers did, the
ties, when we confider that Fairfax himfelf, a private mod meritorious adlion w'hich he could je form. H s
gentleman, who had not the advantage of a feat in fubfequent ufurpation was the effedt ot neceflity, as
parliament, had through the fame deps attained even well as of ambition ; nor is it eaiy to fee how the va-
to a fuperior rank; and, if endued with common ca- rious fadfiqns could at that time have been redrained
pacity and penetiation, had been able to retain it. without a mixture of military and arbitrary authority.
To incite fuch an army to rebellion againd the par- Fhe private deportment of Cromwell as a fon, a huf-
liament, required no uncommon art or indudry : to band, a father, a friend, is expofed to no confiderable
have kept them in obedience had been the more difFi- cenfure, if it does not rather merit praife. And, up-
cult enterprife. When the breach is once formed on the whole, his chara&er does not appear more ex-
between the military and civil powers, a fupreme and traordinary and unufual by the mixture of fo much ab-
abfolute authority, from that moment, is devolved on furdity with fo much penetration, than by his tempering
the general; and if he is afterwards pleafed to em- fuch violent ambition and fuch enraged fanaticifm with
ploy artifice or policy, it may be regarded on mod io much regard to judice and humanity.”
occafions as great condefcenfion, if not' as fuperfluous 1 hat Cromwell continued a mod complete and bi¬
caution. That Cromwell was ever able really to blind gotted enthufiad to the very lad, appears from his be-
or overreach either the king or the republicans, does haviour in his lad ficknefs. His dneafe, which at fird
not appear : as they poflefTed no means of refiding the was a kind of flow fever, brought on by the carer,
force under his command, they were glad to temporize and anxiety of his mind, foon degenerated into a ter-
with him; and, by feeming to be deceived, to wait tian ague, bor about a week the diljuder continued
for an opportunity of freeing themfelves from his do- without any dangerous fymptoms, infomucn that every
minion. If he feduced the military fanatics, it is to other day lie walked abroad ; but one day after dm-
be confidered that their intered and his evidently con- ner his five phyficians coming to wait upon him, one
curred ; that their ignorance and low education ex- of them having felt his pulfe, (aid that it intermitted,
pofed them to the groffed impofition; and that he At this Cromwell was furprifed, turned pale, fell into
himfelf was at bottom as frantic an enthufiad as the a cold fweat, and, when he was almofl fainting, or-
word of them ; and in order to obtain their confi- dered himfelf to be carried to bed ; where, by the a£-
dence, needed but to difplay thofe vulgar and ridi- fidance of cordials, being brought a little to himfelf,
culous habits which he had early acquired, and on he made his wall wath refpecd to his private affairs. . The
which he fet fo high a value. An army is fo forcible, next morning, when one of his phyficians came to vifit
and at the fame time fo coarfe a weapon, that any him, Cromwell afked him, why he looked fo fad ; an i
hand which wields it, may, without much dexterity, when anfwer was made that fo it became every one
perform any operation, and attain any afeendant in hu- who had the weighty charge of his Ine and health
man fociety. uPon “ Ye phyficians (fays Cromwell), think I
“ The domedic adminidration of Cromwell, though (hall die: I tell you I diall not die this bout, I am fure
it difeovers great ability, was conducted without any of it. Do not you think (laid he to the pnyfician,
plan either of liberty or arbitrary power : perhaps his looking more attentively at him), do not think that I
difficult fituation admitted of neither. His foreign am mad : I fpeak the words of truth upon furer grounds
enterprifes, though full of intrepidity, were pernicious than your Hippocrates or Galen can furnifh you with,
to national intered ; and feem more the refult of im- God atmighty himfelf hath given tnat answer, no* to
Tol. VI. Part II. 5 E
Cromwell.
C R O [ 77° j C R O
my prayers alone, but alfo to the prayers of thofe who
entertain a ftri&er commerce and greater intereil with
him. Go on cheerfully, banilhing all fadnefs from your
looks; and deal with me as you wrould do with a fer-
ving man. Ye may have a Ikill in the nature of things,
yet nature can do more than all phyficians, put toge¬
ther, and God is far more above nature.” As this phy-
iician was coming out of the chamber, he accidentally
met with another, to w'hom he expreffed his fear that
the proteffor was turning light-headed. But the o-
ther informed him that the chaplains, being difperfed
the preceding night into different parts of the houfe,
had prayed for the protestor’s recovery, and unani-
mcuily received for anfwer that he ihould recover.
Nay, to fuch a degree of madnefs did they at laff ar¬
rive, that, a public fail: being kept at Hampton court,
they did not fo much pray to God for the proteftor’s
health, as return thanks for the undoubted pledges
they had of his recovery. On this account, though
the phylicians perceived his diftemper increaiing every
hour, they took no notice of his danger, till it became
neceffary for him to appoint a fucceffor while he had
any breath remaining. But being then in a lethargic
fit, he anfwered from the purpofe j upon which he was
again alked whether he did not name his eldeft fon
Richard ? and to this question he anfwered, Yes. Be¬
ing then alked where his will was which he had for¬
merly made concerning the heirs of the kingdom : he
fent to look for it in his clofet and other places, but
in vain ; for fomebody had either ftolen it, or he him-
felf had burnt it. Soon after, he expired, on the 3d of
September 1658, aged fomewhat more than 59 years
and four months. This day of September he had al¬
ways reckoned to be the moll fortunate for him in the
w'hole year. A violent tempeft, which immediately
fucceeded his death, ferved as a fubjedt of difcourfe to
the vulgar. His partizans, as well as his opponents,
were fond of remarking this event j and each of thefn
endeavoured, by forced inferences, to interpret it as bell
fuited their particular prejudices.
It h as been imagined by fome, that Oliver Crom¬
well was poifoned : but for this there feems to be no
reafonable foundation. His body was opened by Dr
Bates. He found the brain fomewhat overcharged
with blood, and the lungs a little inflamed j but what
he reckoned to have been the principal caufe of his
diforder was a total degeneracy of the fubftance of his
fpleen into a matter refembling the lees of oil. This,
he thought, alfo accounted for the hypochondriac dif-
pofitions to which CromwTell had from his infancy
been fubjedl. Though the bowels were taken out,
and the body filled with fpices wrapped in a fourfold
cere cloth, put firft into a coffin of lead, and then into
one of wood, yet the corruption was fo great that the
humour wrought itfelf through the whole, and there
was a neceffity of interring the body before the fo-
lemnity of the funeral. A very pompous funeral was
ordered at the public expence, and performed from
Somerfet-houfe, with a fplendour not only equal but
fuperior to that bellowed upon crowned heads. Some
have related that his body was depofited in Nafeby-
field j others, that it.was wrapped in lead, and funk in
the deepeft part of the Thames, to prevent any infult
that might afterwards be offered to it. But it feems
beyond doubt that his body was interred at Weft min¬
der: as we are informed, that on the order to difmter Cromweii
him after the Reftoraticn, his corpfe was found in a ||
vault in the middle aifle of Henry VII.’s chapel. In , ^ron^-
the infide of the coffin, and on the bread of the corpfe, ,r*,J
was laid a copper plate finely gilt, enclofed in a thin
cafe of lead. On one fide of this plate were engraven
the arms of England impaled with thofe of Oliver, and
on the reverfe the following legend : Oliverius Prcteclor
Reipublicce Anglice, Scotice, et Hibernia, natus 25. A pri¬
lls 1599, inauguratus 16. Decembris 1653, mortuus
3. Septembris a tin. 1658, hie Jit us ejl.
Cromwell was of a robuft frame of body, and of a
manly though not agreeable afpedt. His nofe being
remarkably red and ihining, was often made the fub-
jecl of ridicule. He left only two fons, Richard and
Henry ; and three daughters j one married to General
Fleetwood, another to Lord Fauconberg, and a third
to Lord Rich. His mother lived till after he was pro¬
tector $ and contrary to her orders he buried her with
great pomp in Weftminfter abbey. She could not
be perfuaded that ever his power or his perfon was
in fafety. At every noife ffie heard (he would exclaim
that her fon was murdered ; and was never fatisfied
that he was alive if fhe did not receive frequent vifits
from him. She was a decent woman j and by her fru¬
gality and induftry had raifed and educated a nume¬
rous family upon a fmall fortune. She had even been
obliged to fet up a brewery at Huntingdon, which ffie
managed to good advantage. Hence Cromwell, in the
invetftives of that age, is often iligmatized with the
name of brewer. Ludlow, by way of infult, mentions
the great acceffion which he would receive to his royal
revenues upon his mother’s death, who poffeffed a join¬
ture of 60 pounds a-year upon his eflate. She was of
a good family, of the name of Stuart •, and is by fome
fuppofed to have been remotely allied to the royal fa¬
mily.
Cromwell, Richard, eldeft fon of Oliver Cromwell,
was by his father appointed fucceffor to the protedlor-
ffiip, but very foon depofed by the army *. They # gee
difeharged his debts, took all the houfehold fluff, plate, n0{
&c. gave him a proteftion for fix months, and fo he 189, ipe
retired. He was by no means qualified to fupport the
ftation gained by the afpiring talents of his father. He
was of a moderate temper, and untainted with that fa¬
natical fpirit which his father had fo fuccefstully culti¬
vated. Qn the Refloration he went abroad but re¬
turned in 1680 under the affumed name of Clark, and
fettled at Cheffiunt in Hertfordfliire, where he lived pri¬
vately, and died in 1712, aged 86.
CRONENBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and in the landgraviate of Heffe
Caffel, with a flrong caftle. It is feated at the foot of
a high mountain, on a fertile foil, and is furround-
ed with a double wall. E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 50.
J5* . ,
CRONENBURG, a ftrong fortrefs of Denmark, m the
ifle of Zealand, at the entrance of the Sound, where
the Danes take toll of fuch fliips as are bound for the
Baltic. It was very richly furnithed, but pillaged by
the Swedes in 1638, who took away the furniture,
among which were feme flatues of maffy filver. It is
built upon piles. E. Long. 12. 50. N. Lat. 56. O.
CRONIUS, in Chronology, the ancient name of
the Athenian month Hecatombeeon \ which was the
firft
c R G [ 771 ] C R O
Ztonkii fir ft of their year, and anfwered to the latter part of The length of this work, from the beginning of the Crptftadt
II our June and beginning of July.—There were feafts canal to the end of the laft dock, is 4221 feet. The H
0 a ‘t'i called Cronienes celebrated at Athens in this month, fides of the docks are faced with ftone, and the bottom . 
in honour of Saturn, anfwering to the Saturnalia of the
Romans.
CRONSLOT. See Cronstadt.
CRONSTADT, a fea-port town of Ruffia, xvhere
the greateft part of the navy is Rationed. It Hands up¬
on the ifland of Retufari in the gulf of Finland *, and
was founded by Peter I. as being provided with the
fafeft harbour in thefe parts, and as forming a ftrong
bulwark by fea for the defence of the new metropolis.
The only paffage by which (hips of burden can ap¬
proach Peterlburgh lies on the fouth fide of Retufari,
through a narrow channel ; one fide whereof is com¬
manded by Cronftadt, and the oppofite by Cronflot and
the citadel. Cronflot, which ftands upon a fmall ifland
of fand, is a circular wooden building, and furround-
ed with fortifications of wood that jut into the water.
It contains a garrifon of 100 men. The citadel is
another fmall wooden fortrefs, conftrufled alfo upon
an adjacent fand-bank, and capable of holding about
30 foldiers. All large veffels muft fail between Cron-
Itadt and thefe two fortreffes, expofed to the fire of the
oppofite batteries 5 for the other parts of the gulf are
only from one to eleven feet in depth. All thefe for¬
tifications were, at the time of their conftrudtion, ef-
teemed places of confideraMe ftrength j but now they
derive their confequence more from their paft importance
than from any refiftance they could make againft the at¬
tack of a powerful fleet.
Cronftadt is built upon the fouth-eaftem extremity
of the ifland, and is defended towards the fea by
w'ooden piers projefting into the water, and towards
the land by ramparts and baftions. It is a very ftrag-
gling place; and occupies, like all the Ruflian towns,
a larger fpace of ground than the number of habita¬
tions feems to require j the houfes are moftly of wood,
excepting a few fronting the harbour, which are of
brick ftuccoed white. Among the latter are the im¬
perial hofpital for failors, the barracks, and the aca¬
demy for marines and officers of the navy. That fe-
minary ufually contains between three and four hun¬
dred cadets, who are clothed, maintained, and taught
at the expence of the crown. They are admitted at
the age of five, and are fuffered to remain until they
reach their feventeenth year. They learn accounts,
mathematics, drawing, fortification, and navigation ;
and have mafters in the French, German, Englifti, and
Swedifti languages. They are trained to naval affairs,
and make an annual cruife in the Baltic as far as Re¬
vel. Cronftadt has a feparate haven appropriated to
the men of xvar, and another to merchant (hips. Clofe
to the haven for merchant (hips is a canal and feveral
dry docks, begun in 1719 by Peter I. for the purpofe
of refitting the men of war. This ufeful work was ne¬
glected under his fucceffor, and was not completed
until the reign of his daughter Elizabeth. It has been
(till further beautified and improved by the prefent em-
prefs; and is now applied for building as well as careen¬
ing (hips of the line. At the extremity of thefe docks
is a great refervoir 568 feet in length, which contains
water fufficient, and half the quantity over, to fupply
all the docks •, which is pumped into it by means of a
fire engine, the diameter of whofe cylinder is fix feet.
is paved with granite. They are 40 feet deep and 150
broad j and are capable of containing nine men of war
upon the flocks.
CRONS'IAT, a town of Tranfylvania, near the
frontiers of Moldavia, fubjeCt to the houfe of Auftria.
E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 47. o.
CROP, the high part or end of any thing cut off.
It is particularly uled for the corn gathered off a field in
harveft. See Agriculture Index.
CROSIER, or Crozier, a (hepherd’s crook j a fym-
bol of paftoral authority, confifting of a gold or filver
ftaff, crooked at the top, carried occafionally before
biftiops and abbots, and held in the hand when they
give the folemn benedictions. The cuftom of bearing
a paftoral ftaff before biftiops is very ancient, as appears
from the life of St Caefarea of Arles, who lived about
the year 500. Among the Greeks none but the patri¬
archs had a right to the crofier. The crofiers were at
firft no more than Ample wooden ftaves in form of a T,
ufed to reft and lean upon. By degrees they were made
longer j and at length arrived at the form we now fee
them of. Regular abbots are allowed to officiate with
a mitre and crofier.
Crosier, in AJlronomy, four ftars in the fouthern he-
mifphere in the form of a crofs, ferving thofe who fail
in fouth latitudes to find the anlarftic pole.
CROSLET, in Heraldry, is when a crofs is croffed
again at a fmall diftance from each of the ends. Upton
fays it is not fo often borne by itfelf in arms as other
croffes are, but often in diminutives, that is, in fmall
croflets fcattered about the field. See Heraldry.
CROSS, a gibbet made with two pieces of wood
placed crofswife, whether they crofs with right angles
at the top like a T, or in the middle of their length
like an X. The crofs to which our Saviour was faften-
ed, and on which he died, was of the former kind ;
being thus reprefented by old monuments, coins, and
croffes; and St Jerome compares it ^o a bird flying, a
man fwimming, or praying with his arms extended.
The puniffiment of the crofs was common among the
Syrians, Egyptians, Perfians, Africans, Greeks, Romans,
and Jews.
The death of the crofs was the mod dreadful of
all others, both for the ftiame and pain of it; and fo
fcandalous, that it was infli&ed as the laft mark of de-
teftation upon the vileft of people. It was the punilh-
ment of robbers and murderers, provided that they were
(laves too } but otherwife, if they were free, and had
the privileges of the city of Rome, this was then
thought a proftitution of that honour, and too infamous
a punifliment for fuch a one, let his crimes be what they
would.
The Mofaic law ordained, that the perfons executed
(hould not be left upon the tree after funfet, becaufe
he that is hanged in this manner is accurfed of God,
Deut. xxi. 22. The Jews believe, that the fouls of
thofe who remain upon the gibbet, and without burial,
enjoy no peace, and receive no benefit from the prayers
of other people; but wander up and down till their
bodies are buried : which agrees with the notions that
the Greeks and Romans had of this matter, as may be
feen in Horn. Iliad 4. and Virg. JUneid 6.
The
rOiS.
CKO [7
i Hie term of a crofs being fuc h as has been already
deferibed, the body of the criminal was faftened to the
upright piece by nailing the leet to it, and on the other
tranfverfe piece generally by nailing the hands on each
fide. Now, becaufe thefe parts of the body, being the
inftruments of add:on and motion, are provided by na¬
ture with a much greater quantity of nerves than others
have occafion for } and becaufe all lenfation is perform¬
ed by the fpirit contained in thefe nerves; it will follow,
as Stanhope obferves, that wherever they abound, the
tenfe of pain muff needs in proportion be more quick
and tender.
The Jews confefs, that indeed they crucified people
in their nation, but deny that they inflidled this punifh-
ment upon any one alive. They firft put them to death,
and then faftened them to the crofs either by the hands
or neck. But there are indifputable proofs of their
crucifying men frequently alive. The worfhippers of
Baal-peor and the king of Ai were hung up alive ; as
were alfo the defeendants of Saul, who were put into
the hands of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. xxi. 9.
Before crucifixion the criminal was generally fcour-
ged with cords : fometimes little bones, or pieces of
bones, were tied to thefe fcourges, fo that the con¬
demned perfon might fuffer more feverely. It was alfo
a cuftom that he who w’as to be crucified fhould bear
his own crofs to the place of execution. After this
manner we find Chrifl was compelled to bear his own
crofs; and, as he funk under the burden, Simon the
Cyrenian was conilrained to bear it after him and with
him. But whereas it is generally fuppofed that our
Lord bore the whole crofs, i. e. the long and tranfverfe
part both, this feems to be a thing impoffible ; and
therefore Lipfius (in his treatife De Supplicio Cruets)
has fet the matter in a true light, when he tells us that
Jefus only carried the tranverfe beam 5 becaufe the
long beam, or the body of the crofs, was either fixed
in the ground before, or made ready to be fet up as foon
as the priloner came : and from hence he obferves,
that painters are very much miflaken in their deferip-
tion of our Saviour carrying the whole crofs.
I here were ftveral ways of crucifying; fometimes
the criminal was fattened with cords to a tree, fome¬
times- he was crucified with his head downwards. This
Way St Peter chofe out of refpeft to his matter Jefus
Chritt, not thinking himfelf worthy to be crucified
like him ; though the common way of crucifying was
by fattening the criminal with nails, one through each
hand, and one through both feet, or one through each
of them : for this was not always performed in the fame
manner *, the ancients fometimes reprefenting Jefus
Chrift crucified with four nails, and fometimes with
th ret. The criminal was fixed to the crofs quite na¬
ked ; and in all probability the Saviour of the world
■was not ufed with any greater tendernefs than others
upon whom the punittiment was inflidled. The fol-
diers divided his clothes among them, and caft lots for
his tunic, which is an under garment worn over the flettr
like a ttiitt.
The text of the gofpel (hows clearly, that Jefus
Chrift was fattened to the crofs with nails j and the
Pfalmift (xxii. 16.) had foretold long before, that
they fhould pierce his hands and his feet: but there
are great difputes concerning the number of thefe nails.
The Greeks reprefent our Saviour as faftened to the
■2 ] c 11 o
crofs with four nails j in which particular Gregory of Crof<.
Tours agrees with them, one at each hand and foot.  /-
But feveral are of opinion, that our Saviour’s hands
and feet were pierced with three nails only, viz. one
at each hand, and one through both his feet : and one
cuftom of the. Latins is rather for this laft opinion ; for
the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin
church have only three nails. Nonnus thinks that our
Saviour’s arms were befides bound faft to the crofs with
chains 5 and St Hilary fpeaks of the cords wherewith he
was tied to it.
Sometimes they who were faftened upon the crofs
lived a good while in that condition. St Andrew is
believed to have continued three days alive upon it.
Eufebius fpeaks of certain martyrs in Egypt who were
kept upon the crofs till they w^ere ftarved to death.
Pilate was amazed at Jefus Chrift dying fo foon ; be¬
caufe naturally he mutt have lived long, if it had not
been in his power to have laid down his life and to take
it up again. The thighs of the two thieves who were
crucified together with our Saviour were broken in
order to batten their death, that their bodies might
not remain upon the crofs on the Sabbath-day (John
xix. 31, 32, 33.), and to comply with the law of Mo-
fes, which forbids the bodies to be left there after fun-
fet. But among other nations they were fuffered to re¬
main upon the crofs a long time. Sometimes they were
devoured alive by birds and beafts of prey. Guards
were appointed to oblerve that none of their friends or
relations ftiould take them down and bury them. The
ftory of the Ephefian matron and the foldier who was
fet to guard the crofs, is very well known. The Ho¬
man foldiers who had crucified Jefus Chrift and the two
thieves continued near the croffes till the bodies were
taken down and buried.
Crottes were ufually, in former times, ere&ed on the
tops of houfes, by which tenants pretended to claim the
privileges of the Templars Hofpitallers, to defend them-
felves againft their rightful lords. This was condemned
by the ftatute Wil. II. c. 37. It wasufual alfo, in thofe
days, to fet up croffes in places where the corpfe of any
of the nobility retted as it was carried to be buried, that
a tranfeuntibus pro ejus animo deprecentur. Croffes, &c.
are forbidden to be biought into England by 13 Eliz.
c. 2. on pain of a preemunire, &c.
Inventioti cf the Cxoss, an ancient feaft folemnized on
the third of May, in memory cf St Helena’s (the mo¬
ther of Conftantine) finding the true crofs of Chritt deep
in the ground on Mount Calvary ; where (he eredted a
church for the prefervation of part of it ; the reft being
brought to Rome and depofited in the church of the
Holy Crofs of Jerufalem.
Theodoret mentions the finding of three crcffes 5 that
of Jefus Chritt: and thofe of the. two thieves j and that
they diftinguifhed between them by means of a fick
u’oman, w7ho was immediately healed by touching the
true crofs. The place is faid to have been pointed out
to her by St Quiriacus, then a Jew, afterwards convert¬
ed and canonized.
Exaltation of the Cross, an ancient feaft, held on the
T4th of September, in memory of this, that Heracli¬
tus rettored to Mount Calvary ths true crofs in 642,
which had been carried off 14 years before by Cofroes
king of Perfia, upon his taking Jerufalem from the em¬
peror Phocas.
1
The
C R O [??
The adoration of the crofs appear? to have been
prst&ifcd in the ancient church 3 inafmuch as the hea¬
thens, particularly Julian, reproached the primitive Chri-
ilians with it. And we do not find that their apolo-
gifts difclaimed the charge. Mornay, indeed, afferted,
that this had been done by St Cyril, but could not
fupport his allegation at the conference of Fountain-
bleau. St Helena is faid to have reduced the adora¬
tion of the crofs to its juft principle, fince ftie adored
in the wood, not the wood itfelf, which had been di¬
rect idolatry and heathenifm, but him who had been
nailed to this wood. With fuch modifications fome
Proteftants have been induced to admit the adoration
of the crofs. John Hufs allowed of the phrafe, provid¬
ed it were exprefsly added, that the adoration was re¬
lative to the perlon of Chrift. But however Roman
Catholics may feem to triumph by virtue of fuch diftinc-
tion and mitigations, it is well known they have no
great place in their own pradtice. Imbert, the good
prior of Gafcony, was feverely profecuted in 1683 for
telling the people, that in the ceremony of adoring the
crofs, pradlifed in that church on Good Friday, they
were not to adore the wood, but Chrift, who was cru¬
cified on it. The curate of the pariih told them the
contrary : it was the wood 1 the wood ! they were to
adore. Imbert replied, it was Chrift, not the wood:
for which he was cited before the archbilhop of Bour-
deaux, fufpended from his' fundlions, and threatened
with chains and perpetual imprifonment. It little a-
vailed him to cite the bifhop of Meaux’s diftindfion 3 it
was anfwered that the church allowed it not.
Cuoss-Bearer (port-croix, cruciger), in the Romilh
church, the chaplain of an archbilhop or a primate,
who bears a crok before him on folemn occafions.
The pope has the crofs borne before him every¬
where 3 a patriarch anywhere out of Rome; and pri¬
mates, metropolitans, and thofe who have a right to the
pallium, throughout their refpedlive jurifdidlions.
Gregory XI. forbade all patriarchs and prelates to
have it borne in prefence of cardinals. A prelate bears
a fingle crofs, a patriarch a double crofs, and the pope
a triple one on his arms.
Cxoss-Bearers alfo denote certain officers in the in-
quifition, who make a vow before the inquifitors or
their vicars to defend the,Catholic faith, though with
the lofs of fortune and life. Their bufinefs is to pro¬
vide the inquifitors with neceffaries. They were for¬
merly of great ufe 3 but in procefs of time fome of
their conftitutions were changed, and they were called
of the penance of St Dominic.
BeBoral Cross, is a crofs of gold or filver, or other
precious materials, often enriched with diamonds, which
the bilhops, archbilhops, See. and regular abbefies,
wear hanging from the neck.
Order of the Cross, or Croifade, an order of ladies
inftituted in 1668 by the emprefs Eleonora de Gonza-
gua, wife of the emperor Leopold 3 on occafion of
the miraculous recovery of a little golden crofs where¬
in were inclofed two pieces of the true crofs, out of
the alhes of part of the palace. It feems the fire had
burnt the cafe wherein it was inclofed, and melted the
cryftal, yet the wood remained untouched.
Maids of the Cross, a community of young women
mftituted in 1265 a*- R°ye in Picardy, and fince dif-
perfed to Paris and other towns. They inftruft young
3 ] C R O
perfons of their own fex. Some take the three vows Crofs.
of; poverty, chaftity, and obedience 3 others retain their
liberty. They are under the diredfion of a fuperior.
Cross, in Heraldry, is defined by Guillim, an or¬
dinary compoled of fourfold lines 3 whereof two are
perpendicular, and the other two tranfverfe 3 for fo we
mult conceive of them, though they be not drawn
throughout, but meet by couples, in four right angles
near the feffe point of tlx; efcutcheon. See He¬
raldry.
This bearing was firft beftowed on fuch as had per¬
formed, or at leaft undertaken, fome fervice for Chrift,
and the Chriftian profeffion 3 and is held by divers the
moft honourable charge in all heraldry. What brought
it into fuch frequent ufe,. was the ancient expeditions
into the Holy Land 3 and the holy war pilgrims, af¬
ter their pilgrimage, taking the crofs for their cogni¬
zance 3 and the enfign of that war being the crofs. In
thofe wars, fays Mackenzie, the Scots carried St An¬
drew’s crofs 3 the French a ciofs argent 3 the Englifh
a crofs or 3 the Germans, fable 3 the Italians, azures
the Spaniards, gules.
St George's Cross, or the red crofs, in a field argent,
is now the ftandard of England 3 that faint being the-
reputed patron of this nation.
Nor is it only in crofies that the variety is fo
great 3 the like is found in many other bearings, and
particularly in lions, and the parts of them 3 whereof
Columbiere gives us no lefs than 96 varieties. Leigh
mentions but 46 feveral croffes ; Sylvanus Morgan,.
263 Upton, 303 Johannes de Bado Aureo, 123 and
fo others, whom it is needlefs to mention. Upton,
owns he dares not prefume to afeertain all the various
croffes ufed in arms, for that they are at prefent almort
innumerable 3 and therefore he only takes notice of
fuch as he had feen ufed in his own time.
Cross, in mining, two nicks cut on the fuperficies
of the earth, thus +, which the miners make when
they take the ground to dig for ore. This crofs gives
the miners three days liberty to make and fet on
ftones. As many of thefe croffes as the miner makes,
fo many mears of ground he may have in the vein,
provided he fet on ftones within three days after making
his crofs or croffes. But if he make but one crofs, and
a ftander by makes the fecond, and a ftranger makes
the third, every one is ferved with the next mear, ac¬
cording as they have firft or laft, fooner or later, made
their crofs or croffes upon the ground.
Cross, in coinSj a name given to the right fide or
face, the other being called the pi/e or reiierfe. It
has been a common error, that the reverfe was meant
by the crofs 3 becaufe at this time, with us, it is mark¬
ed with figures difpofed in that form : but the damp¬
ing the head of the prince in thefe kingdoms on the
right fide of the coin, was preceded by a general cul-
tom of ftriking on that part the figure of a crofs 3
while the other, called the pile, contained the arms, or
fome other device.
Cross, inftead of a fignature to a deed, &c. is de¬
rived from the Saxon pradlice of affixing the fign of
the crofs, whether they could write or not.
Cross, in furveying, is an inftrument which confifts
of a brafs circle, divided into four equal parts by two
lines croffing each ether in the centre. At each ex¬
tremity ©f the lines is fixed a perpendicular fight, with -
finall.
*
C R O
Crofs,
^ fraall boles below each flit, for the better difcovering
of diftant objedls. The crofs is mounted on a ftaff or
ftand, to fix it in the ground, and it is found to be a
very ufeful inftrument for meafuring fmall pieces of
land, and taking offsets, &c.
C&oss-Bar Shot, a bullet with an iron bar palling
through it, and (landing fix or eight inches out at
both fides. It is ufed at fea for deltroying the enemy’s
rigging.
Cross-BW. ' See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
Cross-Bi//, in chancery, is an original bill, by which
the defendant prays relief againft the plaintiff.
Cross-Bows. See Bows and Archery.
CRoss-grained Siuj}\ in joinery. Wood is faid to be
crofs-grained, when a bough or branch has (hot out of
it 5 (or the grain of the branch (hooting forward, runs
athwart that of the trunk.
In wood well grown this defeft is fcarce perceiv¬
able, except in working ; but in deal-boards thefe boughs
make knots. If the bough grew up with the young
trunk, inftead of a knot is found a curling in the (lutf,
X'ery fenfible under the plane.
CRots-Jack, pronounced cro-jeck, a fail extended on
the lower yard of the mizen-maft, which is hence
called the crofsjach yard. Phis fail, however, has
generally been found of little fervice, and is therefore
very feldom ufed.
Csoss-Ptece, a rail of timber extended over the
windlafs of a merchant (hip from the knight-heads to
the belfry. It is (fuck full of wooden pins, which are
ufed t® fallen the running rigging as occafion requires.
See Windlass.
CRoss-Staff, or Fore faff, is a mathematical inftru-
ment of hard wood, confiding of a fquare daff of about
three feet long, having each of its faces divided like a
line of tangents, and having four crofs pieces of une¬
qual lengths to fit on the daff, the halves of thefe be¬
ing as the radii to the tangent lines on the faces of the
ftaff.— The inftrument was formerly ufed in taking the
altitudes of the celedial bodies at fea.
Cross Timng, in Hufbandry, a method of harrowing
land, confifting in drawing the harrow up the interval
it went down before, and down that which it was
drawn up.
Cross Trees, certain pieces of timber, fupported by
the cheeks and treftle trees, at the upper ends of the
lower mafts, athwart which they are laid to fuftain
the frame of the top.
Cnoss-Tree Yard, is a yard (landing fquare, juft un¬
der the mizen-top, and to it the mizen-top is faftened
below. See CRoss-Jack.
CRoss-Wort. See Valantia, Botany Index.
Ordeal of the Cross, a fpecies of trial frequently
praflifed in the days of fuperftition. See Ordeal.
Cross, an Englidi artift, famous only for copying,
in the reigns of Charles I. and Charles II. Of this ta¬
lent there is a (lory current, more to the credit of his
(kill than of his probity. He is faid to have been em¬
ployed by Charles I. to copy the celebrated Madona
of Raphael in St Mark’s church at Venice j and that,
having obtained leave of the (late for that purpofe, he
executed his piece fo well as to bring away the origi¬
nal and leave his copy in the place of it. The decep-
tiot) was not detefted until it was too late to recover
the lofs} and this piece was bought in Oliver Crom-
C 774 ]
C It O
well’s time by toe Spanifh ambaffador for his mailer,
who placed it in the Efcurial,
CROSSEN, a handfome town of Silefia in Ger- (
many, and capital of a principality of the fame name.
.It is fituated at the coiifluence of the rivers Bobar
and Oder, in a fertile country abounding in wine and
fruits. There is a bridge over the Oder which is for¬
tified. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 52. 5.
CROSSOSTYLUS, in Botany, a genus of plants
belonging to the monadelphia clats.
CROTALARIA, Rattle-wort \ a genus of
plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs; and in the
natural method ranking under the 32d order, Papilio-
nacece.
CROTALO, an inftrument of military mufic, like
that deferibed in the next article. Th® Turks were
the firft, among the moderns, who introduced the
ufe of it for their troops. It is now common in Flan¬
ders and Florence, and ether territoxies on the conti¬
nent. It has only one tone; but its effeiff in marking
time may be diltinflly heard through the noife of forty
drums. This is the fame inftrument with the ancient
cymbalum.
C ROT ALUM, an ancient kind of caftagnetta, or
mufical inftrument, found on medals, in the hands of
the priefts of Cybele. The crotalum differed from
the fiftrum 5 though authors frequently confound the
two. It confifted of two little brafs plates or rods,
which were (haken in the hand, and in ftriking againft
each other made a noife.
It was fometimes alfo made of a reed fplit length-
wife ; one part whereof they ftruck againft the other;
and as this made a noife fomewhat like that of a crane’s
bill, they called that bird crotalfria, a player on the
crotala : and Ariftophanes calls a great talker a crota¬
lum.
Clemens Alexandrinus attributes the invention to
the Sicilians ; and forbids the ufe thereof to the Chri-
ftians, becaufe of the indecent motions and geftures that
accompany it.
CROTALUS, or Rattle-snake, in Zoology, a
genus belonging to the order of amphibia ferpentes.
See Ophiology Index. The following is the account
given by Mr Catefby of the crotalus horridus, or- Ame¬
rican rattle-fnake. This grows fometimes to the length
of eight feet, and weighs between eight and nine
pounds. The colour of the head is brown j the eye
red $ the upper part of the body of a yellowifh-brown
colour, tranverfely marked with irregular broad black
lifts. The rattle is of a brown colour, compofed of
feveral horny, membranous cells, of an undulated py¬
ramidal figure. Thefe are articulated within one ano¬
ther in fuch a manner that the point of the firft cell
reaches as far as the bafis of the protuberant ring of
the third, and fo on Lwhich articulation, being very
loofe, gives liberty to the parts of the cells that are in-
clofed within the outward rings to ftrike againft the
fides of them, and fo to caufe the rattling noife which
is heard when the fnake (hakes its tail. This is the
mod inactive and (low-moving of all the fnakes, and is
never the aggreffor except in what it preys upon. The
above gentleman is of opinion that no remedy is yet
difeovered for the bite of this animal. He had fre¬
quently accefs to fee Indians bitten by it, and always
thought that thofe who recovered were cured more
through
Crofs
II
Cro talus.
c R ° [ 775 j C R O
Crotaius through the force of nature, or by reafon of the flight-
11 nefs of the bite, than by the remedies ufed. He tells
_Cr°tC ,us* t^at t^e ^n^*ans hnow their deftiny the moment
T they are bitten j and if the bite happens to be on any of
the large veins, they apply no remedies, as knowing them
to be entirely ufelefs. He believes the reports of the
fafcinating power of this ferpent, though he never had
an opportunity of feeing it. See the articles Poison
and Serpent.
CROTALYSTRIiE, in antiquity, a kind of mo-
rice dancers, admitted to entertainments, in order to
divert the company with their dancing and playing on
an inftrument called crotalum, whence they had their
name.
CROTCHET, in Mujic, one of the notes or cha-
ra&ers of time, equal to half a minum, and double of
a quaver.
Crotchets are alfo marks or chara&ers, ferving to
inclofe a word or fentence which is diftinguiflied from
the reft, being generally in this form £ J.
CROTO, or Croton, in Ancient Geography, a noble
city of the Bruttii, built by the Acheans, 150 ftadia to
the north of Lacinium, and in the neighbourhood of
Metapontum. It was twelve miles in compals before
the arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy ; but after the defolation
produced by that war, fcarce half of it was inhabited.
The citadel on one fide hung over the fea, on the other
towards the land. It was naturally ftrong from its fitu-
ation, but afterwards walled round; on which fide it
was taken by Dionyfius by ftratagem, by means of the
rocks behind it.
Pythagoras, after his long peregrinations in fearch
of knowledge, fixed his refidence in this place, which
fome authors think his native one, at leaft that of his
parents, fuppofing him to have been born in the ifle of
Samos, and not at fome town of that name in Italy.
This incomparable fage fpent the latter part of his life
in training up difciples to the rigid exercife of fublime
and moral virtue, and infthnfling the Crotonites in the
true arts of government, fuch as alone can infure hap-
pinefs, glory, and independence.
Under the influence of this philofophy, the Croto¬
nites inured their bodies to frugality and hardftiips,
and their minds to felf-denial and patriotic difintereil-
ednefs. Their virtues were the admiration of Greece,
where it was a current proverb, that the laft of the
Crotonites was the firft of the Greeks. In one Olym¬
piad, feven of the viftors in the games were citizens
of Croton j and the name of Milo is almoft as famous
as that of Hercules. The vigour of the men and
beauty of the women were aferibed to the climate,
which was believed to be endowed with qualities pe¬
culiarly favourable to the human fyftem. Their phy-
ficians were in high repute j and among thofe, Alc-
meon and Democides rendered themfelves moft con-
fpicuous. Alcmeon was the firft; who dared to ampu¬
tate a limb, in order to fave the life of a patient j and
alfo the firft writer who thought of inculcating moral
precepts under the amufing cloak of apologues. This
invention is more commonly attributed to ^ifop, as
he was remarkably ingenious in this fpecies of com-
pofition. Democides was famous for his attachment
to his native- foil. Though carefled and enriched by
the king of Perfia, whofe queen he had fnatched from
the jaws of death, he abandoned wealth and honours, Crot©
and by ftratagem efcaped to the humble comforts of a , II
private life at Croton,—The Pythagoreans are faid to ■ Croute‘
have difeovered that difpofition of the folar fyftem,
which, with fome modifications, has been revived by
Copernicus, and is now universally received, as being
moft agreeable to nature and experiment. Theano,
the wife of Pythagoras, and many other women, emu¬
lated the virtues of their hulbands.
In thofe fortunate days the ftate of Croton was
moft flouriftiing. Its walls inclofed a circumference
of 12 miles. Of all the colonies fent out from Greece,
this alone furniflied fuccour to the mother-country
when invaded by the Perfians. By its avenging arms
the Sybarites were puniflied for their ftrameful dege¬
neracy 5 but viftory proved fatal to the conquerors,
for riches, and all their pernicious attendants, infinua-
ted themfelves into Croton, and foon contaminated
the purity of its principles. Indeed, the very confti-
tution of human nature militates againft any long con¬
tinuance in fuch rigid praftices of virtue j and there¬
fore it is no wonder if the Crotonites fell by degrees
into the irregularities they once abhorred. Not long
after the Locrians, who were lefs corrupted, -defeated
them on the banks of the Sagra, and reduced the re¬
public to diftrefs and penury. This reftored the re¬
maining Crotonites to their priftine vigour of mind, and
enabled them to make a brave, though unfuccefsful
refiftance, when attacked by Dionyfius of Syracufe.
They fuffered much in the war with Pyrrhus, and,
by repeated misfortunes, decreafed in ftrength and
numbers, from age to age, down to that of Hannibal,
when they could not mufter 20,000 inhabitants. This
fmall population being incapable of manning the ex-
tenfive works ereifted in the days of profperity, Croton
was taken by the Carthaginians, and its citizens tranf-
ported to Locri. The Romans fent a colony hither
200 years before Chrift. In the Gothic war, this city
rendered itfelf confpicuous by its fidelity to Juftinian,
and Totila befieged it long in vain.
CROTON, Wild Ricinus ; a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the monoecia clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 38th order, Tricocccc. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CROTON A, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, feated on the gulf of Taranto, with a bifliop’s
fee and citadel. E. Long. 17. 27. N. Lat. 39. 10.
CROTOPHAGA, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of picse. See Ornithology Index,
CROTOY, a town of Fiance, in Picardy, and in
Ponthieu. The fortifications are demoliflied. It is
feated at the mouth of the river Somme. E. Long.
I. 45. N. Lat. 50. 15.
CROUCHED friars. See Croisiers.
CROUP, in Medicine. See Medicine Index.
Croup of a Horfe, in the manege, the extremity of
the reins above the hips.
CROUPADE, in the manege, a .leap, in which the
horfe pulls up his hind legs, as if he drew them up to
his belly.
CROUTE, Sour Croute, or Kroute. As this
preparation of cabbage has been found of fovereign
efficacy as a prefervative in long voyages from the fea-
feurvy, it may not be unacceptable to give a concife
account
45
C R O [ 77^ ] C R O
account of the procefs for making it, according to the
information communicated by an ingenious German
gentleman.
The foundeft and mod folid cabbages are fele&ed
for this ufe, and cut very fmall, commonly with an in-
ftrument made for this purpofe, not unlike thfe plane
which is ufed in this country for dicing cucumbers.
A knife is ufed when the preparation is made with
great nicety. The cabbage thus minched is put into
a barrel in layers, hand high, and over each is Rrew’ed
a handful of fait and carraway feeds j in this manner
it is rammed down with a rammtt,J}ratutn fuper Jiratum,
till the barrel be full; when a cover is put over it and
preffed down with a heavy weight. After (landing
fome time in this date it begins to ferment; and it is
not till the fermentation has entirely fubfided that the
head is fitted to it, and the barrel is finally (hut up and
preferved for ufe. There is not a drop of vinegar em¬
ployed in this preparation. The Germans write this
preparation in the following manner: Sauer kraut, or
fauer kohl; that is, in their language, “ four herb, or
(our cabbage.”
CROUSAZ, John Peter de, a learned philofopher
and mathematician, was born in 1663. Having made
great progrefs in the mathematics and the philofophy
of Des Cartes, he travelled to Geneva, Holland, and
France 5 was fuccefixvely profeffor in feveral univer-
fities ; and at length was chofen governor to Prince
Frederick of Heffe Caffel, nephew to the king of Swe¬
den. He wrote many w?orks; the mod edeemed of
which are, I. His Logic, the bed edition of which is
that of 1741, in 6 vols 8vo. 2. A Treatife on Beauty.
3. A Treatife on the Education of Children, 2 vols
* 2mo. 4. Several Treatifes on Philofophical and Ma¬
thematical Subiefts, &c. He died at Laufanne in
1748.
CROW. See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
Crow, in Mechanics, a kind of iron lever, with a
claw at one end and a (harp point at the other 5 ufed
for heaving or purchafing great weights.
Crow's Bill, among furgeons, a kind of forceps
for drawing bullets and other foreign bodies out of
wounds.
Crow's Feet, in the military art, machines of iron,
having four points, each about three or four inches
long, fo made that, whatever way they fall, there is
dill a point up j they are thrown upon breaches, or in
paffes where the enemy’s cavalry are to march, proving
very troublefome, by running into the horfes feet, and
laming them.
Crow's Foot, on (hipboard, a complication of fmall
cords fpreading out from a long block, like the fmaller
parts which extend from the backbone of a herring.
It is ufed to fufpend the ownings ; or to keep the top-
fails from driking violently, and fretting againd the
tops. ' . ..
Cnow-Net, is an invention for catching wild-fowl
in the winter feafon, and may be ufed in the day time.
The net is made of double thread, or fine packthread ;
the melhes (hould be two inches wide, the length about
ten yards, and the depth three } it mud be verged on
the fide with good drong cord, and dretched out very
diff on long poles prepared for that purpofe. When
vou are come to the place where you would fpread
your net, open it, and lay it out at its full length, and
breadth \ then faden the lower end of the net all along
the ground, fo as only to move it up and down ; the
upper end of the net mud dand extended on the long
cord ; the further end thereof being daked fird to the
earth by a drcng cord about five yards difiant from
the net. Place this cord in an even line with the lower
edge of the net. The other end mud be at lead 25
yards didant to reach into fome natural or artificial
(belter, by the means of which you may lie concealed
from the fowl, otherwife no good fuccefs can be ex¬
pected. The net mud be placed in fuch exaft order
that it might give way to play on the fowl on the lead
pull of the cord, which mud be done fmartly, led the
fowl (hould prove too quick for you. This net may be
ufed for pigeons, crows, or other birds, on corn-fields
newly fown ; as alfo in dubbie-fields, provided the dub-
ble conceals the net from the birds.
CROWD, in a general fenfe, fignifies a number of
people affembled in a place fcarce big enough to hold
them all.
To Crowd, in the fea-language, is to carry an extra¬
ordinary force of fail upon a (hip, in order to accelerate
her courfe on fome important cccafion ; as in purfuit of,
or flight from an enemy ; to efcape any immediate dan¬
ger, &c.
CR.OWLAND, a town in Lincolndfire, feated in
the fens, in a dirty foil, and had formerly an abbey of
very great note. There is no coming at it but by nar¬
row caufeways, which will not admit a cart. It has
three dreets, feparated from each other by water coutfes,
whole banks are fupported by piles, and fet with wil¬
low trees. Their chief trade is in fifli and fowl, which
are in great plenty in the adjacent pools and marlhes.
W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 52. 40.
CROWN, an ornament worn on the head by kings,
fovereign princes, and noblemen, as a mark of their
dignity.
In fcripture there is frequent mention of crowns,
and the ufe of them fecms to have been very common
among the Hebrews. The high pried wore a crown,
which was a fillet of gold placed upon the forehead,
and tied with a ribbon of hyacinth colour, or azure
blue. It feems alfo as if private prieds, and even
common Ifraelites, wrore alfo a fort of crown, fince
God commands Ezekiel not to take off his crown, nor
affume the marks of one in mourning. This crown
was no more than a ribbon or fillet, with which the
Jews and feveral people in the ead girt their heads.
And indeed the fird crowns were no more than a ban¬
delet drawn round the head, and tied behind, as we
dill fee it reprefented on medals round the heads of
Jupiter, the Ptolemies, and kings of Syria. After¬
wards they confided of two bandelets; by degrees
they took branches of trees of divers kinds 5 at length
they added flowers, infonmeh that Claudius Saturninus
fays, there was not any plant whereof crowns had not
been made. The woods and groves were fearched to
find different crowns for the feveral deities ; and they
w’ere ufed not only on the datues and images of the
gods, by the prieds in facrifibing, and by kings and
emperors, but alfo on altars, temples, doors of houfes,
facred vi&ims, (hips, Sac.
The Roman emperors had four kinds of crowns, dill
feen on medals, viz. a crown of laurels, a radial or ra¬
diating crown, a crown adorned with pearls and preci¬
ous
Crow-net
WArchibald frulp'
✓
*
Crown.
C R 0 [
a kind of bonnet or cap,
ous ftones, and the fourth
' fomething like the mortier.
The Romans had alfo various kinds of crowns,
which they diftributed as rewards of military atchieve-
ments j as, l.The oval crowm, made of myrtle, and
bellowed upon generals who were entitled to the ho¬
nours of the leffer triumph, called ovation. 2. The
naval or roftral crown, compofed of a circle of gold,
with ornaments reprefenting beaks of (hips, and given
to the captain who firft grappled, or the foldier who
firft boarded an enemy’s (hip. 3. The crown called
in Latin vallaris, or cqjlrenjis, a circle of gold railed
with jewels,,or palifades; the reward of him who firft
forced the enemy’s entrenchments. 4. The mural
crowm, a circle of gold indented and embattled j given
to him who firft mounted the wall of a befieged place,
and there lodged a ftandard. 5. The civic crown,
made of the branch of a green oak, and given him
who had faved the life of a citizen. 6. The trium¬
phal crown, confiding at firft of wreaths of laurel,
but afterwards made of gold ; proper to fuch generals
as had the honour of a triumph. '7. The crowm call¬
ed obfidionalis, or gratnitiea, made of grafs growing on
the place j the reward of a general who had delivered
a Roman army from a fiege. 8. The radial crown,
given to princes at their tranflatiott among the gods.
We meet alfo with the corona aurea, often bellowed
on foldiers wdthout any other additional term j ath¬
letic crowns, and crowns ol laurel, deftined to crown
victors at the public games, poets, orators, &c. All
thefe crowns were marks of nobility to the wrearers j
and upon competitions with rivals for rank and digni¬
ties, often determined the preference in their favour.
See Plate CLX1V. For an account of modern crowns
-fee Heraldry.
Crown is alfo ufed to fignify the poffefiions and
dignity of a king. The crown of England, according
to Sir William Blackftone, is by common law' and con-
ftitutional cuftom, hereditary $ and this in a manner pe¬
culiar to itfelf j but the right of inheritance may frotn
time to time be changed or limited by aft of parliament,
binder which limitations the crown ftill continues here¬
ditary. See Succession.
Pleas of the Crottn. See Pleas.
Crown, in Commerce, is a general name for coins,
both foreign and domeftic, of or near the value of five
{hillings fterling. In its limited fenfe, crown is only
applicable to that popular Englilh coin which bears the
name, and which is equivalent to fixty Engliflr pence or
five (hillings, or to fix livres French money. But, in
its extenfive fenfe, it takes in feveral Others 5 as the
French ecu, which w’e call the French crown, ftruck
in 1641 for fixty fols, or three livres; alfo the peta-
gon, dollar, ducatoon, rixdollar, and piaftre or piece
of eight.
CROWN, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, is ufed for the
clerical tonfure ; which is the mark or charafter of the
Ilomilh ecclefiaftics, This is a little circle of hair
ftiaved off from the crown of the head ; more or lefs
broad, according to the quality of the orders received .
That of a mere clerk is the fmalleft ; that of priefts
and monks the largeft. The clerical crowm was an¬
ciently a round lift of hair, fhaved off around the head,
reprefenting a real crown: this is eafily obfervable in
Vol. VI. Part II.
777 ] C R 0
feveral ancient ftatues, &c. The religious of St Do¬
minic and St Francis ftill retain it. ^
Crown, among jewellers, the upper work of the
rofe diamond, w’hich all centres in the point at the top,
and is bounded by the horizontal ribs.
CROWN-Office, an office belonging to the king’s
bench court, of which the king’s coroner or attorney
is commonly mailer. In this office, the attorney ge¬
neral and clerk of the crown feverally exhibit infor¬
mations for crimes and mifdemeanours at common
law, as in the cafe of batteries, confpiracies, libelling,
&c. on which the oftender is liable to pay a fine to the
king.
Crown Glafs, denotes the fineft fort of window-glafs.
See Glass.
Crown Scabs. See Farriery Index.
Crown Wheel of a Watch, the upper wheel next the
balance, which by its motion drives the balance, and in
royal pendulums is called the fwitig wheel.
Crown-Imperial. See Fritillaria, BotaNy Index.
CRowN-Work, in Fortification, is an out-work running
into the field ; defigned to keep off the enemy, gain
fome hill or advantageous poll, and cover the other
works of the place. The crown-wmrk confifts of twro
demi-baftions at the extremes, and an entire baftion in
the middle, with curtains.
Crown, in AJlronomy, a name givfert to two con-
llellations, the fouthern and the northern.
Crown, in Geometry, a plane ring included between
two parallel or concentric peripheries of unequal
circles.
Crown-PoJI, is a poll in fome building Handing up¬
right in the middle between two principal rafters; and
from w’hich proceed Units or braces to the middle of
each rafter. It is otherwife called a king pofi, or king’s
piece, or joggle-piece. # _
CROWNE, John, a celebrated dramatic writer,
born in Nova Scotia, where his father waB a miriiller.
Being impatient of the gloomy reftraint of that coun¬
try, he came to England, where he was reduced to
enter into the fervice of an old lady ; of which he
Was foon as w’eary as he had been of America. He
then had recourfe to his pen, which quickly procured
him favour at court: but this kind of fubfillente pro-
Crovro,
Crowne.
ving precarious, he ventured to folicit Charles II. for
fome eftabliffiment. Charles promifed to provide fob
him, but infilled firft on having another comedy ; and
fuggefted to him the plan of a Spanilh play, from
which Crowne produced the comedy of Sir Courtly
Nice .* but the fudden death of the king on the laft
day of the rehearfal, plunged him at once from his
pleafing expeftations into difappointniient and diftrefs,
and left him no refource but his wits. He died fome
time about the year 1703 ; and left behind him 17 tra¬
gedies and comedies, fome of which are afted with
great fuccefs. His chief excellence lay in comedy j
yet his tragedies are far from being contemptible.
His plots are for the mod part his owm invention ; his
charafters are in general ftrongly coloured and highly
finilhed ; and his dialogue lively and fpirited^ atten¬
tively diverfified, and well adapted to the feveral
fpeakers. So that on the whole he may affuredly be
allowed to Hand at leaft in the third rank of our drama¬
tic writers.
4 F CROWNING,
OKU [ 778 ] C R U
Crowning CROWNING, in Architeclnre, is underflood, in
^ the general, of any thing that terminates or finilhes
, a member or decoration. Thus, a corniche, a pedi¬
ment, &c. are called crownings. Thus alfo the abacus
is faid to crown the capital j and thus any member or
moulding is faid to be crowned when it has a fillet over
it j and a niche is crowned when it is covered with
a capital.
Crowning, in fea-language, denotes the finifhing
part of a knot made at the end of a rope. It is per¬
formed by interweaving the ends of the different
ffrands artfully among!t each other, fo as that they
may not become loofened or untwilled. They are uie-
ful in all kinds of ftoppers.
GROWTH, or Cruth. See Cruth.
CROXAL, Samuel, an ingenious Englifh divine,
who in his youth wrote the celebrated poem entitled
The Fair Circajjian. He had the livings of Hampton
in Middlefex, and the united parilhes of St Mary So-
merlet, and St Mary Mounthaw, in London; both
which he held till his death in 1791. He publilhed
many other poems and tranflations, with an entire
Englifh edition of Ad fop’s Fables. In confequence of
his attachment to Whig principles, he enjoyed fome
other preferments, and wTas chaplain in ordinary to
George II.
CROYDON, a town of Surry in England. Its
fituation is low, near the fpring-head of the river
Wandel, and it is in a manner furrounded with hills.
It is pretty large, and is chiefly noted for being the
feat of the archbilhop of Canterbury. It has a large
handfome church, an hofpital, and a free fchool. W.
Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 51. 22.
CRUCIAL incision, in Surgery, an inciflon made
in the form of a crofs.
CRUCIANELLA, Petty Madder ; a genus of
plants, belonging to the tetrandria clafs, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 47th order, Stellatce.
See Botany Index.
CRUCIBLE, a chemical vefiel made of earth, and
fo tempered-and baked as to endure the greateft heat.
It is ufed to melt metals, and to flux minerals, ores,
&c.
CRUCIFIX, a crofs upon which the body of Chrift
is faffened in effigy, ufed by the Roman Catholics to
excite in their minds a ftrong idea of our Saviour’s
paffion.
They efteem it an effential circumftance of their reli¬
gious worffiip performed at the altar; and on Good
Friday they perform the ceremony of adoring it, which
is done in thefe words, 0 crux ave,fpes unica ; “ Hail,
thou crofs, our only hope.” The officiating prieft
uncovers the crucifix, elevates it with both his hands,
and fays, Ecce lignum crucis; “ Behold the wood of
the crofs.” The people anfwer, in quo falus mundi
pependit; “ on which the Saviour of the world fuffered
death.” Then the whole congregation bow with great
reverence, and devoutly kifs the holy wood.
CRUCIFIXION, a capital puniffiment by nailing
the criminal to a crofs. See Cross.
CRUCIFORM, in general, fomething difpofed
crofs-wrays j but more efpecially ufed by botanifts, for
flowers confiding of four petals difpofed in the form
of a crofs.
CRUCITAj in Botany, a genus of the digynia or-
6
der, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants j and
in the natural method ranking with thole the order
of which is doubtful. The interior calyx is tetra-
phyllous, the exterior calyx triphyllousj there is no
corolla, and only one feed.
CRUDE, an epithet given to fomething that has not
palled the fire or had a proper degree of coblion.
CRUDITY, among phyficians, is applied to undi-
gefied fubftances in the fiomach ^ to humours in the
body which are unconcocted, and not prepared for ex-
pulfion ; and to the excrements.
CRUISE, from the German kruifs, “ acrofs,” figni-
fies to crofs to and fro, to fail up and down within 3
certain fpace of the lea, called the cruifmg latitude, in
quell: of veflels or fleets of an enemy, &c.
CRUISERS, in the navy, are fmall men of war
made ufe of to and fro in the Channel, and elfewhere,
to fecure our merchant (hips and veflels from the
enemy’s fmall frigates and privateers. They are
generally fuch as laii well, and are commonly well
manned : and indeed the fafety of the trade in the
Channel, and up and down the foundings, and other
places, abfolutely requires the confiant keeping out fuch
Ihips at fea.
CRUMENTAFA, among zoologifts, animals fur-
niffied with a pouch or bag, wherein to receive their
young in time of danger j as the oppoflum. See Dl-
DELPHUS.
CRUOR, fometimes fignifies the blood in general ^
fometimes only the venous blood} and fometimes extra-
vafated or coagulated blood : but is moft frequently ufed
for the red globules of the blood} in contradillimflion
to the limpid or ferous part.
CRUPPER, in the manege, the buttocks of a horfe;
the rump : alfo a thong of leather put under a horfe’s
tail, .and drawn up by thongs to the buckle behind the
laddie, fo as to keep him from cafting the faddle forwards
on his neck.
CRURASUS, Crureus, Mufculus, in Anatomy, a
fieffiy mafs, covering almofl all the forefide of the os
femoris, between the two vafti, which likewife cover the
edges of this mufcle on each fide. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
CRURAL, in Anatomy, an epithet given to the ar¬
tery which conveys the blood to the crura or legs, and
to the vein by which this blood returns towards the
heart. See Anatomy Index.
CRUS, in Anatomy, all that part of the body con¬
tained between the buttocks and the toes.
CRUSAUE. See Croisade.
CRUS ADO, in commerce, a Portuguefe coin,ffruck.
under Alphonfus V. about the year 1457, at the time
when Pope Calixtus fent thither the bull for a croifade
againft the infidels. This coin has a crofs on one fide
and the arms of Portugal on the other.
CRUSCA, an Italian term fignifying bran, is in ufe
amongft us to denote that celebrated academy called
Della Crufca, eftabliffied at Florence for purifying and
perfefting the Tufcan language. See Academy,
N° 11. The academy took its name from its office,
and the end propofed by it} which is, ta refine the
language, and as it were to feparate- the bran from
it. Accordingly, its device is a fieve } and its motto,
1/piu biel for ne coglie ; that is, “ It gathers the fineft
flour thereof.” In the hall or apartment where the
academy
C R U [ 779 ] C R U
.rk
"rufca academy meets, M. Moneonis informs us, that every
thing bears an allufion to the name and device j the
feats are in form of a baker’s bafket; their backs like
a (hovel for moving of corn ; the cufhions of gray fa-
tin, in ibrm of facks or wallets ; and the branches
where the lights are placed refembling facks. The
vocabulary Della Crufca is an excellent Italian diction¬
ary, compofed by this academy.
CRUSTA lactea, in Medicine, the fame with
Achor.
CRUSTACEOUS fish, in Natural Hiftory, are
thofe covered with (hells, confiding of feveral pieces or
fcales ; as thofe of crabs, lobders, &c.
Thefe are ufually fofter than the (hells of the teda-
ceous kind, which confid.of a fingle piece, and gene¬
rally much thicker and dronger than the former $ fuch
as thofe of the oyder, fcallop, cockle, &c.
Dr Woodward obferves, in his Natural Hidory, that
of all the (hells found in beds of all the different mat¬
ters dug out of the earth, there are fcarce any of the
crudaceous kind : the reafon he gives for it is, that
thefe being much lighter than the reft, mud have
floated on the furface at the time of the deluge, when
all the drata were formed j and there have corrupted
and peridied.
CRUTH, or Growth, a kind of mufical inftru-
ment formerly in ufe among the common people in
Wales. It is of the fidicinal kind, fomewhat refem¬
bling a violin, 12 inches in length, and an inch and a
half in thicknefs. It has fix firings fupported by a
bridge, and is played on with a bow: the bridge dif¬
fers from that of a violin, in that it is flat and not
convex on the top j a circumftance from which it is
to be inferred, that the firings are to be ftruck at the
fame time, fo as to afford a fuccedion of concords.
The bridge is not placed at right angles with the (ides
of the inftrument, but in an oblique direCtion j and,
which is farther to be remarked, one of the feet of
the bridge goes through one of the found-holes,
which are circular, and reds on the infide of the back $
the other foot, which is proportionably (horter, refting
on the belly before the other found-hole. Of the firings
the four fird are conduced from the bridge down the
finger board, as in a common violin $ but the fifth
and fixth, which are about an inch longer than the
others, leave the fmall end of the neck about an inch
to the right. The whole fix are wound up either by
wooden pegs in the form of the letter 'I', or by iron
pins, which are turned with a wred like thofe of a
harp or fpinet. Of the tuning, it is to be remarked,
that the fifth and fixth firings are the unifon and oc¬
tave of G j the fourth and fifth, the fame of C ; and
the fecond and fird, the fame of D j fo that the fecond
pair of firings are a fourth, and the third a fifth, to the
firft. See Plate CLXIV,
Concerning the antiquity of this inftrument, there
is but little written evidence to carry it further back
than the time of Leland j neverthelefs the opinion of
i ts high antiquity Is fo drong among the inhabitants of
the country where it was ufed, as to afford a probable
ground of conje6ture, that the cruth nrght be the pro¬
totype of the whole fidicinal fpecies of mufical inftru-
ments. Another evidence of its antiquity, but which
tends alfo to prove that it was not peculiar to Wales,
arifes from a difcorery lately made and communica¬
ted to the fociety of antiquarians, refpe&ing the abbey-
church of Melrofe in Scotland, fuppofed to have been
built about the time of Edward II/ It feems that a-v
mong the outfide ornaments of that church there is the
reprelentation of a cruth, very little different from the
defcription above given. The inftrument is now dif-
ufed, infomuch that Sir John Hawkins, from whom
we extra£f, tells us, that there is but one perfon in
the whole principality of North Wales that can play
upon it; and as he was at that time near 60 years of
age, the fucceflion of performers is probably near an end.
CRUX, or St Croix, one of the Caribbee iflands,
fituated about 60 miles fouth-eaft of Porto Rico, and
fubjeft to Denmark. From being a perfeft’ defert, it
has begun to flourifti exceedingly, being made a free
port, and receiving great encouragement from govern¬
ment. W. Long. 64. o. N. Lat. 17. 30.
La CRUZ, an excellent harbour on the north-weft
coaft of America, which was difcovered by the Spa¬
niards in 1779. They were introduced into it by a
paffage which they called Bucarelli'>s entrance, and
which they placed in 55. 18. N. Lat. and 139. 15.
W. Long, from the meridian of Paris. The latitude
of this paffage as laid down by the Spaniards feems to
be correct; but the editor of Peroufe’s voyage con¬
cludes, from the furvey made by Captain Cook on the
coads adjacent to the entrance of Bucarelli, that this
entrance is about 1350 20' to the weft of Paris, or near
1330 weft of Greenwich.
The Spaniards were not long in the harbour of La
Cruz before they received a vilit from the inhabitants
in its neighbourhood. Bartering took place. The In¬
dians gave their peltry, and various trifles, for glafs
beads, bits of old iron, &c. By this traffic the Spa¬
niards were enabled to gain a fufficiently exaft know'-
ledge of their genius, of thfeir offenffve and defenfive
arms, of their manufaftures, &c. Their colour is a
clear olive 5 many among them have, however, a per¬
fectly white (kin : their countenance is well propor¬
tioned in all its parts. They are robuft, courageous,
arrogant, and warlike. They clothe themfelves in one
or two undreffed (kins (with the fur apparently) ; thefe
are the (kins of otters, of fea-wolves, of benades (a
fpecies of deer), of bears, or other animals. Thefe
dreffes cover them from the neck to the middle of the
leg j fome, however, among them wear boots of fmooth
(kin, refembling Engiifti boots, only that thofe of the
Indians open before, and are laced tight with a firing.
They wear hats woven from the fine bark of trees,
which is formed into the (hape of a funnel or a cone.
At the wrifts they have bracelets of copper or iron,
or for want of thefe metals the fins of whales 5 and
round the neck, necklaces of fmall fragments of bones
of fifties and other animals, and even copper collars
of the bignefs of two fingers. They wear in their
ears pendants of mother-of-pearl, or flat pieces of
copper, on which is emboffed a refin of a topaz co.
lour, and which are accompanied with jet beads.
Their hair is long and thick, and they make ufe of a
Comb to hold it together in a fmall queue' from the
middle to the extremity 5 a narrow ribbon of coarfe
linen, woven for this purpofe, ferves as a ligament.
They wear alfo as a covering a kind of fcarf, woven
in a particular manner, fomething more than a yard
and a half long, and about half a yar4 broad, round
5 E 2 which
ft-utk
II
La Cruz
C H U [ 780 ] C R U
La Cmz. which- hangs a fringe fomething more than half a
quarter of a yard deep, of which the thread is regu¬
larly twifted.
The women give proofs of their modefty and decen¬
cy by their dref«. Their phyfiognomy is agreeable,
their colour frefli, their cheeks vermilioned, and their
hair long : they plait it together in one long trefs.
They wear a long robe of a fmooth fkin tied round the
loins, like that of a nun ; it covers them from the neck
as low as the feet j the fleeves reach down to the wrilts.
Upon this robe they put divers fkins of otters or other
animals to defend themfelves from the inclemency of
the weather. All the married women have a large
opening in the under lip, and this opening or orifice is
filled up by a piece of wood cut in an oval fhape, of
which the fmalleft diameter is almoft an inch ; the
more a woman is advanced in years the more this cu¬
rious ornament is extended ; it renders them frightful,
the old women efpecially, whofe lip, deprived of its
wonted fpring, and dragged by the wight of this
extraordinary jewel, neceffarily hangs in a very difa-
grceable manner. The girls wear only a copper needle,
which croffes the lip in the place where the ornament
is intended hereafter to be placed.
Thefe Indians in war make ufe of cuirafles and
{boulder pieces of a manufa&ure like that of the whale¬
bone flays among the Europeans. Narrow boards or
{bantlings form, in fome fort, the woof of the texture,
and threads are the warp : in this manner the whole is
very flexible, and leaves a free ufe to the arms for the
handling of weapons.. They wear round the neck a
coarfe and large gorget which covers them as high as
below the eyes, and their head is defended by a morion,
or fkull-piece, ufually made of the head of fome feroci¬
ous animal. From the waifl downwards, they wear a
kind of apron, of the fame contexture as their cuirafs.
Laflly, a fine {kin hangs from their {boulders down to
the knee. With this armour, they are invulnerable to
the arrows of their enemies •, but thus armed, they can¬
not change pofition with fo much agility as if they were
lefs burdened.
Their offenfive arms are arrows j bows, of which the
firings are woven like the large cords of our beft mufi-
cal inftruments j lances, four yards in length, tongued
with iron 5 knives, of the fame metal, longer than Eu¬
ropean bayonets, a weapon however not very common
among them ; little axes of flint, or of a green ftone, fo
hard that they cleave the molt compabl wood without
injury to their edge.
The pronunciation of their language is extremely
difficult ; they fpeak from the throat, with a move¬
ment of the tongue againft the palate. The little ufe
the women make of their inferior lip greatly injures
the diftin&ivenefs of their language. The Spaniards
could neither pronounce nor write the words which
they heard.
From the vivacity of fpirit in thefe Indians, and from
their attention amply to furnifli the market eftabliffied
in the harbour, it may be concluded that they are pret¬
ty laborious. They continually brought fluffs well
woven and {haded with various colours, the {kins of land
and fea wolves, of otters, bears, and other fmaller ani¬
mals y of thefe fome were raw, and others dreffed.
There were to be found at this market alfo coverlets of
coarfe cloth, {haded with white and brown colours, very
5
well woven, but in fmall quantities : large ribbon's of La Cm?,
the fame linen which might match with that of the't—
Spaniflr officers mattreffes; Ikeins of thread fuch as this
cloth was made of j wooden plates or bowels neatly
worked fmall boats, or canoes, painted in various co¬
lours, the figures of which reprefented heads with all
their parts; frogs in wood, nicely imitated, which open¬
ed like tobacco boxes, and which they employed to
keep their trinkets in j boxes made of fmall planks, of
a cubical form, being three quarters of a yard on each
fide, with figures well drawn or carved on the Outfide,
reprefenting various animals j the covers fabricated like
Flanders etwees, with rabbeted edges, formed fo as to
Ihut.into the body of the box*, animals in wood, as
well thofe.of the earth as of the air; figures of men of
the fame material, wdth Ikull-caps reprefenting the heads
of various fierce animals ; fnares and nets for fiflitng j
copper collars for the neck, and bracelets of iron for
the wrift, but wdiich they would not part with except
at a very high price*, beak-like inftruments, from which
they drew founds as from a German flute. The prin¬
cipal officers took fuch of thefe merchandifes as were
moft agreeable to them, and left the remainder to the
{hips crews.
As the Indians difcovered that the Spaniards were
very dainty in their fi{h, they did not let them want for
choice : the greateft abundance was in falmon, and a
fpecies of foie or turbot three yards and a quarter long,
broad and thick in proportion ; cod and pilchards were
alfo brought to market, and fifties refembling trout.
From all this it may be inferred, that this gulf is full of
fifti; the banks too are covered with {hells.
The quantity of mother-of-pearl that thefe Indians
cut to pieces for making ear-rings awakened the curio-
fity of the Spaniards : they tried to difcover whether
thefe people had not in their poffeffion, or whether.their
country did not produce pearls, or fome precious {tones :
their refearches were fruitlefs, they only found fome
{tones which they judged to be metallic, and which they
carried on board, not having the neceffary means for ex-
trafling the metal they might contain.
The inhabitants of La Cruz feed upon fifli, frefti or
dry, boiled or roafted j herbs and roots which their
mountains yield them, and particularly that which in
Spain is called fea parfley; and, laftly, upon the flefli
of animals which they take in hunting : the produc¬
tions of the chafe are undoubtedly abundant, feeing
the number of dogs they keep for this purpofe.
They appeared to the Spaniards to worftiip the fun,
the earlieft and moft natural of all idolatrous worftiip
and they paid a decent refpefl to the remains of their
dead. Don Maurelle, one of the Spaniflr officers, in
an expedition round the gulf, found in two iflands
three dead bodies laid in boxes of a fimilar form ta
thofe which have been defcribed above, though confider-
ably larger, and decked in their furs. Thefe biers were
placed in a little hut upon a platform, or raifed floor,
made of the branches of trees.
The country is very hilly j the mountains are lofty,
and their flope extends aknoft everywhere to the fea.
The foil is lime-ftone *, it is neverthelefs covered with an
impenetrable foreft of tall fir trees, very large and very
ftraight. As thefe trees cannot ftrike very deep into the
earth, the violence of the wind often tears them up by
the roots: they rot and become a light mould, upont
which
CRY [7
,a Cruz' which grows a buihy thicket : and in this are found
nettles, chamomile, wild celery, anife, a fpecies of cab-
^bh°^ra" baSe» celandine, elder, wormwood, forrel j and without
_ ^ ‘ 1 doubt there are other plants along the rivers.
The Spaniards faw ducks, gulls, divers, kites, ravens,
geefe, ftorks, gold-finches, and other little birds un¬
known to them.
The commerce between the Spaniards and the In¬
dians was quite undifturbed j and lb defirous were the
latter to obtain iron, cloths, and other Huffs, that they
fold their children for broken iron hoops and other
wares. The Spaniards in this manner bought three
young lads, one from five to fix years old, another of
four, and the third from nine to ten, not to make
Haves, but Chriftians of them} they hoped befides to
derive ufeful information from them as to the nature of
the country and its inhabitants. Thefe youths were
fo contented in being with the Spaniards, that they hid
themfelves when their parents came on board, from the
apprehenfion of being again reitored to them. Two
young girls were alfo purchafed with the fame view;
one very ugly, feven years of age j the other younger,
better made, but fickly, and almoft at the gates of death.
At the full and change of the moon, the fea rifes in
the harbour of La Cruz feventeen feet three inches
Englilh j it is then high water at a quarter after 12 at
noon j the loweft tides are fourteen feet three inches ; the
night tides exceed by one foot nine inches thofe of the day.
CRYMODES, among phyficians, a kind of fever at¬
tended with a (hivering cold.
CRYOLITE, a mineral fubftance. See Minera¬
logy Index..
CRYPTA, a fubterraneous cell or vault, efpecially
under a church, for the interment of particular families
or perfons. S. Ciampini, defcribing the outfide of the
Vatican, fpeaks of the cryptee of St Andrew, St Paul,
&c. The word is formed of xgvTrra/, abfcondo, “ I hide
whence *gv5rr«, crypta.
Vitruvius ufes the word crypta for a part of a build¬
ing, anfwering nearly to our cellar j Juvenal for a cloaca.
Hence crypto-porticus, a fubterraneous place arched or
vaulted, ufed as an under-work or paffage in old walls.
The fame is alfo ufed for the decoration at the e“ntry of
a grotto.
Crypta is alfo ufed by fome of our ancient writers
for a chapel or oratory under ground.
Crypt^e, in Anatomy, a name given by Ruyfch to
glands fituated on the back of the tongue, and to glands
of the inteftines.
CRYPTOGAMIA, (from Xgturre?, occultus, “ con¬
cealed,” and yctpcg, nuptia, “ nuptials”), the 24th
clafs in the Linnsean fyftem, comprehending thofe plants
whole fruflification is concealed, either through minute-
nefs, or within the fruit. See Botany Index.
CRYPTOGRAPHY, the art of writing in cipher,
or with fympathetic ink. Among the methods which
Ovid teaches young women to deceive their guardians,
when they write to their lovers, he mentions that of
writing with new milk, and of making the writing
legible by means of coal dud or foot; from which it
appears, that the-ufe of fympathetic ink was known to
the ancients.
Tula quoque ejl, fallitque oculos, la&e recenti
Litera ; carbonis puhere tange ; leges.
De Arte Amandi, lib. iii.
81 ] C R Y
Aufonius propofes the fame means to Paulinus in the Cryptogra-
two following verfes :
LaBe incide not as; arefcens charta tenebit , 1 a ‘
Semper inafpkuas ; prodentur fcripta favillis.
Epift. xxiii.
But it would appear, that the commentators on this
poet have miftaken the meaning of the word favilla,
which is ufed here to hgniiy fuligo, or foot j and in
the fame fenfe it is often employed by other poets.
Columella, fpeaking of the method of preferving plants
from infebts with foot, calls it nigra favilla. In ano¬
ther place he mentions the fame prablice, and fays
fuliginem qua fupra focos teBis inharet. Other glu¬
tinous juices befides milk may be employed for the
fame purpofe, as they will equally hold fad the black
powder drewed over them. Pliny, therefore, recom¬
mends the milky juice of certain plants, and particu¬
larly mentions that of lettuce, to produce this effebf.
It is now well known that feveral metallic folutions
may be employed for a fimilar purpofe, and being ex-
pofed to the abtion of certain vapours, the charatters
which are written with them become vifible. This
effebf was perhaps accidentally difcovered $ but it does
not appear to be of great antiquity. In a book De
fecretis, compiled by VVecker from Porta, Cardan,
and fome other old writers, and printed in 1592, there
is no mention of it; nor even is it. noticed by Cane-
parius in his book de Atramentis, printed in 1619. The
fird. receipt'given for the preparation of a fympalhetic
ink is in a book by Peter Bor el printed at Paris in
1653, where it is called magnetic water which aBs at
a dijlance. Beckmann. Hijl. of Invent. See Chemis¬
try Index, Cipher, and Ink.
CRYSTAL, in its original meaning, fignificd ice.
It was afterwards applied to rock crydal, or crydallized
filiceous earth ; for the ancients, according to Pliny, re¬
garded that body, as water which was congealed by
the ablion of cold.
Crystal, a fpecies of (lone belonging to the quartz
or filiceous genus. It always appears, where there
has been no interruption to its cryftallization, in
hexagonal prifms pointed at both ends. It is found
of different kinds and colours. 1. Opaque or femi-
tranfparent, and white or of a milk colour. 2. O-
paque and red, or of a carnelian colour, from Oran
in Barbary. 3. Opaque and black, from the fame
place. 4. Clear. The fpecific gravity of thefe kinds
of cryftals is from 2650 to 2700. Profeffor Bergman
extrabled from them about fix parts of argilla and one
of calcareous earth per hundred weight j but Mr Ger¬
hard found fome fo pure as to contain neither..
5. Clear and blackifh brown j the fmoky topaz, or rauch
topa% of the Germans. It is found at Egan in Nor¬
way, and at Lovifa in Finland. Thefe cryftals are
faid to become clear by boiling them in tallow. 6. Clear
and yellow found in Bohemia, and fold inftead of
topazes. 7. Clear and violet-coloured; the amethyll
from Saxony, Bohemia, and Darmemore in Upland.
The moft tranfparent of thefe are called falfe diamonds^.
Briftol, Kerry ftones, Alen^on diamonds, &c. 8. Co-
lourlefs rock cryftal, properly fo called, found in Bo¬
hemia, the province, of Jemtland, and many other-
places. 9. Pyramidal cryftal with one or two points.
Thefe have no prifmatic (hape, but either ftand uporr
a bafe in cavities of quartz venjs, have only a (ingle-
pyramid.
C R Y [ 78
Cryftal. pyramid, and are of various colours or they lie in
“‘-"'V clayey earths, and have both pyramids, but no prifm.
They are found at Blackenburg upon the Hartz, and
at Morferofh in the Silverland in Tranfylvania.
The coloured tranfparent cryftals derive their tinge
from an exceedingly fmall portion of metallic oxide, but
lofe them entirely when ftrongly heated. They are
called falfe gems ; viz. the red from Oran in Barbary,
falfe rubies j the yellow from Saxony, falf& topazes;
the green from Dauphiny, very rare, falfe emeralds or
prafes ; the violet irom Vil in Catalonia, falfe amethyfts;
the blue from Puy in Valais in France, falfe. fapphires.
There are likewife opal or rainbow cryftals, the various
colours of which are thrown out in zones acrofs the fur-
face. They make a very fine appearance, though they
never Ihine like the oriental opal.
M. Fourcroy makes a remarkable difference between
the cryftals and quartz, by affirming that the former
are unalterable in the fire, in which they neither lofe
their hardnefs, tranfparency nor colour j while the
quartz lofes the fame qualities, and is reduced by it to
a white and opaque earth. He claffes the rock cryftals,
I. According to their form, viz. 1. Infulated hexa¬
gonal cryftals ending in pyramids of fix faces, which
have a double refraftion, or ftiow two images of the
fame obje6t when looked through. 2. Hexagonal
cryftals united, having one or two points. 3. Te-
traedral, dodecaedral, flatted cryftals 5 and which,
though hexagonal, have neverthelefs their planes irre¬
gular. 4. Cryftals in large maffes, from the iftand of
Madagafcar, which have a fimple refradlion.
II. With regard to their colour, as being either
diaphanous, reddilh, fmoky, or blackiffi.
III. With regard to accidental changes, fome are
hollow j fome contain water within one or more cavi¬
ties : fome are cafed one within the other 5 fome are
of a round form, as the pebbles of the Rhine ; fome
have a cruft of metallic calces or of a pyrites 5 fome
are found cryftallized in the infide of a cavity j while
fome feem to contain amianthus or albcftus j and others
contain ftiirls. The fame author reckons among cryf¬
tals the oriental topaz, the hyacinth, the oriental fap-
phire, and the amethyft. M. Daubenton has always
looked upon this laft as a quartz of a cryftal.
When the rock cryftais are femitranfparent or inter¬
mixed with opaque veins, they are called by the Swe-
difh lapidaries milk-cnjjia/s. When they are found in
the form of round pebbles, which is occafioned by their
being toffed about and rubbed againft one another by
floods or by the fea, they are called by the Englifh
lapidaries pebbie-cn/JIals. They come from the Indies,
Siberia, and other places.
According to Bomare, the rock-cryftals are general¬
ly formed upon or among quartz, which ffiows their
great affinity, and are to be found in all parts of the
world. The greateft quantity of them is brought from
Blount Saint Gothard in Switzerland. Large pieces of
thefe, weighing from 5 to 800 pounds, were found
there at Grimfelberg ; another of about 1200 pounds
weight was found fome years ago at F;ft>ach in the Va¬
lais : and a piece fix feet long, four wide, and equally
thick, was foupd in the ifland of Bladagafcar, where
thefe natural productions are of the molt extraordinary
flze and perfection.
In the imperial collection at Vienna, there is a pyra-
2 ] CRY
midal cryftal vafe two ells in height, cut wholly out of
one piece. It is ufual with the "'largeft cryftals of the '
German mountains to be full of cracks and flaws, and
to be fo conftruCted internally as to ftiow all the prifma-
tic colours j but the above-mentioned ones were quite
free from thefe blemifhes, and refembled columns of the
pureft glafs, only much clearer than any glafs can
be made. Cryftal is alfo found in many parts of Bri¬
tain and Ireland. About Briftol it is found of an ame-
thyftine tinge. In Silefia and Bohemia in Germany it
is found ftained with the colours of the ruby, fapphire,
emerald, and topaz $ in which cafe jewellers take great
advantage of it, felling it under the name of occidental
fapphire.
The orders of pure cryftal are three : the firft is
perfeCf columnar cryftals, with double pyramids, com-
pofed of 18 planes, in an hexangular column, termi¬
nated by an hexangular pyramid at each end : the fe-
cond order is that of perfeCt cryftals, with double pyra¬
mids, without a column, compoied either of 12 or of
16 planes, in two hexangular pyramids, joined clofely
bafe to bafe, without the intervention of any column j
the third order is that of imperfeCt cryftals, with Angle
pyramids, compofed either of 12 or 10 planes, in
an hexangular or pentangular column, affixed irregu¬
larly at one end to fome folid body, and terminated
at the other by an hexangular or pentangular py¬
ramid.
Thefe are all the general forms into which cryftal,
when pure, is found concreted j but under thefe there
are almoft infinite varieties in the number of angles, and
the length, thicknefs, and other accidents of the co¬
lumns and pyramids.
When cryftal is blended with metalline particles at
the time of its formation, it affumes a variety of fi¬
gures wholly different from thefe, conftiluting a fourth
order, under the name of metalline cnjfals: when that
metal is lead, the cryftal affumes the form of a cube;
when it is tin, of a quadrilateral pyramid, with a broad
bafe ; when iron, the cryftal is found concreted in rhom-
boidal figures : thefe cryftals are very common about
mines •, but the common fpars, which are liable to be
influenced in the fame manner by the metals, and to
appear in the very fame form, are to be carefully dif-
tinguiffied from them. There is one very eafy teft for
this purpofe, which is, that all fpars are fubjedt to be
diffolvtd by aquafortis, and effervefee .violently only-
on its touching them : but it has no fuch effedts on cry¬
ftal.
The pebble-cryftal is common enough in all parts of
the w'orld ; but that which is formed of hexangular co¬
lumns, affixed to a folid bafe at one end, and termina¬
ted by a hexangular column at the other, .is infinitely
more fo: this is what we call /prig or rock cnjfal,
and is the fpecies defcflbed by moft authors under the
name of cryftal of the fhops, or that kept for medicinal
ufes.
With regard to the formation of ciyftals, it is cer¬
tain that they muft have been once in a foft ftate,
fince fome are found to have water in their cavities.
Profeffor Bergman obtained 13 regular formed cry¬
ftals, by fuffering the powder of quartz to remain in a
veffel with fluor acid for two years. Thefe were about
the fize of fmall peas, and were lefs hard than quartz.
Mr Magellan informs us, that he received from Mr
Achard
Cry flat
C R Y [ 783 ] CRY
Achard two cryftals, one of the fparry kind, and the
other as hard and tranfparent as rock cryftal. The
hrft he procured by means of calcareous earth, and the
latter from the earth of alum, both diiTolved in water
impregnated with fixed air, the water filtrating very
llowly through a porous bottom of baked clay. The
apparatus is defcribed by the author in the "journal de
Physique for January 1778: but though the procefs
was attempted by Mr Magellan, and afterwards a fe-
cond time by Mr Achard himfelf, neither of them were
able to fucceed. Mr Morveau, however, in the firft vo¬
lume of the Dijon Memoirs for 1785, afferts that he has
produced a very fmall artificial cryitalj and gives the
proper method for fucceeding in the procefs.
Cryftal is frequently cut ; and lutlres, vafes, and
toys, are made of it as of other beautiful hones. For
this purpofe it is to be chofen perfectly clear and tranf¬
parent. It is to be tried by aquafortis, or by drawing
it along a pane of glafs. The genuine cryltal will not
be affedted by the acid, and will cut glafs almolf like
a diamond. Wnen any piece ot workmanlhip of natu¬
ral cryftal is become foul and dark, the following me¬
thod is to be ufed for recovering its brightnefs without
hurting the poliflr. Mix together fix parts of common
water and one part of brandy ; boil thefe over a brilk
fire, and let the cryftal be kept in it, in a boiling ftate,
a quarter of an hour j then take it out and rub it
carefully over with a brufti dipped in the fame liquor ;
after this it is to be wiped with a napkin, and by
that means its furface will be perfettly cleaned, and
rendered as bright as at firft, without any injury to
the points of the cutting or the polifti of the planes or
faces, which would probably have happened had the
cleaning been attempted by mere rubbing with a
cloth.
Natural cryftal may be reduced by calcination into a
flate proper for making glafs with alkaline falls, and
thus becomes a very valuable frit. The method of do¬
ing it is as follows ; calcine natural cryftal in a cru¬
cible ; when it is red hot, throw it into cold water. Re¬
peat this eight times, covering the crucible, that no duft
or allies may get in among the cryftal. Dry this cal¬
cined mafs, and reduce it to an impalpable powder.
Colouring Crtstjl, for the imitation of gems. See
Doublet.
Crystal isalfoufedfor a fa£litiousbody, call in glafs-
houfes, called crystal-glafs, being in fadl no more than
glafs carried, in the comppfition and manufacture, to a
greater perfediion than the common-glafs.
The heft kind of glafs-cryftal is that called Venice-
crystal, made at Moran near Venice. See Glass.
' IJland or Iceland Crystal, a tranfparent fiffile ftone,
brought from Iceland, foft as talc, clear as rock cry¬
ftal, and without colour, remarkable for its unufual re¬
fractions. It is a carbonate of lime.
It is there found in great abundance all over the
country, but is particularly plentiful in a mountain,
not far from the bay of Roezfiord, where the fineit
and molt pellucid pieces are found on digging. The
mountain lies in 65 degrees latitude, and has its whole
outfide made up of it j but though this makes a very
bright and glittering appearance, it is not fo fine as
that which lies at a little depth, and is met with on
®peniog the furface. This is generally taken up out
of the earth in maflfes a foot long, and its corners very
frequently are terminated in thele large mafles by a
fort of cryftals, very different in figure and qualities
from the reft of the mafs. The ftone itielf is of a
parallelepiped figure j but thefe excrefcences are ei¬
ther fingle pyramids, affixed to columns like common
cryftal, or double pyramids with or without columns
between. The ftone itielf is foft j thefe are hard, and
cut glals: the ftone calcines to lime in the fire j thefe
run into glafs : in ftiort, the ftone itfelf is true fpar,
and thefe are true cryftal. Befide thefe, there iome-
times grorvs out of the end of the larger mafles a pure
fine afbeltos. This likewife is the cafe fometimes in
the fpar found about Bareges in France, and (hows how
nearly together the formation of bodies, wholly differ¬
ent from one another, may happen. The general fi¬
gure of the ftone is parallelepiped j or, as feme exprefs
it, rhomboid : and it retains this not only while whole,
but alfo when broken to pieces; every fragment it na¬
turally fails into, though ever fo fmall, being truly of
that lhape. But it is remarkable, that in fome places
of this mountain the fame fort of matter is found in
form of triangular pyramids, all which have the fame
property of the double refraClion with,the parallelepi¬
peds of the fame fubftance } fo that the original error of
fuppofing its qualities owing to its lhape, is refuted by
this, as well as by the trials made with other pellucid
bodies of the fame figure, which do not fhow this re-
markable property.
The Iceland cryftal is ele&rical, and when rubbed
will attraft ftraws, feathers, and other light fubftances, in
the fame manner that amber does.
The vaft maffes of white fpar which are found in the
lead mines of Derbyfliire, though they are not exter¬
nally of the parallelepiped figure of the Iceland cryftal,
nor have any thing of its brightnefs or tranfparence
in the general lump} yet when they are broken they
feparate into rhomboidal fragments, and fome of thefe
are found to be tolerably pellucid ; all thofe which are
fo have the property of the Iceland cryftal ; and being
laid upon paper where a black line is drawn, they all
fhow that line double, in the fame manner as the real
Iceland cryftal does.
Iceland cryfta\ bears a red heat without lofing its
tranfparency ; and in a very intends heat calcines with¬
out fufion : fteeped a day or two in water, it lofes its
natural polifh. It is very foft and eafily fcratched with
the point of a pin : it will not give fire on being ftruck
againft fteel j and ferments and is perfe&ly diffolved
in aquafortis. It is found in Iceland, from whence
it has its name ; and in France, Germany, and many
other places. In England fragments of other fpars
are very often miftaken for it, many of them having
in fome degree the fame property. It has none of the
diftinguilhing charafters of cryftal; and is plainly a
genus of fpars, called from their figure parallelopipedia?
which, as well as fome other bodies of a different ge¬
nus, have the fame properties. Bartholine, Huygens,
and Sir Ifaac Newton, have defcribed the body at
large, but have accounted it either a cryftal or a talc j
errors which could not have happened, had the crite-
rions of foflffts been at that time fixed ; fince Sir Ifaac
Newton has recorded its property of effervefeing with
nitric acid, which alone 'mull prove that it is neither
CRY [ 784 1 CRY
Cryila!. talc nor cryftal, both thofe bodies being wholly unaf-
felled by that menftruam. It is always found in
form of an oblique parallelepiped, with fix fides j
and is found of various fixes, from a quarter of an
inch to three inches or more in diameter. It is pel¬
lucid, and not much lefs bright than the puteft cryflal;
and its planes are all tolerably fmooth, though when
nicely viewed they are found to be waved with crook¬
ed lines made by the edges of imperfect plates. What
appears very fingular in the ftru&ure of this body is,
that all the furfaces are placed in the fame manner,
and confequently it will fplit off into thin plates, ei¬
ther horizontally or perpendicularly but this is found,
on a microfcopic examination, to be owing to the re¬
gularity of figure, fmoothnefs of furface, and nice
joining of the feveral fmall parallelepiped concretions,
of which the whole is compofed j and to the fame
caufe is probably owing its remarkable property in re¬
fraction.
The phenomena of this flone are very remarkable,
were firft fuggefted by Bartholin, and have been examined
with great accuracy by Mr Huygens and Sir Ifaac New¬
ton.
1. Whereas in other pellucid bodies there is only
one refraftion, in this there are two j fo that objects
viewed through it appear double.
2. Whereas in other tranfparent bodies, a ray falling
perpendicularly on the furface, paffes ftraight through,
without fuffering any refraftion, and an oblique ray is
always divided •, in Iceland cryftal, every ray, whether
perpendicular or oblique, becomes divided into two, by
means of the double refraction. One of thefe refrac¬
tions is, according to the ordinary rule, the fine of in¬
cidence out of air into cryftal, being to the fine of re-
fradtion as five to three ; but the other is perfectly new.
The like double refraCtion is alfo obferved in cryftal of
the rock, though much lefs fenfibly. When an incident
ray is thus divided, and each moiety arrives at the farther
furface, that refraCted in the firft furface after the ufual
manner, is refraCted entirely after the ufual manner at
the fecond j and that refraCted in the unufual man¬
ner in the firft is entirely refraCted after the like man¬
ner in the fecond $ fo that each emerges out of the
fecond furface parallel to the firft incident ray. Again,
if two pieces of this cryftal be placed over each other,
fo that the furfaces of the one be parallel to the cor-
refponding ones of the other j the rays refraCted in the
ufual manner in the firft furface of the firft, are
refraCted after the ufual manner in all the other furfaces j
and the fame uniformity appears in the rays refraCted
after the unufual manner j and this in any inclination of
the furfaces, provided their planes of perpendicular re¬
fraCtion be parallel.
From thefe phenomena Sir Ifaac Newton infers,
that there is an original difference in the rays of light j
by means wThereof fome are here conftantly refraCted
after the ufual manner; and others in the unufual
manner. Were not the difference original, and did it
arife from any new modifications impreffed on the rays
at their firft refiaCtion, it wmuld be altered by new
modifications in the three following ones; wdiereas, in
faCt, it fuffers no alteration at all. Again, he hence
takes occafion to fufpeCt, that the rays of light have
feveral fides, endued with feveral original properties:
for it appears from the circumftances, that thefe are Cryftal
not two forts of rays differing in their nature from l|
each other, one conftantly in all pofitions, refraCt-
ed in the ufual, and the other in the unufual manner $ v_
the difference in the experiment mentioned being only
in the pofition of the fides of the rays to the plane of
perpendicular refraClion. For one and the fame ray
is refra&ed fometimes after the ufual, and fometimes
after the unufual manner, according to the pofition of
its fides to the cryftal: the refra&ion being alike in
both, when the fides of the rays are pofited the fame
way to both, but different when different. Every ray
therefore may be confidered as having four fides or
quarters^ two of which, oppofite to each other, difpofe
the ray to be lefrafted after the unufual manner j and
the other two in the ufual. Thefe difpofitions, being
in the rays before their incidence on the fecond, third,
and fourth furfaces, and fuffering no alteration ; for w hat
appears in their paffage through them muft be original
and connate.
Farther Beccaria corre&s the obfervations of Huy¬
gens and Newton concerning the refraction of rock or
mountain cryftal. The double refraCtion of the latter
happens when a ray paffes through two fides that ar«
inclined to each o^hcr, and coniequently iffues colour¬
ed : whereas that of the Iceland cryftal is made by the
paffage of a ray through two parallel fides, and there¬
fore it iffues colourlefs. He fuggefts, that there may
be other fubftances in which there is a manifold re¬
fraCtion. Gravefande had a prifm of Brafil pebble,
which had a double refraCtion at each angle, but of a
different kind from one another. Mr B. Martin pre¬
pared feveral prifms of Iceland cryftal, which exhibited
not only a double but a multiple refraCtion. A fingle
prifm produced a fix-fold refraCtion ; and by combining
feveral prifms, a number of refraCtions was obtained
equal to the produCt of thofe of the fingle prifms •, i. e. a
prifm which afforded two images applied to one of fix,
produced a prifm of twelve images, &c. He farther
obferves, with refpeCt to Iceland cryftal, that though
the fides of its plane of perpendicular refraCtion be pa¬
rallel to one another, a beam of light tranfmitted through
them will not be colourlefs; in which property it differs
from all other known fubftances.
CRYSTALLINE, in general, fomething compofed
of or refembling cryftal. See Crystal.
Crystalline Heavens, in Ancient AJlronomif, two
fpheres imagined between the primum mobile and the
firmament, in the Ptolemaic lyftem, wdiich fuppofes the
heavens folid, and only fufceptible of a fingle motion.
See Astronomy.
Crystalline Humour. See Anatomy Index.
CRYSTALLINES, or Crystallines, in Medi¬
cine, are puftules filled with w7ater, and fo called on ac¬
count of their tranfparency. They are one of the worft
fymptoms attendant on a gonorrhoea. They are lodged
on the prepuce, without pain ; and though caufed by
coition, have nothing of infeCHon attending them. The
caufe is fuppofed to be a contufion of the lymphatic
veffels in the part affefted. Dr Cockburn, who hath
deferibed this cafe, recommends for the cure a mixture
of three parts of lime-water and twTo of re&ified fpirit
of wine, to be ufed warm, as a lotion three times a-
day.
CRYSTALLIZATION.
CRYSTALLIZATION.
traduc¬
tion.
x
efinition.
2
'liies
-j ich ct}'-
• Uize
lift be
ilceptible
I
i ution;
4
fulion.
;5
onjeclure
1 )out the
ufe.
CRYSTALLIZATION is the iymmettical ar¬
rangement of the particles of a body when it paffes
from the liquid to the folid form. This arrangement
is determined by the mutual adlion of the fmall folids
of which the body is compofed ; and thefe folids are fe-
parated from the liquid by their force of cohefion. Cry-
ftallization is one of the moll remarkable effects of co-
hefion. The qualities of a folid in which the force of
cohefion is more ealily overcome in one direction than
another j its biittlenefs, elafticity, and duftility, depend
on this arrangement of its particles.
Solid bodies are found either in irregular maffes, or
exhibit certain determinate forms by the prccefs of
cryftallization. Thofe fubftances which are capable of
affuming regular figures, uniformly affedf the lame
form ) fubjeft, however, to certain deviations, from the
operation of particular circumftances. Thofe bodies
only can affume the form of cryftals which are fufeepti-
ble of being reduced to the fluid ftate. This is the
ufual method of cryftallizing faline fubftances. The
fuoftance to be cryftallized is diffolved in a fufficient
quantity of water to retain it in folution. This is
llowly evaporated $ and as the bulk of the fluid is di-
minilhed, the particles are brought nearer to each other;
they combine together by the force of cohefion, and
form cryflals. Some faline bodies, which diiTolve but
in fmall proportion in cold water, are found to be very
foluble in hot water. But when this water cools, it is
no longer capable of holding them in folution. The
particles then gradually approach each other, and ar¬
range themfelves into certain determinate forms ; or
they cryftallize. Many of the faline bodies which cry-
ftallize in this manner, combine with a confiderable
portion of water. This is called the water of cryf alli¬
gation. Other faline fubftances are equally foluble in
hot and cold water. Thefe fubftances do not cryftal¬
lize by cooling the fluid ; they afiume regular forms
only by diminifliing its quantity. This is effe£ted by
means of evaporation by the application of heat. In
falls which are cryftallized in thefe circumfhnces, the
proportion of water which enters into combination is
fmall.
There are fome claffes of bodies which affume regu¬
lar forms, but are not foluble in any liquid. Such, for
inftance, are metallic fubftances, gl&fs, and fome other
bodies. Subftances of this nature are cryftallized, by
being previoufly fubjefted to iufion ; and thus having
combined with caloric, they are reduced to the liquid
ftate, and the particles being feparated from each other
are left at liberty to arrange themfelves into regular
forms, or to cryftallize, as the body cools.
5 But what is the caufe which operates in determining
the regular arrangement of the particles oi bodies in
thefe circumftances ? or what is the caufe of the fame
bodies in the fame circumftances affuming regular fi¬
gures ? The ancient philofophers fuppofed that the ele¬
ments of bodies confifted of certain regular geometri¬
cal figures ; but it does not appear that they appked
this theory to explain cryftallization. Tke fchoolmen
VOL. VI. Part IL
aferibed the regular figure of cryftals to their fubftan- Intraluc-
tial forms j and others fuppofed that it depended mere- , tlon*
ly on the aggregation of the particles, but without ex-
plaining to what this aggregation was owing, or the
reafon of the regular figures thus produced. Accord- 6
ing to Sir Ifaac Newton and the theory of Bofcovich, Newton’s,
the particles of bodies held in folution in a fluid, are
arranged at regular diftances, and in regular order;
and when the force of cohefion between the particles
and the fluid is diminiftied, it is increafed between the
particles themfelves. Thus they feparate from the fluid,
and combine together in groups which are compofed of
the particles neareft to each other. If we fuppofe that
the pat tides compofing the fame body have the fame
figure, the aggregation of any determinate number of
fuch particles will produce fimilar figures. Bergman
is of opinion that the particles of faline fubftances pof-
fefs a double tendency : by the one they arrange them¬
felves in the form of fpiculse j and by the other, thefe
fpiculaj arrange themfelves at certain angles of inclina¬
tion, and according to the difference of thefe angles,
different forms of cryftals are produced. Thefe effe&s
are aferibed by the ingenious author to the mutual at¬
traction which exifts between the particles, which, ac¬
cording to the peculiar figures of the atoms, at one
time arranges them in the form of fpiculse, and then
combines the fpiculae thus formed under different angles
of inclination. But this arrangement of the particles,
or tendency to arrangement, affigned by Bergman as a Bergman’s,
caufe, is only explaining the phenomenon by itfelf;
while the caufe of the tendency is yet unexplained.
Nor will Newton’s hypothefis be more fatisfaftory ; foil
if the particles of a body, after being equally diffufed
in a fluid, are brought together by a general attraftion,
it will follow that every faline body ftiould cryftallize in
the fame manner.
According to the ingenious theory which has been g
propofed by Hauy, the integrant particles always com- Hauy's.
bine in the fame body in the fame way; the fame faces
and the fame edges are always attraCled towards each
other. But thefe faces and edges are different in dif¬
ferent cryftals; and .hence originates that variety of
forms which different bodies affuming regular figures
by cryftallization exhibit. But why are the fame
edges and the fame faces attrafted in the fame way ;
This ftill wants explanation. If it be aferibed, as fome
have fuppofed, to a certain degree of polarity exifting
among the particles, it might enable us to account for
the regular figures of bodies produced by the procefs of
cryftallization. For by the effefts of this agent we
might fuppofe that different parts of the particles of bo¬
dies are endowed with different forces; one an attrac¬
tive, and another a repulfive force ; and by the a£tion
of thefe two forces, the fame arrangement of the par¬
ticles will uniformly take place ; for when one part of
a particle is attrafled, the other will be invariably re¬
pelled ; and thus the Fame faces and edges will always
be difpofed in the fame way. But it ought to be ob~
ferved that the exiftence of this power, however fatis-
,5 G fa&orily
r35
- C H Y S T A L 1
Plicro- faclorily It miglit account for the phenomena, has by no
mens, means been proved ; and even if its exigence were com-
pietely eftablilhed, tlie difficulty dill remains how this
polarity is to be explained.
Without entering farther into thefe fpeculations, we
pfopofe, in the two following fedlions, to prefent our
readers with a com prehen five view' of the formation
and ftrufture of cryftallized bodies. In the firft lec¬
tion we {hall treat of the phenomena of cryftallization,
the means of conducing this procefs to obtain the mold
perfedt cryfials, and the modifications of which each
of the forms is fufceptible. In the fecond wm fliall
give a fhort view of the theory of the ftru&ure of
cryfials.
SECT. I. Of the Phenomena of Cn/Jlallization, and the
modifications to which it is fubjett.
The moft complete fet of obfervations which has yet
appeared on this branch of practical chemiftry has
been made by M. Leblanc \ and to his ingenious me-
f Jour, de moir f we mufi acknowdedge ourfelves indebted for
Tkyfique, what we now lay before our readers that is new or in-
^rae ^v' 'terefting on this fubjeft. This art, he obferves, of
managing or conducling the cryftallization of falts, is
p in a great meafure new ; for it has hitherto attrafted
Conditions, little attention. To infure fuccefs in obtaining per-
fe£t cryftals, the procefs mufi; be conduced in fiat-bot¬
tomed veflels ; and vefiels of glafs or porcelain are
found preferable to thofe of any other materials for
this purpofe. The fait employed ftiould be in a ftate
of purity ; and to favour the increafe and regular form
of the cryfials, they are to be placed at a difiance from
each other in the veflels containing the folution. To
thefe neceflary precautions, it may be added, that the
veffels in which the evaporation goes on fiiould be at
.perfeff reft, and that it is requifite to obferve the denlity,
or fpecific gravity, at which the folution begins to yield
cryfials.
The particles of any faline body cannot .come into
contaft and form cryftals, as long as the force of affini¬
ty betxveen thefe particles and the fluid in which they
IO are held in folution is greater than the mutual affinity
Prcpara- cf the particles among themfelves. A fait, for in-
t'on of the fiance, which begins to cryftallize at a certain fpecific
ielution. gravity of its folution in water, wdll afford no cryftals
when that fpecific gravity is diminifhed , for then the
particles of the fait are removed to a greater diftance
from each other ; and while, by this diftance, (he force
of their mutual attraffion is diminiftied, the attra&ion
.between thefe particles and the water in which they
are diflblved is increafed by the increafe of the quan¬
tity of the folvent. But, on the other hand, if a folu¬
tion which begins to cryftallize at a certain fpecific
gravity, is more concentrated, the cryftals which
are thus obtained are greatly multiplied, but they are
heaped together in confufed maffes, exhibiting no regu¬
lar forms. Thus, a folution which has been fcarcely
reduced to that degree of concentration at which it be¬
gins to cryftallize, being poured while it is hot into
the proper veffel for carrying on the procefs, or left at
reft in the fame veffel in which the folution is made, to
cool {lowly, will yield a fmall number of cryftals, which
will have no other defefis than what are occafioned by
their contaft with the veffel. Even perfett cryftals
IZ ATION.
will be fometimes found among the fra all er ones. Wren Rote*
the concentiation of the fpluiion has not been carried triem,
too far, or not farther than what is effected by flow’
cooling, not only have the embryo cryftals lefs bulk,
but the particles having come into contafl {lowly and
without confufion, they pcffd’s a greater degree of tranf-
parency. After a certain'period, which varies accord¬
ing to the fpecies of fait which is lubjefted to the ope¬
ration, finall cryftals may be diftindlly obferved. Thefe
are to be carefully detached from each other, and placed
in a different pofition. Being placed by this manage¬
ment on a different fide, the deiecls occafioned by their
con tael with the veffel are foon repaired. From the
crytfals treated in this w’?.y, the fineft and moft perfect
are to be obtained. This operation of changing the po¬
fition of the cryftal from one fide to the other, ought to
be repeated at leaft once every day, if we vvifti to obtain
the completed cryftals.
At the end of a certain period, the frnall cryflals are
to be removed, that the fluid may be more concentrated,
either by a new evaporation, or by diffolving a new por¬
tion of the fame fait. After the new folution has cool- d
ed, and the cryftals which have formed in it are feparat-
ed, if it has been too much concentrated, or too great a
portion of fait Iras been added j the cryftals of the firft;
folution are then to be introduced and treated in the
fame way as formerly.
When the cryftals have acquired a fufficient volume Managc-
to handle them, and to choofe fuch as we wifti fhould ment of thi
increafe to the largeft fize, either as fimple or com-cry^ahj
plete cryftals, or as exhibiting varieties from pofition
or particular circumftances, the individual cryftals are
then to be feparated, and folutions are to be prepared
for them and brought to fuch a degree of concentration
as to .afford cryftals in a mafs 5 which latter being re¬
moved, the fingle cryftals are introduced into thefe folu¬
tions, which are nowT in a proper ftate to favour their
increafe. The cryftals may be either previoully difpo-
fed in the vefiel, and then the folution may be poured
on ; or having firft; introduced the latter, they may be
afterwards diftributed on the bottom of the veffel. And
thus by continuing the fame procefs, by taking care to
change the pofition of the cryftal from one fide to the
other frequently, and by keeping up the folution to a
proper degree of ftrengtb, we may obtain cryftals of any
bulk we choofe. > ijoifthifbuii acf tlm ra
When the quantity of particles, which in a certain which de¬
flate of concentration continue to be mutually a.ttra6I-ereaie if
ed, has diminifhed in confequence of their apcupiula-Jett t?° ^
tion on the cryftals which arc formed, at a certain [Ation,"
ftage of this diminution the cryftals ceafe to enlarge or
increafe in bulk ^ it happens, on the contrary, if they
are left in the fluid, that they begin to diffolve. It is
ufually on the corners and angles that this decreafe
takes place; and in fome falls it feems to go on piece¬
meal, fo as to prefent diftindl layers of the particles;
for in this cafe lines parallel to the fides may be obfer¬
ved, and thefe are difpofed like fteps of flairs. Should
the accident which is here alluded to be allowed to go
on too far, it may often require a long time to repair
it; but it is in general eafy to avoid this inconvenience,
by watching the progrefs of the operation and the
increafe of the cryftals. If their corners or angles
are obferved to become lefs fharp, they muft be
removed till the fluid is farther concentrated, or
they
CRYSTALLIZATION.
hero- they muft be introduced into a new folution of the
uena. fame fait Gf the proper degree of ftrength. To pre-
‘ pare the new folution for the increafe of the cryftals, a
quantity of the fame fait is to be diffolved in a given
portion of water, fo that it fhall be fully faturated.
It is then allowed to cool and cryftallize. The cry-
ftals being feparated, the remaining folution is to be
employed in fuch quantity as may be judged neceffary
to replace that in which the diminution of the cryftals
had commenced.
Sometimes it happens, from want of neceffary pre¬
caution, that the new folution in which the procefs is
to be conduced, either being too much faturated, or
being diffurbed by pouring from one veffel to another,
exhibits many other points of attraction befide the cry-
flals whofe increafe is propofed. In this cafe a great
number of fmall cry Hals make their appearance, and
cover the furface of the former with a kind of incrufta-
tion. The fmall cryltals, provided they are taken in
time, may be removed without injury to the others $ if
not, they will be unavoidably fpoiled.
pofi- When the cryftals have reached fuch a lize as that
muft they may be placed one by one, without being in con-
an* tad with each other, we muft ftill continue frequently
to change their pofition. This may be done w'ith a
fpatula, a glafs rod, or with any inftrument which will
communicate nothing to the fluid. In this way the
fides of the cryftal which are alternately in contaft with
the bottom of the veffel will increafe in equal propor¬
tion, and it will always remain complete.
It is chiefly in falts which furnilh elongated prifms
that the influence of pofition may be moft diftinctly
feen. If, for inftande, a cryftal before it has acquired
much volume is found to reft on one of its bafes as
well as on one of its fides, it will be obferved to be
compreffed in the direftion from bafe to bafe ; and it
will appear to be only a regular fegment of the cry¬
ftal, which having been placed on one of its fides has
obtained a great bulk. If we take a fix-fided prifm
whofe fummits are obliquely truncated, and if it be
placed on one of its fides, it will enlarge in a greater
or lefs degree, but always in fuch a manner that the
diftance from one bafe to the other lhall never be lefs
than the diftance between the fides. But if the pofi¬
tion be on one of its bafes, then its principal increafe
will be in the dire&ion of the fides, and it will appear
to be compreffed between the bafes. At firft fight, a
cryftal treated in this way will feem different from
the former. For the corners form the fumnsit of appa¬
rent pyramids which are feparated by a four-fided
prifm. This circumftance affords a fufficient explana¬
tion of one of the canfes which produce varieties in
the appearances of a cryftal with regard to its relative
extent $ it (hows that there is no foundation for the
opinion of a fuppofed balance between the particles
of the fait and that of the folvent ; and it (hows alfo,
that if the force of attraftion be the efficient caufe of
the faline particles coming into contafl, the force of
gravitation a£Vs at the fame time, and modifies in a
greater or lefs degree the effefts of the firft.
According to thefe obfervations, and the different
flates in which cryftallized fubftances are found, it has
been funpofed that we might conclude, that the force
of adhefion between the particles of the fait and thofe
ef the folveht, varies according to circumftances, which
787
depend on the degree of tendency to combination be- Pheno-
tween the bodies, and the relative wTeight or bulk of, mena- j
the parts of which thefe bodies are compofed. If a ' v
cryftal in the incipient ftage of its increafe be placed
on one of its bafe«, it enlarges in the dire&ion of its
(ides ; but if it be reverfed and placed on one of its fides,
it enlarges in the dimenfions of an elongated prifin.
An infulated cryftal, placed on one of its fides on a
fmooth furface, and left undifturbed to enlarge in fize,
prefents on this part a kind of hollow, which corre-
fponds exaflly wfith the fide which it replaces. Here
the faline particles which cannot reach this furface,
are diftributed on the neighbouring parts with which
they come in contaft, with this circumftance, that the
edges of the furface on which the cryftal reds increafe
in proportion, but without allowing the liquid to have
accefs to this furface.
The hollows which are formed at the furface of li¬
quids differ fometimes from each other even in the
fame fait. If we fuppofe that a particle forms the in¬
cipient point of the hollow, the latter will affume a
configuration correfponding to the fide of the particle
prefented to the fuiface of the liquid : but the part
which it touches increafes alfo; and if by any circum¬
ftance a change of pofition happens, the hollow, thus
neceflarily formed according to the arrangement of the
part which correfponds exadly to the furface of the li¬
quid, will change its form, becaufe the new pofition
of the fide prefented differs from the firft.
When a neutral fait, in a (late of purity, and after
being cryftallized, ceafes to produce any effect on ve¬
getable blues, it is not fuppofed that any of its confti-
tuent principles is in excefs. But if in this (late it Is
found to combine with other bodies, in fuch a manner
as to produce folid and well-defined cryftals, we mud
admit that there exifts an affinity between the fait and
the body with which it has combined.
This fubjeft, Leblanc obferves, of the fupra-compo- Compound
fition, or compound combination, as it might perhapscombina-
be called, of which feveral falts are fufceplible, has not^on*
hitherto much occupied the attention of chemical phi-
lofophers. Some indeed have been pointed out by
Bergman and others; but it has been remarked that
thefe affinities are probably much more extenfive than
has been fuppofed j and not only with regard to neu¬
tral falts with each other, but alfo neutral (alts with
other bodies. Of this kind of combination is not
to be reckoned that of one of the conftituent parts of
a fait being in excefs, which frequently takes place
in (brne falts, and is found to be more or lefs perma¬
nent. This circumflance feems to prove that certain
falts have two different points in the combination of
their conftituent parte. Let us fee what has been ob¬
ferved in this refpeft ©f the fulphate of alumina, which
will perhaps explain the reafon that this fait is almoft al¬
ways found in nature in the acidulous (late. It is found
that the more thaf alum approaches to the ftate of fa-
turation by an additional portion of bafe, the lefs folid
the new combination becomes j and in all cafes, after
a certain time, which is longer or (horter according to
circumffances, the portion which was added feparates.
It will perhaps appear in the fequel, that this tendency
to combination which is coriftantly in adion, produ¬
cing an immenfe multitude of different individuals, re-
fides not only among the properties of the Ample prin-
5 G 2 ciples,
788 CRYSTAL]
Pheiio- clples, but alfo in thofe which belong to all the com-
, ineua- , pounds.
Many of the fulphates are always found in the aci¬
dulous ftate ; and all of them feem to be lufceptible of
combination v/ith a new quantity of the fame bafe, till
they reach the point of faturation. For example, the
lulphate of capper, in the ftate in which it is ufually
found, cryftallizes in eight-fided, oblique priims, termi¬
nated by Tides according to the obliquity of the prifm.
Hut if anotner portion of bafe be added, the cryftals
aflame the form of pyramids of feveral faces, feparated
oy a fout-fided prifm. Ihe acidulous lulphate of zipc
gives cryftals of fix-fided prifms, which are often very
jegular} but an addition of bale produces a great
change, for then the cryftals are in the rhomboidal
form, very little different from the cube. Alum in its
ordinary ftate of combination cryftallizes in the form
of a regular oflaeciron j but in the intermediate propor¬
tions between this ftate and that of faturation, it af-
furnes the form of a cube.
Hauy, as will be afterwards noticed, has demonftra-
ted that the form of the primitive molecules is the
lame in all cryftals of the fame fait, and he has fhown
by calculation that the variations arife from the laws
of decrement in the layers which furround the nucleus;
hut that the order according to which the fecondary
forms are produced may be interrupted, whether this
iorm be complete or not j and the cryftal may then,
according to circumftances, return to its primitive form,
or to fome of thofe which are derived from it. But
from the experiments of Leblanc, he thinks that thefe
changes always depend on new conditions in the ftate
or the fluid, as a different proportion of the principles
of winch the fait is compofed.
fYyftais If a cryftal of o&aedral alum be placed in a folution
she^foftf ^ which forms cubic cryfials of the fame fait, the former
tion,°iU ‘‘flume the cubic form, by giving up a feries of
molecules from the fummits of the folid angles, fo that
the layers continue to decreafe on the triangular faces
till the cryftal has completed its new form. In this
procefs, the change may be flopped at any period, and
cryftals of every modification of form may be obtained.
1* rom this it follows, that the centre of each of the
faces of the oftaedron correfponds to a felid angle of
the cube in which it is inferibed. But if a cubical
cryftal be introduced into the folution which yields
the o&aedron, its return to this latter form proceeds
in the fame order, by the fubtraftion of a feries of mo¬
lecules from the folid angles of the cube. It often
happens, however, at the fame time, that the fubtraftion
of the molecules extends to the corners of the cryftal j
fo that the layers of fuper-pofition decreafe all at once,
according to the order of the formation of the o£!ae-
dron, and the dodecaedron with rhomboidal furfaces.
This circumftance feems to fuggeft the poffibility of
obtaining cryftals of alum of this latter form ; but it
feems to depend on a particular proportion which is not
tafily determined.
> Thus we learn from experiment that falts which ex-,
hibit different farms of cryftals can be made to affume
each of thefe at pleafure. This phenomenon, which
has not been much attended to, leems to merit parti¬
cular inveftigation. The tranfition from one form to
another may be explained according to the law's of di¬
minution, by the fucceffive and regular lubtraftion of
LI Z A T IO N.
fevies of molecules; fo that the form r.clually obtained, Pknp,
■ the reftotation of the preceding form, is eafily expli-
cable on the principle of reftitution alone. It may be
obferved, that during this kind of metamorphofis, both
operations, namely, that by which the cryftal receives on
the one hand a new form, and that by which on the
other hand it increafes on all its Tides, conftantly take
pia,ce- . . r5
I he particles of a fait which are in folution in a Cryftals dif.
fluid, are attra&ed by it, particle by particle, withoutferently fl-
any feparation or decompofition ; but it is neceflary at
tnat there be a balance of the attracting forces between).!:!
the fait and the lolvent. This is demonftrated by theth.^fluicT
following experiment. A veffel two feet high and
twm inches in diameter was filled with a folution of a
proper degree of concentration for the growth of cry¬
ftals, which were fufpended at different heights from
the bottom of the veffel to the furface of the fluid 5
pnd it was obferved that the increafe of the cryftal was
in proportion to its depth in the veffel, that which was
neareft the bottom iacreafing moft rapidly. When
the liquid u'as deprived of fallne particles by their ac¬
cumulation on the cryftals, by reft, and iometimes even
by the influence of the atmofphere, the cryftals de-
creafed by fimilar gradations to thofe of their increafe j
To that it at laft reached that ftate when the cryftals
near the furface of the liquid were diffolved,-while thofe
towards the bottom continued to increafe ; and fome-
times it happened that the cryftals at the bottom of
the veffel continued to increafe on the furface which
was in contaCf with it, while the oppofite upper furface
was in a ftate of diffolution.
All the experiments which were made on falts
of different degrees of fpecific gravity accord with
this ohiervation • and the difference in the degrees
of faturation of the waters of the ocean, which de¬
pends on the difference of depth, feems to be in fa¬
vour of this opinion. It is confirmed by the analyfis
of fea-water by Bergman and others, which was taken
up in difierent places and at different depths. It receives
ftill farther confirmation from a practice of the inhabi¬
tants of Salies in Bearn in eftimating the degree of
ftrength of a fait fpring. An egg is thrown into the
waters of the fpring, and the whole water which covers
the furface of the egg is thrown away, as it is not of a
fufficient degree of concentration.
It is well known that a cold temperature is moft:
convenient for the cryftatlization of falts. But it is
not at the period, when the fait begins to cryftallize that
it is moft convenient to cany on the procefs j for then it
fometimes happens, from too great concentration of
the fluid, that the cryftallization is too rapid and con-
fufed; . I7
Hitherto faline fubftances which are fufceptible ofTwociaf-
regular cryftallization have been divided into twofcs °f faline
claffes, according to the peculiarities in the formation lu1°ftarices’
of their cryftals. The one clafs comprehends thofe
cryftals which are formed by cooling the fluid in which
the folution is made. The other clafs includes thofe
which are produced only during the evaporation of
the folution. This diftindlion is no doubt 'well found¬
ed ; but there are fome exceptions to it which are ne-
ceffary to be attended to in conducing the procefs of
cryftallization. If a faline folution which is too much
faturated, be cooled, it fumifhes a mafs of cryftals
which
traft
loiftur*..
CRYSTAL
which are. confufed and irregular, and which prefent no
determined form except on thofe fides which are in con-
ta£t with the liquid. If in this ftate the remaining liquid
is'poured off, it will yield another fet of cryftals, but in
very fmall number j and there are fome falts which
continue to form cryftals after being feveral times fuc-
ceffr/ely treated in this way, the number of the cryftals
ftill diminilhing from the firft degree of concentration.
It will be found too that this will tahe place whether
the procefs be carried on in the open air or in clofe
veffels. It follows from this that the increafe or the
formation of cryftals, in this cafe, depends folely on the
mutual attra&ion of the particles, or on the attraftion
between the particles and the cryftal $ an attra&ion or
affinity which is not deftroyed by the cooling of the
fluid, but is probably regulated by the dtftance of the
particles, and the degree of force or affinity which exifts
between the particles and the folyent. In fome faline
folutions the increafe of the cryftals goes on in this
manner for a long time. It is only in the interval be¬
tween the cooling of the liquid to the temperature of
the atmofphere, and that period when its degree of con¬
centration is fodiminiffied that the increafe of the cryftals
ceafes, that the latter proceeds with that degree of per¬
fection of which it is fufceptible.
jme faline It is not a property peculiar to dry fubftances to ab-
ilutions forb moifture from the atmofphere. Liquids faturated
with certain falts feem alfo to poffefs this property ; for
in fome faline folutions, the liquids affume a folvent
power which never fails to attack the cryftals, and not
only to prevent their increafe, but to diminiffi the bulk
which they had acquired. This accident can only be
obviated by regulating the ftate of the atmofphere in
which the evaporating veffels are placed, and preferving
it free from an excefs of moifture. From caufes which
produce a contrary effeft, the evaporation becomes too
rapid j this circumftance alfo requires to be attended to,
and properly regulated, to enfure the full fuccefs of the
operation.
From the preceding obfervations it will appear, that
folutions of falts which are fufceptible of cryftallization
have certain degrees of concentration which are necef-
fary for the formation of cryftals 5 and that they muft
be reduced nearly to that degree in which they begin
to yield cryftals, before it can be expe&ed that they af¬
ford proper refults. It is therefore neceffary to attend
particularly to the degree of concentration which each
fait requires for the regular formation of its cryftals, and
to obtain them with that degree of tranfparency of which
they are fufceptible. We have feen that in the forma¬
tion of cryftals they may be removed from one veffel to
Another, and from one folution to another ; and that in
proportion to the flownefs of the procefs they become
more beautiful and more perfeft. Thefe operations, it
may be added, require much patience and attention, but
at the fame time the obferver is fully compenfated for
his trouble, by perceiving the progrefs of the cryftalliza¬
tion, and by the intereft which is excited in all its ft ages.
It is effential to know that neither the cryftals form¬
ed during the artificial evaporation, nor thole which
are produced during the cooling of the folution, are
proper to be made choice of foj being increafed and
brought forward to the moft perfect cryftals. When
a folution has become cold, that is to fay, when it has
L I Z A T I O N. 789
acquired the temperature of the atmofphere, and it is Pl'-no-
deprived of the excefs of faline panicles which it held , ,
in combination during its increale of temperature, it is
ftill in a condition to yield cryftals,, and as long as the
diftances between the particles are not too great to al¬
low of mutual attraflion. A folution faturated to excels
affords on cooling a confufed mafs of cryftals ; but after
the fluid is poured off, it will ftill produce more cryftals,
but in fmaller number. The degree of concentration
' of the folution before it yielded the laft produft may¬
be confidered as the term of faturation moft proper to
be employed for the fpecies of fait which is thus treated.
But by the repetition of thefe operations, and the
obfervation of their progrefs, it will not be difficult to
difeover the proper proportions between the fait and the
folvent.
It feems to be a miftake to fuppofe, with fome, that
the cryftals which are placed in favTourable circumftan-
ces to become larger and more perfe6l, are injured by
coming in contadl with each other during their in¬
creafe. It is undoubtedly better that they ffiould be
kept feparate; but it does not appear that they are hurt
by touching each other, if the number in the veffel be
not too great, and they are not heaped or preffed to¬
gether. In that cryftallization which refults from the
cooling of a folution too much faturated, the cryftals
are always confufed and interlaced with each other 5
and the molecules which are arranged in this kind of
diforder experience a kind of irregular diftribution;
and it may be obferved, that in this cafe the fummits
only of the cryftals which are elevated from the kind
of cake which is formed on the furfaces of the veffel
containing the folution, prefent regular and determined
forms. The mafs in which thefe cryftals are implanted
is a confufed heap.
No cavities have been obferved on the faces of cryf¬
tals, excepting thofe which are formed on the fur-
face of fluids. Thofe which are produced on that
fide of a cryftal which refts on the bottom of the veffel
are more common in other falts. This phenomenon
feems to merit mere attention than has yet been be¬
llowed upon it; as it explains eafily the introduction
of extraneous bodies which are fometimes detefled in
the interior of cryftals. For when a cavity of this Cavities on
kind has acquired a certain depth, it is capable of re- cryftals.
ceiving part of any foreign fubftance, and to be filled
up by the change of pofttion of the fame cryftal, re¬
taining at the fame time the extraneous matter. By a
little art and dexterity, thefe fortuitous circumftances
may be favoured, fo that phenomena exhibited by fuch
occurrences may be traced and obferved at the pleafure
of the operator. Experiments have been made with
the view of afeertaining whether an extraneous fub¬
ftance could be fubftituted as the nucleus of a cryftal 5
blit from the refult of thefe experiments, it dees not
appear that the particles of any fait have a tendency to
combine with any foreign matter, and to form regular
cryftals. The portions of the fait which were attached
to the extraneous fubftance were always feparate and in¬
dependent cryftals.
There are fome faline fubftances which retain in
their folution an excefs of particles even after cooling,
and which being ftrongly agitated inftantly depofit a
great number of fmall cryftals which render the folu¬
tion
CRYSTALLIZATION
Pile no- tion turbid. The introduftion of cryftais of the fame
i ^ ‘ ^ Is known, as in the cafe of a folution of
Glauber’s fait, promotes this fudden cryftallization or
feparation of the excefs of the fait. If, in this Hate of
the folution, cryflals are immerfed with the view of ha¬
ving them large and regular, they are certain of being
ipoiled by the accumulation of h great number of fmall
cryftals on their furface, unlefs the precaution of imme¬
diately walking them with pure water when this hap¬
pens is obferved.
It may be remarked alfo that when the folution is
diminilhed below' a certain degree of faturation, the
cryftals not only ceafe to increafe, but are alfo again
m fome meafure diffolvcd 5 the corners and angles re¬
duced and rounded. And if the cryftals in this date
be introduced into a folution of fufficient ftrength to
promote their increafe, fupernumerary faces and trun-
catures, as they are denominated in technical language,
are formed on the rounded corners and angles. But
thefe fa ccs always difappear as the increafe of the cry-
ftals proceeds, and are replaced by corners and angles,
which become at laft {harp and diftin£h
By attention to preferve the folutions of fait in per-
fe£l purity, we {hall be more certain of obtaining the
mod beautiful and tranfparent crydals. Some duids,
after a certain time, are obferved to depofit fubdances
which are foreign to the fait held in folution, and were
diiTolved along" with it. Thefe fubdances fometimes
appear in the form of earthy matters, ■which precipi¬
tate to the bottom of the veffel ; in other cafes they
are diffufed in the form of dakes^and fometimes they
rife and fwim on the furface. In all theic cafes, the
crydals whofe formation and increafe are going for¬
ward mud be removed, and the liquor mud be filtrated
.ao. before they are replaced.
in'cry ft a lsS . ^ ^'ne fubftance, which is capable of crydalliza-
i'rom chan- I*on, pofltffes, in the date of minute divifion in which
ges in the it is in folution, or, in the condition of the molecules
1 clution. which compofe it, a determined property which is uni¬
form and condant, in which refides effentially the
power of uniting in a certain fymmetrical manner, and
thus condruiding regular folids. The relults alfo are
uniform and condant when the procefs is carefully con¬
duced •, but it is neceffary to didinguifh with accuracy
the circumdances which accompany the operation, and
may cccafion a deviation from this uniformity. The
fulphate of iron, for indance, ufually crydallizes in the
form of rhomboids 5 but fometimes it has been found to
r.flume that of an irregular oCaedron. And although
it may be true that an elongated oCaedron may be claf-
fed with prifmatic crydals, it does not on that account
belong lefs to the oCaedral form ; but it feems probable
that thefe different varieties, in the forms of crydals, de¬
pend on fome changes which take place in the folutions
themfelves. The iron in the prefent cafe is condantiy
receiving new portions of oxygen from the atmofphere,
and in this new combination it is precipitated in the
fluid : this, therefore, occafions a change in the condi-
tuents of the fait.
Several fulphates are found to combine readily w’ith
each other : thofe of iron and copper are of this de-
fcription ; and the refult of this compound crydal is al¬
ways a rhomboid. It feems to be doubtful whether this
drould be confidered as a cafe of Ample interpofition of
ene fait with the other.
When a liquid, which holds falin oodies in folu. Phe,
tion, is evaporated to a certain degree, a ciud forms mei
on the furface, acquires a certain thicknefs, and when ’
this is removed, it is renewed. The point at which
the liquid exhibits this appearance is known in chemi-
dry, by the appellation of evaporation to a pellicle. 2I
When it has reached this point, the folution is in a Forma
date of complete fatuiation j and the fmalled addition-cf<kn
al quantity of duid cannot be withdrawn without a cor-
refponding quantity of fait affuming the folid form.
On this principle Robinet has attempted to account
for the tormation or dendrites, or the arborefcent ap¬
pearance and efflorefcence of fome‘ falts. Almod ail
tire diderent fpecies of fucus or fea-weed, he cbferves,
are covered, in drying, with an efflorefcence of wdrite
matter. In fome fpecies, this white matter wras ob-
lerved to poffefs a faccharine quality. A number of
large roots of the fucus palmatus w?as hung up in the
Oracle, and ten days had elapfed without the appearance
of any thing on the furface. After that period it be¬
came white, and it was foon covered with a light
downy fubdance, the filaments of which gradually in-
creafed to a confiderable length. When this downy
matter was brudred off with a feather, it was renewed
till the plants w’ere completely dry. This fubdance,
it appeared on examination, w-as of a faccharine na¬
ture, mixed with a {mall portion of common fait, and
a great quantity of mucilaginous matter. By folution
and crydalkzation, the iugar was feparated from the
other fubdances.
In comparing the circumdances of this efflorefcence
with thofe of the formation of the pellicle, in the pro-
grefs of evaporation, the former feems to be a modifi¬
cation of the latter. In a veffel which contains a li¬
quid faturated with a fait, the fuiface fubje&ed to eva¬
poration has no fooner affumed a folid form, than the
furface immediately inferior is expoftd to the aclion
of the fame caufes, and produces the fame effeft ; and
this effeft continues till this crud has become fo thick,
or fo compaft, as to prevent the contact of air, and
then the evaporation ceafes. But, on the contrary, in
the fucus, the air acting only on the furface of the
plant, the liquid which it contains cannot undergo the
procefs of evaporation, without coming to the furface.
The attraction of the matter of the plant tends to pro¬
mote this motion; for as the liquid is equally diffufed
through its whole mafs, it rifes condantiy to the fur¬
face, in proportion as this furface is dried by the fur- -
rounding air ; and it would appear that this is the pro¬
cefs in the deficcation of all thick and maffy bodies.
N ow, the faline matter wdiich, in the prefent cafe, is
in the date of efflorefcence, having the fame power of
attraClion on the liquid, the rudiments of each fila¬
ment conditute, at the indant of their formation, pait
of the wThole mafs or body of the plant. They parti¬
cipate, therefore, of therfame degree of moidure as
that of the plant, and it is on their furface that the
evaporation and crydallizalion of faline matter chiefly
take place.
The mechanifm of the dendritical or arborefcent
form of faline bodies feems to Be in this way capable of
explanation. The whole faline mafs, which extends
to the edges of the veffel, and even redefeends exter¬
nally, is condantiy in the humid date, as long as
any liquid remains in the veffel. It may be fuppoled,
nena.
rioref-
i ice.
C R Y S T A L 1
that the matter of the tides ct the vefTel determines,
*- / ,T
/ 91
by its attraction, the external circle of the furface of
the liquid to rife above the furface; a phenomenon
which is fufficiehlly obvious, but efpecially in narrow
veffels. This portion of liquid, which is more com¬
pletely fubjeCted to evaporation, gives origin to a cir¬
cle of faline matter, which appears thus railed above
the furface of the liquid, and which, being the firit
rudiments of the dendrites, contributes afterwards to
its increafe, in the way which has been already ex¬
plained.' Thus the vegetation of falts bears a ftizking
refemblance to the pracefs of efflorefcence, or the for¬
mation of the downy matter on the furface of the
fucus.
There is yet another kind of cryflallization which
feems to depend on the fame caufe. This is the faline
efflorefcence, which occurs in different places on the
furface of the globe, and is frequently in fuch quantity
as to become an important objedf of manufacture.
Without extending cur obfervalions to the tfflorefcence
of foda on the furface of the foil in Egypt, or that of
nitre in Afiatic countries, we may refer to the produc¬
tion of muriate of foda, or common fait, in different
parts of Europe, in thofe places which are covered
with the waters of the ocean during high tides. The
water#, of the fea with which the fandy Ihores are twice
periodically moiftened in the courfe ot the month, are
far diftant from the point of faturation which deter¬
mines cryftallization. They rarely contain more than
q parts of fait in ico ■, and the fand at the degree of
moifture, in which it is left by the fea, is not impreg¬
nated with a fufficient quantity of faline matter to be
worthy the labour of manufacturing ; but, during the
interval between the tides, thefe circumftances are
greatly changed. The dry air of fummer, by evapo¬
rating the moifture on the furface, allows the matter
of the fahd to attract towards the furface a frmilar
portion of water, which was in the lower part of the
foil, and which always tends to diftufe ittelf equally
through the whole mafs. This liquid, carrying with
it the fait which it holds in folution, increafes the quan¬
tity of faline matter which exifts on the furface. This
procefs continues without interruption, as long as there
is no fall of rain. It reaches at laft a certain point, at
which the water fubjedled to evaporation is faturated
with the faitand this procefs cannot proceed farther
without the depofition of cryftals of the fait, rvhich dif-
cover themfelves by their fhining appearance. After
fome days, the fand on the furface is colledled, and
about ftx times the quantity of faline matter is found in
the fame proportion of fand, when it was firft moiftened
by the fea water (a).
Another phenomenon which takes place during the
prccefs of artificial evaporation, ftiould not pafs unno-
This is the formation of a faline cruft at the
bottom of the veffels in which the procefs is condutffed.
This feems to be the immediate effect of ebullition j
Plienc-
rueiia.
23
Cruft on
the bottom l- 1
sf veftels. tlCed‘
, I Z A T I Q N.
for when the temperature of the liquid is kept unaer
the boiling point, no fuch efifedtrs produced, i his cruft 
is compofed of all the faline fubftances w hich are held
in folution in the liquid j and even thefe fubftances are
found combined in the lame proportion in which they
adfually exiit in the folution. Whatever be the attrac¬
tion of thefe fubftances for water, or even if they pofferi
a deliquefcent property, they are not lefs difpcied to
enter into conioination during the formation ol the iolid
cruft on the bottom of veffels in which tire prccefs of
evaporation is conduced with a temperature equal to
the boiling point. A flight degree of attention will
fatisfy us, that the formation of this cruft depends on the
particular circumftances of the evaporation in the cafe
of ebullition. It muff be obvious, that in this cafe the
ftratum of liquid which is in immediate contaff vrith
the veffel, receives the caloric which penetrates its Tides,
is charged with it beyond its capacity, changes its ftate,
and affumes the gafeous form, and by this change ha¬
ving entirely loft its folvent power, whatever faline
matter is held in folution muff affume the folid ftate in
contadf with the fides of the veffel, and confiquently ad¬
here to it. Thus it happens, according to a very judi¬
cious obfervation, that in different faline iolutions, the
refults of which have been compared, thefe fcales or
crufts are more abundant in proportion as the degree ot
faturation is lefs *, * your de
To thefe obfervations we fliall only add a fliort ac- h'iii.
count of the phenomena of cryftallization, as they were J24\ ,
obferved, with the afliftance of a microfcope, by Mr ■vjkroito-
Baker, and of the appearances of different faline bo-pical cry-
dies which he has defcribed. This will not afford any Hals,
fcientific information to the pbilofopher, but it may
perhaps be the fource of amufement to fome of ouv
readers, and the means, by a minute obfervatiun of
the phenomena, of leading to fome ufeful difeoveries.
The method which he followed in condudfing thete
experiments, is the follov/ing. The fubftailce to be
examined is to be diiYolved in a quantity of pure wa¬
ter, fo as to be completely faturated. For falts of eafy
folubility, cold water may be employed ; but for falts
which are diffolved with more difficulty, hot or boiling
water may be found necefi’ary. In preparing the folu¬
tion, the fame rule may be obferved as in preparing
folutions for obtaining large cryftals, which has been
given in the former part of this fedlion. The folution
thould be allowed to remain at reft for fume hours, fo
that the firft cryftallizatian, if too much faline matter
has been added to the liquid, may be allowed to take
place. Thus the folution will be always of the fame
ftrength, and the fame appearances may be uniformly
expected.
When the folution is thus prepared, a drop of it
may be taken up with the point of a quill, cut in the
form of a pen, and placed .on a flat flip of glafs, fpread-
ing it on the glafs with the quill till the liquid is fo
(hallow as to rife very little above its furface. It is
then
(a) Common fait is manufaaured in this way on the fandy (bores of the Solway Frith, in Annandale in Scot¬
land. Thefe flat (bores are covered with the waters of the ocean during fpring tides ; and in the interval of
thefe tides the evaporation by the heat of the fun and the a£lion of tne air is 10 confiderab:c, as to leave the fand
impregnated with a quantity of fait, fufficient to defray the expence and trouble of manufa&uring it by filtration
and boiling.
5
7Q2 C R Y S T A L L I Z A T I O Kr;
Phg.no- then to be held over the clear part of a moderate fire,
t'1Jtia' , or the flame of a candle, and fuch a degree of heat ap¬
plied as is found from experience to produce the necef-
fary evaporation. This will be known by obferving
the formation of faline particles at the edges of the
drop of fluid. The microlcope being previcuffy ad-
jufted, and a magnifier of a moderate power being fit¬
ted on, the flip of glafs is to be placed immediately
under the eye, and brought exactly to th§ focus of the
magnifier. After running over the whole drop, the
attention is to be directed to that fide on which the
procefs of cryflallizatior. fiffl: commences, and proceeds
from, the circumference towards the centre. The mo¬
tion is at firfl: flow, if too much heat has not been ap¬
plied, but becomes quicker as the evaporation conti¬
nues. In fome cryftaliizations the configurations are
produced towards the end of the procefs with great ra¬
pidity, and exhibit an elegance, order, and regularity,
which agination only can conceive. When this ra¬
pid action has once begun, the eye mutt be kept fixed
on the objedt, till the whole procefs is completed, be-
caufe new forms appear, quite different from thofe
which were firfl: produced, and which have been pro¬
perly afciibed to a'quantity of different falls mixed with
the fubftance to be examined, when the precaution has
not been ufed of having it in a flate of purity. When
the configurations are fully formed, and the water eva¬
porated, fuch faits as are deliquefcent, it is fcarcely
neceilary to obferve, are foon deftroyed by attradHng
the moitiure from the air; but thofe which are more
permanent, and not difpofed either to deliquefce or to
be deprived of their water of cryftallization, may he
preferved, by being enclofed between glafles, for a
long time, as amufing objects for the microfcope. To
make the liquid fpread readily on the glafs, the furface
of it may be moiftened with a little of it, and rubbed
with the finger. In this way, the repulfion which
iometimes is obferved between the liquid and the glafs
is completely removed. During the evaporation, the
obje£t-glafs of the microfcope is fometimes obfcured by
the condenfation of the water from the faline iblution
on the flip of glafs, and the vifion is thus rendered in-
diftincf. When this happens, if the circumftance be
recollefted, the glafs muff be wiped and replaced. In
examinations of faline folutions, and in obferving the
progrefs of cryftallization, Mr Baker recommends the
light of a candle in preference to the light of day,
which latter being of a whiter colour and nearly the
lame with the tranfparent cryftals, they are lefs di-
ftin^Uy feen than with the brown light of a candle.
Plate Fig. I. is a reprefentation of the mierofcopical cry-
€LXV. ffals of nitr£ or faltpetre. They begin to ftioot out
from the edges with very moderate heat into flat fi¬
gures of different lengths, with ftraight parallel Gdes,
and exceedingly tranfparent. They appear in differ¬
ent fia-tes of their progrefs at the letters, a, b, c, d, and
e; a exhibits the appearance when they firft begin to
form. When a number of cryttals have made their
, appearance they fometimes dhTolve under the eye, and
difappear entirely •, but, by continuing to watch the
changes which go on, the piocefs is frequently obfer¬
ved to recommence, and new7 Ihoots pulh out. The
firft cryftals fometimes become larger without under¬
going any change of figure ; and fametimes form in
the way which is reprefented in the figure. When the
heat is too great, as might be expetfled, the procefs Phena,
goes on with great rapidity, and numerous ramifica- mena-
tions are formed. This ariies no doubt from the con- ''‘"“V—■
fufed cryflallization.
Fig. 2. (hews the microfcopical cryftals of blue vi¬
triol (dulphate or copper), which appear firft round the
edges, (hort at the beginning, but gradually increafing,
as they are reprefented at the letters Zq c, which
denote their difference of form, and the progrefs of
their growth. Thefe cryftals, which are ttaniparent,
aflame a foiid regular form, and refleift the light from
their poliihed fides and angles. As the evaporation
proceeds, a great number of filaments as fine as hairs
make their appeajance, fome crofiing each other, as at
el; and others exhibiting a fteliated form with many
radiations, as at ee. The cryftallization of this fait
proceeds ftowly. Towards the end of the procefs the
regular cryftals appear, and are finely branched as
at/
Fig. 3. is a view of the cryftals of diftilled verdigrife,
or acetate of copper. When it is immediately applied
to the microfcope, the regular figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, make their appearance 5 but if the foiution is al¬
lowed to remain at reft for a few hours, and a drop of
it is then heated on a {lip of glafs till it begins to con¬
crete about the fides, lliarp-pointed foiid figures are
formed, and Ihoot forwards. Thefe cryftals are often
ftriated obliquely, frequently arife in clufters, ©r ftioot
from a centre. Sometimes, towards the end of the v
procefs, and in the middle of the drop, they aflume a
foliated form, and have the appearance of four leaves
of fetrr united by their ftems.
Fig. 4. thews tire mictofcopical cryftals of alum.
Thefe are more or lefs perfeft according to the ftrength
of the foiution, and the temperature employed. To
prepare this fait for examination, the faturated foiution
may remain for fome days. In that time cryftals will
form, and if what remains liquid ftrould be found too
weak, heat may be applied, which will again diflolve
the cryftals.
In fig. 5. is a view of the cryftals of borax, or the
fubborate of foda. The drop of this foiution ihould
not be held too long over the fire, as it hardens on the
flip of glafs, and no cryftals appear. A brifk heat for
about a fecond is recommended as the beft method. It
is then applied to the microfcope, and the cryftals will
form as in the figure.
Fig. 6. thews the microfcopical cryftals of fal ammo¬
niac, or muriate of ammonia. Great numbers of thick,
tharp, and broad fpiculee {hoot from the edges, and
from their fides are protruded others of the fame form,
which are parallel to each other, but perpendicular to
the main ftem. The formation of thefe cryftals, un-
lefs the heat employed be very moderate, is very
rapid.
Fig. 7. exhibits the appearance of the cryftals of
acetate of lead (fugar of lead). After a little of this
fait is diffolved in hot water, and allowed to remain at
reft for a fhort time, it is fit for being examined with
the microfcope. A drop of it put on a flip of glafs,
and heat being applied, will be feen forming round
the edge, a regular border of a clear and tranfparent
fubftance, which with a ftrong heat runs over the
whole of the drop, and hardens on the glafs *, but when
the heat employed is moderate, bundles of lines, ar¬
ranged
C R Y S T A L
; of ranged in a radiated form, make their appearance.
They avife from points in the interior edge of the bor-
' der, and fpread out nearly at equal dillances from each
other, in all dire&ions.
In fig. 8. are reprefented the cryftals of Glauber’s
fait ffulphate of foda), which affumes the form of ra¬
mifications, proceeding from the fide of the drop, like
the growth of minute plants. Other appearances pre-
pent themfelves in different periods of the procefs. It
is indeed but of ihort duration, for when the cryftal-
lization has once begun, it goes on with great rapi¬
dity.
The examples which we have now given will, we
asorehend, be fufficient to enable thofe who are cu-
nous in microfcopical obfervations, to profecute re-
fearches of this kind. Many more might have been
given from the fame author ■, but as experiments on
cryffallization, conduced in this way, are little fufcep-
tible of accuracy or precifion, we with to avoid fweil-
ing out the article without conveying fome ufeful in¬
formation. Our chemical readers will readily per¬
ceive, that very different appearances will be the re-
j'ult of a flower or more rapid cryftallization, greater
or lefs purity of the fait, and different degrees of
lirength of the folution. In compound bodies, for in-
llance, modifications in the form of the cryllals are
produced by a difference in the proportion of the con-
iHtuent parts. The cryftals of alum, which is a triple
iait, viz. a ipiphate of alumina and potalh, are in the
form of octahedrons. The addition of a quantity ot
alumina changes the form of the cryftals to that of
cubes; and if a cubic cryftal of alum be introduced
into a foiution, the proportions of which afford ofia-
hedral cryftals, the cubic cryftal will affume the form
of an c£lahedron, and the oftahedral cryftal put into
a folution which affords cubic cryftals, paffes into that
of the cube. The nature of the lolvent alfo, in which
the cryftallization takes place, produces certain devia¬
tions in the form of the cryftals. 'I he folution of com¬
mon fait in water affords cubical cryftaiS, but in urine
it cryftallizes in the form of oftahedrons. Muriate of
ammonia d’.ffolved in water, cryftallizes in tne form of
an octahedron, but in urine it affords cryllals in the
form of cubes. But we now proceed to confider the
theory of the ftrufture of cryftals, which will be the
fubjeft of the next fection.
Sect. II. Of the Theory of the Struciure of Cryfials.
In the former feftion we have given a view of the
phenomena of cryftallization. Tire regular ioniis
which bodies affume by means of this procels, have oc¬
cupied no fmall (hare of the attention of naturalifts
Vol. VI. Part II.
L I 2 A T I G N.
79J
and chemical philofophers. The refearches and in-Structure ot
Veftigations of Bergman, Rome de L’lfle, and Hauy,, t'r- ’
have been particularly direfted this way. Bergman,
in his 12th Differtation *, treats of the variety ot the * Phyfic. b-1
forms of cryftals, of the various figures derived hotnChnnw*
the fpathaceous form, of the ftrufture of the molt minute
parts, and of the different modes in which cryftals are
generated. Romb de L’lfle has arranged cryftals into
fix fpecies, derived from the varieties of toon. i.Tetra¬
hedron. 2. Cube. 3. Oftahedrcn. 4. Parallelepiped.
3. Rhomboidal oftahedren. 6. Dodecahedron. But
the ingenious refearches of Hauy on this fubjetfl have
been followed by the completeft and moft fuccefsful in-
veftigation of the theory of the ftrufture of cryftals which
has yet appeared. Of this theory, an account of which
the reader will find in the Annales de Chimie f, and in } Vo!, xv!.-
his Traite de Mineraiogie we now propofe to give atVol. 1.
comprehenfive view’.
This theory, the author obferves, cannot be fully
underftood vvithout the aid of analytical calculations.
For befide the convenience of analyfis, including in the
fame formula a great number of different piubleins, it
is by means of it alone, that the theory can aflame the
ebarafter of abfolute certainty in arriving at the fame
refulls which are obtained by obfervation. But not
withftanding thefe confiderations, it feemed to be bei
ter for thofe who had not a competent knowledge of
the fcience of calculation to prefer the method of
fimplc reafoning, but accompanied with geometrical
figures, which are fo ufeful in giving a diftinft con¬
ception of the arrangement of the fmall folids which
combine together to foim a cryftal. This arrange¬
ment is denominated Jlruciure, in oppclition to the
term organisation, which expreffes the more compli¬
cated mechanifm of vegetables and animals. This me¬
thod may perhaps be lefs direbf, and lefs precife and
expeditious, and it may require attention to thofe de
tails which are paffed over in the analytical method to
reach its object more fpeedily *, it has, however, this
advantage, that the mind by its means perceives better
the connexion of the different parts under confidera-
tion, and can more eafily comprehend the facts with
which it is furnifhed.
I. Mechanical Division of Crystals.
The fame mineral fubftance, it is known, is ful-
ceptible of ieveral different forms, well defined, fome
of which do not appear, at nrft fight, to have any
common point of refemblance to indicate their rela¬
tion. If, for inftance, we compare the regular hex-
ahedral prifm of calcareous fpaf with the rhomboid of
the fame mineral (b), whole large angle is about ici y-®,
5 H we
(B) The name of rhomboid is given-by the author to a parallelopiped r- (fig. 12.) terminated by fix equal
and fimilar rhombufes. In every rhomboid, two of the folid angles fuch as n , oppofed to each other, are
formed by the jundion of three equal plane angles 5 each of the fix folid angles is formed by a plane angle equal
to each of the three preceding, and by two other angles of a different meafure but equal to each other. The
points a e are the fummits, the line « , is the axis. In any one of the rhombufes ab, df which compote the fur-
face, the angle * contiguous to the fummit, is called the fuperior angle j the angle ^ the imenor angle; and the
angles b and / are the lateral angles. The fides * b, af are the fupenor edges, and the fiaes b d, dj the inferior
edges: b /is the horizontal diagonal, and ^ d, the oblique diagotrah The rhomboid »s obtufe or acute, according
as the angles of the fummits are obtufe or acute. The cube is the limit 04 the ihomooids.
C R Y S T A L L IZ A T I O N.
794-
Sti'uclure of we fhould be led to believe that each of thefe two
1 f°rrns quite diftirnft from the other. But this point
of relation, which efcapes notice, when we confider
only the external form, becomes fenfible when we at¬
tend to the intimate mechamfm of the tti ufture. Here
the author gives a hiftorical view of the progrefs of his
refearche?, and traces the fteps which' led him to the
difcovery of what became as it were the key of his
whole theory.
He had in his hand a hexahedral prifm of calcare¬
ous (par, fimrlar to that mentioned above, and which
had been detached from a group of the fame cryftals.
The fradlure prcfented a very fmooth lurface, fituated
obliquely, like the trapezium p f ti t (fig. p.), and
which had an angle of I3j[0, both with the remain¬
der a b c sp h oi the bale, and with the remainder
t u e/ot the plane i n ef. Observing that the cunei-
form iegment/> r a / / « which this fraflure feparatsd
from the cryftal, had for its vertex one of the edges of
the bafe, namely the edge i n, he attempted to feparate
a fecond fegment in that part to which the contiguous
edge c « belonged. For this purpofe he employed the
blade of a knife, direcled with the fame degree of obli¬
quity as the trapezium p f u t and aided by the firoke
of a hammer. This, attempt failed 5 but having tried
the fame operation towards the next edge £ c, a new tra¬
pezium fimilar to the firft came into view, The fourth
edge a b refilled the inftrument, but the following, a k,
readily yielded to mechanical divifion, and prefented a
third trapezium, having as fine a pclilh as the other
two. The fixlh edge i h7 it is fcarcely neceffary to ob-
ferve, $ould not be divided, more than the fourth and
the fecond.
Proceeding then to the inferior bafe d efg h
it was foon found that the edges of this bafe, which ad¬
mitted of divifions fimilar to the preceding, were not
the edges efd r, g b, which correfponded to thofe
which could be divided towards the upper part, but
the intermediate edges d e, v y, g f. The trapezium
l y y v fhews the feflion made below the edge k r.
This fedlion is obvioufly parallel to that of the trape¬
zium p fu t and the four other feflions are in like
manner parallel, two and two. Now, thefe different
ie&ions being in the dire&ion of the natural joints of
the laminae, it was eafy to obtain others parallel to
each of them, but it was found impoflible to divide the
cryftal in any other dire&ion. Following this mecha¬
nical divifion according to the parallelifm flated above,
new fe6!ions were obtained, always nearer to the axis
of the prifm ; and when the fe&ions were carried fo far
as to make the remainder of the two bafes difappear,
the prifm was transformed into a folid OX (fig. iOi)
terminated by 12 pentagons, parallel two to two, of
which thofe, of the extremities, namely, SAOIR,
GIODE^ BAODC, on the one fide, and KNPQF,
MNPXU, ZQPXY, on the other, were the refults
of the mechanical divilion, and had their common ver¬
tices O, P, fituated in the centres of the bafes of the
prifm, fig. 9. The fix lateral pentagons RSUXY,
ZYRIG, &c. (fig. 10.) were the remainders of the
planes of the fame prifm.
In proportion as the fe£tions were multiplied, always
parallel to the preceding, the lateral pentagons dimi-
nilhed in height, and at a certain term tie points R,
G being confounded with the points Y, Z, the points
" '   
S, R with the points U, Y, &c. there remained noStrudurtaf
more of thefe pentagons, but the triangles YIZ, UXY, Cryfols,
Sec. (fig. 11.) Beyond that term the fe£tions coming'
to pais over the furlace of thefe triangles, diminiihed
gradually in extent, till at laid the fame triangles were
loll, and then the folid obtained from the hexahedfal
prifin, appeared to be a rhomboid a e (fig. 12.) exactly
finiiiar to that which is commonly denominated Iceland
fPar- 4!
So unexpected a refult led the ingenious author to the
examination of other calcareous cryftals in a fimilar
manner, all of which yielded to mechanical divifion in
fuch a way, as, when ^11 the external furfaces had dif-
appeared, the nucleus which remained was always a
rhomboid, of the fame form as the firff. All that was
neceffary was to difeover the dire Cl ion of the feCtions
which conducted to the central rhomboid.
To extraCl, for inftance, this rhomboid from the
fpar which is ufually denominated lenticular, and which
is itfelf a much more obtufe rhomboid, having its largo
plane angle equal to 1140 18' 56", it was neceffary to
begin with the two vertices, and to make the feCtions
pais through the firiall diagonals of the faces. But if
it is wifired, on the contrary, to get at the nucleus of
the rhomboidal fpar with acute Vertices, the direction,
of the feCtions of the planes mult be parallel to the
edges contiguous to the fummits, and in fuch a manner
that each of them lhall be equally inclined to the faces
which it cuts.
Thefe refults are the more worthy of attention, as
it would feem at jfirft, that in the procefs of cryflalli-
zation, after the rhomboid has been once adopted with
regard to a determined fpecies of mineral, it ought al¬
ways to re-produce it with the fame angles. But the
paradox which arifes from this diverfity of appearance,
is explained by the double ufe of the rhomboidal form,
which ferves here to difguife itfelf, and conceals fixed
and conftant characters under a variable external ap~
pearance.
If we take a cryftal of a different nature, fuch as a
cube of fiuor fpar, the nucleus will have* a different
form. This will be, in the prefent cafe, an bCtahedron,
which we ftiall obtain by taking off the eight folid
angles of the cube. Heavy fpar vvilh produce for a
nucleus a right prifm with ihomboidal bafes; fdd fpar,
an oblique-angled parallelepiped, but not rhomboidal 3
apatite or beryl, a right fix-fided prifm; the adamantine
fpar a rhomboid, a little acute 3 blende, a dodecahedron,
with rhomboidal planes 3 iron of the iiland of F.lba, a
cube, &ic. 3 and each of thefe forms will be conftant in
relation to the whole fpecies, fo that its angles will un¬
dergo no variation which is appreciable ; and if we at¬
tempt to divide the cryftal in any other direction, wTe
(hall not be able to find any joint 3 we (hall only obtain
indeterminate fragments 3 it will rather be broken than
divided.
Thefe folids inferibed each in all the cryftals of the
fame fpecies, ought to be regarded as the true primi¬
tive forms on which all the other forms depend. All
minerals, it is true, are not fufceptible of mechanical
divifion, but the number is greater than what appear¬
ed at firft fight; and with regard to thofe cryftals in
which the attempts to difeover the natural joints have
failed, it has been remarked that their furface ftriated
in a certain direSiiqh, or the relation of their different
of tVravamong thcfe wliicli belong to the fame fubftance,
||y(tals. frequently prefented indications of their ftruaure, and
Hj-r—^ by reafoning from their analogy with other divisible
cryllals, we may determine this firu&ure, at lead with a
good deal of probability.
Ail deviations from the primitive form are called by
Ha'uy, fee on Sary forms. The number of thefe forms
\ has certain limits, which can be determined by theory,
according to the laws which regulate the ftrudlure of
cryllals.
The folid of the primitive form, which is obtained by
means of the operation deferibed above, may be farther
fubdivided in a dire&ion parallel to its different faces.
Ail the furrounding matter is equally divifible by lec¬
tions parallel to the faces of the primitive form. Hen^e
it follows, that the parts detached by the aid of all
thefe feftions are limiiar, and only differ in their
volume, which continually decreafesin proportion to the
extent of the divifion. Thofe, however, muft be ex¬
cepted, which are near to the faces of the fecondary
folid ; for thefe faces not being parallel to thofe of the
primitive form, the fragments which have one of their
facets taken in the fame faces, cannot exaftly referable
thofe which ate detached towards the midcle of the
cry ft ah For inftance, the fragments of the hexahedral
prilm (Tg* 9>)» whofe external facets make part of t.^e
bafes, or of the planes, have not, in this refpefl, the
fame figure with thofe which are fituated nearer to the
centre, 0all of whofe facets *are parallel to the fedhons
pfut, l q y v ; but the difficulty which prefents itfelf
at fir ft fight, in confequence of that diverfity, is removed
by the help of the theory, and the whole are reduced to
a unity of form, _ .
But the divifion of the cryftal into fmad, fimilar
folids, has a certain limit, beyond which we ffiould
arrive at particles fp fmall, that they are no longer di¬
vifible, without deftroying the nature of the fubftance,
or decompofing it. At this term, the inveiugation
flops j and to the fmall folids, which we might mfu-
late if pur organs and inftruments were fufficiently
delicate, Hauy has given the name of. integrant or
integral molecules. He thinks it probable, that t e
molecules are thofe which were fufpended in the fluid in
which the cryftallization took place. In general it
may be obferved that with the aid of thefe molecules, the
theory reduces to Ample laws the different forms o. cryl-
tals, and arrives at refults which exaftly repreient tbo.e
of nature. . , , r VA
When the nucleus is a parallelopiped, that is, a iolid
having fix parallel faces, two to two, like the cube,
the rhomboid, &c. and this folid admits or no otner
divifions than thofe which are made in the direction
of its faces ; it is obvious that the molecules winch
lefult from the fubdivifion, whether of the nucleus,
or of the furrounding matter, are fimilar to tins nu¬
cleus. In othet cafes, the form of the molecules is
different from that of the nucleus. There are, befides,
other cryftals which afford, by means of mechanical m-
vifion, particles of different figures combined together
through the whole extent of thefe cryftals. Ihe
ingenious author of the theory has thrown out fome
• conieftures on the manner of refolvmg the difficuKy
which thefe kinds of mixed ftruflures prefent j and at
any rate he obferves that it does not afteft the Itabuity
of the theory.
CRYSTALLIZATION.
II. Laws of Decroient,
Etfuiflure of
Cryflals.
Decrements at ihe Edges.
The primitive form, and that of the integrant mOi--
Cules, being determined, after the diflettion of the cp-
ftals, we muft inveftigate the laws according to wlnc.a
thefe molecules were combined, to produce around tne
primitive form thofe kind of coverings which terminated
lb regularly, and from which refulted polyhedra fo dik .
ferent from each other, although originally of tne fame
fubftance. Now, fuch is the mechanifm of the ftruTture
lubjeft to thefe laws, that all the parts of the fecondary
cryftal fuperadded to the nucleus, are formed of la-
mime, which decreafe regularly by fubtraclions of one
or more ranges of integral molecules, fo that theory
determines the number of thefe rows, and by a ne-
ceffary confequence tire exajft form ot the fecondai}r
cryftal.
To have a diftinft idea of thefe laws, let us take a
very Ample and elementary example. Conceive EF
(fig-. 13.) to reprefent a dodecahedron whofe faces are
equal and fimilar rhombufes, and that this dodecahedron
is a fecondarv form, having a cube for its nucleus oi
primitive form. By the infpedlioil of fig. 14- the po-
fition of this cube in the cryftal maybe catily ^con¬
ceived. The fmall diagonals DC, CG, GI‘, FD ox
the four faces of the dodecahedron, being united round
the fame folid angle, form a fquare CDFG. Now there
are fix folid angles, compofed of the four planes, name¬
ly the angles L, O, E, N. R, P (fig- 13O, and confe-
quently, if feaions are made to pafs through the fmall
diagonals of the faces which compofe the folid angles,
fix fquares will be fucceflively uncovered. Ihefe
fquares will be the faces of the primitive cube, of which
three are reorefented at fig. 14. namely CDFG, A BCD,
BCGH. 6 f r* ^ ,
This cube would evidently be an affemblage _ ot
cubic integral molecules, and it would be neceflary
that each of the pyramids, fuch as LDCGF (fig. 14.),
which reft on the faces, ffiould be itlelf compofed ot
cubes equal to each other, and to thofe which fo.m
the nucleus. To have a more diftinft conception of
this arrangement, let us compoie an artificial dodecahe
dron of a certain number 01 fmall cubesAhe arrange¬
ment of whictr will be an imitation of tne procefs or
nature in difpofing the molecules in the formation of the
dodecahedron.
Let ABGF (fig. 15.) be a cube compofed of 729
fraall cubes equal to each other, in Which cafe each
face of the whole cube will include 81 fquares, that
is 9 on each fide, which will be the external faces of as
many partial cubes rtprefentlng the molecules. This
cube will be the nucleus of the dodecahedron which is
to be conftrufted. On one of the faces, as ALv./D, of
the cube apply a ffttia1'6 lamina, compofed of cubes
'equal to thofe which form the nucleus, but having to¬
wards each a row of cubes lefs than if it were on a
level with the contiguous faces BCGH, DCGF, 8ce.
This lamina will be compofed of 49 cubes, that is, 7
on each fide, fo that if the inferior bafe be onfg (fig.
16) this bafe will fall exaaiy on the fquare marked
with the fame letters in fig. 15. Above this firit la¬
mina let a fecond be applied, compofed of 25 cub«s,
c on each fide, fo that if Irnfju (fig. 17O reprefent
3 2 Rs
yftal-'
5   CRYSTAL
d1;u;ric c,f Jf-s nifeilof bafe, ir.is uafe will correspond exaflly With
^ the fquare marked with the fame letters in fig. ij. If
in like manner a third lamina be applied to the iecond,
which is compofed only of 9 cubes, that is, 3 on each
fide, fo that v xy % (fig. 18.) being the interior bafe,
fhall correfpond with the fquare marked with the fame
letters in fig. x 5.; and if on the middle fquare r of the
preceding lamina the fimal! cube r (fig. 19.) be placed,
this will repreient the laft lamina.
When this operation is completed, it will appear
that there is formed on the face ARCD (fig. 15.)
a four-fided pyramid, of which this face is the bafe,
and the cube r (fig. 19.) is the fummit. And if the
fame operation be continued on the other five fides of
the cube, we fhall have fix four-fided pyramids, refling
on the fix faces of the nucleus, which is enveloped with
them on all fides. But as the different rows of lamjnte
compofing thefe pyramids project beyond each other for
a certain way, as appears on fig. 20. where the parts
railed above the planes BCD, BCG reprefent the
• wo pyramids which reft on the faces A BCD, BCGH,
(;§g. 15.) The laces ol the pyramids will net form con-
nnued planes ; for they will be alternately re-entering
and iahent, in lome meaftire imitating a flair with four
^Nburidi aaoci ^ifi'
Let us nmv fuppofe that the nucleus is compoftd of
an Umber of aim aft imperceptible cubes incomparably
greater, and that the laminae applied on the different
laces, which may be called the laminae of fuperpofi-
lion, continue to increafe towards their four edges by
fubtraitions of one range of cubes equal to thofe of
the nucleus, the number of thefe laminae will be in¬
comparably greater than in the preceding hypothefis ;
ana at the lame time the cavities or furrows which they
form, as they alternately become falient or re-entering,
will be almofl imperceptible y and indeed it might be
fuppofed that the cubes of which the cryftal is compo¬
sed are fo Imall as to become quite imperceptible to our
fenfes,. and the faces of the pyramids to be perfedlly
fmooth.
Now DCBE (fig. 20.) being the pyramid which
refls on the face ABCD (fig. 15.), and CBOG (fig. 20.)
the pyramid applied to the face BCGH (fig. 15.), if we
confider that every thing is uniform from E to O (fig.
20.) in the manner in which the laminse of fuperpofi-
iion mutually project beyond each other, we may rea¬
dily conceive that the face CEB of the firft pyramid
ought to be exactly in the fame plane as the face COB
of the contiguous pyramid, fo that the union of thefe
two faces fhould form a rhombus ECOB. But we have,
ior the 6 pyramids, 24 triangles fimilar to CEB, which
confequently will be reduced to S2 rhombufes, from
which refults a dodecahedron fimilar to what is repre-
iented in fig. 13. and 14.
The cube, before it arrives at the form of the dode¬
cahedron, paffes through a multitude of intermediate
modifications, of Which one is fliown at fig. 21. The
fquares pace, klq u, m n t s, &c. correfpond to the
fquares ABCD, DCG.F, CBHG, &c. (fig. 14.), and
LIZ AT ION-.
foim the Superior bafe5 of as many pyramids, incompieteSuuaareof
1:0m the deficiency of the laminae with which th^v
ought to terminate. The rhombufes EDLC, ECOB
(fig- *3-)>bya neceffary confequence, are reduced to
Ample hexagons a e Cl kT), c 0 n mC (fig. 2I.); an(i
the furface of the fecondary cryftal is compofed of 12 o
thefe hexagons and 6 fquares. This is the cafe with
the boracic fpar (the borate of magnefia and lime),
with the exception of fome facets which furmount the
folid angles, and which depend on a different law of de¬
crement.
If the. diminution vof the lamina? of fuperpofition
proceeded in a more rapid ratio j for example, if each
lamina had had on its circumference, two, three, or four
low s of cubes lefs than the inferior lamina, the pvra-
mids produced on the nucleus by this diminution bc-
mg more depreffed, and their contiguous faces being
no longer on a level, the furface of the fecondary C
hd would have been compofed of 24 ifofceles triangle?,
all inclined to each other. Decrement on the edges^ is
that which takes place parallel to the edges of the nu¬
cleus, and it ought to be diftinguiihed from another kind
of decreafe to be afterwards mentioned.
2. Examples of Decreafe on the Edges.
Martial Pyrites, or Dodecahedral Sulphuret of Irotj.
Geometric Charudler.—Inclination of any one of the
pentagons, as DPRFS (fig. 27.), to the pentagon
CPitGL, which has the iame bale PR, 126° 56' 8".
Angles of the pentagon CPRGL, L = 1210 3P
17"; C or Gzr 1060 35'37" 30'"; P or R =r 102°
36' 19".
Let us conceive again a cubic nucleus, whofe differ¬
ent edges are lines of departure to the fame number
of decrements which take place at the fame time in
two different ways ; that is, by the fubtraaion of two
row's parallel to the edges AB, CD (fig. 15.), and of one
row parallel to the edges AB, BC. Let it be fup¬
pofed alfo that each lamina being only equal in thick-
nefs to a fmall cube of the fide AB and CD, is on the
contrary equal to double the thicknefs of the fide AD
and BC. Fig. 22. reprefents this difpofition with re¬
gard to the decrements which proceed from the lines
DC, BC, (fig. 15.). It is plain that on account of the
more rapid decreafe in proceeding from DC or AB,
than from BC or AD, the faces produced in the firft
cafe will be more inclined to the plane ABCD, wfiiile
the faces produced in the fecond will remain as it were
behind, fo that the pyramid will no longer be terminated
by a fingle cube E, as in fig. 20. W'hich on account of its
minutenefs feems to be only a point, but by the row of
cubes PftNSl (fig. 22.) which, fuppofing thefe cubes to
be infinitely fmall, will prefent the appearance of a fim-
ple ridge. By a neceffary confequence, the pyramid
will have for its faces two trapeziums, fuch as DMNC,
refulting Lorn the firft decrement, and two ifofcelcs
triangles, fuch as CNB, which will be the effea of the
fecond decrement (c).
~ Let
< T.vitals.
Heie the face which correfponds to ABCD (fig. 13O has 23 fquares on each fide, as may be feen in fig.
22. I he ftruflure of this pyramid may be imitated artificially, by regulating the arrangement and number of the
eules reprefent,ed in the fame figure,/f03'
CRYSTAL!,
-sCrur" of Let u'5 fappafe fartlier, that with regard to the la-
rylra!;. rninse of fuperpofition, which arife on the face BCGH
■“"v (fig. i j,), the decrements follow the fame laws, but in
crofs di red ions j in fuch a way that the more rapid of
the two may take place in proceeding from BC, or
from GH, towards the vertex of the pyramid, and the
flow-er decrement in proceeding fiom CG, or BH, to¬
wards the fame vertex. The pyramid which refults
from thefe decrements will be placed in a diredfion op-
pofite to that which refts on ABCD, and will have
the pofition reprefented at fig. 25. where the edge KL,
which terminates the pyramid, inflead of being paral¬
lel to CD, like the edge MN, (fig. 22. and 23.) is on
the contrary parallel to BC. We (hall then conceive
what is to be done, that the pyramid which will reft on
.DC, GF (fig. 15.) may be turned as it is reprefented in
fig. 24. and may have its terminating edge PR parallel
to ^CG (fig. 15.). The pyramids which will reft on
three other faces of the cube, will ftand like that which
arifes on the oppofite face.
But as the decrements which produce the triangle
CNB (fig. 23.) make a continuity with thofe from
which refults the trapezium CBKL (fig. 25.), thefe two
figures will be in the fame plane, and will form a pen-
U >on CNBKL (fig. 26.)- For the fame reafon the
triangle DPC (fig. 24.) will be on a level with the tra¬
pezium DMNC (fig. 23.) ; and by applying the fame
reafoning to the other pyramids, it will be conceived
that the fix pyramids having for their whole faces 11
trapeziums and 12 triangles, the furface of the iecon-
dary folid will be compofed of 12 pentagons, which
wall correfpond to the 12 rhombufes of fig. 13. but with
this difference, that they will have other inclinations.
This folid is reprefented at fig. 27. and with its cubic
nucleus at fig. 28. where it may be feen how to pro¬
ceed in the extra&ion of this nucleus. If, for exam¬
ple, a feffion be made paflxng through the points D,
C, G, F, the pyramid which refts on the face DCGF of
the nucleus will be detached, and by this fection tne
latter will be uncovered.
Among the cryftals belonging to the fulphuret of
iron, or the arfeniate of cobalt, there is found a dode¬
cahedron, having the faces equal and fimilar pentagons,
and having for its nucleus a cube in tne pofition above
deferibed. But there are an infinite number of poffible
dodecahedra, which may have for faces equal and fimilar
pentagons, and will differ from each other by the re-
fpeftive inclinations of their faces. Of all theie ao-
decahedra, the one whofe ftnnfture would be fubjeffed
to thefe laws, gives 126° 56' 8", ns _ the angle formed
by the inclination of any two of its faces DPRFS,.
CPRGL (fig. 27.) at the edge of jun&ion PR, as
might be {hewn by calculation. Some mineralogifts,
overlooking the ufe of geometry in the confideration
of cryftals, have confounded the dodecahedron of py¬
rites with the fame regular geometrical figure in which
all the fides and angles of each pentagon are equal;
but there is a ftriking difference between thefe two dc-
decahedra. The regular dodecahedron gives only
1160 33' 54", as the inclination of its refpeftive pen¬
tagons, making a difference of nearly 11-^° between
it and the other. And indeed the regular dodecahedron
cannot be produced by any law of decrement what¬
ever, however compound it may be fuppofed, in re¬
gard to a cubic nucleus} and, as may be demonftrated
I Z AT ION. 797
generally, for a nucleus of any form. There are then t wo Structure °t
kinds of dodecahedra, one whofe faces are ihombufes,, ^ ,
and another whofe faces are pentagons, produced upon
a cubical nucleus, in confequence of two fimple and re¬
gular laws of decrement, in a dire£tion parallel to the
edges of the nucleus. By varying thefe laws in dit-
ferent other ways, a multitude of new polyhedra, having
the fame nucleus may be conftruffted.
Obtufe or Lenticular Calcareous Spar, (fig. 30.\
Geometric CharaEler. Inclination of the rhombus ?i q it 0 .
to the rhombus a 1 f d', 1340 25' 36 Angles 01 .the
rhombus n a db' \ a ox b'xrz 1140 18' 56" j n or d — 6
41' 4".
This variety arifes from a decrement by a fingle
row on both fides of the edges a b, a g, a f (fig. 31.)
and e o, e d, e x, contiguous to the fummits a, e, of the
nucleus. An idea may be formed of its ftrufture, by
comparing it with that of the dodecahedron whofe planes
form rhombufes (fig. 13. and 20.), originating from
the cube, (fig. I 5.) ; and by fuppofing that the laminae,
inftead of decieafing at the fame time on all the edges,
decreafe only to thofe contiguous, three by three, to
the angle C and its oppofite. The faces formed in
that cafe will be reduced to fix, which, by prolonging
themfelves, according to the law of continuity, fo
as to interfeft each other, will compofe the furface oi
a rhomboid' analogous to the one which we are now
treating of, excepting that it will have other angles,
on account of the cubical form of Its integral mole-
cule. ' , ,
From this it may be conceived, that the diagonals
drawn from a to b' (fig. 30.), from tz to/, from a to/',
&c. on the fecondary rhomboid, will be confounded
with the edges ah, a g, a f, (fig. 31.) of the nucleus,,
which ferve as lines of departure for the decrements:
and hence to extrsft this nucleus, the planes of the Lec¬
tions muft pafs along thefe diagonals, as has been already
remarked. 'x st’tvt *. vr
Common Topa%, (fig. 33.}.
Geometric CharaBer.—The inclination of the trape¬
zoid s r t m to the adjacent plane r t ey, 136° ; of the
fame plane, to k ry%,\ 240 26' \ of the plane / m g e,
to m / i g\ 930.
The primitive form of this topaz is that oi a right-
angled, four-fided prilm b y (fig* 32'0 the bales of which
are rhombufes, having the angle A or ? ~ 124° 26'. Ac •
cording to theory, in regard to the integrant molecule,,
the height r y is to the fide r n pearly in the ratio of 3
to 2. The pyramidal fummit of the topaz refults from
a decrement by two rows of fmall prifins on the edges
x r, r », n h, h x of the fuperior bafe of the primi¬
tive form. The planes t m g e, lm g e (fig. 33.) on one.
fide, and bk<zp,bu dp, on the other, arife from a de¬
crement by three rows on each fide of the edges n v,
xq (fig. 32.), which decrement remains fufpended at a
certain term, and leaves four re£tangles / r y e,h r y x,
l h c i, u h c d, (fig. 33.), parallel to the planes of the
primitive form. The efFeft of this decrement is ftiewn
at fig. 34. where the rhombus h n r x is the fame as
fig. 32. ; and all the fmall rhombs by which it is fubdi-
vided, or which are exterior to it, reprefent the bafes
©f fo many molecules. The lines a? d, x %, n i, n er
are;,
#
CRTS T A L LI Z AT ION.
S'rudlure ofare directed according lo tbe lav/ of’ decrement already
!»• explained, and the rines c d,c i. y y c, correfpond
to the planes of the prifm, which are not fubject to
this law.
3. Decrement on the Angles.
This petition of the rllomboidal nucleus inclofed in
the regular hexahedral prifm of the calcareous fpar
being difeovered, did not direftly lead to the determi¬
nation of the laws of thofe decrements of fccondary
crydals. More fimple intermediate heps were necei-
fary. To conceive the method of inveftigating thefe
new decrements, it may be remarked that the fame
fubftances which exhibit the dodecahedron with penta¬
gonal planes originating from the cubes (fig. 27. and
28.), and which might aflame the form of the dodecahe¬
dron whofe planes are rhombufes (fig. 13. and 14.), are
found alfo under that of the regular octahedron. But
if the lamina; of fuperpofition decreafe only on the
edges of the two oppofite faces of this cube, as on
thole of the fuperior bafe ABCD (fig. 14.) and of the
inferior bafe, we lhall in general have two pyramids
applied on thefe bafes. And if we fuppofe the eifecSl:
of the law of decrements continued in the fpace fitua-
ted between the bafes of the cube, we fhall arrive at
an o&ahedron, vvhofe angles will vary as there is a
greater or fmaller number of rows fubtracled. But
no law, however complicated, can give equilateral tri¬
angles as the faces of this octahedron.
On the other hand, by dividing a regular octahe-
idron originating from a cube, the cubic nucleus will
appear to be fo fituated in this otdahedron that each
of its fix folid angles correfponds to the centre of one
of the faces of the octahedron 5 but this could not be
the cafe by fuppofing a decrement on the edges. The
law of decrement accomplifhes its ends, in iuch cafes,
by a different progrefs from that which conducts to
the forms already deferibed.
Let ABCD (fig. 35.) be the fuperior or inferior fur-
face of a lamina compofed of fmall cubes, whofe bafes
are reprefented by the fquares which fubdivide the
whofe iquare. The feries of cubes to which the fquares
ayb,c, d, e, / g, k, z, belong, are on the diagonal
drawn from A to C; and they form one itring, (fig.
36.) which will not differ from the firing of the cubes
a, «,<?, A s\ t', u\ A (fig- 35-)» in the direc¬
tion of tire edge AD, excepting that in the former
the cubes touch only by one of their edges, and. in
the latter by one of their faces. There are alfo,
throughout the whole extent of the lamina, firings of
cubes parallel to the diagonal. The feries of letters
q, v, k, u, x, ijy z, fliews one, and the letters «, /,
/, m, p, 0, r, s, fhew another firing.
The laminae of fuperpofition, it may be conceived,
projeft beyond each other one or more rows of cubes
in a direftion parallel to the diagonal. In like man¬
ner may be confhudted around the cubic nucleus,
folids of different figures, by placing fucceffively a-
bove the different faces of this nucleus laminae which
may arife in the form of pyramids, and which -will ex¬
perience this kind of decrement. The faces of thefe
folids will be roughened by an infinite number of fa-
lient angles formed by the exterior points of the com-
•pofing cubes. This follows from the angular figure
which is continually preferred by the edges of the
laminae of fuperpofition. But thefe points being on a Strufeeof
level, the cubes may be fuppofed to be fo fmali that 4 ’'.nbb.
the faces of the ioiid will appear fmooth and continued '""“"v-—
planes.
Around the cube ABGF (fig. 37.), rs a nucleus,
let a fecondary folid be conitructed, in which the la¬
mina of fuperpofition (hall decreafe on all tides by a
Angle row of cubes, in a direction parallel to the dia¬
gonals 5 and let ABCD (fig. 38.), the fuperior bafe of
the nucleus, be fubdivided in 8x fmall fquares, repre-
fenting the exterior faces of'an equal number of mole¬
cules. Fig. 39. repretents the fuperior furface of the
firft lamina which ought to be placed above A BCD
(fig. 38.) in fuch a manner that the point a' may cor-
reipond to the point a, the pointT' to the point b, the
point cr to the point c, and the point d’ to the point d\
By this difppfitiQ.n the fquares Art, BZ>, Cc, Dz/(fig.
38. ) remain uncovered, which will fulfil the above law
of decrement j and the borders QV, ON, IL, GF (figv
39. ) projedt by one row beybndthe borders AB, AD,
CD, BC (fig. 37.), which is neceffary that the nucleus
may be enveloped towards thefe edges. For if the
edges of the lamina reprefented (fig. 39.), as well as the
following, coincided with the lines ST, EZ, YX, MU,
on which fuppofition they would be on a level wilk
AD, AB, CD, BC (fig. 38.), they would form (re¬
entering angles towards the analogous parts of the
cryftal. Thus in the laminae applied on ABCD (fig.
37.) all the edges anfwering to CD would be on a level
with CDFG, of which they would form a prolonga¬
tion ; and in the laminae applied on DCGF all the
edges analogous to the fame ridge CD would be on a
level with ABCD, from which neceflarily refuits a
re-entering angle oppofite to the falient angle formed
by the two faces ABCD and CDFG. But by the
laws which determine the formation of fitnple cryftals,
re-entering angles appear to be excluded. The folid
will then increafe in thofe parts to which the decre¬
ment does not extend. But this decrement alone be¬
ing fufficient to determine the form of the fecondary
cryltal, all the other variations which intervene only in
a fubfidiary manner may be fet afide, excepting in the
confiru&ion of artificial cryftals, and in exhibiting the
details relating to the ftrudture.
The fuperior face of the fecond lamina will be like
A'G'LK' (fig. 40.), and this lamina muft be placed
above the preceding, in fuch a manner that the points
rt", Vy c", d", may correfpond with the points a' b'
c'y d’ (fig. 39.), which will leave uncovered the fquares
having their exterior angles fituated in Q, S, E, O, V,
T, M, G, &c. and continuing to produce the decre¬
ment by one row. The folid increales towards the
analogous edges at AB, BC, CD, AD (fig. 38.) fmee
between A' and L', for inftance, (fig. 40.) there are 13
fquares, but between QV and LI (fig. 39.) there are
only eleven.
The large faces of the laminae of fuperpofition which
were hitherto octagons QVGFILNO (fig. 39.) having
arrived at the figure of the fquare A/G'L'K' (fig. 40.),
will after paffing that term, decreafe on all fides at the
fame time, and the following lamina will have for its fu¬
perior facb the fquare B'MTS (fig. 41.), lefs in every
direction by one row than the fquare A'G'L/K/ (fig. 40.).
Let this fquare be difpofed above the preceding fo that
the points </, Zi §■> b' (fig. 41.) niay correfpond with.
c , the
CRYSTAL]
ruflurc of the points?, g, (fig. 40,). Fig. 42. 43. 44. and
Crj'ftals. reprefent the four laminae which ought to rife
fucceflively above the preceding, the fame letters be¬
ing made to correfpond. The lail lamina is reduced
to one cube •xJ (fig. 46.) which Ihould correfpond with
the fame letter (fig. 45.).
Thus it follows, that the laminae of fuperpofition ap¬
plied on the bafe ABCD (fig- 37- and 38.) produce,
by the total of their decrealing edges, -four faces,
which in proceeding from the points A, B, C, D, in¬
cline one to another in the form of a pyramidal fum-
mit. Thefe edges, it may be remarked, have lengths
which begin by increafing as in fig. 39. and 40. and
which then proceed decreafing. Thus the faces pro¬
duced by the fame edges increafe at firit, and after¬
wards dccreafe in breadth, fo that they become qua¬
drilaterals. One of thefe is reprefented at fig. 47.
in which the inferior angle C is confounded with the
angle C (fig. 37.) of the nucleus; and the diagonal
L£> reprefents the edge L/G' of the lamina A'G'L'K/
(fig. 40.), which is the moll extended in the dire&ion
of that edge. And the number of laminae of fuper¬
pofition producing the triangle LCO^ (fig. 47.) be¬
ing lefs than that of the laminae producing the tri¬
angle LZO, fince there is here only one lamina pre¬
ceding the lamina A'G'L'K/ (fig. 40.), while there
are fix which follow it as far as the cube 2; (fig. 46.)
inclufively, the triangle LZQ (fig. 47.) compofed of
the fum of the edges of thefe latter laminae, will have
a much greater height than the inferior triangle LC£),
as it is exprefled in the figure.
The furface of the fecondary folid, then, will be
formed of 24 quadrilaterals, difpofed three and three
around each fclid angle of the nucleus. But decreaf-
ing by one row, the three quadrilaterals belonging to
each folid angle, fuch as C (fig. 37.) will be in the
fame plane, forming an equilateral triangle ZIN (fig.
48.). The 24 quadrilaterals, then, will produce eight
equilateral triangles. One of thefe is reprefented at
fig. 49. fhewing the arrangement of the cubes that
concur to form it; and the fecondary folid will be a
regular o6lahedron. This o&ahedron is reprefented
at fig. 50. enclofing the cubic nucleus, fo that each of
its folid angles correfponds to the centre of one of the
triangles IZN, IPN, PfS, SIZ, &c. of the oftahe-
dron. To extract this nucleus, it would be neceflary
to divide the o6lahedron in its eight folid angles,
by feftions parallel to the oppofite edges. This is
the ftrudlure of octahedral fulphuret of lead or ga¬
lena.
Such then is an example of decrements on the angles
which take place in a dire&ion parallel to the diago¬
nals. By this denomination may be expreffed precife-
ly the refult of each decrement, by denoting the angle
which ferves it as a point of departure.
Acute calcareous Spar, (fig. 51.)
Geometric CJiaracier.—Inclination p % r y \o p u o y,
78° 27' 47", and to z’r » r, 101° 32' 13G Angles of
the rhombus p % r y,p ox r — 750 3P 20" 5 z or
y 104° 28' 40". Inclination of the oblique di¬
agonal drawn from p to r with the edge p uy 71°
33' 54-f/
Geomet, Propert.^—'TYx angles of .the rhombus are
.1 Z AT I O N. 799
equal to the refpeclive inclinations of the faces of the Stiufture of
nucleus, and reciprocally. The angles of the princi- , ^ ^
pal quadrilateral, or that which pafles through two
oppofite oblique diagonals p r, u i, and through the in¬
termediate edges p «, i r, are the fame as on the nu¬
cleus.
To conceive the ftrudlure of this rhomboid, luppofe
that a b d f (fig. 52.) reprefents the face of the nu¬
cleus marked with the fame letters (fig. 12.) iubdivided
into a multitude of partial rhombufes, which are the
exterior faces of fo many molecules. S.uppofe farther,
‘that the laminse of fuperpofition, applied on this face,
decreafe by one row towards the lateral angles a b d,
a f d, in fuch a manner, that on the firft the two rhom¬
bufes b h k l, f min are uncovered } that on the fecond
the uncovered rhombufes are thofe traverfed by the
diagonsls c o,u y, on the third thofe traverfed by the
diagonals s t, q &c. ; in which cale the decreafing
edges will fucceflively correfpond with thele diagonals.
By this law of decrement two faces will be produced }
which, proceeding from the angles b f, will rife in the
form of a roof above the rhombus a b df, and will
meet on a common edge fituated immediately above
the diagonal a d, and which will be parallel to it;
and, as there are fix rhombufes, which undergo like
decrements on the primitive form, the faces produced
will be 12 in number. But, by the law of decrement
by one row, the two faces which have the fame angle
bifig, &c. (fig. 12.) for the point of departure will
be in the fame plane j, thus reducing the 12 faces to
fix, and transforming the fecondary cryilal into an acute
rhomboid p i (fig. 51.). In this rhomboid the edges
p p y,p u, are fituated each as the oblique diagonals
of the nucleus, or thofe which would be drawn from
a to d, from a to x, from a to c, &c; (fig. 12.).
Cryllals of this variety are found near Lyons ip
France 3 and the freeftone of Fontainbleau, commonly
called crvfialli%ed freejlone, which is nothing elfe than
calcareous fpar, mixed with particles of quartz, ex¬
hibits the fame form. The cryftals of this ftone yield
to mechanical divifion, and have their natural join¬
ings like thofe of pure fpar, fituated in the planes
parallel to the edges p ss, p y, p u, See. (fig. 51.),
and which would pais at an equal diflance from thefe
edges.
Rhomboidal Iron ore, (fig. 53.).
Geometric CharaBer.—Inclination of BCRP to
BCOA or OCRS, I46p 26' 33'G angles of the
rhombus BCRP, C or P=i 170 2' 9'' B or R=62°
57' 51"-
The laminae compofing this rhomboid decreafe by
two rows on angles b e r, 0 c r,b c 0, See. (fig. 54.)
which concur to the formation of the two folid angles
c n, oi a cubic nucleus. The faces produced, inftead
of being on a level, three and three, around thefe angles,
as in the cafe of decrement by a fingle row, incline one
to the other, and extend above the faces of the nucleus
in fuch a manner that their diagonals are parallel to
the horizontal diagonals of the fame faces. The cuke
here anfwers the purpofe of a rhomboid, which fliould
have its fummits in c and n, in which cafe there would
be only one axis pafling through the fummits. In the
dodecahedropj on the other hand, with pentagonal
planes
Boo
CRYSTAL LIZATIO N.
Structure of planes, (fig. 27.) the cube performs the functions of a
; Cry^a1^ , reftangular parallelopipedon, and then three different
axes may be conceived, each of which paffes through
the middle of the two oppofite faces. When the cube
begins to perform the one or the other, in regard to
one fpecics of mineral, it is obferved to continue that
fun£licn in all the varieties of that fpecies.
The cryftais cf rhomboidal iron are found among
thole of the iron ore of the idand of Elba. It is un¬
common, however, for the law of decrement to attain
to its boundary, and for the rhomboid not to be modi¬
fied by facets parallel to the faces of the nucleus. If
the decrement which produces the rhomboid took place
at the fame time on the eight folid angles of the cube,
there would refult a polyhedron of 24 facets, of
which nature arc the cryftais found at the Calton hill,
Edinburgh, which have been conlidered as zeolites.
4. Intermediate Decrements.
In fome cryftais the decrements on the angles do not
take place in lines parallel to the diagonals, but paral¬
lel to lines lituated between the diagonals and the ed¬
ges. This happens when the fubtraftions are made by
double, triple, &c. rows pf molecules. In figure 55.
which is an inftance of thefe fubtradHons, the molecules
compofing the row reprefented by the figure, are fo ar¬
ranged as if, of two, one only was formed. To reduce
this cafe under that of the common decrements on the
angles, we have only to conceive the cryftal compofed
of parallelepipeds, having their bales equal to the fmall
redlangles abed, edfg, hgil, See. The name of
intermediate decrement is given to this kind of diminu¬
tion.
Syntaftic Iron Ore, (fig. 50.).
Geometric Chara&er,—Refpedlive inclination of the
trapeziums b e g 0, nqgo of the riling pyramids
= I350 34' 31"; of the ^ges eg, g q, 1290 31'
16". Angles of the trapezium b cg 0, b ox c—105°
48'35"; 0 or £•= 76° II' 23".
This variety of iron ore is found at Framont in Les
Vofges. It commonly appears under the form of two
oppofite pyramids, and fome groups refledV from the
furface the prifmatic colours. Thefe cryftais, claffed
by De L’lfle among the modifications of the dodeca¬
hedron with ifofceles triangular planes, have for nu¬
cleus a cube performing the fundlions of the rhomboid.
The two regular hexagons by which they are termina¬
ted, arife from a decrement by a lingle row of cubic
molecules on the angles c, n, (fig. 54.) of the nucleus.
To comprehend' the effeft of this law, combined
with the preceding, and which produces the lateral tra¬
peziums, let it be fuppofed that c r (fig. 57.) re-
prefents the fame fquare as fig. 54. lubdivided into
fmall fquares, which are the external faces of fo many
molecules. Taking thefe molecules by pairs, fo that
they form reflangular parallelepipeds, having for bales
the oblong fquares bngh, hgmG, &c. and imagine,
that the fubtia&ions are made by two rows of thefe
double molecules, the edges of the laminse of fuperpo-
fition wall be fucceiTively ranged in lines, as PG, TL,
R/>, S/>, k%, you, &c. and the fum of all thefe edges
will produce two faces, which departing from the
angles b, r, will converge, the one towards the other,
and will unite themfelves on a common ridge, fituatedStnAureof
above the diagonal cp, but inclined to that diagcnal. Gyftfds. ■
The complete xefuk of this decrement, then, is 1 2 fa- '“““v—**
ces 5 and it is (hewn by calculation, that the fix fupe-
rior faces being prolonged to the point where they
meet the lix lower faces, will form with them the fux-
face ox a dodecahedron, compofed of two tight pyramids
united at their bales. By the effect of the firft law,
thefe pyramids are here incomplete, which gives the
hexagon a bedru (fig. 56.) and its oppolite.
5. Mixed Decrements.
The decrements in other cryftais, either on the edges,
or on the angles, vary according to laws, the propor¬
tion of which can only be expreffed by the fraftion 4
or It may happen, for inftance, that each lamina
exceeds the following by two rows parallel to the ed¬
ges, and that it may, at the fame time, have un alti¬
tude triple that of a fimple molecule. A vertical, geo¬
metrical fection of one of the kinds of pyramids, rc-
fulting from this decrement, is reprefented at fig. 62.
The effsiffs of this decrement msy be readily conceived
by confidcring that AB is a horizontal line taken on
the upper bale of the nucleus b a z, r, the feftion of the
firft lamina of fuperpofition, gfen that of the fecond.
Thefe are called mixed decrements, which exhibit this,
new kind of exception from the fimpieft laws. They,
as well as the intermediary ones, rarely exift anywhere
elfe, and they have been particularly difeovered in cer¬
tain metallic fubftances. The application of the ordi¬
nary laws, Hauy obferves, to a variety of thefe fubftan¬
ces, prefented fuch errors in the value of the angles, as
led him to believe that they were inconfiftent with
theory. But extending his theory, he arrived at re-
fults fo corredh as removed every doubt of the exiftehce
of the laws on which thefe refults depended.
All the changes to which cryftais are iubjeCled de¬
pend on the laws of ftrudlure which have been explain¬
ed, and others of a fimilar kind. The decrements feme-
times take place at the fame time on all the edg^ as
in the dodecahedron having rhon'ibufes for its planes,
or on ail the angles, as in the oflahedron originating
from a cube. Sometimes they take place only on cer¬
tain edges of certain angles. There is fornetimes a uni¬
formity between them, fo that it is one fingle law by one,
two, three rows, &c. which adls on the different edges,
or the different pngles. Sometimes the law varies
from one edge to the other, or from one angle to the
other. This happens particularly, when the form of
the nucleus is not fymmetrical, as, for inftance, when it
is a parallelepiped, whole faces differ by their refpec-
tive inclinations, or the meafure of their angles. In
fome cafes there is a concurrence of the decrements on
the edges, with thofe on the angles, to produce the
fame form •, and fometimes the fame edge or the fame
angle is fubjecled to feveral laws of decrement fucceed-
ing each other. The fecondary cryftal, in fome cafes,
has faces parallel to thofe of the primitive form, and
which combine with the faces produced by the decre¬
ments to modify the figure of the cryftal. Simple fe¬
condary forms, are thofe which arife from a fingle law
of decrement, the effedl of which entirely conceals the
nucleus. Compound fecondary forms arife from feve-
ral fimultaneous law's of decrement, or from one fingle
law not having attained to its extent; fo that there re-
main
CRYSTALLIZATION.
a&ure of main faces parallel to tKofe of the nucleus, which con-
Yyftals. cur tlie faces produced by the decrement, to diver-
v fify the form of the cryftal. If, amidlt this diverfity of
laws, fometiraes infulated, fometimes united by more or
lefs complicated combinations, the number of the row's
fubtra&ed were itfelf extremely variable ; if, for in-
ftance, thefe decrements were by 12, 20, or 30 rows,
or more, which is poflible, the number of forms which
might exift in each kind of mineral would be immenfe.
But the power by which the fubtraftions are effedted,
feems to be very limited in its aftion. Its extent rare¬
ly exceeds 1 or 2 rows of molecules. Beyond four
rows, only one variety of calcareous fpar has been dif-
covered. The ftrufture of this variety depends on a
decrement by fix rows ; but this .feems to be a rare oc¬
currence in nature. Yet, although the laws of cryftal-
lization are limited to tw’o of the fimpleft, that is, thofe
which produce fubtractions by one or two rows, calca¬
reous fpar is fufceptible of 2044 different forms, a num¬
ber exceeding more than 50 times that of the forms at
prefent known 5 and, admitting into the combination
decrements by 3 and 4 rows, calculation will give
8,388,604 pofiible forms of the fame fubftance, and by
the operation of either mixed or' intermediate decre¬
ments, this number will be greatly augmented.
The ftrise obferved on the furface of many cryftals
is another proof in favour of the theory ; for they al¬
ways have direfHons parallel to the proje&ing edges
of the laminae of fuperpofition, which mutually go be¬
yond each other, if the regularity of the procefs has not
been difturbed. It muff not, however, be fuppofed, that
the inequalities arifing from the decrements muft be al¬
ways fenfible, - if the form of the cryflals be complete 5
for the molecules being extremely minute, the furface
will appear finely polifhed, and no ftriae would be per¬
ceptible. In feme fecondary cryftals, therefore, they
are not to be feen, while they are quite difthuft in o-
thers of the fame nature and form. In the latter cafe,
the a£lion of the caufes producing cryftallization, has
not enjoyed all the neceffary conditions ; the operation
has been interrupted ; and the law of continuity not ha¬
ving been obferved, there have remained on the furface
of the cryftal, perceptible vacancies. Thefe deviations
have this advantage, that they point out the dire&ion,
according to which the ftriae are arranged in lines, and
thus contribute to difeover the real mechanifm of the
ftrufture.
The fmall vacuities which the edges of the laminae
of fuperpofition leave on the furface of even the moft
perfect fecondary cryftals, by their re-entering and falient
angles, (hew that the fragments obtained by divifion,
wliofe external facets form part of the faces of the fe¬
condary cryftal, are not like thofe drawn from the in¬
terior part. For this apparent diverfity arifes from thefe
facets being compofed of a multitude of Imall planes,
really inclined to each other, but which being very mi¬
nute, prefent the appearance of one plane. And if the
divifion could reach its utmoft bounds, thefe fragments
would be refolved into molecules fimilar to each other,
and to thofe fituated towards the centre. It happens,
too, that molecules of different figures arrange them-
felves in fuch a manner, as to produce fimilar polyhe-
dra in different kinds of minerals. Thus the dodeca¬
hedron with rhombufes for its planes, which is obtain¬
ed by combining cubic molecules, exifts in granite, with
Vcl. VI. Part II.
SOI
a ftrudlure corapofed of fmall tetrahedra, having ifofceles Stn;cY.re cf
triangular faces. It exifts alfo in fparry fluor, where
there is alfo an affemblage of tef.rahedra, but regular $
that is to fay, the faces of which are equilateral triangles.
Examples of Compound Secondary Forms.
Prifmatic Calcareous Spar, (fig. 9.).
The bafes of this prifm are produced in confequence
of a decrement, by a fingle row on the angles ot thp
fummits baf, gaf, bag,dex,dec, c e x (fig. 12.)
of the primitive form. The fix planes relult from a
decrement by two row's on the angles b d ff x g,b c g,
d f x, d b c, c g x, oppofite to. the preceding. Let a b df
(fig. 58.) be the fame face of the nucleus, as fig. 12.
The decreafing edges fituated towards the angle of the
fummit a, w'ill fucctfiively correfpond with the lines h 1,
k /, &c. and thofe which look towards the inferior
angle d, w'ill have the pofitions pointed out by m n, op;
but as the firft decrement takes place by one row, it is
proved, that the face which refults from it is perpendi¬
cular to the axis} and calculation Ihews, in like manner,
that the fecond decrement taking place by tw'o rows,
produces planes parallel to the axis, and thus the feccn-
dary folid is a regular hexahedral prifm.
To develope farther the ftruciure ot this prifm, it
may be remarked, that in the produdion of any one
abenih (fig. 9.) of the two bafes, the effect of one
only of the three decrements which take place around
the folid angle a (fig. 1 2.) may be confidered, for ex¬
ample, of that which takes place on the angled tf/, fup-
pofing that the laminae applied on the two other faces
fa g x,b a gc,do not decreafe, but to affift the refultof
the principal decrement which takes place in regard to
the angle b a f. Here thefe auxiliary decrements are
quite fimilar to that whole effeft they are fuppofed to
prolong.
The cafe will be totally different by applying the.
fame obfervation to the decrements which are affected
by two rows on the inferior angles b d f, df x, j x g,
&c. and which produce the fix planes of the prifm. If,
for example, we confider the effeft of the decrement on
the angle df x, it is neceffary alfo that the laminae ap¬
plied on the faces a f d b, a fx g (fig. 12.) fhould ex¬
perience, towards their lateral angles a J d, a f x, adja¬
cent to the angle d f x, variations which fecond the ef-
fe£t of the generating decrement. Here, however, thefe
variations are intermediary decrements by rows of double
molecules.
Amphitrigonous Iron Ore. Fig. 59. (hews th^s cryftal in
a horizontal projedlion, and fig. 60. in peripe£live.
Geometric Character.— Refpeftive inclination of the tri¬
angles g c n,g c d, &c. from the fame fummi(, 146°
26' 33" } of the lateral triangles b g u, b g q, to the
adjacent pentagons, fuch g u t ran, 154° 45/ 39''.
This is the common form of the iron ore of the iflar.d
of Elba. It refults from a decrement by two rows on
the angles c, n (fig. 54.) to the fummits,of a cubic nu¬
cleus,'which produces the ifofceles triangles ^ f n, g c d,
n c d (fig. 59. and 63.), and of a feednd decrement by
three rows on the lateral angles c b p, c r p, c r s, &ca
which produce the triangles m n r, r n k, u g b, g g b, .
Sec. Thefe two decrements flop at a certain term, fo
5 I that
"003 . € Ft Y S T A L
Structure of that tiiere remain faces parallel to thofe of the nucleus,
, (,ryftals- , viz. the pentagons gut m n, hdnk l, &c. (fig. 59.).
The firfi decrement is fimilar to that which produces
the rhomboidal iron ore. The fecond has this proper¬
ty, that if its efifed! were complete, it would give a do¬
decahedron of ifofceles triangles, or compo d of two
right pyramids united at their bales. The t angles of
. the fummits are frequently furrowed by ilriae parallel to
the bafes £•«, dn, gd, of thefe triangles, and which point
out the diredlion of the decrement.
Analogical Calcareous Spar, (Haut), fig. 61.
Geometric CharaSler.—Inclination of any one, imeh,
of the trapezoids of the fummits to the correfponding*
vertical trapezoid ecpg, 1160 33' 54"; angles of
the fame trapezoid i~i 140 18' 56" ; ^=:750 31' 20" ;
mov h—Q^0 4' ys". Angles of the trapezoid e hog,
e=9°010=127° 25/ 53"i g=6i° 47' 44"; /—740
46' 23//5 of the trapezoid c e—6o° j p—^°-
12' 46" ; c ox g—ioo° 53' 37".
Geomet. Property—x. In each vertical trapezoid, the
triangle is equilateral. 2. The height £> x of this
triangle is double the height px of the oppofite tri¬
angle cpg. 3. In the trapezoid e ^ o g, and the other
fimilarly fituated, the angle h eg is d right angle. 4.
If the diagonal gh be drawn, the triangle ^ will be
fimilar to any one aof (fig. 1 2.) of thofe which would
be produced by drawing in the primitive rhombus the
two diagonals hf,ad. 5. If in the trapezoid fra z‘>$,
or any other fituated at the fummits, the diagonals
ei, mh be drawn, the height f/ of the inferior triangle
mch will be double the height il of the fuperior tri-
- angle m ih. 6. The triangle mi h is fimilar to 4 of the
.rhombus of every obtufe fpar, divided by the horizontal
diagonal, and the triangle ra e//is fimilar to 4 of the
rhombus of the acute fpar divided in the fame manner.
The numerous analogies conne&ing this variety with
different cryfialline forms, whether confidering certain
angles formed by planes, or certain triangles obtained
by drawing the diagonals of the trapezoids, led the au¬
thor of this theory to give it the name of analogical
fpar. It is derived from three ether varieties, viz. very
obtufe fpar, by the trapezoids em ih,fiht, &c.; me-
tafiatic fpar, by the trapezoids emdc, ehog, ohfz,
&c. ; and the prifmatic fpar by the trapezoids back,
c egp, &c. which are confequently parallel to the axis.
The trapezoids im e h,fi h t, &c. are often feparated by
an intermediary ridge from the vertical trapezoids
c e g P: g 0 % r'> &c- In cafe the trapezoids came,
ge ho, &c. are changed into pentagons.
Icofahedral Sulphuret of Iron, (fig. 63.).
Geometric Character.—Refpeflive inclinations of the
ifofceles triangles PLR, PSR, 126° 52' 11" $ of any
one PNL of the equilateral triangles to each adjacent
ifofceles triangle, PLR, or LNK, 14c0 46' 17".
Angles of the ifofceles triangle PLR, Lr^S0 11'
20"; P or Rrzbj0 54' 20".
This variety is the refult of a combination of the law
which produces the odlabedron originating from a cube
(fig. 50.), with that which takes place for the dode¬
cahedron with pentagonal planes (fig. 27. and 28.)
LIZ ATI ON.
The firfl law produces the eight equilateral trianglesStrodureof
which correfpond with the folid angles of the nucleus j ^Oftals,
and the fecond produces twelve ifofceles triangles, fitu- " ’va$I
ated two and two above the-fix faces of the fame nu¬
cleus. If a dodecahedron fimilar to that of fig, 28,
were converted geometrically into this icofahedron, it
would be fufficient to make the planes of eight fetflions
pafs through it in the following manner j viz. one
through the angles P, N, L, (fig. 27.), another through
the angles P, M, S 5 a third through the angles
L, R,U,&c. By comparing the figures 27. and 63. the
relation between the polyhedra will be feeh by the cor-
refpondehce of the letters ; but this is merely an arti¬
ficial operation; for it may be obferved, that the nucleus
of the icofahedra which would be obtained, would be
much fmaller than that of the dodecahedron, fince the
folid angles of the latter nucleus would be confounded
with the angles D, C, G, &c. (fig. 28.) of the dodeca¬
hedron ; but the other nucleus would have its foil’d
angles fituated in the middle of the equilateral triangles
MP3, NPL, URL, (fig. 63.).
The icolahedron ot the iulphuret of iron, wdiich is not
very common, has been confounded with the regular
geometrical icofahedron which has all its angles equila¬
teral. Theory {hows that the exiftence of the latter
icofahedron is equally impofiible in mineralogy as the
geometrical dodecahedron. Among the five regular
polyhedra of geometry, viz. the cube, the tetrahedron,
the cflahedron, the dodecahedron, and the icofahedron,
the three former can only exift among minerals accord¬
ing to the laws of cryftallization.
Ptlynomous Petunze (Haut), fig. 64.
Geometric Character.—Refpc6tive inclination of the
narrow planes, on km, cfhg, to the adjacent planes
on each fide 150° ; of the planes PoraN
to thofe contiguous to them by the edges t F, PN,
I 20° ; of the heptagon p G c Ide z \.o the enneagon
P> z ebn 0 Pz-r, 99° 41' 8" ; of the trapezium dafe
both to the plane nbafhi/k, and to the heptagon
p Gtcdez, 13507 of the facoldeab, ox AP>zp
to the fame heptagon, 124° if if.
Hauy had not obferved the petunze cryftallized un¬
der its primitive form. This form, fuch as it is given
by the mechanical divificn of fecordary cryftals, is that
of an oblique prifin of four planes (fig..66.), two of
which, fuch as GOAD, RBHN, are perpendicular
to the bafes ADNH, OGRE; the other two, viz,
BOAH, RGDN, make with the former, angles of
120° at the ridges OA, RN, and angles of 6o° to¬
wards the oppofite ridges EH, GD. Thefe planes
are inclined to the bales at that place of the ridges
GO, BR, in0 29' 43", and at the oppofite ridges
68° 30' 17". This iorm is at the fame time that of
the molecule. By theory, the' two parallelograms
GOAD, OGRE, as well as their parallels are equal
in extent; and the parallelogram BOAH, or its oppo¬
fite, RGDN, is double each of the preceding. This
may ferve to explain the roughnefs of the fedlions made
in the diredlien BOAH, when compared with thofe
in the direflions of the finall parallelograms, the latter
being always fmooth and brilliant. If, however, the
diagonal OR, be drawn, it will be found perpendicu¬
lar to OA and RN; or, it will be fituated horizon-
‘tally,
CRYSTAL
llrufltare of tally, by fuppofing that the ridges OA, BH have a ver-
Jryftals. tical pofition.
'j['his mineral exhibits the moft complicated variety
which the author has obferved among this kind of cryf-
tals. To comprehend its ftrudlure, fuppofe that b p y rt
(fig. 65.) reprefehts a faction of the nucleus AR, (fig.
66.), made by a plane perpendicular to the parallelograms
GOAD, BOAH, and fubdivided into a multitude of
fmall parallelograms, which are the analogous feftions
of fo many molecules. Here the fide y r (fig. 65.),
which is the fame fe&ion of the cutting plane as
GOAD, is greater than it ought to be in regard to the
fide c r (fig. 65.), which is the fame leftion as BOAH
(fig. 66.). But thefe dimenfions are fuited to thofe of
the fecondary cryftal, and here occafion no difficulty,
becaufe it may be fuppofed that the primitive form has
been extended more in one diredlion than in another;
for this form is to be conlidered only as a convenient
datum for the explanation of the ftrufture, and the
cryflal confifts merely in an aflemblage of fimilar mole-
I cules; fo that it is the dimenfions of thefe molecules,
I which remain invariable.
By comparing fig. 64. and 6 J. it will be found, 1.
That the plane f a b n k l i h (fig. 64.) and its oppofite
which correfpond lo m n, dg (fig. 65.) are parallel to
two planes of the nucleus, viz. GOAD, BRNH (fig.
66.), and therefore do not refult from any law of decre¬
ment. 2. That the plane P e w N, and its oppofite (fig.
[ 64.) which correfpond to a 0, eg, (fig. 65.) are alfo pa¬
rallel to two of the planes of the nucleus, viz. BOAH
RGDN, (fig. 66.). 3. That the plane 0 n k m, and
its oppofite (fig. 64.) which correfpond lo 0 n, c g,
(fig. 65.) refult from a decrement by two rows parallel
to the ridges AO, NR, (fig. 66.). 4. That the plane
c f g h, and its oppofite, (fig. 64.), refult from a decre¬
ment by four rows parallel to the ridges GD, BH, (fig.
64), which decrement takes place on the other fide of
thefe ridges. From this it may be feen, that decrements '
different in their meafure, give rife to planes fimilarly
fituated, fuch as o n k m and cfgh, (fig. 64.), which is
a cpnfequence of the particular figure of the molecules.
With regard to the faces of the iummit, the heptagon
p G t c d e z, (fig. 64.), is fituated parallel to the bafe
BRGO, (fig. 66). The enneagon l&srVonbe%
(fig. 64.) is produced, in confequencs of a decrement
by one row on the angle OBR (fig.-66.), or parallel
to the diagonal. OR; which decrement does not attain
to its full'extent, and leaves fubfifting the neighbour¬
ing heptagon parallel to the bafe BRGO. It may be
conceived, from what has been faid on the pofition of
the diagonal OR, why the line e % (fig. 64.), which
feparates the two large faces of the fummit, is fituated
horizontally, by fuppcfing that the planes have a vertical
pofition.
The trapeziums d a f c, A p GC, are the refiilt of a
decrement by one row on the ridges GO, BR (fig.
66.). The facet d eb a (fig. 64.) arifes from a decre¬
ment by two rows parallel to the ridge BO .(fig. 66.')..
With regard to the other facet AB z />, which has the
fame pofition as the preceding, in relation to the oppo¬
fite part of the cryftal, it refults from an intermediary
law, by a row of double molecules on the angle OBR
* ‘ (fig- 66.). The rhombufes b c / h, k l s u (fig. 67.) re-
prefent the horizontal fedlions of two of thefe double
molecules taken in the fame row, and whole relation
LIZATION. 803
to the reft of the arrangement will become fenfible,^*0^^0^
by comparing thefe rhombufes with thofe marked with <
the fame letters in fig. 65. This variety of cryftals" is
fubjedl to a change of dimenfions 5 the faces pG t cd ez,
f a b n k l i h, and their oppofites, which are at right
angles to each other, are elongated in the dire&ion of
their breadth, exhibiting the appearance of a quadri¬
lateral, re&angular prifm, the fummits of which would
be formed by the faces fituated towards the ridges
PN, F t. Cryftals of this variety, which are opaque,
and of a whitilh, yellowiffi, and fometimes reddifti
colour, are found in granites; fome are in groups, and
fome, but more rarely, are met with in fiugle cry-
III. Number of Primitive Forms.
In the examples which have been given, the .author-
of the theory has chofen the parallelopiped for a nucleus,
on account of the fimplicity of its form. He has hitherto
found that all the primitive forms may be reduced to fix.
I. The parallelopiped in general, which comprehends
the cube, the rhomboid, and all the lolids terminated by
fix faces parallel two and two. 2. The regular tetrahe¬
dron. 3. The octahedron with triangular faces. 4.
The hexagonal prifm. 3. The dodecahedron with
rhomboidal planes. 6. The dodecahedron with ifofceles
triangular facts.
Among thefe forms there are fome found as nucleus,
which have the mcafure of their angles the fame in
different kinds of minerals. It is to be conlidered that
thefe nuclei are compofed, in the firlt inftance, of ele¬
mentary molecules, and that it is poffible that the fame
form of nucleus may be produced in one fpecies by
elements of a certain nature, and in another Ipecies by
different elements combined in a different manner, as we
fee integrant molecules, fome cubic, and fome tetrahedral,
produce fimilar lecondary forms by the operation of
different laws of decrement. But it may be obferved,
that all the forms which have hitherto occurred as nuclei,
on the different fpecies, are fuch as have a particular
character of perfection and regularity, as the cube, the
regular oCtahedron, and the dodecahedron with equal
and fimilar rhombufes for its faces.
IV. Forms of the Integral Molecules.
The primitive form is that which is obtained by fec-
tions made oil all the fimilar parts of the fecondary
cryftals 5 and thefe feCtions, continued parallel to them-
felves, conduCt to a determination of the form of the
integral molecules, of which the whole cryftal is the
affemblage. There is no cryftal from which a nucleus
in the form of a parallelopiped may not be extracted,
by making the limitation to fix feCtrons, parallel two
and two. In a great number of fubftances, this pa¬
rallelopiped is the laft term of the mechanical divifion,
and confequently the real nucleus 5 hut in fome mine¬
rals this paval.lelopiped is divifible, as well as the reft
of the cryftal, by farther feCtions made in the different
directions of the faces, from which refults a new folid,
which will be the nucleus, if all the parts of the fe¬
condary cryftal fupperadded to this nucleus are fimi¬
larly fituated. When the mechanical divificn con¬
ducts to a parallelopiped, divifible only by feCtions pa¬
rallel to its fix faces, the molecules are parallelepipeds
5 I 2 fimika-
8o4 C R Y S T A L I
Stmdlurc of fimilar to the nucleus *? but in all Other cafes their form
, €ryftaIs- , differs from that of the nucleus. This may be illuftrated
by an example.
Let a c hs no (fig. 68.) be a cube, having two of its
folid angles a, s, fituated on the fame vertical line *,
this line will be the axis of the cube, and the points
a and s will be its fummits. Let it be fuppofed that
this cube is divifible by feftions, each of which, fuch
as a h n, paffes through one of the fummits a, and by
two oblique diagonals a h, a n, contiguous to the fum-
mit. By this fe£lion the folid angle i will be detach¬
ed ; and as there are fix folid angles, fituated laterally,
viz. i, h, c, r, o, ny the fix feftions will produce an
acute rhomboid, the fummits of which will be con¬
founded with thofe of the cube. At fig. 69. this
rhomboid is reprefented exifting in the cube in fuch a
manner, that its fix lateral folid angles b, dyf py g, e,
correfpond with the middle of the faces a c h i, c r s h,
kins, &c. of the cube •, but each of the angles at the
fummits b a g, d s f p s f. Sec. of the acute rhomboid,
are r=6o0, from which it follows, that the lateral
angles a b f a gfy Sec. are =120°. Befides, it is pro¬
ved by theory, that the cube is the refult of a decre¬
ment which takes place by a fingle row of fmall rhom¬
boids, fimilar to the acute rhomboid on the fix oblique
ridges a b, a g, a e, s d, s f, s p. This decrement pro¬
duces two faces, one on each fide of each of thefe ridges,
making in the whole 12 faces j but as the two faces,
having the fame line of ridge for their departure, are on
the fame plane j by the nature of the decrement, the 12
faces will be reduced to fix, which are fquares, fo that
the fecondary folid is a cube.
Suppofe that the cube (fig. 68.) admits, in regard to
its fummits 0, r, two new divifions fimilar to the pre¬
ceding fix, one of which paffes through the points
c, i, 0, and the other through the points /i, n, r. The
firft will alfo pafs through, the points b, g, e, and the
fecond through the points d,f,p, (fig. 69. and 70.) of
the rhomboid j from which it follows, that thefe two
divifions will each detach a regular tetrahedron b a g e,
or d s f p (fig. 70. ) } fo that the rhomboid will be found
converted into a regular oftahedron ef (fig. 71.), which
will be the real nucleus of the cube -, for it is produced
by divifions fimilarly made in relation to the eight fo¬
lid angles of the cube. If we fuppofe the fame cube
to be divifible throughout its whole extent by analo¬
gous fe&ions, it is clear that each of the fm^ll rhom¬
boids, of which it is the affemblage, will be found in
like manner fubdivided into an odtahedron, and two
regular tetrahedrons, applied on the two oppofite faces
of the oflahedron. By taking the oftahedron for a
nucleus, a cube may be conftrufted round it, by regu¬
lar fubtra&ions of fmall complete rhomboids. If, for
example, we fuppofe decrements, by a fingle row of
thefe rhomboids, having b for the point of their depar¬
ture, and made in a direction parallel to the inferior
edges gf, e g, d e, df, of the four triangles, which
unite to form the folid angle b, there will refult four
faces, which will be found on a level, and like the
octahedron, with fix folid angles, fimilar decrements
around the other five angles will produce twenty faces,
which taken four and four will be equally on a level,
making in the whole fix diftinft faces, fituated as thofe
of the cube (fig. 68.). The refult will be exa&ly the
, I Z A T I O N.
fame as in the cafe of the rhomboid, confidered as nu- Strudtare 0f
cleus. i
In whatever way we proceed to fubdivide, either the
cube, the rhombus, or the oftahedron, we fhall always
have folids of two forms, that is to fay, oflahedrons and
tetrahedrons, without being able to reduce the refult of
the divifion to unity. But the molecules of acryftal be¬
ing fimilar, Hauy thinks it probable, that the firu&ure
was, as it were, interfperfed with a multitude of fmall
vacuities, occupied either with the water of cryftalliza-
tion or fome other fubftance} fo that, if it were pofiibre
to carry the uivifion to its limits, one of thofe two kinds
of folids would difappear, and the whole cryilal would
be found compofed only of molecules of the other
form. This view is the more admiffible, as each oc¬
tahedron being enveloped with eight tetrahedrons, and
each tetrahedron being in like manner enveloped with
four oftahedrons, whichever of thefe forms may be
fuppofed to be fuppreffed, the remaining (olids will join
exactly by their edges; fo that in this refpeft there
will be continuity and uniformity throughout the w’hole
extent of the mafs. It may be- readily conceived how
each oftahedron is enveloped with tetrahedrons. By,
attending to the divifion of the cube only by the fix
feftions which give the rhomboid, we may depart at
pleafure from any two, a, s; o,th ; c,n; iyry of the
eight folid angles, provided that thefe two angles be
oppofite to each other. But by departing from the
angles a, s, the rhomboid will be in the pofition {hewn
at fig. 70. If, on the contrary, w7e depart from the'
. folid angles 0, h, thefe angles will become the fummits
of a new rhomboid (fig. 72.), compofed of the fame
oftahedron.as that of fig. 71. with twmnew tetrahedrons
applied on the faces b dfe g p, (fig. 72.), which were
unoccupied on the rhomboid of fig. 70. Fig. 73.
reprefents the cafe in which the two tetrahedrons repofe
on the faces db e,fg />, of the oftahedron ; and fig.
74. reprefents the cafe in which they wmuld reft on the
faces b f g, d e p. Hence, whatever may be the two
folid angles of the cube affirmed for the points of
departure, we (hall always have the fame oftahedron,
'with two tetrahedrons contiguous by their fummits to
tbefe two folid angles 5 and there being eight of thefe
folid angles, the central oftahedron will be circumfcribed
with eight tetrahedrons, which will reft on its faces.
By continuing the divifion always parallel to the firll
fettions, the fame effe& wfill always take place. Each
face of the o&ahedron, however fmall it may be fup¬
pofed to be, adheres to a face of the tetrahedron, and
reciprocally 5 and each tetrahedron is enveloped with
four octahedrons.
The itrufture which is here explained is that of
fluate of lime, or fluor fpar. By dividing a cube.of
this fubftance, we may at pleafure extraft rhomboids
which have the angles forpied by their planes equal to
120°, or regular oCtahedrons, or tetrahedrons equally
regular. In fome other fubftances, as rock cryftal,
carbonate of lead, &c. which being mechanically di¬
vided bejtond the term at which we Qiould have a
rhoiiiboid or a parallelepiped, parts of various different
forms are obtained, arranged together even in a more
complicated manner than in fluor fpar. In confe-
quence of thefe mixed ftruCtures, there is fome uncer¬
tainty refpeCting the real figure of the integral mole¬
cules
■
CRYSTALLIZATION.
S05
rorture ofcules which belong to thefe fubftances. It is obferved,
Cryftals. however, that the tetrahedron is always one of thoi'e
foJids which concur to the formation of fmall rhom¬
boids or parallelopipeds that would be extrafted from
the cryftal by a firft divifion. But, on the other hand,
there are fubilances, which being divided in every pof-
fihk direftion, refolve them (elves only into tetrahe¬
drons. Garnet, blendes, and tourmaline, belong to
his number.
Several minerals are divifible into right triangular
prifms. Such is the apatite, whofe primitive form is a
regular right hexahedral prifm, divifible parallel to its
bales and its planes, from which neceffarily refult right
prifms with three planes. Fig. 76. reprefents one of
the bafes of the hexahedral prilm, divided into fmall
equilateral triangles, which are the bafes of fo many
molecules, and which ■ being taken two and two, form
quadrilateral prifms, vsith rhombufes for their bafes.
By adopting then the tetrahedron, in the doubtful
cafes already mentioned, all the foinis of integral mo¬
lecules may be in general reduced to three, which are
remarkable for their fimplicity, viz. the parallelepiped,
the fimplelf of all the folids, having parallel faces two
and two; the triangular prifm, the fimpleft of all
prifm?; and the tetrahedron, which is the fimpleft of
pyramids. This ftmplicity may furnifti a reafon for
the preference given to the tetrahedron in fluor fpar,
and the other fubftances which have been mentioned
as examples. But the ingenious author of the theory
cautioufly declines to fpeak. deciftyely on the fubjedt,
as the want of direift and precife obfervations, he ob-
ferves, leaves to theory only conje&ures and probabi¬
lities.
But the eflential objett is, that the different forms
to which thefe mixed ftruftures lead, are arranged in
fuch a manner, that their aflemblage is equivalent to
a fum of fmall parallelopipeds, as has been feen to be
the cafe in regard to fluor fpar; and that the laminae
of fuperpofition applied on the nucleus, decreafe by
fubtraflions of one or more rows of thefe parallelopi¬
peds. The bafis of the theory exifts, therefore, inde¬
pendently of the choice which might be made of any
of the forms obtained by the mechanical divifion.
With the help of this refult, the decrements to wdiich
cryftals are fubjeft, whatever be their primitive forms,
are found reducible to.thofe which take place in fub¬
ftances, where this form, as well as that of the mo¬
lecules, are indivifible parallelopipeds ; and the theory
has this advantage of being able to generaiife its ob-
jeff, by connecting with one faCf, that multitude of
fails which, on account of their diverfity, feem to be
little fufceptible of being brought to one common
point. But what has been faid, will be ftill more il-
luftrated by examples of the manner in which we may
reduce to the theory of the parallelepiped, that of the
forms which are different from that folid.
of the rhombus CLGH, C or G^rc^0 28' 16"; Stru&um of
Crystals whofe Molecules are Tetrahedrons, with Ifofceles
Triangular Faces.
Garnet.
two of the faces of the dodecahedron, 120°
S
L or H~78° 31' 44".
Cryltals.
I. Primitive Garnet (fig. 76.).
Geometric Char alder,—Refpeifive ineftnations of any
Angles
Motwithftanding the vitreous appearance in general
exhibited on the fraifures of garnets of the primitive
form, laminae may be perceived on them, fituated pa¬
rallel to the rhombufes which compofe their furface.
Let us fuppofe the dodecahedron divided in the direc¬
tion of its laminae, and for the greater fimplicity, let
us fuppofe the feftions to pafs through the centre.
One of thefe feCtions, viz. that which will be parallel
to the two rhombufes DLFN, BHOR, will concur
with a hexagon, which would pafs through the points
E, C, G, P, I, A, by making the tour of the cryftal.
A fecond feftion parallel to the two rhombufes GLPF,
BEAR, will coincide with another hexagon fliewn by
the points D, C, H, O, I, N. And if the divifion be
continued parallel to the other eight rhombufes, taken
two and two, it will he found that the planes of the
feClions will be confounded with four nefv hexagons
analogous to the preceding. But by refuming all thefe
hexagons, it will appear that their fides correfpond,
feme of them with the fmall diagonals of the rhombu-
fes of the dodecahedron, tiz. thefe which would be
drawn from C to G, from A to I, from C to B, &c.
and others would correfpond with the different ridges
EC, GP, PI, EA, &c.
I. The planes then of the feftions pafling through
the fides and through the fmall diagonals of the twxlve
rhombufes, will fubdivide the whole furface into 24
ifofceles triangles, which wall be the halves of thefe
rhombufes. 2. Since the planes of the fe&ions pafs
alfo through the centre of the cryftal, they will de¬
tach 24 pyramids wath three faces; the bafes of
which, if w'e choofe, will be the external triangle?
that make part of the furface of the dodecahedron, and
of w'hich the fummits will be united in the centie.
Befides, if w?e take, for example, the fix tetrahe¬
drons, which have for external faces the halves of the
three rhombufes CEDE, CLGH, CP-BH, thefe fix
tetrahedrons will form a rhomboid reprefented by fig.
77. and in which the three inferior rhombufes DLGS,
GHBS, DEBS, refult from three divifions which pafs,
one through the hexagon DLGORA, (fig. 7^0 5 ^le
fecond through the hexagon GHBANF; and the third
through the hexagon BEDFPO. Fig. 77. alfo repre-
fents the turn tetrahedrons, the bafes 0! wdffch make
part of the rhombus CLGH. One of thefe is marked
with the letters L, C, G, S, and the other with the
letters H, C, G, S. And by applying what has been
faid to the other nine rhombufes, which are united,
three and three, around the points F, A, H, (fig. 77.),
v.-e (hall have three new rhomboids ; from which it
follows, that the 24 tetrahedrons, confidered fix and
fix, form four rhomboids; fo that the/dodecahedron
may be conceived as being itfelf immediately compofed
of thefe four rhomboids, and in the laft analyfis of 24
tetrahedrons.
It may be obferved, that the dodecahedron having
eight folid angles, each formed with three planes, they
might have been confidered as the affemblage of the
four rhomboids, which would have for exterior fum¬
mits the four angles G, B, D, A ; from which it fol¬
lows that any one of the faces, fuch as CLGO, is
common to two rhomboids, one of which would have
its
CRYSTALLIZATION.
806
Structure of jts fummit in C, and the other in G, and which would
^Ciyfisls. the!T1feives a common in the interior of the
We may remark farther, that a line GS (fig. 77.)
drawn from any one G (fig. 76.) of the fohd angles
compofed of three planes, as far as the centre of the
dodecahedron, is at the fame time the axis of the rhom¬
boid, which would have its fummit in C (fig. 76. and
77.). f he compofing rhomboids then have this proper¬
ty, that their axis is equal to the fides of the rhombus.
Trom which, with a little attention, v/e may conclude,
that in each tetrahedron, fuch as.CLGS (fig. 77.), ail
the faces are equal and fimilar ifblceles triangles.
If the divifion of the dodecahedron be continued by
fedlions palling between thofe which we have fuppofed
to be diredfed towards the centre, and which fhould be
parallel to them, we flioqld obtain tetrahedrons always
Imaller, and arranged in fuch a manner, that taking
them in groups of fix, they would form rhomboids of a
bulk proportioned to their own.
The tetrahedrons, which would be the term of the
divifion, were it poffible to reach it, ought to be confi-
dered as the real molecules of the garnet.. But it will
be feen, that in the paffage to the fecondary forms, the
laminae of fupcrpofition, which envelope the nucleus,
really decreafe by rows of fmall rhomboids, each of which
is the affemblage of thefe tetrahedrons.
The fulphuret of zinc, or blende, has the fame ftruc-
ture as the garnet. Hauy informs us that he has divid¬
ed fragments of this fub(lance by very clean feflions, in
fuch a manner as to obtain fucceffively the dodecahe¬
dron, the rhomboid and the tetrahedron.
2. Trapc%oulal Garnet, (fig. 78.).
Geomet. CharaEler,—Refpeflive inclination of the tra¬
pezoids, united three and three around the fame
folid angle D, C, G, &c. 1310 48' 33" of the tra¬
pezoids united four and four around the fame folid
angle z/, x, r, &c. 131° 48' 36". Angles of any
one of the trapezoids m D u L, L=z:780 27' 46" ;
D~ 1170 2' S" j m or 82° 15' 3". The value of
the angle L is the fame as that of the acute angle of
the nucleus of calcareous fpar.
This variety is the refult of a feries of laminae, de-
creafing at the four edges, on all the faces of the pri¬
mitive dodecahedron. For the more fimplicity, let us
firft confider the effeft of this decrement in regard to
the rhombus CLGH (fig. 76.). We have juft feen
that this rhombus was fuppofed to belong in common
to two rhomboids, which Ihould have for fummits, one
the point C, and the other the point G. Letusfuppofe
that the laminae applied on this rhombus decreafe to¬
wards their four edges by fubtraftions of a Angle row
of fmall rhomboids, in fuch a manner that in regard
to the two edges CL, CH, circumftances are the lame
as if the rhombus belonged to the rhomboid which
has its lummit in C } and that in regard to the other
two edges GL, GH, the effea is the fame as if the Structure0f
rhombus belonged to the rhomboid, which has its fum- Cryftals
mid in G. This difpofition is admiliible here in confe- '—^—■J
quence ox the particular ftruflure of the dodecahedron,
which permits us to obtain fmall rhomboids ; fome of
which have their faces parallel to the faces of that with
its fummit in C, and the reft to that having its fummit
in G (d).
The rcfults of the four decrements being thus quite
fimilar to each other, the lamime of fuperpofition, ap¬
plied on the rhombus CLGH, and on each of the
other rhombufes of the dodecahedron, will form as
many right quadrangular pyramids, which will have
for bales thefe fame rhombufes. Fig. 79. reprefents
the' pyramids which reft on the three rhombufes CLDE„
CF.BH, CGHB (fig. 76.), and which have for fum¬
mits the points m, e, s, (fig. 76.) j but on account of
the decrement by a fimple row, the adjacent triangu¬
lar faces, fuch as E « C, E r C of the two pyramids
that belong to the rhombufes CEDE, CEBH, are on
a level, and form a quadrilateral E C j-. But we
had 12 pyramids, and confequently 48 triangles.
Thefe divided by two give 24 quadrilaterals, which
will compofe the furface of the fecondary cryitab
But becaufe'the rhomboidal bales of the two pyramids
extend more, in proceeding from L to E, or from H
to E, than in proceeding from D to C, or from B
to C, the fides tn E, Er of the quadrilateral will be
longer than the fides Cm, Cs. And befides m E will
be equal to Ex, and Cm equal to Cx. Thus the qua¬
drilaterals will be trapezoids which have their fides
equal two and two. There is no cryftalline form in
which the ftriae, when they do exiit, (hew in a more
fenlible manner the mechanifm of the llrucfure than
in this variety of garnet. We may here fee the feries
of decreafing rhombufes which form each of the pyra¬
mids CEDE m, CEBH X, &c. (fig. 79.), and foma-
times the furrows are fo deep that they produce a
kind of flair, the Heps of which have a more particu¬
lar polilh and brilliancy than thofe of the facets, which
are parallel to the faces CEDE, CHBE, of the nu¬
cleus.
If the decrements flop abruptly at a certain term, fo
that the pyramids are not terminated, the 24. trapezoids
will be reduced to elongated hexagons, which will in¬
tercept 12 rhombufes parallel to the faces of the nucleus.
To this variety Hauy has given the name of intermedi¬
ary garnet.
In the fulphuret of zinc the regular oftahedron is
the refult of a decrement by a row around the eight
folid angles, compofed of three planes', viz. C, B, O,
G, F, D, A, I, (fig. 76-). The fame fubllance alfo
affumes the form of a regular tetrahedron, by the help
of a decrement by one row on four only of the eight
folid angles before mentioned, fuch asC, O, F, A. The
ftrudlure of this tetrahedron is remarkable, as it pre-
fents an afiemblage of other tetrahedrons with ifofceles
faces.
Cryjials
(d) Iheory, the author obferves, has conduced him to another refult, which is, that the fum of the nucleus
and laminae of fuperpolition, taken together in proportion as the latter are applied one upon the other, is always
equal to a fum of rhomboids j though at firll view it does not appear that this fhould be the cafe, according to the
the figure of thefe laminae, which reprefent riling pyramids.
€ R Y S T A L L
•uftirre of
pryftals. ^ CrijJIals whoje Molecules are Triangular Fri/ms.
Oriental.
Hauy has thus denominated the gem which is known
under the different names of ruby, fapphire, oriental
topaca, according as the colour is red, blue, or yellow.
The different varieties of this gem have not been ac¬
curately defcribed, and the nature of the particular
angles of each has not been precifely indicated, on ac¬
count of the rare occurrence of regularly formed cry-
flals, or, when fuch have been found, on account of
their being defaced by being water-worn, or otherwife
injured. But from fome cryftals which were fuffi-
eiently chara&erifed, Hauy obtained the following re-
fults.
i. Primitive Oriental.
This mineral cryflallizes in the form of a regular
hexahedral prifm, which is divifible parallel to its bafes.
According to theory, which points out other joinings
parallel to the planes, the molecule is an equilateral
triangular prifm. The height of this prifm, calculated
• by theory, is a little lefs than three times the height of
the triangle of the bafe.
2. Elongated Oriental, (fig. So.).
Geometric CharaEter.—Refpeftive inclinations of the
-triangles IAS, IBS, 1390 54b Angles of the tri¬
angle IAS, A—-22° 54'. I or SrcyS0 47m
This form is the refult of a decrement by a fimple
row of fmall quadrangular prifms on all the edges of the
bafes of the nucleus. Let q d (fig. 75.) be the fupe-
rior bafe, fubdivided into fmall triangles, which repre-
fent the analogous bafes of fo many molecules. The
edges of the lamina; of fuperpofition will correfpond fuc-
ceflively to the hexagons h i l m n r, e k u x y v, &c. j
from which it follows that the fubtradtions take place
by rows of fmall parallolopipeds of quadrangular pritms
compofed each of two triangular prifms.
3. Minor Oriental.
Geometric CharaEler.—Dodecahedron formed of two
right pyramids lefs elongated than thofe of the pre¬
ceding variety. The triangles correfponding to
IAS, IBS, are inclined to each other 122° 36k In
each of thele triangles the angle of the fummit is 310,
and each of the angles at the bafe is 740 30'.
The law of which this variety is the refult, differs
from that which produces the preceding, as it deter¬
mines a mixed decrement by three r*ws in breadth and
two rows in height.
4. Enneagonal Oriental, (fig. 81.).
Geometric CharaEler.— Inclination of each fmall tri¬
angle, fuch as c ^ i, to the adjacent bafe acip lltge d,
122° 18'.
This is the elongated oriental, whofe fummits are re¬
placed by two faces, parallel to the bafes of the nucleus,
with the addition of fix fmall ifofceles triangles c q 1,
lbf v % m, &.c. the three fuperior of which are alter-,
nate in pofition with the three inferior, Thefe triangles
6
I Z A TIO N. So
are the refult of a decrement, by three rows of fmall Structure
quadrangular prifms on the three angles of the fuperior , ^ -
bafe of the nucleus, fuch as b, d, g (fig. 75‘)» an<^ on
the intermediate angles ot the inferior bale. It may
be readily conceived, that in the decrement which
takes place, for example, on the angle g, the three rows
which remain unoccupied between that angle and the
correfponding edge of the firlt lamina of fuperpofition,
are, 1. the fmall rhombus^ 0 1 p, which alone foims the
firft row ; 2. the two rhombufes 0 s t 1, p d t3. the
three rhombufes fituated on the fame line behind the
two preceding.
Cryftals of this gem are chiefly found in the kingdom
of Pegu. Some have been found in France, which have
received the name of fapphires of Puy. They have
been alfo found at a little diilance from Velay, on the
banks of a rivulet near the village of Expaiily, wdrere
they are mixed with garnets and hyacinths. Ihefehave
all the charadlers of the Hone wdrich is denominated ori¬
entalfapphire.
V. Difference between Structure and Incre¬
ment.
In what has been faid refpecflng the decrements to
which the laminm of fuperpofidon are lubje£ted, the
author obferves, that it was his view only to unfold the
laws of ftru&ure \ and he add*, that he is far from be¬
lieving that in the formation of a dodecahedral cryftal,
or one of any other form, having a cube for a nucleus,
the cryftallization has originally produced that nu¬
cleus fuch as it is extra&ed from the dodecahedron,
by the fucceflive application of all the laminae of fuper¬
pofition with which it is covered. It feems proved, on.
the contrary, that from the firft moment the cryftal is
already a very fmall dodecahedron, containing a cubi¬
cal nucleus proportioned to its fmall lize, and that the
cryftal afterwards increafes by degrees without changing
its form, by new layers which envelope it on all iides,
fo that the nucleus increafes alfo, preferving always the
fame relation with the whole dodecahedron.
An example taken from a plane figure will make
this more ftriking ; and what is faid relpeding this fi¬
gure may be eafily applied to a foiid, fince a plane fi¬
gure may be always conceived as a fe&ion of a foiid.
Let ER FN (fig. 82.) be an arrangement of fmall fquares,
in which the i’quare ABCD, compofed of 49 partial,
fquares, reprefents a fedtion of the nucleus, and the ex¬
treme fquares R, S, G, A, I, L, &c. that of the kind
of flair formed by the laminae of fuperpofition. It may
be readily conceived, that the arrangement began with
the fquare ABCD j and that different files of final!
fquares were afterwards applied on each ot the fides of
the central fquare : for example, on the fide AB, firft
the five fquares comprehended between I and M, next
the three fquares comprehended between L and O, and
then the fquare E. This increment correfponds with
that which would take place if the dodecahedron began
by being a cube proportioned to its bulk, and which in-
creafed "afterwards with the addition of continually de-
creafing laminae.
But" on the other hand, the arrangement may be
conceived to be fuch as is reprefented in fig. 84. in
which the fquare ab c d\% compofed of only nine mo¬
lecules, and bears upon each of its fides only one
fquare
O V, J-
8o8
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Stme'hire of fquare f5,or r ,• and that afterwards by means of
, Iryftats. ^ ^jle application of new fquares arranged round the for-
mer, the affortment has become that of fig. 83. where
the central fquare o' b' c' d' is formed of 25 fmall
fquares, and bears on each fide of its fides a file of
three fquares, plus a terminating fquare d, or r';
and that, in thort, by a farther application, the affort¬
ment of fig. 83. is converted into that of fig. 82.
Thefe different tranfitions will give fome notion of
the manner in which fecondary cryflals may increafe
in bulk, and yet retain their form $ and from this it
will appear, that the ftrufture is combined with that
augmentation of bulk, fo that the law, according to
which all the laminae applied in the nucleus of the cry-
flal, when arrived at its greateft dimenfions, fucceffive-
ly decreafe, in departing from this nucleus, exifted al¬
ready in the rifing cryital.
Such is the ingenious theory of the ftru&ure of
cryftals, which the author obferves, is in this fimilar
to other theories, that it fets out from a principal fa£l,
on which it makes all fafts of the fame kind to de- Structure of
pend, and which are only as it were corollaries. This
fadt is the decrement of the laminae fuperadded t6
the primitive form •, and it is by bringing back this
decrement to fimple and regular laws, fufceptible of
accurate calculation, that theory arrives at refults, the
truth of which is proved by the mechanical divifion of
cryftals, and by obfervation of their angles. 'But new
refearches are ftiil wanting, in order to afcend a ferv
fteps farther towards the primitive laws by which
cryftallization is regulated. The objedt of one of
thefe refearches would be to explain how thefe fmall
polyhedrons, which are as it wTere the rudiments of
cryftals of a fenfible bulk, fometimes reprefent the pri¬
mitive form, without modification ; fometimes a fe¬
condary form produced in virtue of a law of decre¬
ment ; and to determine the circumftances which pro¬
duce decrements on the edges, as well as thofe which
give rife to decrements on the angles.
END OF THE SIXTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. VI.
Part I. Page
Plate CXLV. to face - 94
CXLVI.—CXLVIII. - - 208
CXLIX. - - - - 236
CL. CLI. . - - - 370
Part II.
' CLII.—CLV. . - - 484
CLVI.—CLXIII. - - - 548
CLXIV. - - - - 776
CLXV.—CLXVII. * - - - 808
*
Crystallization .
X or' Vlfiriof. Pe?'6fcgrAv&*se ^\</- -
f
C ’ n Y S FA L L1Z AT l O N
PLATE CLXT1
r
WiArchibuEi Jit dp.1
C STA T.T.T Z ATT
PLATE CLXVH
/ jeJrchibal/l Sculpt
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